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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: December 9, 2005 [EBook #17268]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS
+
+HISTORY
+
+
+AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
+
+TORONTO
+THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED
+
+COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                      PAGE
+
+PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY               1
+
+CHAPTER I
+THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY                            13
+
+CHAPTER II
+GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY              21
+
+CHAPTER III
+CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS                                 40
+
+CHAPTER IV
+SPECIAL TOPICS                                          49
+  Current Events                                        49
+  Local Material                                        51
+  Civics                                                52
+  The Teacher of History                                57
+
+CHAPTER V
+ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS                                    60
+  Forms I and II                                        60
+  Form II                                               62
+  Form III                                              66
+  Forms III and IV                                      75
+  Form IV                                               78
+  For Teachers' Reference                              119
+
+DEVICES                                                127
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                           130
+
+APPENDIX                                               136
+
+
+
+
+MANUAL OF SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS OF HISTORY
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY
+
+
+DETAILS
+
+The course in literature and composition includes the telling by the
+teacher of suitable stories from the Bible, stories of primitive
+peoples, of child life in other lands, of famous persons and peoples;
+and the oral reproduction of these stories by the pupils. In this way
+history, literature, and composition are combined.
+
+     For Method in telling stories, consult _How to Tell Stories to
+     Children_, by Sara Cone Bryant, Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston,
+     $1.00.
+
+
+
+
+FORM I
+
+
+BIBLE STORIES:
+
+Moses in the Bulrushes, his Childhood, the Burning Bush, the Crossing of
+the Red Sea, the Tables of Stone; Joseph's Boyhood Dreams, Joseph sold
+into Egypt, the Famine, the Visits of his Brethren; David and Goliath;
+Samson.
+
+STORIES OF CHILD LIFE:
+
+The Eskimo Girl, the Andean Girl, the Arabian Girl, the Little Syrian
+Girl, the Swiss Girl, the Chinese Girl, the African Girl, the German
+Girl, the Canadian Girl; the Little Red Child, the Little White Child,
+the Little Black Child, the Little Yellow Child, the Little Brown Child.
+
+     Consult _The Seven Little Sisters_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co.,
+     Boston, 50c.; _The Little Cousin Series_, by Mary Hazelton Wade,
+     The Page Co., Boston, 60c. each; _Five Little Strangers_, Julia
+     Augusta Schwarz, American Book Co., New York; _Each and All_, Jane
+     Andrews (sequel to _The Seven Little Sisters_), 50 cents.
+
+SPECIAL DAYS:
+
+Christmas: The Birth of Christ, the First Christmas Tree (see Appendix);
+Arbor Day; Constructive work suggested by St. Valentine's Day and
+Thanksgiving Day; Stories of these Days.
+
+     NOTE: Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to
+     teach obedience to authority and respect for the property and
+     rights of others.
+
+
+
+
+FORM II
+
+
+BIBLE STORIES:
+
+Abraham and Lot, Joshua, David and Jonathan, David and Saul, Ruth and
+Naomi, Daniel, Miriam and Moses, Abraham and Isaac, Boyhood of Christ,
+the Shipwreck of St. Paul.
+
+STORIES OF CHILD LIFE:
+
+The Aryan Boy, the Persian Boy, the Greek Boy, the Roman Boy, the Saxon
+Boy, the Page Boy, the English Boy, the Puritan Boy, the Canadian Boy of
+To-day, Child Life in Canada (_a_) in the early days, (_b_) to-day on
+the farm and in the city or town; occupations, games, and plays, etc.
+
+     Consult _Ten Little Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago till
+     Now_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co., 50c.
+
+STORIES OF FAMOUS PEOPLE:
+
+Boadicea, Alfred, Harold, First Prince of Wales, Sir Francis Drake, Sir
+Walter Raleigh, Columbus, Cabot, Cartier, Champlain, Madeleine de
+Verchères, Pontiac, Brock, Laura Secord, Florence Nightingale.
+
+     Consult _The Story of the British People_, Thomas Nelson & Sons,
+     Toronto, 35c. (For Florence Nightingale, see Appendix.)
+
+PIONEER LIFE:
+
+In Ancient Britain: See _Second Reader_, p. 109; _Ontario Public School
+History of England_, p. 10.
+
+In Roman Britain: See _The Story of The British People_, pp. 18-24.
+
+Old English Life: See _Third Reader_, p. 325; _Ontario High School
+History of England_, pp. 33-40.
+
+At the Close of the French Period in Canada: See _Fourth Reader_, p. 65.
+
+In Upper Canada in the "Thirties": See _Fourth Reader_, p. 122.
+
+Our Forefathers: Where they lived before coming here, how they got here,
+hardships in travel, condition of the country at that time, how they
+cleared the land, their homes, their difficulties, danger from wild
+animals, the natives of the country, modes of travel, implements and
+tools, etc.
+
+     Consult _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada_,
+     Briggs, $2.00; _Ontario High School History of Canada_.
+
+INVENTORS:
+
+Watt, Stephenson, Fulton, Bell, Edison, Marconi.
+
+CIVICS:
+
+Elementary lessons in local government:
+
+(_a_) In cities, towns, and incorporated villages--the postmaster, (see
+Illustrative Lesson, p. 65), the postman and policeman; city or town
+hall, post-office, mail boxes, school-houses.
+
+(_b_) For rural districts--postmaster, trustees, roads and bridges,
+rural mail delivery.
+
+SPECIAL DAYS:
+
+Empire Day, Victoria Day, Dominion Day; local occasions such as Fair
+Day, Election Day; review of those Days taken in Form I.
+
+
+
+
+FORMS III AND IV
+
+
+PRELIMINARY NOTE
+
+Below are the topics and sub-topics of the Course in History for Forms
+III and IV.
+
+In dealing with the subject in both Forms, the teacher should keep
+constantly in mind the chief aims suited to this stage of the pupil's
+development. (See pp. 16, 17.) The most vital of these is "to create and
+foster a liking for historical study." The teacher should make use of
+simple map drawing to illustrate the subject. This is especially
+necessary in dealing with the history of Canada. There should be much
+illustration by means of maps and pictures. See Educational Pamphlet No.
+4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_.
+
+The chapter numbers in the Course for Form III are those of the chapters
+in _The Story of the British People_ prescribed for the Form. These
+chapters should be carefully read and, in Form IV, the authorized
+text-books should be followed for the main account. _Having regard to
+the time available for the Course, only the most important details
+should be taken up._
+
+
+
+
+FORM III
+
+JUNIOR GRADE
+
+
+CANADIAN HISTORY
+
+     Columbus--The Discovery of America (Chap. XX)
+     John Cabot and the New World (Chap. XXI)
+     Jacques Cartier (Chap. XXIII)
+     Raleigh and Gilbert (Chap. XXVI)
+     The Beginnings of Acadia (Chap. XXVII)
+     Champlain, the Father of New France (Chap. XXVIII)
+     The Pilgrim Fathers (Chap. XXIX)
+     The Jesuits in Canada (Chap. XXXI)
+     The Settlement of French Canada (Chap. XXXI)
+     La Salle (Chap. XXXIV)
+     Henry Hudson--New York and Hudson Bay (Chap. XXXV)
+     Frontenac (Chaps. XXXIV, XXXVII)
+     The Conquest of Canada--Wolfe and Montcalm, Pontiac (Chap. XLI)
+     The Coming of the Loyalists (Chap. XLII)
+     How Canada Fought for the Empire (Chap. XLIV)
+     William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XLVI)
+     The Great North-West--Selkirk, Mackenzie, Strathcona, Riel
+       (Chap. XLVII)
+     Canada and the Empire--Royal Visitors (Chap. L)
+
+
+
+
+FORM III
+
+SENIOR GRADE
+
+
+BRITISH HISTORY
+
+     The First Britons (Chap. I)
+     The Coming of the Romans (Chap. II)
+     A Day in Roman Britain (Chap. III)
+     The Coming of the English (Chap. IV)
+     The Coming of Christianity (Chap. V)
+     The Vikings (Chap. VI)
+     Alfred the Great (Chap. VII)
+     Rivals for a Throne (Chap. VIII)
+     The Coming of the Normans (Chap. IX)
+     A Norman Castle (Chap. X)
+     A Glance at Scotland (Chap. XI)
+     Henry the Second and Ireland (Chap. XII)
+     Richard the Lion Heart (Chap. XIII)
+     King John and the Great Charter (Chap. XIV)
+     The First Prince of Wales (Chap. XV)
+     Wallace and Bruce (Chaps. XVI, XVII)
+     The Black Prince (Chap. XVIII)
+     The Father of the British Navy (Chap. XXII)
+     The New Worship (Chap. XXIV)
+     Francis Drake, Sea-dog (Chap. XXV)
+     King Charles the First (Chap. XXX)
+     The Rule of Cromwell (Chap. XXXII)
+     The King Enjoys his Own again (Chap. XXXIII)
+     The Revolution and After (Chap. XXXVI)
+     The Greatest Soldier of his Time (Chap. XXXVIII)
+     Bonnie Prince Charlie (Chap. XXXIX)
+     Robert Clive, the Daring in War (Chap. XL)
+     The Terror of Europe (Chap. XLIII)
+     Waterloo (Chap. XLV)
+     Victoria the Good (Chaps. XLVI, XLVIII, XLIX)
+
+CIVICS
+
+Review of the work in Form II; election of town or township council;
+taxes--the money people pay to keep up schools and roads, etc.; how
+local taxes are levied for the support of the school; election of
+members of County Council, of members of Provincial Legislature; duties
+of citizenship.
+
+
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+JUNIOR GRADE
+
+
+CANADIAN HISTORY
+
+Before the British Conquest--an introductory account:
+
+The French settlements: Extent, life of the seignior, habitant, and
+coureur de bois; system of trade; government at Quebec--governor,
+bishop, intendant; territorial claims (Chaps. VII, VIII, IX, XI)
+
+The English settlements--Hudson's Bay Company, English colonies in New
+York, New England, Acadia, and Newfoundland; population, life, trade,
+government, territorial claims (Chaps. VIII, X, XI)
+
+British Conquest of New France--fall of Quebec (Chap. XI)
+
+Conspiracy of Pontiac (Chap. XII)
+
+Quebec Act (Chap. XII)
+
+Canada and the American Revolution; U.E. Loyalists (Chaps. XIII, XV)
+
+Constitutional Act--Representative Government (Chap. XIV)
+
+Social Conditions, 1763-1812 (Chap. XV)
+
+Hudson's Bay Company (Chaps. VIII, XVI, XXI)
+
+North-West Company (Chap. XVI)
+
+Exploration in North-West--Hearne, Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson (Chap.
+XVI)
+
+War of 1812-14 (Chap. XVII)
+
+Family Compact (Chap. XVII)
+
+Clergy Reserves (Chap. XVII)
+
+William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XVII)
+
+Lord Durham, Act of Union, 1840--Responsible Government (Chap. XVIII)
+
+Social Progress, 1812-1841 (Chap. XIX)
+
+Settlement of the North-West--Selkirk (Chaps. XVI, XX)
+
+Confederation of the Provinces, 1867 (Chap. XXII)
+
+Intercolonial Railway (Chap. XXIV)
+
+Expansion of the Dominion by addition of new provinces (Chap. XXII)
+
+Social Progress, 1841-1867 (Chap. XXIII)
+
+Canadian Pacific Railway (Chap. XXIV)
+
+Riel Rebellion (Chap. XXIV)
+
+Disputes between Canada and the United States since 1814 settled by
+treaty or arbitration. The Hundred Years of Peace
+
+Canada, at the opening of the twentieth century; transportation,
+industry, means of defence, education (Chap. XXV)
+
+Ontario since Confederation: John Sandfield Macdonald, Sir Oliver Mowat,
+Arthur Sturgis Hardy, Sir George W. Ross, Sir James P. Whitney (Chap.
+XXVI)
+
+An account of how Canada is governed, simple and concrete and as far as
+possible related to the experience of the pupils; Municipal Government,
+Provincial Government, Federal Government (Chap. XXVII)
+
+
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+SENIOR GRADE
+
+
+BRITISH HISTORY
+
+A
+
+_A Course of about Two Months_
+
+
+The Early Inhabitants--The Britons
+
+The Coming of the Romans
+
+The Coming of the Saxons
+
+The Coming of Christianity
+
+Alfred the Great
+
+The Coming of the Normans--The Feudal System
+
+Richard I and the Crusaders
+
+John and Magna Charta
+
+The Scottish War of Independence
+
+The Hundred Years' War--Crecy, Agincourt, Joan of Arc.
+
+The Wars of the Roses (no lists of battles or details of fighting)
+
+Caxton and Printing
+
+Separation between the English Church and Rome
+
+
+B
+
+_A Course of about Eight Months_
+
+
+Brief account of the British Isles, territorial, political, and
+religious, as an introduction to the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots; the Spanish Armada; Drake, Hawkins,
+Gilbert, Raleigh, Shakespeare.
+
+The Stuarts: "Divine Right of Kings" supported by majority of gentry and
+landowners (cavaliers), opposed by the commercial and trading classes
+and yeomen (roundheads). The Kings strove for absolute power, the
+Parliament for constitutional government.
+
+James I: Union of the English and Scottish Crowns.
+
+Charles I: Struggle between King and Parliament; Petition of Right, Ship
+Money, rebellion, execution of Charles.
+
+Commonwealth: nominally a republic, really a dictatorship under
+Cromwell. He gave Britain a strong government at home, and made her
+respected abroad, and laid the foundations of Britain's foreign trade
+and colonial empire.
+
+Charles II: The Restoration: Reaction in state, church, and society;
+King striving for absolute power; Nonconformists persecuted; society
+profligate in its revolt against the strictness of Puritanism; Habeas
+Corpus Act; Test Act; Plague and Great Fire.
+
+James II: Revolution of 1688, the death-knell of "divine right";
+Parliament supreme; Declaration of Rights.
+
+William and Mary: Party government--Whigs and Tories; King to act by
+advice of his ministers; each parliament limited to three years; Bill of
+Rights; Act of Settlement.
+
+Anne: Marlborough; Union between England and Scotland, 1707; the
+Jacobites, 1715 and 1745.
+
+George II: Walpole, the great peace minister--home and colonial trade
+fostered and material wealth of the nation greatly increased; Pitt, the
+great war minister; territorial expansion in Canada and India--Wolfe,
+Clive; the Methodist Movement, Wesley.
+
+George III: The American Revolution, 1776-83: loss of the American
+Colonies; Pitt; Washington; acquisition of Australia by Great Britain,
+1788; legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, 1801; Napoleonic
+wars; Nelson, Wellington, Aboukir, Trafalgar, and Waterloo; industrial
+revolution--the change from an agricultural to an industrial country.
+
+William IV: Reform Act of 1832, a great forward movement in democratic
+government; abolition of slavery, 1833; railways and steamships.
+
+Victoria: First British settlement in New Zealand, 1839; Repeal of the
+Corn Laws, 1846--free trade, the commercial policy of England;
+Elementary Education Act, 1870, education compulsory; parliamentary
+franchise extended--vote by ballot; Crimean war; Indian Mutiny; Egypt
+and the Suez Canal; Boer War--Orange Free State and South African
+Republic annexed; social progress.
+
+Edward VII: Irish Land Act of 1903; pensions for aged labourers; King
+Edward, "the Peace-maker."
+
+
+CIVICS
+
+Taxation--direct and indirect; how the revenue of the Dominion,
+provinces, and municipalities, respectively, is collected.
+
+Federal Government--Governor-general, Senate, House of Commons, Premier,
+Cabinet.
+
+Imperial Government--King, House of Lords, House of Commons, Premier,
+Cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY
+
+
+AIMS
+
+History may be made, in several ways, an important factor in forming
+intelligent, patriotic citizens:
+
+(_a_) It must be remembered that society, with all its institutions, is
+a growth, not a sudden creation. It follows that, if we wish to
+understand the present and to use that knowledge as a guide to future
+action, we must know the story of how our present institutions and
+conditions have come to be what they are; we must know the ideals of our
+forefathers, the means they took to realize them, and to what extent
+they succeeded. It is only in this way that we become capable of passing
+judgment, as citizens, on what is proposed by political and social
+reformers, and thus justify and guarantee our existence as a democracy.
+
+(_b_) Patriotism, which depends largely on the associations formed in
+childhood, is intensified by learning how our forefathers fought and
+laboured and suffered to obtain all that we now value most in our homes
+and social life. The courage with which the early settlers of Upper
+Canada faced their tremendous labours and hardships should make us
+appreciate our inheritance in the Ontario of to-day, and determine, as
+they did, to leave our country better than we found it.
+
+    To-morrow yet would reap to-day,
+    As we bear blossom of the dead.
+
+(_c_) "History teaches that right and wrong are real distinctions." The
+study of history, especially in the sphere of biography, has a moral
+value, and much may be done, even in the primary classes, to inspire
+children to admire the heroic and the self-sacrificing, and to despise
+the treacherous and the self-seeking. The constant struggle to right
+what is wrong in the world may be emphasized in the senior classes to
+show that nothing is ever settled until it is settled right.
+
+(_d_) History affords specially good exercise for the judgment we use in
+everyday life in weighing evidence and balancing probabilities. Such a
+question as "Did Champlain do right in taking the side of the Hurons
+against the Iroquois, or even in taking sides at all?" may be suggested
+to the older pupils for consideration.
+
+(_e_) History, when taught by a broad-minded, well-informed teacher, may
+do much to correct the prejudices--social, political, religious--of
+individuals and communities.
+
+(_f_) The imagination is exercised in the effort to recall or
+reconstruct the scenes of the past and in discovering relations of cause
+and effect.
+
+(_g_) The memory is aided and stimulated by the increase in the number
+of the centres of interest round which facts, both new and old, may be
+grouped.
+
+(_h_) A knowledge of the facts and inferences of history is invaluable
+for general reading and culture.
+
+To sum up: It is important that the good citizen should know his
+physical environment; it is just as important for him "to know his
+social and political environment, to have some appreciation of the
+nature of the state and society, some sense of the duties and
+responsibilities of citizenship, some capacity in dealing with political
+and governmental questions, something of the broad and tolerant spirit
+which is bred by the study of past times and conditions."
+
+
+SCOPE
+
+The ideal course in history would include (1) a general view of the
+history of the world, giving the pupil knowledge enough to provide the
+proper setting for the history of his own country; (2) a more detailed
+knowledge of the whole history of his own country; (3) and a special
+knowledge of certain outstanding periods or tendencies in that history.
+In our schools, we should give most attention to the study of Canadian
+and British history as a whole, to enough of the history of France
+and other countries to make clear certain parts of our own history,
+and to certain important periods, such as the settlement of Upper
+Canada by the United Empire Loyalists, etc. (See Detailed Course of
+Study, p. 5.) We may also study our history along special lines of
+development--political, military, social, educational, religious,
+industrial, and commercial--but these phases are subjects of study
+rather for secondary schools and colleges.
+
+
+STAGES OF STUDY
+
+There are three stages in the study of history which, though they
+overlap each other, yet indicate different methods of treatment for
+pupils at different ages. They are the Story stage, the Information
+stage, and the Reflective stage. These stages are not exclusive, nor do
+they coincide with the first three Forms in the schools.
+
+
+THE STORY STAGE
+
+This stage is suitable for children in the primary grades and is chiefly
+preparatory to the real study of history in the higher grades. The need
+for this stage lies in the fact that the child's "ideas are of the
+pictorial rather than of the abstract order"; yet his spontaneous
+interest in these things must be made to serve "as a stepping-stone to
+the acquired interests of civilized life." The definite objects at this
+stage are:
+
+(_a_) To create and foster a liking for historical study. It is
+impossible, in the public school life of a child, which is usually ended
+at the age of twelve to fourteen years, to accomplish all that has been
+indicated above concerning the aims of history teaching. The most that
+can be done is to lay the foundation and give the pupil a desire to
+continue his reading after his school days are over. Serious blame rests
+on the teacher whose methods of teaching history, instead of attracting
+the child to the subject, give him a distaste for it. If history is made
+real and living to children, it is usually not difficult to have them
+like it. (For suggestions, see p. 34.)
+
+(_b_) To acquaint the pupils with some of the important historical
+persons. We wish to take advantage of the fact that "the primitive form
+of attention which is captured at once by objects that strike the senses
+is giving place in some degree to appreciative attention, which is
+yielded to things that connect themselves with what we already know, and
+which implies ability to adopt the reflective attitude towards a
+proposed problem."[A] Now children are more interested in people than in
+institutions or events; and, if we can give them a knowledge of some of
+the striking incidents in the lives of important characters in history,
+we may expect them to be more interested in the study of history at a
+later period, because they will frequently meet with these familiar
+names. The emphasis at this stage is therefore on biography.
+
+[Footnote A: Raymont: _Principles of Education_]
+
+(_c_) To help the development of the "historical sense." The "historical
+sense" includes the notion of time, the notion of a social unit and,
+according to some, the notion of cause and effect. The notion of time
+implies the power "to represent the past as if it were present"--that
+is, the power to enter into the thoughts and feelings of people of the
+past as if we were living amongst them. This notion of time comes at
+different ages; to some early, to others very late. It came to Professor
+Shaler at the age of about eight or nine years, as the direct result of
+vivid story-telling:
+
+     Of all the folk who were about me, the survivors of the Indian wars
+     were the most interesting. There were several of these old
+     clapper-clawed fellows still living, with their more or less
+     apocryphal tales of adventures they had heard of or shared. There
+     was current a tradition--I have seen it in print--that there had
+     been a fight between the Indians and whites where the government
+     barracks stood, and that two wounded whites had been left upon the
+     ground, where they were not found by the savages. One of these had
+     both arms broken, the other was similarly disabled as to his legs.
+     It was told that they managed to subsist by combining their limited
+     resources. The man with sound legs drove game up within range of
+     the other cripple's gun, and as the turkeys or rabbits fell, he
+     kicked them within reach of his hands, and in like manner provided
+     him with sticks for their fire. This legend, much elaborated in the
+     telling, gave me, I believe at about my eighth year, my first sense
+     of a historic past, and it led to much in the way of fanciful
+     invention of like tales. (N.F. Shaler: _Autobiography_, Chap. I.)
+
+The best means at the teacher's command to assist its coming is to tell
+good stories from history with all the skill he has; the stories need
+not be told in chronological order. The notion of time implies also in
+the older pupils the power to place events in chronological order.
+
+The notion of a social unit is also of slow growth and must spring from
+the child's conception of the social units he belongs to--the home, the
+school, the community.
+
+The notion of cause and effect does not belong so wholly to the study of
+history as the notions of time and of the social unit; it is surprising,
+however, how soon it makes its appearance in the child's conceptions of
+history, in his desire to know the "why" of things. (See Barnes'
+_Studies in Historical Method_.)
+
+
+THE INFORMATION STAGE
+
+There are several questions that children soon come to ask: "When?" and
+"Where?" "What?" and "Who?" This stage may be said to begin in earnest
+with the Second Form, and it continues through the whole course. One of
+the essential elements in history study is to have a knowledge of the
+important facts of history, without which there can be no inferences of
+value for present use. The all-important point in this teaching of facts
+is to keep the lessons interesting and not allow them to become mere
+lifeless memorizing of isolated happenings; for a fact is of value only
+when related to other facts. (See pp. 36, 38.)
+
+
+THE REFLECTIVE STAGE
+
+This stage naturally follows the Information stage, as one must acquire
+facts before reflecting on them in order to draw inferences. But
+reflection of a simple kind may begin as soon as any facts are given
+that will show the relations of cause and effect. The question for the
+pupil here is "Why?" just as in the preceding stage the questions were
+"When?" and "Where?" "What?" and "Who?" Information and reflection may
+therefore be combined--with due regard to the pupil's capacity.
+
+
+PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES
+
+We may speak of two difficulties. The first concerns the enormous amount
+of historical material that exists. It is increased still more by the
+intermingling of legend with history and by the partial narratives of
+prejudiced writers. The legendary part may be taken up in the Story
+stage; and the evils of one-sided accounts are often balanced by the
+greater vigour and interest of the narrative, as in Macaulay's writings.
+The difficulty connected with the great amount of material can be solved
+by the selection (already largely made by the text-books) of the more
+important parts, that is, those facts of history that have the greatest
+influence on after times--"the points of vital growth and large
+connection" without which subsequent history cannot be properly
+understood.
+
+The second difficulty has to do with deciding where to begin the
+teaching of history. There are two principles of teaching that will help
+to solve this difficulty: (1) The child learns by relating everything
+new to his present fund of experiences; (2) A child's notions grow more
+complex as his knowledge increases. To apply these, we must know the
+child's experiences and his present notions. We cannot assume that the
+present conditions of social life are known to the child through his
+experiences. Our social life is also too complex to be understood by him
+yet; he can understand an _individual_ hero better than he can the
+complex idea of a _nation_. How many children would be able to begin a
+study of history by having, as one writer suggests, "a short series of
+lessons ... to make some simple and fundamental historical ideas
+intelligible--a state, a nation, a dynasty, a monarch, a parliament,
+legislation, the administration of justice, taxes, civil and foreign
+war!" These are ideas far beyond the comprehension of the beginner. We
+must be guided, not by "what happens to be near the child in time and
+place, but by what lies near his interests." As Professor Bourne says:
+"it may be that mediæval man, because his characteristics belong to a
+simple type, is closer to the experience of a child than many a later
+hero." With older children it is more likely to be true that the life of
+history lies "in its personal connections with what is here and now and
+still alive with us"; with historic places and relics, etc., which make
+their appeal first through the senses; with institutions, such as trial
+by jury; with anniversaries and celebrations of great events which may
+be used to arouse interest in the history which they suggest and recall.
+
+However, as McMurry points out, we are in a peculiarly favourable
+position in Canada, because we have in our own history, in the
+comparatively short time of 400 years, the development of a free and
+prosperous country from a state of wildness and savagery. The early
+stages of our history present those elements of life that appeal
+strongly to children--namely, Indians with all their ways of living and
+fighting, and the early settlers with their simpler problems and
+difficulties. The development of this simpler life to the more complex
+life of the present can be more readily understood by children as they
+follow up the changes that have taken place. (See McMurry, _Special
+Method in History_, pp. 26-30.) Of course, at every step appeal must be
+made to the experiences of children, as the teacher knows them. In
+Civics, however, the beginning must be made with conditions that exist
+to-day--schools, taxes, the policeman, the postmaster, etc. The
+beginning of the real teaching of history may then be made at the
+beginning of Canadian History, as this will enable the child to go
+gradually from the simple, or individual, to the complex, and will also
+allow the teacher to make use of whatever historical remains may be
+within reach.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+
+
+There are many methods used in the teaching of history. A brief
+description of the principal ones is given for reference merely, since
+their best features are incorporated in a combination of methods, which
+is strongly recommended to teachers, and is described fully in
+succeeding pages.
+
+
+1. _Methods based on the arrangement and selection of the matter_:
+Chronological, Topical
+
+
+THE CHRONOLOGICAL METHOD
+
+The matter is chosen according to the "time" order, beginning at the
+first of the history, and the events are taught in the order of
+occurrence without any marked emphasis on their importance, or without
+considering whether a knowledge of the event is useful or interesting to
+the class at this stage. Such an arrangement of matter is more suitable
+when the formal study of history is begun.
+
+
+THE TOPICAL METHOD
+
+In studying a certain period of history the events are arranged under
+topics or heads; for example, the period of discovery in Canadian
+History may be arranged thus--Discoveries, Explorations, Early
+Settlements, Indian Wars--and the study of each of these pursued to
+completion, contemporary events belonging to other topics being
+neglected for a time.
+
+Events having the same underlying purpose, though occurring in different
+periods, may be arranged under one topic for review; for example, all
+the voyages of discovery to America may be grouped under the topic, "The
+Road to Cathay." (See p. 92.) In this way a comprehensive knowledge is
+gained. This method gives a full treatment of each topic and may be used
+to best advantage in connection with reviews in junior classes and
+occasionally as a text-book or library exercise in senior classes.
+
+
+2. _Methods based on the treatment of historical facts_: Comparative,
+Regressive, Concentric
+
+
+THE COMPARATIVE METHOD
+
+By this method a comparison is made between two events, two biographies,
+two reigns, etc., a very useful device when applied in connection with
+other methods.
+
+
+THE REGRESSIVE METHOD
+
+In this method the pupil is expected to begin with the present and work
+backward; that is, to begin with institutions as they are to-day and to
+work back through the various steps in their progress to their present
+state. This method may be followed most profitably in advanced classes.
+In junior classes it is sufficient to refer to things as they exist
+to-day in order to arouse curiosity regarding the facts of history that
+are to be taught; for example, by the use of local material; by a visit
+to some place of historical interest to prepare for the story of what
+has occurred there in the past. (See p. 112.)
+
+
+THE CONCENTRIC METHOD
+
+This method, which is much used, deals in ever widening circles with the
+same topic or event; for example, a simple story of Champlain's life
+and voyages to Canada is told to Form II; the same story is considered
+again in Form III, but this time the different voyages are noted, the
+results of each investigated, and the whole summarized and memorized;
+again, in Form IV, but this time by the topical and comparative methods,
+where comparison is made of the purposes and achievements of the
+explorer with those of other explorers--Jacques Cartier, La Salle, etc.
+In this third discussion a full knowledge of Champlain's work is given.
+
+The excellence of this work lies in its review and repetition. The old
+or former knowledge is recalled and used in each succeeding discussion
+of the topic. The pupils grow gradually into fuller knowledge.
+
+
+3. _Methods based on class procedure_: Oral, Text-book
+
+
+THE ORAL METHOD
+
+This usually takes the form of an oral presentation of the story or
+description of the event by the teacher, while the pupils listen and
+afterwards reproduce what they have heard. The narration of the story is
+accompanied by pictures, sketches, maps, etc., illustrative of persons,
+places, and facts mentioned. It may also take the "development" form, in
+which a combination of narrative and questioning is employed. (See pp.
+66, 92.)
+
+The Lecture method of Colleges and Universities is an advanced oral
+method. In this the teacher narrates and describes events, propounds
+questions, and discusses and answers them himself, while the pupils
+listen and during the lecture, or afterwards, make notes of what has
+been heard.
+
+
+THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD
+
+By this method the teacher assigns a lesson in the book and, after the
+pupils have an opportunity to study it, he asks questions concerning the
+facts learned. The exclusive use of this method results ordinarily in
+dull, lifeless teaching, and with junior pupils will prevent their
+enjoying, or receiving much benefit from, the study of history. There
+are two reasons for the too general use of it--first, it is an easy
+method for the teacher, and secondly, it is easy for the pupils to
+memorize facts for the sole purpose of passing examinations. While this
+criticism is true when an exclusive use is made of the text-book, the
+same cannot be said when the text-book is used as an auxiliary to the
+teacher. Following the oral presentation of the story, reference may be
+made to the book for another version or for a fuller account and, in
+Form IV, topics may be assigned and the pupils directed to consult the
+text-book for the necessary information. (See pp. 26, 28.)
+
+The text-book should be one that does not show an abrupt change from the
+story told by the teacher. It should not be merely a short outline of
+the important facts in history, written separately and then pieced
+together in chronological order, but should be written in a readable
+form by one who is able to distinguish the important and necessary from
+the unimportant and burdensome. It should have short summaries at the
+ends of chapters or stories of events, so that a grasp of what has been
+read may be easily obtained. It should also have many pictures,
+illustrations, and maps, to take the place of the teacher's explanations
+in the earlier stage. (On the use of the text-book, see p. 29.)
+
+
+A COMBINATION OF THESE METHODS
+
+General Description.--As each of the above methods has its strong and
+its weak points, we should attempt to combine the strong points into one
+method, varied to keep pace with the mental development of the pupil,
+and thus secure the best results. The general outline of such a
+combination may be given as follows: The "oral story" is to be used in
+the junior classes, with "development" problems presented where helpful;
+in Form III the pupils should be introduced to the text-book (The
+History Reader for Form III), besides being taught by the oral method;
+in Form IV, the oral method is still to be the chief means used by the
+teacher, who will now, however, pay more attention to the arrangement of
+the matter (for example, in topical outlines), to accustom the pupils to
+grasp more thoroughly the relations of cause and effect in history. The
+topics of history will also be taken up more exhaustively than in the
+junior classes, and the pupils must have more practice in acquiring
+knowledge from the text-books.
+
+
+DETAILS OF METHOD
+
+
+FORMS I, II
+
+In Forms I and II, the pupils are accustomed to the oral reproduction of
+stories told by the teacher. In these should be included a good many
+historical stories, such as those suggested in the Course of Study in
+History for these Forms; they will serve the usual purposes of oral
+reproduction work for composition and literature, and will be, besides,
+a good foundation for the study of history in the higher forms. (For
+objects of the Story stage, see p. 16.)
+
+The oral presentation of a story or description of an event requires a
+certain degree of skill on the part of a teacher--skill in
+story-telling, in grasping the important parts of the story or
+description, in knowing what details to omit as well as what to narrate,
+in explaining the story in a way that will make it real to the pupils,
+in preparing pictures and sketches to illustrate the different parts,
+and in questioning so that the minds of the pupils will be active as
+well as receptive. The care and time necessary to secure this skill will
+be well repaid by the interest aroused in history, by the appreciation
+of the thoughts thus presented, and by the lasting impressions conveyed.
+Simple, clear language should be employed, not necessarily small words,
+but words whose meaning is made clear by the context or illustration.
+(For material for these Forms, see Bibliography, C, p. 132.)
+
+When the whole story is told, revision may be made by having the pupils
+reproduce it after suitable questioning, either immediately or at some
+future time. Exercises in reproduction may also be given, for either
+seat work or class work, in constructive or art work; for example, after
+the story of the North American Indians, the pupils may be asked to
+construct a wigwam, a canoe, a bow and arrow, or to make pictures of
+Indians, of their houses, of their dress, etc.
+
+Further exercise in composition may also be given by having the pupils
+write the story. To each pupil may be assigned a special part; for
+example, the story of Moses may be divided thus: (1) As a babe; (2) His
+adoption by the Princess; (3) His life at the palace; (4) His flight to
+Midian; (5) The Burning Bush, etc. The whole story is then reproduced by
+having these parts read aloud in a reading lesson.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+The value of the oral work done in Forms I and II will be realized by
+the teacher when the real study of history is begun in Forms III and
+IV. The pupils have a liking for the stories of history and have a
+knowledge of some of the leading actors and of the chief events in
+history that calls for more complete satisfaction.
+
+There are several methods of using the History Reader which is the basis
+of the work in Form III. Perhaps the best method is to continue to make
+oral teaching the chief feature, and to add to that the use by the
+pupils, in various ways, of the History Reader.
+
+For example, the teacher will tell the story of Jacques Cartier,
+following in the main the narrative as given in the History Reader. It
+is well, however, not to follow it too closely in order that, when the
+pupils come to read the story in the book for themselves, they will find
+it an interesting combination of the familiar and the new. For that
+reason, it will be necessary for the teacher to have prepared the story
+from a somewhat different narrative in some other book at her command.
+In the telling of the story, problems may be asked, if thought advisable
+(see p. 33); a few headings may be placed on the black-board for
+subsequent reproduction, oral or written, by the pupils; all
+difficulties of pronunciation, especially of proper names, should be
+attended to, orally and on the black-board; the places mentioned should
+be found on the map; pictures and sketches should be used; and in fact,
+every possible means taken to make the narrative more real to the class.
+(See p. 34.)
+
+When the oral teaching is finished, the pupils may have the books to
+read at their desks, and they often ask permission to take them home.
+They may sometimes be required to read aloud from the History Reader for
+supplementary practice in oral reading. Reproduction by the pupils,
+either immediately or in a subsequent lesson, should follow. Teachers,
+however, are advised not to insist on too much written reproduction, as
+that might very easily arouse a dislike for both history and written
+composition. Procedure as outlined above has had most gratifying results
+in the way of creating a liking for, and an intelligent interest in, the
+study of history.
+
+Other methods have also had good results. The teacher may, instead of
+telling the story, read aloud from the Reader to pave the way for the
+reading of the story by the pupils themselves. Difficulties, either in
+language or in meaning, may be taken up as in a literature lesson. The
+pupils will at first find the reading somewhat difficult, but the
+interest generated by the teacher's reading or oral narrative will carry
+them through that stage till they acquire a love for reading history,
+and have enlarged their vocabulary till reading is no longer a
+burdensome task.
+
+A taste of the more serious study of history may be given by asking the
+pupils a few not very difficult questions that they can answer only by
+combining facts contained in several stories. For example, in the
+chapters selected for Form III, Junior Grade, the answer can be found to
+a question about the explorers of Canada, the order of their visits, and
+a comparison of their work; to another question about the expansion of
+Canada from the little part of Quebec first visited to the whole of
+British North America.
+
+It is unnecessary, perhaps, to add that the emphasis in Form III history
+should be still very largely on biography, so as to influence the
+forming of moral ideals by concrete examples.
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+Although the pupils have now had some experience in the use of the
+History Reader, yet that is no reason why oral teaching should be
+discarded in Form IV history, any more than in arithmetic or geography.
+It is scarcely a high estimate to have of history, to think that pupils
+of this age can grasp even the simpler lines of development in history
+without guidance from the teacher. Hence it is necessary for the
+attainment of good results, that many of the lessons should be taught
+orally before the pupils are asked to study their books. The aim of the
+teaching should be not merely the acquisition of facts, but the welding
+of them together in a sequence of cause and effect, and the pupils at
+this stage can scarcely be expected to do that for themselves.
+
+In preparing for a lesson in Form IV history, the teacher should analyse
+the incidents of the period to be studied, should see how certain causes
+have led to certain results, and should be sure enough of the facts to
+have little recourse to the text-book while teaching. It does not look
+like fair play to expect a class to answer questions that the teacher
+cannot answer without consulting the text. On the other hand, it is
+refreshing to see the interest aroused in a class by a teacher who
+thinks enough of the subject to be able to teach it without constant
+reference to the text-book. Therefore, let the oral method be here again
+the chief dependence of the teacher. In such a lesson, for example, as
+that on the Intercolonial Railway (see p. 82) no book is needed--only
+the map and the black-board.
+
+
+TRAINING IN USE OF TEXT-BOOK
+
+However, as the pupils must learn, for their own profit in after years,
+how to read history without a guiding hand, they need training in the
+use of the text-book. The chief line on which such training may proceed
+is to have the pupils search out the answers to definite questions. Any
+one who has searched for material on a certain topic will appreciate
+the good results that have come in the way of added knowledge and
+increased interest. The topics at first should be quite simple,
+gradually increasing in breadth. A few suggestions for such work are
+given below; they may be called examination questions to be answered
+with the help of the text-book:
+
+     1. Name, and tell something about, four of the explorers of Canada
+     before 1759.
+
+     2. Name several other explorers of the New World.
+
+     3. Which explorer did the most for Canada, Champlain or La Salle?
+
+     4. In what wars did the French fight against the Iroquois? With
+     what result?
+
+     5. What explorers of North America were trying to find a way to
+     China and India? (This investigation by the class may precede the
+     lesson on the "Road to Cathay." See p. 92.)
+
+     6. On what did English kings base their claim to be the overlords
+     of Scotland? Trace the dispute down to the Union of the Crowns in
+     1603.
+
+     7. Find out how the slave trade was treated by the English.
+
+     8. Make a list of the early newspapers in Canada. Did they have
+     much influence on public opinion?
+
+     9. Compare the struggles for the control of taxation in Canada and
+     in the Thirteen Colonies of America. Explain why these were settled
+     differently in the two cases.
+
+With questions such as these for investigation, no pupil will be likely
+to secure the full facts; each may state in the next lesson what he has
+found, and the work of each will be supplemented by that of the others.
+With succeeding investigations it may be expected that the pupils will
+be more eager to get at all the facts in the text-book. At any rate they
+are learning how to gather material from books--a very valuable
+training, no matter how simple the topic is.
+
+When, in the ordinary course of work, lessons from the text-book are
+assigned, the teacher should indicate the important points, should
+suggest certain matters for discussion, and should note certain
+questions to be answered, indicating precisely where the information may
+be obtained. In the recitation period following, the topic should be
+fully discussed, the pupils giving the information they have secured
+from the text-book, and the teacher supplementing this from his
+knowledge gained through wider reading. During the discussion an outline
+should be made on the board, largely by the suggestions of the pupils,
+and kept in their note-books for reference and review. (See p. 100,
+Lesson on the Feudal System.)
+
+
+DRILL AND REVIEW
+
+As has been already stated (p. 15), the Story stage is useful chiefly
+for the purpose of arousing interest and developing the historical
+sense; no drill or review is necessary other than the oral, and, in Form
+II, sometimes the written, reproduction of the stories. The oral
+reproduction can be obtained in Form I by using the stories as topics in
+language lessons.
+
+In the Information stage, where we are concerned more with the acquiring
+of facts, and in the Reflective stage, where we wish to relate facts to
+each other according to cause and effect, drills and reviews are
+necessary. During the lesson, a summary is placed on the black-board by
+the teacher or pupil, as indicated above. It is used as a guide in oral
+reproduction and may also be copied in special note-books and used for
+reference when preparing for review lessons. The teacher may look over
+these note-books occasionally.
+
+There is great difference of opinion on the value of note-taking by
+pupils, but it may be said of such notes as those mentioned above that
+they have the advantage of being largely the pupil's own work,
+especially when the pupils are asked to suggest the headings; they are a
+record of what has been decided in the class to be important points;
+they are arranged in the order in which the subject has been treated in
+the lesson, and are in every way superior to the small note-books in
+history that are sometimes used as aids or helps. For the proper
+teaching of history, the latter are hindrances rather than helps,
+because they rob the pupil of the profit gained by doing the work for
+himself. Notes obtained from books or dictated by the teacher are
+harmful to the right spirit of study, and create a distaste for the
+subject.
+
+Special review lessons should be taken when a series of lessons on one
+topic, or on a series of connected topics, has been finished. At the
+close of each lesson, the facts learned are fixed more firmly in the
+mind by the usual drill; but there must be further organization of the
+several lessons by a proper review, so that history will not be a number
+of unconnected events, but will be seen as an orderly development. This
+may be accomplished: (1) by questioning the class from a point of view
+different from that taken in the first lessons, (2) by oral or written
+expansion of a topical outline, (3) by illustrations with maps or
+drawings, (4) by tracing the sequence of events backwards, (5) by
+submitting some new situation that will recall the old knowledge in a
+different way. It must be remembered that it is not a mere repetition
+that we seek, but a _re-view_ of the facts, a new view that will prove
+the power of the pupils to use the knowledge they have gained. Thus the
+lesson on the St. Lawrence River (p. 112) is a good review of the facts
+of history suggested by the places mentioned; the lesson on the Road to
+Cathay (p. 92) may be considered a review of the chief explorers of
+North America. Such a review aims at seeing new relations, at connecting
+new knowledge and old, at "giving freshness and vividness to knowledge
+that may be somewhat faded, at throwing a number of discrete facts into
+a bird's-eye view."
+
+
+THE USE OF PROBLEMS IN TEACHING HISTORY
+
+The development, or problem, method is intended to get the pupils to do
+some independent thinking, instead of merely absorbing knowledge from
+the teacher. The plan is simply to set clearly before the pupils the
+conditions existing at a certain moment in the story so that they may
+see for themselves the difficulties that the people in the story had to
+overcome. The question for the class is: "What would you do in the
+circumstances?"
+
+Let us take an example from the life of Ulysses. Ulysses had heard of
+the Sirens, who sang so beautifully that any one in a passing ship who
+heard them was impelled to throw himself overboard, with a frantic
+desire to swim to their island. Naturally the swimmers were all drowned
+in the attempt. Ulysses desired to hear for himself the wonderful
+singing, and to experience, perhaps, its terrible effect; but he
+certainly did not want to run any risk of drowning. Now, how did he
+accomplish his desire, without paying the penalty?
+
+Again, in the story of Madeleine de Verchères, the narrative may proceed
+to the point where Madeleine has succeeded in securing the gates. She
+finds herself in a weak fort with few to help her, and outside a
+numerous band of Indians, who are kept at bay for a whole week, without
+even attempting their usual night attacks. How did she do it?
+
+In the case of the U.E. Loyalists, the teacher may narrate the story to
+the point where the Loyalists, after the treaty was signed, saw that
+they must remove to Canada. The class must know where the Loyalist
+centres in the New England States were. Now, what routes would they be
+likely to take in going to Canada? With the map before them, the class
+can usually tell the next part of the story themselves.
+
+Even if the pupil is not able to give the correct answer to the problem
+submitted, he is nevertheless having an opportunity to exercise his
+judgment, he can see wherein his judgment differs from that of the
+persons concerned, his interest in their actions is increased, and the
+whole story will be more deeply impressed on his memory.
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE HISTORY REAL
+
+The chief difficulty in teaching history is to give a meaning to the
+language of history. Much of the language is merely empty words. The
+Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves mean just about as much to pupils
+as _x_ does in algebra, and even when they give a definition or
+description of these terms, it usually amounts to saying that _x_ equals
+_y_; the definition is just as vague as the original terms. The problem
+is to give the language more meaning, to ensure that the words give
+mental pictures and ideas; in short, to turn the abstract into concrete
+facts.
+
+Children can make their own only such knowledge as their experience
+helps them to interpret. Their interests are in the present, and the
+past appeals to them just so far as they can see in it their own
+activities, thoughts, and feelings. The great aim of the teacher, then,
+should be to help pupils to translate the facts of history into terms of
+their own experiences; unless that is done, they are really not learning
+anything. Some of the ways in which this may be attempted are outlined
+below.
+
+1. In the junior classes where the children are intensely interested in
+stories, the stress should be put on giving them _interesting personal
+details_ about the famous people in history, details that they can
+understand with their limited experiences of life, and that will appeal
+to their emotions. These stories should be told to the pupils with such
+vividness and animation that they will struggle with Columbus against a
+mutinous crew, will help the early explorers to blaze their way through
+the dense forests, will toil with the pioneers in making homes for
+themselves in Canada, and will suffer with the missionaries in their
+hardships and perils.
+
+For these pupils the oral method is the only one to use, for there is
+nothing that appeals to children more quickly and with more reality than
+what they _hear_ from the teacher. The oral method should find a large
+place in the teaching of history in all the Forms. It may be added that
+the teachers who use this method will find history become a more real
+and interesting study to themselves.
+
+2. What the pupils hear should be reinforced by giving them something to
+_see_. Whatever pictures are obtainable (see pp. 45, 127) should be used
+freely at all stages, for the visual images of children are a powerful
+aid to their understanding; it is for this reason that books for
+children are now so fully illustrated, and the same principle should be
+applied to the teaching of history.
+
+As soon as the children are ready for it, reference should be made to
+maps to illustrate historical facts. (See p. 127.) They should see on
+the map the course that Columbus took across the unknown sea;
+Champlain's explorations become real when they are traced on the map and
+the children have a concrete picture to carry away with them. In fact
+the subjects of geography, art, and constructive work, treated under the
+head of correlated subjects, are used in history with the aim of making
+it real through the eye. (See pp. 40, 44, 45.)
+
+3. A greater difficulty presents itself when we have to deal, in the
+higher Forms, with topics like the Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves,
+and it is a difficulty that will test to the full the resourcefulness
+of the teacher. How can the preceding conditions and the terms of the
+Magna Charta be brought home to a class? How can children be brought to
+appreciate the difficulties connected with the question of Clergy
+Reserves? A few words about the latter may suggest a means.
+
+Two aspects of the Clergy Reserves question stand out prominently, the
+religious and the economic. The religious aspect will be the most
+difficult for Ontario children, for they have no immediate knowledge of
+what a State Church is--the point on which the religious dispute turned;
+nor do they know enough about the government of the religious bodies to
+which they belong to make the matter clear to them. A full understanding
+must come later. The best point of approach seems to be to give the
+class some idea of the number of settlers belonging to the churches of
+England and of Scotland, which claimed the right to the lands reserved,
+and compare with this the number of all other Protestant bodies that
+claimed to share in them; for this difference in numbers was one of the
+chief causes of bitterness. An arithmetical appeal is concrete. There
+was also the economic aspect. The Clergy Reserves were one seventh of
+the land in each township. Another seventh was withheld from free
+settlement as Crown Lands. Now in some townships there were about 50,000
+acres. Let the class find out how many acres were thus kept from
+settlement. Tell them that this land was not all in one block, but
+distributed through the township. They can now be asked to consider how
+this would interfere with close settlement and therefore with the
+establishment of schools, churches, post-offices, mills, and stores. A
+diagram of a township would be of great help. These two points will help
+them to see why an early and fair settlement of the vexed question was
+desired. Wherever possible, present problems for them to solve by their
+own experiences.
+
+4. The reading to the class of accounts of events written by people
+living at the time will give an atmosphere of reality and human interest
+to the events. For example, a story of early pioneer days told by a
+pioneer gives a personal element (see _Pioneer Days_, Kennedy); a letter
+by Mary Queen of Scots, to Elizabeth (see p. 143), will make both of
+these queens real living people, not mere names in history. (See
+_Studies in the Teaching of History_, Keatinge, p. 97, also selections
+from _The Sources of English History_, Colby, p. 163.) Not much of this
+may be possible, but more use might easily be made of such materials,
+especially with the early history of Ontario.
+
+5. The use of local history and of current events will be treated
+elsewhere. (See pp. 49, 51.)
+
+6. When possible, let the pupils form their idea of an historical person
+from his actions and words just as we form our estimate of each other,
+instead of having them memorize mere summaries of his character before
+they know his actions.
+
+7. Genealogical and chronological tables, written on the black-board and
+discussed with the class, will be of service in understanding certain
+periods, such as the Wars of the Roses, and in helping to form the
+time-sense of pupils. (See Chronological Chart, p. 128.)
+
+8. Chief dependence must be placed, however, on increasing the pupil's
+knowledge of present-day conditions in agriculture, commerce,
+transportation, manufactures, in fact, in all social, economic, and
+political conditions, in order to enable him by comparison to realize
+earlier methods and ways of living. The pupil who understands best how
+we do things to-day can understand best the state of affairs when people
+had to depend on primitive methods, and can realize how they would
+strive to make things better.
+
+
+ON MEMORIZING HISTORY
+
+History is usually called a "memory" subject, and is accordingly often
+taught as a mere memorizing of facts, names, and dates. The following
+statement of the chief principles of memorizing will, it is hoped, put
+mere verbal repetition in its proper place. Interest is the chief
+condition for teaching history in the public schools, in order that the
+pupils may acquire a liking for the subject that will tempt them to
+pursue their reading in after years; without that interest, the small
+amount of historical fact they can accumulate in their school-days will
+be of little real value to them when they become full-fledged citizens.
+In fact, through this emphasis on interest instead of verbal repetition,
+the pupils are likely to obtain a better knowledge of history and, at
+the same time, will have a chance to develop, in no slight degree, their
+powers of judgment.
+
+1. Memory depends on attention; we must observe attentively what we wish
+to remember. In history, attention may be secured by making the lessons
+interesting through the skill of the teacher in presenting the matter
+vividly to the pupils; also by using means to make history real instead
+of having it a mere mass of meaningless words. (See p. 34.)
+
+2. Facts that we wish to remember should be grouped, or studied in
+relation to other facts with which they are vitally connected. The facts
+of history should be presented to the class in their relation of cause
+and effect, or associated with some larger centre of interest; in other
+words, pupils must understand, in some degree, what they are asked to
+remember. (See pp. 92, 97.)
+
+3. If we increase the number of connections for facts, we are more
+likely to remember them. It is largely for this reason that history
+should be taught with correlated subjects, such as geography,
+literature, science (inventions), etc. For example, the story of the
+Spanish Armada is remembered better if we have read _Westward Ho!_ and
+the story of the Renaissance is made clearer and is therefore remembered
+better, if we connect with it the inventions of printing, gunpowder, and
+the mariner's compass. (See p. 121.)
+
+4. Repetition is necessary to memory. Facts or groups of facts must be
+repeated to be remembered. This is the purpose of the drills which are
+necessary to good teaching, but are only a part of it. Reviews are not
+to be considered merely as repetitions, but should be treated more as
+aids to better understanding. (See p. 31.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
+
+These subjects are very intimately related, and each should be used in
+teaching the other. Geography, which is often called one of the "eyes of
+history," may be used in the teaching of this subject in two ways. In
+the first place, an account of an historical event lacks, to a certain
+degree, reality in the minds of the pupils if they do not know something
+of the place where it occurred. Accordingly, in studying or teaching
+history, reference should be constantly made to the map to give a local
+setting to the story. The voyage of Columbus, the operations of Wolfe,
+the coming of the Loyalists, are made more real if they are traced out
+on the map, and are therefore better understood and remembered by the
+pupils. For this purpose, it is better, in most cases, to use an outline
+map, which may be sketched on the black-board by the teacher or the
+pupils, because on the ordinary wall maps there are so many names and so
+much detail that the attention may be distracted. Many of the details on
+the map are, moreover, more modern than the events that are to be
+illustrated, so that wrong impressions may be given.
+
+In the second place, it must be kept constantly in mind that many events
+in history have been influenced by the physical features of a country.
+For example: the lack of a natural boundary between France and Germany
+has led to many disputes between these countries; the fact of Great
+Britain being an island accounts for many things in her history (see p.
+108); the physical features of Quebec and Gibraltar explain the
+importance of these places; and the waterways of Canada account for the
+progress of early settlement. The climate and soil of a country affect
+its history; treaties are often based on physical conditions, and trade
+routes determined by them; a nation's commerce and wealth depend largely
+on the character of its natural resources.
+
+Some easy problems may be given to the senior classes to be answered by
+reference to physical conditions:
+
+     Why are London, New York, Chicago, Montreal, and Halifax, such
+     important centres? Why are certain places fitted for certain
+     manufactures? Will Winnipeg become a more important city than
+     Montreal? Will Vancouver outstrip San Francisco? What is a possible
+     future for the Western Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan? What
+     might have been the state of North America to-day, if the Rocky
+     Mountains had run along the East coast, instead of along the West?
+
+On the other hand, history contributes a human interest to geography;
+the places of greatest interest are often those associated with great
+events in history--Athens, Mount Sinai, Waterloo, Queenston Heights.
+
+
+HISTORY AND LITERATURE
+
+Literature gives life and human interest to both history and geography.
+By means of literature we are able to get a better notion of the ideals
+and motives of a people than the mere recital of the facts of their
+history can give. In this connection we naturally think of Homer's
+_Iliad_ and its influence on the Greeks. It was their storehouse of
+history, morals, religion, æsthetics, and rules for the practical
+guidance of life, as well as their literary masterpiece.
+
+It is often easy to interest pupils in a period of history by reading or
+quoting to them some ballad, poem, or prose narrative that colours the
+historical facts with the element of human feeling. Macaulay's
+_Horatius_ gives a deeper impression of Roman patriotism than almost
+anything in pure history can; the various aspects of the Crusades are
+vividly shown by W. Stearns Davis in _God Wills It_, a story of the
+first Crusade. In fact, if stirring events can be linked in the child's
+mind with stirring verse, if the struggles and progress of nations can
+be presented in a vigorous narrative that echoes the thoughts, feelings,
+and interests of the time, we make an appeal to the interest of the
+pupil that is almost irresistible. The objection is sometimes urged
+against the reading of standard historical tales and novels, that these
+are somewhat exaggerated in sentiment and inaccurate in facts. Even if
+this be so, it may be said that they give in outline a fair picture of
+the period described, that the interest in history aroused by such tales
+begets a liking for history itself, and that such exaggerations and
+inaccuracies are soon corrected when the pupil begins to read history.
+
+The course of history has been modified by songs, ballads, and stories.
+The influence on the national spirit and ideals of songs such as _Rule
+Britannia_ and _The Marseillaise_, of stories such as _Uncle Tom's
+Cabin_, of novels such as those of Dickens and of Charles Reade is
+incalculable.
+
+A few poems and prose compositions are given here as suggestions; a
+fuller list may be found in Allen's _Reader's Guide to English History_,
+Ginn & Co., 30c.
+
+     Poems: _Boadicea_, Cowper; _Recessional_, Kipling; _Edinburgh After
+     Flodden_, Aytoun; _Hands All Round_, Tennyson; _Columbus_, Joaquin
+     Miller; _Waterloo_, Byron; _The Armada_, Macaulay; _The Revenge_,
+     Tennyson; _The Charge of the Light Brigade_, Tennyson.
+
+     Prose: "United Empire Loyalists," Roberts' _History of Canada_,
+     Chap. XV; "Departure and Death of Nelson," Southey; _Montcalm and
+     Wolfe_, Parkman; "The Crusader and the Saracen," in Scott's _The
+     Talisman_; "The Heroine of Castle Dangerous," in _Stories of New
+     France_, Machar and Marquis; "Adam Daulac," in _Martyrs of New
+     France_, Herrington.
+
+
+HISTORY AND SCIENCE
+
+The connection between history and science is very close, because it was
+only after the invention of writing that history, the record of human
+progress, became possible. Further, the remarkable way in which the
+chief stages in the development of civilization coincide with certain
+inventions and discoveries makes the study of history very incomplete
+without a knowledge of the inventions and discoveries, inasmuch as these
+opened a road for human development. (See p. 119.)
+
+To make this evident, it is enough merely to mention a few comparatively
+recent inventions, such as the mariner's compass, the printing-press,
+gunpowder, the steam-engine, the power-loom, the cotton-gin, and the
+telegraph.
+
+To the introduction of the mariner's compass in the fourteenth century,
+by which sailors were made independent of landmarks and the stars, and
+could therefore go more boldly into the open sea, we owe the
+explorations of the fifteenth century that culminated in the discovery
+of America, and the way to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The
+introduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth century gave the lower and
+middle classes a weapon that made them equal in power with the nobles
+and brought about the downfall of the feudal system and the rise of
+modern democracies. The printing-press gave to the world the learning
+of the past and revolutionized social conditions. The invention of high
+explosives has made possible many of the great engineering works of
+to-day. The inventions that have made transportation and communication
+so easy and rapid have already done a great deal to bring nations to a
+better understanding of each other and thus to promote the peace of the
+world. Discoveries in medicine alone have had an incalculable influence
+on the health and prosperity of society. In fact, the study of history
+and an understanding of modern social and industrial conditions are
+impossible without a knowledge of scientific inventions and discoveries.
+(See pp. 87, 92.)
+
+Children naturally take an interest in what individuals have done, and
+it is easy to interest them in the work of men such as Watt, Stephenson,
+Whitney, Fulton, Morse, Edison, Marconi, and their fellows. The
+biographies of famous inventors should therefore be given, both as a
+record of what they did and as an inspiration to like achievements.
+
+
+HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK
+
+Constructive work may be used to advantage in history and civics. It
+gives concrete expression to some facts of history through the
+construction by the pupils of objects mentioned therein. In studying
+Indian life, the class may make in paper, wood, etc., wigwams, bows and
+arrows, stockades, etc.; in connection with pioneer life, they may make
+some of the buildings and implements used by the pioneers,--log houses,
+spinning-wheels, hominy blocks, Red River carts, etc.; in studying
+campaigns, they may make models in plasticine or clay, or on the sand
+table, of forts, battle-fields, etc., for example--the Plains of
+Abraham, Queenston Heights, Chateauguay, Plymouth Harbour; the Union
+Jack may be cut out and coloured. (See p. 68.) In this way the
+activities of the child may be made of practical use.
+
+On the industrial and social side of history, which is being more and
+more emphasized, it is of great value to the child to become acquainted,
+even though on a small scale and through the simplest implements and
+machines, with the construction of machinery and modes of manufacture.
+For a lesson on the Industrial Revolution in England, for example, it
+will give pupils a better understanding of the changes, if they know
+something, through their own activities, of the way of making cloth.
+
+For suggestions on constructive work, see the Manual on Manual Training:
+
+     P. 22: Suggestions for the various seasons and days.
+     P. 26: On the use of the sand table.
+     P. 55: On collecting and preserving pictures.
+     P. 58: On relief maps and geographical formations.
+
+
+HISTORY AND ART
+
+Art assists history in two ways. First, pictures may be used to
+illustrate events in history and make them real. It is often difficult
+for children to form a definite mental image of historical scenes merely
+from the words of the teacher or of the text-book, because their
+experiences are limited and the power to combine these properly is
+lacking. This is recognized now in the many text-books which are freely
+illustrated. Pictures of persons famous in history are also of value, in
+that they make these persons more real to the pupils. Materials for
+class use may be collected by the teacher and pupils,--engravings,
+prints, cuts from newspapers and magazines of famous people, buildings,
+cities, monuments, events; for example, the Landing of Columbus, the
+Coming of the Loyalists, the Fathers of Confederation, the Landing of
+the Pilgrim Fathers, an Old-Time Trading Post, the Death of Brock. A
+good idea is to have a class scrap-book, to be filled with suitable
+contributions from the class. The teacher will find a private scrap-book
+exceedingly useful. Many fine pictures are given in _The Highroads of
+History_, and _The Story of the British People_ for Form III. It may be
+added that these pictures should be supplemented freely by descriptions
+and narratives given by the teacher. (See _Visual Aids in the Teaching
+of History_.)
+
+Second, the pupils may be asked to illustrate, by drawings and sketch
+maps, historic places, routes of armies and of explorers, the journeys
+of settlers, etc.
+
+
+HISTORY AND COMPOSITION
+
+History, no less than other subjects of study, needs to be expressed by
+the pupils, if it is to make them more efficient. Some of the usual
+modes of expression are given above in connection with constructive work
+and art. The chief mode of expression, however, for history is through
+composition, both oral and written.
+
+In the Junior Forms the stories should be reproduced orally (see Details
+of Method for Forms I and II, p. 25), either by pure narration or by
+dramatization; the pupils relate in their own language what they have
+learned, or are allowed to dramatize the story. In the dramatization,
+the pupils should be given a good deal of freedom in constructing the
+conversation, once they get to know what is wanted, the only restriction
+being that no pupil shall be allowed to take part who does not know the
+story thoroughly. Incidents such as Harold taking the oath to help
+William of Normandy gain the crown of England, Joseph being sold into
+Egypt, the Greeks using the wooden horse to capture Troy, are very
+easily dramatized.
+
+In the Senior Forms the black-board outline may be used as the basis of
+written or oral reproduction. The subject of composition will itself be
+less objectionable by reason of these exercises, as the pupils are asked
+to reproduce the history as material valuable and interesting in itself,
+not merely as a means of showing their skill in expression. Moreover, in
+the study of history, the pupil hears or reads the compositions of
+others, and unconsciously gains, by these examples, much in vocabulary
+and in power of expression. In fact, much of the culture value of
+history depends on the training it affords in composition, and, by
+intimately connecting these two subjects, a double advantage is
+gained--the ability to comprehend historical material, and practice in
+effective expression.
+
+
+HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OR THE USE OF DATES
+
+Geography is one of "the eyes of history"; chronology, or the arranging
+of events according to their dates, is the other. This suggests that
+dates are to be used merely as a help in "seeing" events in history in
+their proper order, so that their relations to other events may be
+better understood. When these relations are seen, the dates lose much of
+their value.
+
+For example, let us consider the following dates: 1763, 1774, 1775,
+1783, 1791. The short interval between 1763, when Great Britain finally
+assumed control of Canada by treaty, and 1774, when the Quebec Act was
+passed, helps to make clear the reason for the French citizens receiving
+so many concessions. They outnumbered the English so much that these
+concessions were deemed necessary to hold their allegiance to the Crown
+in face of the efforts made by the discontented New England colonies to
+get their support in the coming revolution against Great Britain. The
+success of the Act was shown in 1775, when the invasion by the
+revolutionists failed. The war of the Revolution was ended by treaty in
+1783, and Canada received as settlers, principally in Upper Canada, the
+United Empire Loyalists, whose ideas of government were so different
+from those of the Lower Canadians that the separation of Upper and Lower
+Canada by the Constitutional Act of 1791 became necessary. These dates,
+so close together, emphasize the rapidity with which events moved in
+that period, as well as the sequence of cause and effect. We think also
+of the dates of Cartier's voyages, 1534, 1535, and 1541, merely to raise
+the question as to why so much time elapsed between the second and third
+voyages. When these points are properly seen, the events are kept in
+place by their relation of cause and effect, and the dates lose their
+value. Moreover, the relations thus discovered will do most toward
+fixing these dates in the memory. It should be understood, therefore,
+that dates are only a means to an end, not an end in themselves.
+
+It is important also to know the dates of certain events when we are
+studying the history of several countries, in order that we may consider
+together those events that are contemporary.
+
+There are, of course, some dates that should be remembered because of
+the importance of the events connected with them, for example: 1066,
+1215, 1492, 1603, 1688, 1759, 1776, 1789, 1841, 1867.
+
+In the Junior Forms, because the pupils are still lacking in the
+"historical sense," little emphasis need be put on the giving of dates.
+A few of the most important may be given in Form II, but it is very
+questionable if they have any significance to the pupils at this early
+stage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SPECIAL TOPICS
+
+
+CURRENT EVENTS
+
+The study of history should not end with what is contained in
+text-books, for the making of history never ceases. The study of current
+events will be found to be a very valuable element in history teaching.
+Teachers and pupils who are interested in the events of to-day are much
+more likely to be interested in the events of the past. A knowledge of
+current events will arouse curiosity in what led up to them, will
+suggest a motive for studying the past, and will often supply concrete
+examples for both history and civics. In fact, the teaching of civics
+may be based almost entirely on current events. (See Civics, p. 52 et
+seq.) The influence of a knowledge of current events on the study of
+history is very plainly seen to-day in the earnest and widespread effort
+to discover the causes of the war that is devastating Europe at the
+present time. History becomes real when pupils understand that what is
+happening now has its roots in the past and, at the same time, is
+history in the making. For example, the present war will certainly
+intensify our interest in the great movement to prevent war by means of
+world-wide arbitration of disputes between nations, or by any other
+means. The value of this phase of history teaching depends very largely
+on the interest taken in it by the teacher and on the work that the
+pupils can be induced to do for themselves. The teacher talks to the
+pupils about some important current event in an interesting way. Then
+the pupils are encouraged to add to what he has said by relating what
+they have heard, or have read in the newspapers. After a few lessons
+the chief difficulty is to make a suitable selection of topics to be
+discussed in class. Those of national importance, if within the scope of
+the Form work, will have prominence, and the pupils will be given hints
+as to articles about these topics in papers, magazines, and books. It is
+obvious that topics likely to arouse religious, political, or other
+party feeling, should be avoided. For actual school-room practice the
+following scheme has been used successfully in Form III:
+
+
+CURRENT EVENTS (10 MINUTES DAILY)
+
+The teacher has suggested the kinds of events that are worthy of
+discussion, and the pupils come to class prepared to tell what they have
+read in the papers about some of these. The teacher aids them to give
+fit expression to their information, and the pupil who has been chosen
+as editor writes a summary of the lesson on the black-board, and later,
+on a sheet of paper.
+
+Ordinarily, the editors should be chosen from those who write and spell
+well.
+
+Where the subject-matter lends itself to such treatment, these summaries
+may be placed in two columns--one, the _Girls' News Column_; the other,
+the _Boys' News Column_. The summaries on the sheets of paper may be
+arranged in order for a week or a month and be known as _The School
+Review_. Such a lesson includes history, and oral and written
+composition.
+
+The following items of news were those discussed in a Form III room at
+the end of the week, when some time is taken to talk over the events of
+the week:
+
+     FEB. 5TH, 1915
+
+     Rescue of the crew of the Japanese cruiser Asama.
+     Rescue work in the earthquake in Italy.
+     Wireless message frustrates a German plot to blow up a French steamer.
+     Fire in a New York factory--rescue of the inmates.
+     Inhuman treatment of Belgian women and children.
+     British officer praises the enemy.
+     The Austrians are defeated by the Montenegrins.
+     Canadians wounded in France.
+     Importance of discipline and accurate shooting for Canadian troops.
+     Germany proclaims a war zone around Britain.
+     Two New York boy heroes of a fire.
+     Tsar honours a girl wounded while carrying ammunition to the troops.
+     Opening of the war session of the Canadian Parliament.
+
+These items are sifted from a great many suggested by the pupils. In the
+sifting process, a very useful discussion is had as to what constitutes
+real "news," and what is mere "gossip"; that is, what is of value as
+news to the world at large, and what is of purely local, personal
+interest.
+
+In civics, current topics may be made very useful. Items of municipal,
+provincial, or federal affairs furnish a concrete basis for the study of
+our system of government, and may also suggest moral examples.
+
+
+LOCAL MATERIAL
+
+One of the chief uses of local history in the class-room is to make the
+study of general history more vivid and interesting (1) by making more
+real those facts of history associated with the locality in which we
+live, and (2) by providing suitable illustrations, from the pupil's own
+experience, of facts in general history. When a pupil has seen the place
+where an event of history has happened, he has an interest in that event
+that he could scarcely gain in any other way, and the history of that
+period may then be taught with more interest and profit to him. A pupil
+finds also in local history certain facts that he must understand in
+order to interpret the story of happenings, distant in time and place.
+
+Some parts of Ontario are much richer in material than others, but in
+all historic spots may be found. On the St. Lawrence River, in the
+Niagara peninsula, in the Talbot settlement district, in York county,
+along the Ottawa River, in the Huron tract, there is no lack of useful
+material. But it is not necessary to confine such local history to the
+outstanding events of war or the larger happenings of civil progress. In
+every locality there are remains of the earlier Indian inhabitants, in
+the form of mounds, sites of villages, relics of war and the chase
+(arrow-heads, stone implements, beads, etc.); relics of the early
+settlers, in the form of roads and old log houses; relics of pioneer
+life consisting of furniture, household and outdoor implements, etc.,
+that will serve as a basis for comparison with present-day conditions,
+and make real to the children the lives of the earlier inhabitants and
+settlers of Ontario.
+
+
+CIVICS
+
+The teaching of civics has a threefold aim:
+
+1. To instruct in the mechanism of government. (Descriptive)
+
+2. To instruct in the history of national institutions so as to show the
+line of development, and also to impress the fact that existing
+institutions are capable of development, are not fixed. (Historical)
+
+3. "To show the cost of each institution in the efforts and sacrifices
+of past generations and to quicken and make permanent the children's
+interest in public life and their sense of responsibility to their
+fellows." (Patriotic and Ethical)
+
+Two points stand out clearly--to teach the machinery of government and
+to instil ideals of public conduct. Of these the second is by far the
+more important and the more difficult to teach directly. The best way to
+attempt it is by means of biography and personal references. There are
+great men and women in history whose lives are worthy examples to the
+young: Sir John Eliot, Pym, Hampden, who stood for freedom of speech and
+debate; Gladstone, who helped to right historic wrongs in the East;
+Lincoln, who stood for union and the freedom of the individual; many
+eminent Canadians, such as Sir John Macdonald, George Brown, Alexander
+Mackenzie, Egerton Ryerson, Sir Oliver Mowat, and Sir James Whitney;
+women such as Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Fry, Laura Secord and
+Sarah Maxwell. Besides these eminent examples, there are in every
+locality men and women who give unselfishly of their energy and time for
+the good of the community.
+
+There should also be impressed on the minds of the young a sense of
+their responsibility for an honest and faithful use of the ballot, a
+right won for them by the long and earnest effort of their forefathers;
+and the necessity for purity of government in our democratic form of
+administration. In school life, a good deal can be done to create a
+sense of fair play, respect for the rights of others, and of the
+necessity for submission to lawful authority by encouraging the pupils
+to conduct all their school organizations, whether in play or in work,
+honourably and by right methods.
+
+Some of the lessons that may be taught to children during their school
+life are as follows:
+
+1. Respect for the rights of others. Pupils may be brought to see that
+misconduct on their part affects others, not themselves only.
+
+2. Respect for the property of others. This may be secured best by
+teaching them to take good care of their own property first, for unless
+a child cares rightly for his own, he is not likely to take much thought
+for the things of others.
+
+3. Respect for public property. This is something that needs attention
+badly. It is a very common thing to find people destroying trees,
+flowers, etc., in public places, throwing refuse on the street, and
+otherwise disfiguring their surroundings. A beginning of better habits
+may be made by getting the pupils to aid in beautifying and decorating
+the school building by means of pictures, either prints or their own
+work, by flowers in pots, by keeping the floor and walls clean and free
+from marks and litter; also in making the grounds around the school more
+attractive by means of flowers and shrubs. Arbor Day may be made of
+great use in this respect, if the spirit of that Day can be carried
+through the whole year. A pride in the attractiveness of the school will
+have its influence on the pupils in the wider life of the community.
+
+A knowledge of the machinery of government may be based on the pupils'
+knowledge of the organization of the school. The appointment, power, and
+duties of the teacher are the starting-point. The next step will be to
+investigate the composition of the board of school trustees. This may be
+done at the time of an election for school trustees. The following
+questions may serve as an outline of study for all the political bodies
+by which we are governed:
+
+     1. Who compose the board of trustees? (In the smaller local bodies,
+     the names of the members may be mentioned, as giving a personal
+     interest in the matter.)
+
+     2. How and by whom are they elected?
+
+     3. For what period are they elected?
+
+     4. How is the board organized for the conduct of business?
+
+     5. What powers do they possess?
+
+     6. What duties have they to fulfil?
+
+     7. How do they raise the money needed for their work?
+
+     8. How is the board rendered continuous? (By electing a successor
+     to a member who resigns; by the trustees remaining in office till
+     their successors are elected.)
+
+Other governing bodies may be taken up similarly, for example: Municipal
+Councils (township, county, village, town, or city council), Provincial
+Legislature, Dominion or Federal Parliament, Imperial Parliament. A
+suitable time to bring up the topic of how elections are conducted would
+be when an election for any of the above bodies is in progress.
+Information on this topic may be found in _Canadian Civics_, by Jenkins;
+a fuller account is given in Bourinot's _How Canada is Governed_.
+
+Lessons concerning special bodies of municipal and civil servants may be
+taken; for example, the assessor, tax-collector, policeman, postal
+employees, firemen, etc. In connection with all of these, the question
+of taxation is constantly arising. It is suggested that something should
+be done to put the pupils in the right attitude toward this subject.
+Many people have an idea that when they pay taxes they are being robbed,
+because they do not stop to think of what they are getting in return for
+their money. The chief reason for this seems to be that the taxes are
+usually paid once or twice a year, while the services rendered are
+continuous. A good way to proceed is to have the class calculate the
+value of the services given in return for the taxes. For example,
+suppose it is found that the yearly cost for each pupil in a certain
+section is $25.00. Divide this by the number of days (200) a pupil
+attends school during the year, and the cost each day for each pupil is
+shown be only 12-1/2 cents, not a very large sum for a community to pay
+for a child's education.
+
+Other calculations may be made to show the saving to farmers by spending
+money in the construction of good roads to make teaming more profitable.
+For example: In a strip of country served by a road ten miles long,
+there is room for eighty farms of one hundred acres each, all the
+produce of which would be hauled on that road. Let us suppose that this
+produce would amount to 3,000 loads, such as could be hauled on an
+ordinary country road. The average haul being five miles, two trips a
+day could be made. At $5.00 a day, the cost of haulage would be $7,500.
+
+Suppose this road to be converted into a good stone road at a cost of
+$3,000 a mile, a total cost of $30,000. On this road, with the larger
+and heavier wagons that could now be used, the farmers could easily
+double the size of the load. This would mean that, instead of 3,000
+loads being necessary, 1,500 would be sufficient. At the same rate as
+before, the cost of haulage would be $3,750, an annual saving of $3,750;
+so that the whole cost of the road would be saved in eight years, to say
+nothing of the greater ease and comfort of travel to both man and beast.
+Better roads would also give the farmer access to market for a greater
+part of the year and thus enable him to take advantage of higher prices
+at certain seasons. It is believed that these figures are quite within
+the bounds of probability.
+
+In large towns and cities the cost of public utilities may be
+calculated; for example, the expense of a fire-station in buildings,
+equipment, horses, men, etc., to show how the money raised by taxes is
+spent for the good of the whole community, and helps to keep down the
+rates for fire insurance. The kinds of taxation may also be
+discussed--direct and indirect; also the sources from which direct
+taxes are derived--customs, excise, etc.; methods of levying and
+collecting taxes; how taxes are spent for the various educational and
+charitable institutions--schools, libraries, hospitals, asylums, homes
+for the poor and neglected, etc.; for the protection of life and
+property; for the administration of justice, etc. The distribution of
+taxes among public institutions may be studied from the public accounts
+printed for the use of ratepayers.
+
+The lessons learned about the fairness of taxation may be used to
+illustrate certain periods of history when people struggled against
+unjust and arbitrary taxation; for example, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, the
+Civil War in England in the seventeenth century, the American and French
+Revolutions, Acts of Parliament in Canada from the Quebec Act to the Act
+of Confederation.
+
+A Dominion or Provincial election offers a good opportunity for a lesson
+on how to vote and how we came to have the right to vote; on the
+constitution of Parliament; on the sanctity of the ballot, etc.
+
+A trial by jury in which the people of the district are interested may
+be used to introduce the history and purpose of the jury.
+
+
+THE TEACHER OF HISTORY
+
+The teacher of history must know his subject. This does not mean that
+every school teacher must have an expert knowledge of the whole subject,
+but he should know the history that is to be taught thoroughly enough to
+be able to teach the lesson orally without referring constantly to the
+text-book or to notes. This, at least, is the ideal to strive for. To
+accomplish this, the teacher is earnestly recommended to read at least
+one book in addition to the authorized text-book, which does not usually
+contain much more than the important facts of history. To clothe the
+skeleton of facts with flesh and blood so as to make history what it
+really is, a record of human beings who not only did things but had also
+thoughts and feelings like our own, it is necessary to be able to supply
+the personal details that make the figures of history real, living, men
+and women. (See the Story of Florence Nightingale, p. 62.) The teacher
+who does this will himself come to have a more lively interest in
+history.
+
+The teacher must also know children. For the understanding of history,
+pupils are dependent on their previous knowledge of life and its
+interests. They must be led by timely suggestions or questions to see
+the connection between their own knowledge of life and the experiences
+of the actors in history. Without this connection, the facts of history
+remain meaningless.
+
+To present history to the pupils in an interesting way, the oral method
+is the best. It is not necessary for the teacher to have a special gift
+for narration; any one who is really interested in the story to be told
+is able to tell it well enough to hold the attention of the class. In
+narration, mere fluency is not the chief requisite; it is more important
+that the pupils should feel the teacher's interest in the topic. The
+narration must also be confined to the facts and details that count; the
+teacher needs to know what to omit as well as what to narrate. If the
+matter has been well thought out and clearly arranged in topics with due
+regard to the relation of cause and effect, the telling of the story
+will be an easier matter, and the pupils will be trained also in a clear
+and logical way of treating history. The oral method should be supported
+by the free use of devices for making the story real. (See p. 34.) While
+it is quite true that certain important topics are to be thoroughly
+mastered as centres of connection for the less important facts, yet it
+must be insisted on that a more important aim of the teacher is to
+arouse and stimulate an interest in history so that the pupil's study of
+it may continue after the close of his school-days. No mastery of facts
+through memorization alone will counterbalance the lack of interest in,
+and liking for, the subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS
+
+
+The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive rather
+than directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may be
+applied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature and
+of children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of the
+purpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in the
+main, the choice of method. This statement is especially true of
+history, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation is
+very great to make the teaching of this subject consist in mere
+memorizing of events and dates.
+
+
+FORMS I AND II
+
+TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE"
+
+The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and the
+Burning Bush," and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories.
+
+As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, or
+make sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) the
+Burning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out to
+do God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real the
+verbal story.
+
+A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should be
+answered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes,
+his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of the
+Egyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian.
+
+The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story of
+Moses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, his
+home with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God,
+his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God's
+will.
+
+In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, to
+ascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction of
+each part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attention
+and a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproduction
+should, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story.
+
+In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board.
+These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or written
+reproduction that follows.
+
+If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library,
+pupils of Form II may be asked to read them.
+
+When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind of
+lesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the story
+prepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading.
+
+
+FORMS I AND II
+
+THE FIRST THANKSGIVING
+
+Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in Plymouth
+Harbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church";
+"Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel." (Perry Picture Co. pictures)
+
+A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of America
+drawn on the black-board.
+
+Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now--the
+returning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the general
+good-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this custom
+originate?
+
+Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of the
+Pilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the different
+parts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and the
+landing-place in America marked.
+
+This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' _The
+Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers_, and the telling of _The First
+Thanksgiving_. (See Appendix.)
+
+A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I,
+accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring,
+and in modelling, as they can do.
+
+
+FORM II
+
+FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
+
+In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia in
+the Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terrible
+hardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in the
+hospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The people
+in England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everything
+the army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from the
+letters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London _Times_, how
+great were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked at
+this state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, many
+thousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale and
+thirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglected
+soldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so well
+cared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have died
+if these noble women had not gone out to nurse them.
+
+Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out of
+all the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhood
+she was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble.
+The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. When
+quite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father's
+estates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that they
+would be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animals
+around her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurt
+them; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick up
+the nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trot
+up to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose into
+her pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had for
+it. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and the
+owner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it.
+But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well with
+Florence's nursing.
+
+When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting the
+sick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or in
+sight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited the
+hospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to one
+of the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in the
+best way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improve
+the hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her health
+began to fail.
+
+It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to go
+to the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers.
+When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sick
+and wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that they had very
+little chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave the
+patients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cooked
+food to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds when
+they were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families at
+home. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, and
+carrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was all
+right, she was called "the lady with the lamp." As she went about,
+speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how much
+the poor soldiers thought of her.
+
+When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to her
+that the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250,000, but
+she gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained for
+their work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what she
+thought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did.
+
+She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat people
+who are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air,
+pure water, cleanliness, and light." She died August 10, 1910, but the
+good she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always be
+remembered.
+
+
+METHOD
+
+It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just as
+it is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told to
+pupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how the
+story may be simplified for their understanding. After the story is
+told, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class follows
+in the usual way.
+
+
+FORM II
+
+THE POSTMASTER
+
+AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS
+
+This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to make
+the pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, and
+importance of the postmaster.
+
+The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-office
+and describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, and
+the teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with the
+letter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulating
+these points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3)
+Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed on
+the train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date on
+which it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelope
+should be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressions
+stamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From a
+consideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils may
+be led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, and
+prompt person.
+
+The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc., before
+post-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doing
+his work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help him
+in the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc.
+
+A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment of
+salary may follow.
+
+In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster--the
+registration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes,
+the receiving and forwarding of money to the Savings Bank, and the
+making of reports to the Post-office Department--may be discussed.
+
+In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teacher
+should obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank,
+a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils in
+the proper method of filling out these forms.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC
+
+The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling the
+matter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the British
+and the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done by
+sketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on it
+with coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements to
+be mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For the
+matter of this see _The Ontario Public School History of Canada_, pages
+83-97, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.
+
+The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec,
+mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome the
+difficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence.
+
+When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, a
+description of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and an
+enlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this.
+(See text-book, page 100.) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may be
+emphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model the
+disposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems may
+be given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: How
+would you attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land his
+soldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as the
+Montmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but the
+probability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns to
+the high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. The
+teacher will then tell what was done and with what results.
+
+This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problem
+questions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French at
+Montmorenci.
+
+This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which the
+teacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on the
+illness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown in
+attempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forces
+were drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome.
+
+This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orally
+before the class is dismissed.
+
+As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils are
+directed to read the full story in Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, or in
+the History Reader, pp. 284-292.
+
+     NOTE: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships,
+     bridges, etc., may be placed in position and a realistic
+     explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and
+     the whole story would require several lesson spaces.
+
+     References: The text-book, Weaver's _Canadian History for Boys and
+     Girls_, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS
+
+1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show why
+they had to leave the country; describe the treatment given to them by
+the revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were driven
+from their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatal
+to the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyalty
+in face of all their troubles.
+
+2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where the
+British flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map before
+them, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were the
+probable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they lived
+in the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will see
+from a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routes
+they followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have to
+be emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Boston
+to Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec and
+Eastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc.,
+to Western Ontario. (See _Fourth Reader_, p. 170.)
+
+3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any account
+of life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information.
+It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply the
+story to one of the children.
+
+4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the political
+ideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes in
+affairs in Upper Canada.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+THE FLAG
+
+In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerful
+aid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is the
+emblem of a nation, the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should have
+a prominent place in the education of the young. Children should be
+taught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of our
+forefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) the
+significance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice;
+and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part.
+
+The last point--the construction of the Union Jack--should be preceded
+by a series of lessons on the individual "jacks." These lessons should
+explain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories of
+St. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saint
+of Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and the
+reasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the several
+countries. (See Appendix.)
+
+These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St.
+George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after the
+lesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lesson
+on the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow.
+
+The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of the
+flag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then the
+children will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacks
+may be given afterwards in the history lessons.
+
+As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct the
+flags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use in
+the final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags:
+
+   For St. George's--white ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/2 in.
+   For St. Andrew's--blue ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., white cross 1/2 in.
+   For St. Patrick's--white ground--2 1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/3 in.
+
+When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the
+reign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attempt
+the problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose the
+flags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount that
+of Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, the
+white ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrow
+border of white along each arm being retained to represent the ground
+colour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of the
+red cross.
+
+The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, should
+be given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction the
+teacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referring
+also to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting the
+Irish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they are
+not likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacher
+to place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to lead
+them to observe:
+
+     1. that it is usually oblong--twice as long as wide; (it may also
+     be square);
+
+     2. that the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St.
+     Patrick's;
+
+     3. that the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the
+     width of the jack;
+
+     4. that along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of
+     white;
+
+     5. that this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal
+     the broad white of the St. Andrew's;
+
+     6. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross
+     and partly white ground;
+
+     7. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the
+     parts near the staff.
+
+When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flags
+which they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away all
+of the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross,
+retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew's
+Cross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white ground
+of the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), and
+paste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly made
+jack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth.
+
+Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, the
+following method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paper
+and red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of the
+jack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given:
+
+First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five inches
+wide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place the
+cross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to the
+measurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the border
+one third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividing
+lines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place the
+saltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St.
+Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St.
+Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St.
+Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick is
+placed touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, and
+above in the second and fourth quarters. Great care must be exercised
+in making the drawing of the Union Jack.
+
+     The following are the official regulations for the proportions of
+     the Union Jack:
+
+     1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide.
+
+     2. The proportions are:
+
+          Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag.
+          White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George.
+          Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George.
+          White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George.
+          Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George.
+
+     3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next
+     the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other
+     quarters.
+
+Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On the
+political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St.
+Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, and
+to this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick,
+a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jack
+are red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity;
+and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardly
+without disgracing our flag.
+
+On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that have
+helped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer to
+the colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empire
+rests.
+
+For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested:
+
+
+FLAG DAYS
+
+Opening and closing of each term
+
+     Jan. 1.--Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be
+     celebrated on the first school day of the new year.)
+
+     Feb. 10.--Union of the Canadas, 1841.
+
+     March 11.--First Responsible Ministry, 1848.
+
+     March 14.--Founding of Upper Canada--Constitutional Act, 1791.
+
+     March 24.--Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882).
+
+     Empire Day.--The school day immediately preceding May 24.
+
+     May 24.--Victoria Day.
+
+     June 3.--The King's Birthday, 1865.
+
+     July 1.--Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867.
+
+     July 17.--First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792.
+
+     September 13.--Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759.
+
+     October 13.--Battle of Queenston Heights--Death of Sir Isaac Brock,
+     1812.
+
+     October 21.--Trafalgar Day, 1805.
+
+     December 24.--Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of
+     Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas.)
+
+Other days commemorating events connected with various localities may
+also be chosen.
+
+     For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to
+     Barlow Cumberland's _History of the Union Jack_ (latest edition),
+     to the _Flag Charts_, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to _The Flag of
+     Canada_, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints
+     of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix.
+
+
+THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG
+
+    What is the blue on our flag, boys?
+      The waves of the boundless sea,
+    Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride,
+      And the feet of the winds are free;
+    From the sun and smiles of the coral isles
+      To the ice of the South and North,
+    With dauntless tread through tempests dread
+      The guardian ships go forth.
+
+    What is the white on our flag, boys?
+      The honour of our land,
+    Which burns in our sight like a beacon light
+      And stands while the hills shall stand;
+    Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name,
+      And we fight, wherever we be,
+    For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives
+      Of the brave hearts over the sea.
+
+    What is the red on our flag, boys?
+      The blood of our heroes slain,
+    On the burning sands in the wild waste lands
+      And the froth of the purple main;
+    And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod
+      And the crest of the waves outrolled,
+    That He send us men to fight again
+      As our fathers fought of old.
+
+    We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys,
+      Whatever be said or done,
+    Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast,
+      And the foe be ten to one--
+    Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword
+      And a bullet in heart or brain.
+    What matters one gone, if the flag float on
+      And Britain be Lord of the main!
+
+--Frederick George Scott
+
+
+THE UNION JACK
+
+    It's only a small piece of bunting,
+      It's only an old coloured rag;
+    Yet thousands have died for its honour,
+      And shed their best blood for the flag.
+
+    It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew,
+      Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led;
+    It carries the cross of St. Patrick,
+      For which Ireland's bravest have bled.
+
+    Joined with these is our old English ensign,
+      St. George's red cross on white field;
+    Round which, from Richard to Roberts,
+      Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield.
+
+    It flutters triumphant o'er ocean,
+      As free as the wind and the waves;
+    And bondsmen from shackles unloosened,
+      'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves.
+
+    It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand,
+      O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong;
+    And Britons, where'er their flag's flying,
+      Claim the rights which to Britons belong.
+
+    We hoist it to show our devotion
+      To our King, our country, and laws;
+    It's the outward and visible emblem,
+      Of progress and liberty's cause.
+
+    You may say it's an old bit of bunting,
+      You may call it an old coloured rag;
+    But freedom has made it majestic,
+      And time has ennobled our flag.
+
+
+FORMS III AND IV
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY
+
+The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of the
+subjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in these
+subjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attention
+focused on the purpose of the day.
+
+The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase the
+pupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create in
+them fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling of
+responsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now and
+in the future.
+
+
+EXERCISES SUGGESTED
+
+1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the Public
+School Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1,
+49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp.
+55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or two
+might be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given
+(pp. 73, 74) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containing
+suitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department of
+Education on several occasions.
+
+2. In history: (_a_) Some information about the growth of the Empire;
+for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
+or any other part of the Empire was added; (_b_) Comparison of the size
+of the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as the
+Persian, Greek, or Roman; (_c_) The growth of Great Britain's commercial
+and naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is of
+losing it, etc.; (_d_) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of the
+Canadian ensign.
+
+3. In geography: (_a_) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red"
+cable--explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (_b_)
+"The sun never sets on the British flag." Make this clear by having
+pupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing British
+territory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships,
+too, are in every part of the ocean; (_c_) Compare the population and
+area of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany,
+France, etc.
+
+4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are to
+the square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out the
+population Canada would have if she were as densely populated as
+England, as the United States, as Germany, etc.; how fast did the
+population of the United States increase in the first century after the
+Revolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if it
+increases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the last
+fifty, etc.; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch up
+to Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible position
+and power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen the
+sense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let the
+pupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculations
+as they can find in their text-books.)
+
+5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or written
+composition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercises
+mentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them.
+
+6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above.
+
+
+
+
+TYPE LESSONS
+
+FORM IV
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. 28), the ideal
+method of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not only
+the narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils of
+problems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class may
+help to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would be
+like doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in the
+majority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. The
+value of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal points
+that should be described or developed and, more important still, that it
+assists the pupils to _understand_ the lesson better, that is, to see
+more clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis will
+also suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no better
+evidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than the
+ability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis should
+then be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and the
+use of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher more
+expert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in the
+class.
+
+
+EGERTON RYERSON
+
+One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupils
+ideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life.
+The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of some
+useful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to the
+bettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupils
+should be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these facts
+should be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible by
+appropriate personal details and concrete description. The following
+sketch may serve as an example:
+
+Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said:
+
+     I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville,
+     near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the
+     County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British
+     army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the
+     Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a
+     native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote
+     ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American
+     revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to
+     New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was
+     Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan
+     settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his
+     family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some
+     2,500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the
+     army, besides his pension.
+
+Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a very
+religious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egerton
+learned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling how
+she treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "though
+thoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowingly
+grieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words."
+
+The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it.
+Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre of
+ground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, and
+mowed every spear of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, and
+then from the wagon to the haymow or stack." This was the work that gave
+him strength and health to do the great things that were before him. His
+years in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of them
+that when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the place
+of one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instruction
+from teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went to
+Hamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Here
+he studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brain
+fever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life was
+despaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursing
+restored him to health.
+
+Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. When
+twenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at the
+Credit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them better
+ways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Between
+daylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in succession
+and, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, and
+plough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon I
+called out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn the
+brushwood in and around the village."
+
+In 1829 _The Christian Guardian_ newspaper was organized as the organ of
+the Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in
+1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College.
+
+In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for
+Upper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to a
+proper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve the
+qualifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better schools
+and to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could be
+engaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methods
+that he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. A
+Provincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better books
+were provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for all
+schools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitable
+in a new country--popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to build
+schools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition of
+many who did not set the same value on education that he himself did had
+also to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailing
+patience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devoted
+his matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing a
+public sentiment in favour of education, and of building on sure
+foundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is the
+just pride of our Province and his own best monument.
+
+In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and was
+succeeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promise
+he made on accepting office in 1844--"to provide for my native country a
+system of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement not
+second to those in any country in the world."
+
+He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in his
+life the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at his
+funeral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities,
+ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he had
+founded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he never
+failed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadian
+who had lived so faithfully and well for his country.
+
+     NOTE.--If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim
+     Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add
+     interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction
+     to them.
+
+For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:
+
+     With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the
+     history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was
+     worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new
+     interest in its political life was awakened, new movements
+     inaugurated. These were along three lines--one, political with
+     responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal
+     rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third,
+     educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without
+     distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is
+     known as the struggle for Responsible Government--the struggle for
+     equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the
+     Clergy Reserves--the struggle for equal religious rights; the third
+     as the University Question--the struggle for non-denominational
+     control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson
+     played a very prominent part and, because these affected the
+     politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first.
+
+     NOTE.--For purposes of reference, consult _The Story of My
+     Life_ by Dr. Ryerson; _The Ryerson Memorial Volume_ by Dr. J.G.
+     Hodgins; _Egerton Ryerson_ by Nathaniel Burwash in THE MAKERS
+     OF CANADA; and _Egerton Ryerson_ by J.H. Putnam.
+
+
+THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY
+
+The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the
+British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class
+knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day,
+and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of the
+Day. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for
+reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian
+Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with
+Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union."
+
+     _Teacher._--Did you notice the two places that were to be connected
+     by the road?
+
+     _Pupil._--They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.
+
+     _T._--Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?
+
+     _P._--Because it is near the sea.
+
+     _T._--Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.
+
+     _P._--It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.
+
+     _T._--Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?
+
+     _P._--It freezes up.
+
+     _T._--Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter,
+     and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was
+     chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on
+     the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?
+
+     _P._--Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.
+
+     _T._--We can tell better a little later which one was actually
+     chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should
+     they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many
+     people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?
+
+     _P._--Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.
+
+     _T._--Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How
+     would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we
+     send our goods to Europe now in winter?
+
+     (Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could
+     ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)
+
+     _T._--You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence
+     before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?
+
+     _P._--By using the canals.
+
+     _T._--How can we ship by rail?
+
+     _P._--By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.
+
+     _T._--Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and
+     the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals
+     already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and
+     others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before
+     Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to
+     Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have
+     a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may
+     see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can
+     you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as
+     the western terminus of the new railway?
+
+     _P._--Yes, Quebec would be the one.
+
+     _T._--Why?
+
+     _P._--Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for
+     sending their goods as far as Quebec city.
+
+     _T._--The next point to think about is--How had Canada been
+     shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?
+
+     (Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything
+     till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections
+     were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible.
+     Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through
+     the United States.)
+
+     _T._--Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of
+     wanting to build a railway of their own?
+
+     _P._--The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.
+
+     _T._--Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made
+     between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity
+     Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely.
+     This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to
+     depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of
+     trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the
+     Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils
+     are told here about the "Trent" and "Alabama" affairs, and the
+     Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that
+     there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that
+     would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway
+     was needed from Quebec to Halifax?
+
+     _P._--Because there was danger of war, and because the United
+     States might interfere with Canadian trade.
+
+     _T._--There were both military and commercial reasons. We have
+     found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why
+     it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out
+     is--Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and
+     had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it
+     done, what route would you be likely to follow?
+
+     _P._--I think I should take the shortest way.
+
+     _T._--Where would the road go then?
+
+     (Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)
+
+     Tell where it would run.
+
+     _P._--Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick,
+     and Nova Scotia.
+
+     _T._--Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the
+     reasons for building it at all.
+
+     _P._--They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is
+     in the United States.
+
+     _T._--What is the next way they might think of?
+
+     _P._--The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.
+
+     _T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)
+
+     _P._--From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine,
+     into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
+
+     _T._--Would they take that way?
+
+     _P._--No, because it is too near the border of the United States.
+
+     _T._--Why do you say "too near"?
+
+     _P._--If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come
+     over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear
+     up the rails.
+
+     _T._--As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route
+     could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?
+
+     _P._--They would stay as far from the border as possible.
+
+     _T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)
+
+     _P._--They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.
+
+     _T._--How far?
+
+     _P._--Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to
+     Halifax.
+
+     _T._--Would that be the cheapest line to build?
+
+     _P._--It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.
+
+     _T._--It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which
+     of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as
+     far from the border as they could?
+
+     _P._--The military reason.
+
+     _T._--Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most
+     interested in the military considerations?
+
+     _P._--Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.
+
+     _T._--Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where
+     would the money come from?
+
+     _P._--Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.
+
+     _T._--Why?
+
+     _P._--Because there were not very many people here then.
+
+     _T._--Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes
+     even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the
+     railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was
+     to be built.
+
+The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places
+on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher
+would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles),
+and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that
+the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized,
+that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer
+together, and that other railways have since been built on the two
+rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand
+Trunk Pacific.
+
+The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the
+black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds.
+
+
+BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE
+
+     1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of
+     the road
+
+     2. Reasons for building the road
+
+          (_a_) Military
+          (_b_) Commercial
+
+     3. Selection of the route
+
+          (_a_) Routes that were possible
+          (_b_) Reasons for the final choice
+
+     4. Facts about the road
+
+          (_a_) Principal places on the road
+          (_b_) Branches of the road
+          (_c_) Length and cost
+
+     5. Value of the road to the new Dominion
+
+The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and
+the chief commercial centres served by the railway.
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800.
+
+     NOTE.--This lesson should be preceded by an information
+     lesson on the making of cotton goods--the material, how and where
+     the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference
+     between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof.
+
+The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions
+changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the
+greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of
+wealth that enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon.
+The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in
+English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation,
+in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible
+to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without
+understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at
+such length.
+
+This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The
+dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are
+introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize
+further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention
+would be needed next. The oral method--both pure narrative, and
+development--is supposed to be used.
+
+1. _Domestic System of Manufacture._--Before 1760 the manufacture of
+cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would
+procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where,
+with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and
+return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power
+on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only
+one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the
+use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn
+was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use
+the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some
+way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy.
+
+2. _Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny._--The first important invention of the
+period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an
+ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was
+returning from the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home
+before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to
+rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in
+motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle,
+usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave
+him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with
+which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight).
+From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used
+to-day.
+
+3. _Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame._ Sir Richard Arkwright
+invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of
+spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the
+thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with
+hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning.
+
+4. _The Mule._ In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a
+finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to
+weave any grade of cloth.
+
+5. _The Power-loom._ The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the
+weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled
+the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners
+could make.
+
+6. _The Steam-engine._ These machines were run by hand or water-power.
+In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was
+used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to
+use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of
+water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was
+plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities.
+
+7. _The Cotton-gin._ Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it
+could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly
+hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came
+from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could
+be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the
+cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very
+quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of
+cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an
+hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover
+how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton
+was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England
+was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be
+added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for
+its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin
+was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern
+States that led to the Civil War.
+
+8. _Coal-mining and Smelting._ These machines were made of iron, and
+coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was
+plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam
+pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this
+was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater
+amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in
+England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which
+is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until
+Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a
+plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.
+
+9. _The Safety Lamp._ Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of
+the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the
+miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives
+thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in
+1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these
+explosions.
+
+10. _Transportation._ Now that there was so much manufacturing carried
+on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to
+where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many
+parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as
+the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to
+form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in
+road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)
+
+Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in
+rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in
+1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800
+many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.
+
+11. _Agriculture._ The number of people engaged in the factories was
+increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it
+necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger;
+better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making
+it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater
+quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the
+exhaustion of the soil.
+
+12. _Social Conditions._ Out of the factory system grew the division of
+classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great
+problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.
+
+We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from
+an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and
+became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money
+to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it
+was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles."
+
+     NOTE.--The teacher may refer to some of the modern social
+     problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the
+     country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and
+     suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance,
+     decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see _A
+     History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack,
+     Edinburgh.)
+
+
+THE ROAD TO CATHAY
+
+The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European
+nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the
+East--India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)--led to the
+discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a
+review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil
+practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show
+the development of history along a certain line.
+
+The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher
+thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are
+not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical
+sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to
+memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used
+frequently.
+
+
+THE LESSON
+
+One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations
+the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice
+became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe.
+
+In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay
+after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in
+silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the
+desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up,
+carried on principally by the great Italian cities--Venice, Florence,
+Genoa, Pisa, Milan--and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean,
+the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern
+trade, and kept for a time the other western nations--Spain, Portugal,
+France, and England--from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the
+hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not
+long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the
+introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer
+guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the
+use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediæval
+castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the
+invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of
+knowledge.
+
+The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.
+
+     Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men
+     travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes
+     were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia
+     Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was
+     closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez
+     Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good
+     Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the
+     Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.
+
+Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to
+solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by
+Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still
+earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more
+complete solution.
+
+Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of
+geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and
+not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by
+sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean--a
+route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the
+Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying
+it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not
+want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal.
+The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of
+Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer;
+but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made
+his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave
+ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile
+he was enabled to put his dream to the test.
+
+     A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus--his
+     efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher
+     may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's
+     Poem, "Columbus," _High School Reader_, pp. 143-145.
+
+When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought
+he had found what he had set out to find--the eastern country of India;
+and he believed it all his life. This idea survived for several
+generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When
+Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again
+to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely
+as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their
+chief ambition.
+
+In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out
+to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his
+son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South
+Carolina, with the same object.
+
+In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspé
+and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the
+gateway to the East.
+
+With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu
+River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to
+the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a
+large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea.
+
+Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the
+continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a
+North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he
+sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked.
+A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been
+only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring
+Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth
+voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and
+he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the
+West, that he was at last successful. He wintered there, and when the
+ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son,
+and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of
+again. (See _The Story of the British People_ pp. 234-235.)
+
+The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific
+Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and
+Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of
+Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on
+Montreal Island was called _La Chine_ (the French word for China), in
+allusion to his desire to find the way to that country.
+
+Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of
+what is now Canada. Vérendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by
+way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the
+junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands;
+also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored
+the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains.
+
+Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West
+Company--Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne--amid great
+hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of
+exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific.
+
+It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the
+Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and
+steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to
+Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it
+has been our lot to accomplish.
+
+Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up
+afterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez Canal and its effect
+on trade--why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the
+opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the
+reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc.
+
+
+TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA
+
+The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline
+of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will
+use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the
+Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the
+lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat
+different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should
+show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print
+indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils
+after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are
+suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the
+black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either
+teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and
+development methods.
+
+For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is _A
+History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack,
+Edinburgh.
+
+
+I. CAUSES
+
+1. _Political._--(_a_) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief
+obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands.
+
+     (The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the
+     marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had
+     refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands were in full
+     revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and
+     the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant
+     power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.)
+
+(_b_) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off
+negotiations of marriage with Philip.
+
+(_c_) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots to
+the English throne.
+
+2. _Commercial_.--Interference of the English in the New World, to which
+Spain claimed sole right.
+
+     (This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of
+     Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.)
+
+3. _Religious._--Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in
+Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England.
+
+     (This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.)
+
+
+II. EVENTS
+
+1. Preparations in Spain and England.
+
+     (Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well
+     as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His
+     death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible
+     for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the
+     Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet
+     was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it
+     actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were
+     very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the
+     eve of battle should be made.)
+
+2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries.
+
+     (The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were
+     ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were
+     defending their homes; they forgot their religious and political
+     differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless,
+     and most skilful in handling their ships.)
+
+3. The affair at Cadiz.
+
+     (Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for
+     preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.)
+
+4. The battle in the Channel.
+
+     (Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588;
+     fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance
+     for a vivid description by the teacher.)
+
+5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada.
+
+     (Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories
+     of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and
+     recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's _Westward
+     Ho!_)
+
+
+III. RESULTS
+
+1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (_a_)]
+
+2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power.
+
+3. Greater religious tolerance in England.
+
+4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this.
+
+5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule
+the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals
+of political, social, and religious liberty.
+
+(See _P.S. History of England_, secs. 135-142.)
+
+
+LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)
+
+_Aim._ To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was
+held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in
+England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the
+Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems.
+
+
+STEP I
+
+1. _Introduction._ By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil
+that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm;
+from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be
+derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as
+applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel
+may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on
+shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a
+florist's business, a rink, etc.
+
+2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the
+_Ontario Public School History of England_, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw
+a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read.
+
+
+STEP II
+
+(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)
+
+1. _The Saxon System:_ Further study of the early land tenure of the
+Saxons. (See _Ontario High School History of England_, p. 33.) The
+following extract from Oman's _England before the Norman Conquest_ may
+be of assistance:
+
+     The typical free settlement of an English _maegth_ (or kindred)
+     consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow
+     strips, of which each household possessed several, next of the
+     almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into
+     appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter,
+     and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole
+     community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture
+     its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some
+     seasons.
+
+     The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with
+     a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year,
+     fallow--to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of
+     its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the
+     cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when
+     they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had
+     been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional
+     cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently
+     allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or
+     otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an
+     abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in
+     each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the
+     fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its
+     various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.
+
+Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (_P.S. Hist. of
+Eng._, pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (_P.S. Hist. of Eng._, p.
+37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of
+necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the
+freeman.
+
+2. _The Courts_: The _Witan_, which could displace the king for certain
+reasons, the _Shire_ or _folk-moot_, and the _Tun-moot_; their powers;
+the people looked to these courts for justice.
+
+3. _Change_ brought about by Danish raids--small freeholders sought
+protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small
+landowners to "eorls."
+
+
+STEP III
+
+_The Feudal System in France:_ (Read Scott's _Quentin Durward_.) Barons
+too powerful for the king for various reasons:
+
+1. Their property was large and compact.
+
+2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc.
+
+3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior.
+
+By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would
+probably do to strengthen his own position.
+
+
+STEP IV
+
+_The Feudal System under William:_ (Note the innovations of William.)
+
+1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a
+tribe, but William personally, who conquered England.
+
+2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or
+because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was
+conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.)
+
+3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king.
+
+4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which
+were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him.
+
+5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the
+military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes.
+
+6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in
+later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them.
+
+7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath.
+
+The important points of each step should be written on the black-board
+as they are described or developed.
+
+(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another
+lesson.)
+
+
+SEIGNIORIAL TENURE
+
+The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of
+land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to
+trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the
+development of the country; and to increase their interest in the
+present system of tenure.
+
+
+METHOD
+
+In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System
+would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him
+by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by
+the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it.
+Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this
+description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher
+supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the
+pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for
+his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in
+Canada. Then the evils connected with this system may be presented as
+another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be
+discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In
+connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding
+land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and
+can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then
+ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what
+cost.
+
+The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development,
+or problem, methods.
+
+
+THE LESSON
+
+1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in
+Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading
+principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this
+method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system
+of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See
+_Ontario Public School History_, Chapter IX, also _Ontario High School
+History of Canada_, Chap. VIII.)
+
+2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure,
+which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was
+paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service.
+Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles.
+An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors
+annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These
+_seigniors_, as they were called, had great powers within their domains.
+This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in
+France, called the Feudal System.
+
+     At this point the teacher might give a short description of the
+     Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its
+     surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in
+     comparison with the lords.
+
+3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year
+1527. He had two objects in view: (_a_) to create a Canadian
+aristocracy, (_b_) to establish an easy system of dividing land among
+settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial
+Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became
+his vassal, and in turn made grants to the _censitaires_, those who held
+their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured
+_habitants_ to cultivate the soil.
+
+4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a
+certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to
+two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire
+sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth
+of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the
+King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very
+attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in
+this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted
+patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from
+cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their
+attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and
+the most gallant defenders of New France.
+
+5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and English
+settlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Their
+number was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who came
+over after the American Revolution. The English disliked the French
+method of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land in
+a seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to one
+twelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on the
+value of the land, but also on the value of all buildings and
+improvements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often more
+valuable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlers
+an intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System had
+been abolished in England.)
+
+6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act which
+gave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in their
+own name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to avail
+themselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantage
+of their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished,
+the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of their
+ancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, was
+introduced.
+
+7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed:
+
+     (_a_) It was not adapted to conditions in Canada.
+
+     (_b_) It did not provide sufficient incentive to settlers to
+     improve their lands.
+
+     (_c_) It gave the habitant no chance to rise.
+
+     (_d_) It tended to divide the population into three classes.
+
+     (_e_) It failed to develop a civic spirit. This fact alone made
+     progress practically impossible. Each seignior was the master of
+     his own domain. Thus the people had no opportunity of working
+     together, and under such circumstances no great national spirit
+     could be developed.
+
+8. Note the effect of the conquest of Canada and of the American
+Revolution, upon Seigniorial Tenure.
+
+
+CONFEDERATION OF CANADIAN PROVINCES
+
+TOPICAL ANALYSIS
+
+_Causes:_
+
+1. The idea of union an old one in Canada and the Maritime Provinces;
+foreshadowed in Durham's Report.
+
+2. Immediate cause in Canada was the question of representation by
+population; deadlock in Parliament.
+
+3. Immediate cause in Maritime Provinces was the feeling between Britain
+and the Colonies and the United States over the _Trent_ affair, the
+_Alabama_ trouble, and the idea in the Northern States that the British
+Colonies favoured the cause of the South in the Civil War.
+
+
+_Steps toward Confederation:_
+
+1. Meeting of delegates from the Maritime Provinces in Charlottetown in
+1864.
+
+2. Meeting in Quebec, 1864, of delegates from all the provinces favours
+Confederation.
+
+3. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island reject the proposal, and
+delegates from Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), Nova
+Scotia, and New Brunswick proceed to London to secure an Act of Union
+from the Imperial Government.
+
+4. Movement in favour of union hastened by United States giving notice
+in 1865 of the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty in a year, and by
+the Fenian Raid, 1866.
+
+5. Union accomplished by means of the British North America Act passed
+by the British Parliament in 1867, and brought into force on July 1st,
+1867. The provinces confederated as the Dominion of Canada; a Federal
+Union.
+
+
+_Outline of Terms:_
+
+See _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, p. 215. Provision made
+for admission of new provinces.
+
+
+_Expansion of Confederation:_
+
+Admission of other provinces--Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871;
+Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Yukon
+territory also represented in the Dominion Parliament.
+
+
+NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS ON THE
+HISTORY OF A COUNTRY
+
+CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
+
+
+GENERAL
+
+The history of a nation is influenced very largely by geographical
+facts. Its internal relations, whether friendly or hostile, are affected
+by these. Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, or great lakes and
+rivers, are often political frontiers exerting protecting or isolating
+influence.
+
+Its industrial progress depends primarily upon its natural
+products--minerals, grains, woods, fish, etc., and the facilities which
+its structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign. A sea-coast,
+with satisfactory harbours, tends to produce a sea-faring people, and
+therefore a trading people.
+
+The character of its people is conditioned by the zone in which the
+nation is situated. In the north temperate zone is the climate best
+suited for the growth of peoples vigorous in mind and body, and lovers
+of freedom.
+
+
+ENGLAND
+
+_Position:_ The forming of the Straits of Dover cut off a corner of
+Europe, made Great Britain an island, and later a single political unit.
+Situated between Europe and America with ports opening toward each, her
+position gives her the opportunity for naval and commercial greatness.
+The narrow sea separating her from the continent is a defence in war and
+a means of intercourse in peace.
+
+_Structure:_ Two regions--one of plain, the other of hills; a line drawn
+from the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn and continued to
+the south coast roughly divides these regions. The part lying east of
+this line is, roughly speaking, level and fertile, tempting emigration
+from the continent, and easily explored inward. The Angles, the Saxons,
+and the Jutes found their way into this plain through the rivers that
+flowed east and south. The Pennines, the Welsh Peninsula, and the
+southwest of England from Bristol are in the hilly part, which, because
+of its mineral wealth, has become the great industrial district.
+
+_Climate:_ Though England lies north of the fiftieth parallel, the moist
+southwest winds from the ocean temper the climate, making the winters
+mild and the summers cool, a climate favourable to the growth of a
+vigorous race. There is an abundant rainfall.
+
+_Products:_ On the plains a fertile soil supported a large agricultural,
+and therefore self-contained, population in the earlier days, and the
+slopes furnished pasturage for cattle and sheep. Proximity to coal is an
+almost indispensable condition for industries, though other
+considerations come in. In the hill country coal and iron, essential
+materials for a manufacturing nation, lie near to the deposits of
+limestone necessary for smelting the iron ore. The coal-fields on or
+near the coast are centres of shipbuilding; and the interior coal-fields
+the centres of the great textile industries. Because of her insular
+position and fleets of ships the raw products from other countries can
+be brought to England easily and cheaply, and then shipped out as
+manufactured goods.
+
+Consult: _A Historical Geography of the British Empire_. Hereford B.
+George, Methuen & Co., London. _The Relations of Geography and History_.
+Hereford B. George, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
+
+
+ANOTHER FORM OF THE LESSON
+
+The teacher will announce the topic for discussion, namely, how the
+history of Great Britain has been affected by her insular position.
+
+     _T._--Trace on the map the coast line of Great Britain. (Pupil does
+     so.) What do you notice about the coast line in comparison to the
+     size of the Island?
+
+     _P._--It is very irregular and has a good many bays and inlets.
+
+     _T._--Would this have any effect on the life and occupations of the
+     people?
+
+     _P._--They would almost have to be sailors.
+
+     _T._--In other words, a maritime people. Do you think that is
+     usual? Look at the coast line of Japan. (Class sees that it is much
+     the same as that of Britain: the Japanese are also a maritime
+     race.) What is one occupation the people would follow?
+
+     _P._--They would probably be fishermen. (The teacher may give some
+     idea of the extent of the fishing. The same may be done with each
+     new point, as it comes up.)
+
+     _T._--What else would they do?
+
+     _P._--They would probably engage in trade or commerce.
+
+     _T._--With which countries? Study the map for a moment.
+
+     _P._--With those on the west of Europe, and with America.
+
+     _T._--Yes. You must notice that Great Britain is situated very
+     favourably for trade with the whole world. Is there anything on the
+     map to show this?
+
+     _P._--There are a great many lines on the map that show the water
+     routes from Britain to almost every country in the world.
+
+     _T._--Suppose Britain had trouble with any other country that might
+     be a cause of war, would her position make any difference to her?
+
+     _P._--No country could attack her except by water.
+
+     _T._--How would she defend herself?
+
+     _P._--She would have to depend on her ships. (A good opening for a
+     brief outline of the growth of the navy.)
+
+     _T._--Where would she get her ships?
+
+     _P._--She builds them herself.
+
+     _T._--Isn't she dependent on any other nation at all?
+
+     _P._--No, she has always had the material in her own country for
+     that.
+
+     _T._--What are they built of?
+
+     _P._--The old ships were wooden, and she had plenty of the best
+     timber,--oak.
+
+     _T._--What are they built of to-day?
+
+     _P._--Most of them are of iron.
+
+     _T._--Where does she get that?
+
+     _P._--From her own mines.
+
+     _T._--Now, look at the latitude of Britain. What part of our
+     country has the same latitude?
+
+     _P._--Labrador.
+
+     _T._--What is the climate of Labrador?
+
+     _P._--Very cold.
+
+     _T._--Then the climate of Britain ought to be the same?
+
+     _P._--The water around it would make it not so cold.
+
+     _T._--Yes. The ocean currents from the south help to make the
+     climate milder, too. There would be plenty of rain, besides. Now,
+     how would a moist, mild climate affect agriculture in England?
+
+     _P._--They ought to be able to grow almost everything that we can.
+
+(Similarly, many other points may be taken up and developed with the
+class.)
+
+
+ST. LAWRENCE RIVER
+
+INCIDENTAL TEACHING OF HISTORY WITH GEOGRAPHY
+
+
+_Aim._--To show general connection between history and geography.
+
+_Material Required._--A black-board sketch of that part of Canada
+adjacent to the St. Lawrence and a set of pictures (or picture
+post-cards) showing the important historical sites along the banks of
+the river.
+
+_Introduction._--The teacher asks a few questions to make clear the
+purpose of the map and to fix the location of the principal towns and
+cities--Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Ogdensburg, Morrisburg,
+Cornwall, Lachine, Montreal, Three Rivers, Levis, Quebec, Tadoussac, and
+Gaspé.
+
+_Presentation._--The lesson is assumed to be a pleasure trip by boat
+from Port Hope to the Atlantic. The teacher will tell of the departure
+from Port Hope and the arrival at Kingston, the first port. While there,
+he will ask why the place was given the name of Kingston. (It was named
+in honour of George III; as Queenston, at the upper end of the lake, was
+in honour of Queen Charlotte.) Leaving Kingston the teacher will
+describe (showing pictures) the appearance of the fort on the point and,
+with the pupils, will recall its establishment by Frontenac in 1673, and
+its use as a check on the Indians, and will note its use now as a
+storehouse, barracks, and training camp for soldiers. (_Ontario Public
+School History_, pp. 51, 114.)
+
+As the trip is continued down the river, they notice, in passing, the
+beautiful Thousand Islands, and the town of Brockville--its name
+commemorating the hero of Queenston Heights. Immediately below Prescott
+is seen on the bank of the river an old wind-mill, the scene of the
+Patriot invasion under Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer. (See _Ontario
+Public School History_, p. 178, and picture in Weaver's _Canadian
+History for Boys and Girls_, p. 227.)
+
+Across the river lies Ogdensburg, the scene of a raid in 1813. Colonel
+Macdonell, the British leader, who was drilling his small force on the
+ice, made a sudden attack upon the town, defeated the Americans,
+captured a large amount of stores and ammunition, and burned four armed
+vessels which lay in the harbour. (See _Ontario Public School History_,
+p. 155.)
+
+From this point the boat passes rapidly through the narrow part of the
+river at Iroquois (recall the Indians of that name), past the
+flourishing town of Morrisburg, until, on the north bank, appears a
+monument of gray granite, erected as a memorial of the battle of
+Crysler's Farm, fought in this vicinity in 1813. (See _Ontario Public
+School History_, p. 159.)
+
+After passing through the Long Sault Rapids, Cornwall, noted as the seat
+of the first Grammar School in Ontario, is reached. The river now widens
+into a lake and does not narrow until it passes Coteau, after which it
+passes through a chain of rapids and nears Lachine, the "La Chine" of La
+Salle, and the scene of numerous Indian fights and massacres. (See
+_Ontario School Geography_, p. 116, and _Ontario Public School History
+of Canada_, p. 60.) Ten miles to the east is Montreal, the most populous
+city in Canada, with its Royal Mount, and its many memories of early
+settlement in Canada. (See _Ontario School Geography_, p. 121.)
+
+Just above Quebec the river, now two miles wide, passes the bold cliffs
+up which Wolfe's men climbed to the Plains of Abraham, and sweeps around
+the Citadel and Lower Town. On the heights may be seen the monuments
+erected in honour of Champlain, and Wolfe and Montcalm. In imagination,
+pictures may be formed of the scenes that marked the close of French
+Rule in Canada. The river flows on past Tadoussac, long the centre of
+the Canadian fur-trade, past Gaspé where Cartier landed and laid claim
+to the surrounding country in the name of the king of France, till its
+banks fade from sight and its waters mingle with those of the Atlantic.
+
+In teaching such lessons as this, the oral narrative and question method
+is used. It is a review lesson, and reproduction may follow in a written
+exercise.
+
+
+THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND FROM 1066 TO 1603
+
+The purpose of this analysis is to explain by what show of right the
+kings of England interfered so much in Scottish affairs. The analysis
+also aims to show how correct and definite views on certain topics may
+be had only by following out those topics through history, neglecting
+all facts but those bearing on the topic studied.
+
+1. In the tenth century, Malcolm I obtained Strathclyde (see map,
+_Ontario Public School History of England_, p. 27) as a fief from Edmund
+of England. His grandson, Malcolm II, was invested with Lothian, before
+this a part of the English earldom of Northumbria. These fiefs are the
+basis of all claims afterwards made by English kings as overlords of
+Scotland.
+
+2. Malcolm III (1057-1093) married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling.
+The Norman conquest drove many Saxons north, and the Saxon element in
+Scotland was strengthened by this.
+
+3. William the Conqueror compelled Malcolm's submission, 1072. This kept
+alive the English claims.
+
+4. Henry I married Matilda of Scotland. Many Normans went to Scotland in
+the reign of David (1124-1153). The Feudal System was introduced and
+firmly established under Norman influence. Ecclesiastical foundation
+begun. Friendly relations strengthened.
+
+5. As the price of his liberty, William the Lyon agreed, by the
+Convention of Falaise, 1174, to hold Scotland as a fief of England.
+
+6. To raise money for his Crusade, Richard I of England renounced, in
+1189, his feudal rights over Scotland for 10,000 marks, and for the
+first time acknowledged her independence.
+
+7. The border line was fixed for the first time in 1222.
+
+8. The death of Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 1286, left the
+crown a bone of contention; Balliol finally secured it by favour of
+Edward I of England, the overlord of Scotland. Then followed the War of
+Independence under Wallace and Bruce and the Battle of Bannockburn,
+1314. This long and destructive war caused the Scots to have a deadly
+hatred of the English, and drove Scotland into alliance with France, the
+great enemy of England, and consolidated the different races in
+Scotland.
+
+9. Scotland thus became involved in the many wars between England and
+France and attacked England whenever she and France were at war.
+
+10. In 1327, the independence of Scotland was acknowledged.
+
+11. Friendship with France and distrust of England continued well into
+the Reformation period, and in the main determined Scotland's foreign
+policy.
+
+12. With the change of religion in Scotland at the Reformation, French
+influence came to an end. Religious sympathy overcame the political
+hatred of England.
+
+13. The trouble in connection with Mary Queen of Scots and her
+imprisonment made for peace between the two countries, as Scotland did
+not want to have Mary released for fear of further civil war.
+
+14. The accession of James VI, a Scottish king, to the throne of
+England, ended almost entirely the differences between the two
+countries, and led finally to the Legislative Union a century later
+(1707).
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS 160-170, ONTARIO PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+The Parliament had already established its sole right to levy taxation.
+(See Green's _Short History of the English People_, p. 478.) Under
+Charles I the struggle was mainly about the manner in which the taxes
+should be spent; in other words, the Parliament was trying to secure
+control of the executive, the other important element in Responsible
+Government.
+
+Charles I held very strongly the belief in the "divine right" of kings
+and, naturally, this belief did not harmonize with the aim of
+Parliament. Disputes were constant:
+
+1. Differences concerning Charles' marriage.
+
+2. First Parliament, 1626, would grant "tonnage and poundage" for only
+one year.
+
+3. Second Parliament, 1626, refused money unless the conduct of the
+Spanish war by Buckingham was inquired into by Parliament.
+
+4. Third Parliament, 1628-9. Charles raised some money by "forced
+loans," but far too little, for a new war with France was begun.
+Parliament refused to grant money till the king signed the Petition of
+Right, which embodied all the points in dispute between them.
+
+5. Charles did not long observe the Petition of Right which he had
+signed; Laud, Bishop of London, was making changes in the church
+ceremonies that seemed to bring back the old religion. Parliament
+solemnly protested against both these things, then quietly adjourned.
+Some members were arrested--Sir John Eliot died in the Tower--others
+were kept in prison for eleven years.
+
+6. No Parliament for eleven years. Charles aimed during this period to
+raise money without Parliament, and to establish the English Church in
+the whole country.
+
+His methods of raising money were:
+
+(_a_) By granting monopolies (£200,000).
+
+(_b_) By Star Chamber fines--large fines for slight offences.
+
+(_c_) By illegal duties.
+
+(_d_) By "ship-money" (Trial of Hampden).
+
+His methods of establishing the English Church were:
+
+(_a_) Religious oppression--chief agent, Laud; chief sufferers, the
+Puritans.
+
+(_b_) Attempt to force the English Church prayer-book on Scotland led to
+rebellion.
+
+This rebellion forced Charles to summon Parliament in order to raise
+money. Parliament refused to give money till their grievances were
+redressed. It was dissolved in three weeks. Urgent need of troops to
+keep back the Scottish rebels made Charles summon Parliament again in
+six months (1640). This is known as the "Long Parliament."
+
+7. (_a_) Parliament first accused Laud and Strafford.
+
+(_b_) The "Grand Remonstrance" named the illegal acts of Charles.
+
+(_c_) This led to Charles' final blunder--the attempt to arrest the five
+members.
+
+8. Open war, now the only way out, went on till Charles was captured and
+beheaded, and Parliament held, for a time, entire control.
+
+
+SUGGESTIVE OUTLINES FOR REVIEWS
+
+FORM IV
+
+     I. _The Era of Reform in Britain_:
+
+       1. The Methodist Revival, which stirred the hearts of the people,
+       and gave them higher ideals
+
+       2. Social Reforms: (_a_) Canning, the friend of the oppressed
+                          (_b_) Wilberforce and the abolition of slavery
+                          (_c_) Elizabeth Fry and prison reform
+                          (_d_) Revision of the criminal code
+
+       3. Political Reforms: (_a_) The Reform Bill
+                             (_b_) The Chartist Agitation
+                             (_c_) The repeal of the Corn Laws
+
+     II. _The Puritan Movement_:
+
+       1. Its beginning under Elizabeth
+
+       2. Its growth under James I
+
+       3. The struggle and victory under Charles I
+
+       4. Triumph and decay under the Commonwealth
+
+       5. Its dissolution under Charles II
+
+       6. It was the root of the resistance offered to the
+       misrule of James II.
+
+
+
+
+FOR TEACHERS' REFERENCE
+
+THE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION
+
+CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND SCIENCE
+
+
+The purpose of these notes, which are condensed from the article on
+"Civilization" in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (latest edition), is to
+provide the teacher with some interesting material, by the use of which
+he may impress on the pupils the far-reaching effects of certain
+inventions and discoveries, which are in such common use to-day that
+they are very likely to be underestimated. The number of lessons must be
+left entirely to the discretion of the teacher.
+
+
+NOTES
+
+The close relation between the progress of civilization, as told in
+history, and scientific inventions and discoveries is shown by Lewis H.
+Morgan, who has indicated nine stages in the upward march of mankind
+from the earliest times to the present. There are three stages of
+savagery, three of barbarism, and three of civilization, the close of
+each stage being marked by an important discovery or invention. The
+problem method may be used, by asking what each invention or discovery
+would enable the people to do that they could not do before.
+
+1. The savages in the first stage were developing speech, lived on raw
+nuts and fruits, and were restricted to places where they could have
+warmth and food. This stage was ended by the discovery of _fire_.
+
+2. With the use of fire, their food now included fish and perhaps flesh;
+they could migrate to colder climates. This stage ended with the
+invention of the _bow and arrow_.
+
+3. With the bow and arrow, the savage was safer from fierce animals; he
+could kill also to get food, and skins for clothing and tents; with
+stronger food and better protection he could and did migrate into more
+distant, colder countries. This stage ended with the invention of
+_pottery_.
+
+4. Hitherto man had had no cooking utensils that could withstand fire.
+Now he could boil his food, and his diet was extended to include boiled
+meat and vegetables. The next stage was reached by the _domestication of
+animals_.
+
+5. The dog, the sheep, the ox, the camel, the horse were rapidly
+domesticated; some of these provided man with food independent of the
+chase; others gave him better, swifter means of travel and
+transportation. Distant peoples were thus brought into contact and
+commerce began. New ideas were gained from each other. Larger
+communities were formed, and towns and cities began. Property became
+individual, instead of being communal.
+
+6. This stage began with the invention of _iron-smelting_. Immense
+progress was now possible in the various arts of peace: house-building,
+road-making, construction of vehicles, the making of all sorts of tools.
+By these tools man was now able to express his æsthetic nature as never
+before. Implements of war also became more numerous and more deadly.
+
+7. The human race was now lifted from the highest stage of barbarism to
+the lowest stage of civilization by one of the most important inventions
+that man has ever made--_writing_. This made possible the recording of
+man's deeds and thoughts for posterity, thus securing the gains of each
+generation for all succeeding generations, and making history possible.
+
+8. The next stage of progress is marked by a group of
+inventions,--_gunpowder_, _the mariner's compass_, and _paper_ and the
+_printing press_. The Middle Ages, as we call them, were now ended, and
+the human race found itself on a stage as wide as the world.
+
+9. The next invention, which came quickly after the preceding ones, and
+placed mankind in the present stage of civilization, was the
+_steam-engine_. The revolution which this brought about is so recent as
+to need no details here. (See lesson on the Industrial Revolution, p.
+87.) What is to be the invention that will mark the entrance of the race
+on a higher stage still, when Tennyson's dream of a "Federation of the
+World the Parliament of Man" may be realized? Is it the airship, giving
+man the conquest of the last element still unmastered?
+
+
+THE NEW LEARNING
+
+1. The aim of this lesson is to make the pupils familiar with one of the
+most important movements in English history, by having them study the
+meaning, causes, tendencies, and effects of the New Learning.
+
+2. As an introduction, a lesson or two should be given on the conditions
+prevailing in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages, because
+a knowledge of these conditions is essential to a right understanding of
+many of the causes of the New Learning.
+
+The New Learning was a phase of a greater movement called the
+Renaissance, which arose in Italy during the fourteenth century. The
+Renaissance marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of
+modern history. It meant re-birth, a new life. People took a new
+interest in living. The influence of the monk and of the knight was
+passing, and the man of affairs, with his broader sympathies, his
+keener vision, his more varied interests, and his love of liberty, was
+coming into prominence.
+
+How to enjoy life, how to get the greatest value out of it, became the
+great problem. In their attempt to solve this problem people turned
+their attention to the ancient literature of Greece and Rome; for it was
+believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans had a fine appreciation of
+the meaning and beauty of life. They began to seek out the old
+literature and to study it. This new study has been called the Revival
+of Learning or the New Learning. The influence of these two great
+literatures soon made itself felt. Every province of knowledge was
+investigated, and people everywhere were influenced by this great
+intellectual awakening.
+
+3. The following were the chief causes of the movement:
+
+(_a_) The Crusades
+
+(_b_) The Fall of Constantinople, 1453
+
+(_c_) The introduction of the mariner's compass
+
+(_d_) The invention of gunpowder
+
+(_e_) The invention of the printing press
+
+(_f_) The overthrow of the feudal system
+
+(_g_) The desire for knowledge stimulated by the universities
+
+(_h_) The failure of the schools of the Middle Ages to meet the demands
+and needs of the times
+
+4. The relation of each of these causes to the New Learning must be
+shown. In dealing with the Crusade movement as a cause, it will be
+necessary to help the children to see the effect produced on the people
+of northern Europe by their coming into contact with the more highly
+cultivated people in southern Europe; and the effect produced on the
+people of Europe by their mingling with the nations of the luxurious
+East--the Greeks of Constantinople and the brilliant Mohammedan scholars
+of Palestine. The Crusades made the people dissatisfied with the
+conditions that had prevailed so long in Europe, and this fact alone
+gave an impetus to the New Learning.
+
+The relation of printing to the spread of the movement is evident. The
+introduction of printing meant the cheapening of books, their more
+general use, and the spread of education. This was followed by a growing
+independence of thought, and a desire for greater political and
+religious freedom.
+
+The other causes may be similarly treated.
+
+5. The New Learning was represented in England by a group of scholars of
+whom Erasmus, Colet, and More were the chief. The great churchmen, too,
+were its patrons. Men of every rank were interested, and the movement
+affected the whole life of the people. A new interest was taken in
+education, in art, in religion, and in social reform. Old methods of
+instruction were superseded by more rational ones. Hundreds of new
+schools were established for the benefit of the middle classes. The
+whole tendency of the New Learning was toward a higher intellectual and
+more moral life.
+
+6. Its effects:
+
+(_a_) It awakened a desire for an intellectual life and for social
+reform;
+
+(_b_) It made possible the Reformation;
+
+(_c_) It led to the establishment of schools and libraries and to the
+extension of the usefulness of the universities;
+
+(_d_) It aroused the desire for liberty and the spirit of enterprise,
+and encouraged commercial activity;
+
+(_e_) It inspired some of the world's greatest artists in painting,
+sculpture, architecture, literature, and music.
+
+(_f_) It implanted the seeds of freedom of thought and fostered the
+spirit of scientific research;
+
+(_g_) It supplied higher ideals of life and conduct, a fact which became
+responsible to a large extent for the great improvement made in the
+condition of the people, and in the development of Europe since that
+time.
+
+     NOTE: References to the discoveries made by Copernicus,
+     Columbus, and the Cabots should be made. Pupils should read or hear
+     short accounts of Erasmus, More, and Colet. A careful development
+     of the causes and meaning of the movement should aid the pupils to
+     anticipate its chief results.
+
+     It is assumed, of course, that the study of this topic will occupy
+     several lesson periods.
+
+
+THE FIGHT FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY IN CANADA, 1759-1867.
+
+In the struggle for constitutional liberty in British Canada, there are
+several distinct stages:
+
+I. 1760 to 1763--Military Rule:
+
+     1. Amherst the nominal governor; Canada divided into three
+     districts
+
+     2. Little disturbance of French customs; the _habitants_ content
+
+     3. Influx of "old" subjects--their character. (See _Ontario Public
+     School History of Canada_, p. 109; _History of Canada_, Lucas and
+     Egerton, Part II, pp. 4 and 7.)
+
+II. 1763 to 1774 (Quebec Act):
+
+     1. Period of Civil Government under General Murray
+
+     2. Unrest owing to demands of the "old" subjects
+
+     3. Conditions of government:
+
+          (_a_) Governor and Advisory Council of twelve all
+          appointed by Crown
+
+          (_b_) Assembly permitted but not feasible; depended
+          on will of Governor
+
+          (_c_) British law, both civil and criminal, prevailed
+
+          (_d_) All money matters in hands of Council.
+
+     4. At this time the French greatly outnumbered the British, and the
+     fear of the Revolution of the American Colonies led to the French
+     being favoured in the Quebec Act, 1774.
+
+III. 1774 to 1791--Quebec Act to Constitutional Act:
+
+     1. Both "old" and "new" subjects dissatisfied--the French with
+     British Court procedure, the British with French feudal customs.
+
+     2. Provisions of the Quebec Act:
+
+          (_a_) Change of boundaries (See text-book.)
+
+          (_b_) Governor and Legislative Council appointed; no
+          assembly called.
+
+          (_c_) French Civil Law; British Criminal Law
+
+          (_d_) No oath required, as before, hostile to the Roman
+          Catholic Church--beginning of religious liberty
+
+          (_e_) Legislative Council had no control of taxation
+
+IV. 1791 to 1841--Constitutional Act to Act of Union Provisions of
+Constitutional Act:
+
+     1. Upper and Lower Canada divided, because French and British could
+     not agree on many points.
+
+     2. Each Province had a Governor, a Legislative Council, a
+     Legislative Assembly, and an Executive Council. The Legislative
+     Council was composed of the highest officials, appointed
+     practically for life, and responsible to no one. Many of these were
+     also members of the Executive Council. The Legislative Assembly was
+     elected and was yet without control of the whole revenue, as the
+     Home Government still collected "all duties regulating colonial
+     navigation and commerce."
+
+     3. The Clergy Reserves were established; later to become a bone of
+     contention.
+
+V. 1841 to 1867--Act of Union to British North America Act.
+
+The demands of the people for responsible government, that is, for
+control of the Executive and of taxation, became so insistent that the
+Act of Union was passed, following Lord Durham's report on the Rebellion
+of 1837.
+
+     Provisions of the Act of Union:
+
+     1. Legislative Council appointed (20 members)
+
+     2. Legislative Assembly elected (42 from each Province, later 65
+     from each)
+
+     3. Executive Council selected from both Houses
+
+     4. A permanent Civil List of £75,000 was granted
+
+     5. The Legislative Assembly controlled the rest of the revenue.
+     Money bills were to originate with the Government. This was really
+     Responsible Government, as it was developed under Elgin.
+
+VI. 1867 to the present:
+
+The British North America Act was the statement of a complete victory of
+the people for Responsible Government. The Executive Council (Cabinet)
+is wholly responsible to Parliament, in which the members of the
+Executive must have seats; the raising and the spending of revenue is
+wholly in the hands of the people's representatives. For a clear summary
+of the concessions won by Canadians, see Bourinot, _How Canada is
+Governed_, page 34; see also _Ontario Public School History of Canada_,
+pp. 267 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+DEVICES
+
+
+MAPS
+
+1. Wall maps for general study, especially of modern history.
+
+2. Outline or sketch maps drawn on the black-board by the teacher or the
+pupils for use in the study of earlier history, or explorations, etc.
+For these purposes the details of a wall map are not only not needed,
+but are rather a hindrance.
+
+3. Relief maps of plasticine, clay, or salt and flour, to be made by the
+pupils to illustrate the influence of geographical facts in history, and
+to make events in history more real to the pupils.
+
+
+PICTURES
+
+1. Many good historical pictures of persons, buildings, monuments, and
+events may be collected by the pupils and the teacher from magazines and
+newspapers, and pasted in a scrap-book. (See Educational Pamphlet, No.
+4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_.)
+
+2. The Perry Picture Co., Malden, Mass., publishes pictures in different
+sizes, costing from one cent upward. Many of these are useful in
+teaching history. Similar pictures may be obtained from the Cosmos
+Picture Co., New York.
+
+3. Good picture post-cards can be easily obtained.
+
+4. Lantern slides and stereopticon views may be used. (For lists of
+dealers and publishers of 3 and 4, see also _Visual Aids in the Teaching
+of History_.)
+
+
+MUSEUMS
+
+These often contain relics of earlier times in the form of implements,
+utensils, weapons, dress. A visit to one will interest pupils.
+
+
+SOURCE BOOKS
+
+Some source books for illustrating earlier conditions in Ontario are:
+
+1. _The Talbot Régime._ By Charles Oakes Ermatinger, St. Thomas.
+
+2. _Pioneer Days._ By David Kennedy, Port Elgin. Sold by author, 50c.
+
+3. _United Empire Loyalists._ By Egerton Ryerson. William Briggs.
+
+4. _Canadian Constitutional Development._ Selected speeches and
+dispatches, 1766-1867. By Egerton and Grant Murray. $3.00.
+
+5. _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada._ William Briggs,
+Toronto, $2.00.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLES
+
+Those needed to illustrate special periods may be found in the larger
+histories. Pupils should be instructed how to interpret them.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
+
+This may be made by the class, on the black-board or on a slated cloth
+as the work advances. On the left hand of a vertical line are set down
+the dates, allowing the same space for each ten years, the close of each
+decade being shown in larger figures. On the right side are set down the
+events in their proper place. For example, in studying the career of
+Champlain, the Chart will be begun as follows:
+
+
+CHAMPLAIN
+
+=1600=
+
+1603 First visit, when 36 years old, with Pontgravé.
+
+1604 With De Monts and Poutrincourt he undertakes to colonize Acadia;
+forms a settlement at Port Royal.
+
+1608 Founds Quebec.
+
+1609 Explores Richelieu River and Lake Champlain; forms an alliance with
+the Hurons and Algonquins against the Iroquois.
+
+1610 Marriage.
+
+1611 Establishes a trading station at what is now Montreal.
+
+1613 Ascends the Ottawa River, expecting to find the way to China;
+deceived, returns to France.
+
+1615 Brings out the Recollet Fathers to Christianize the Indians;
+explores the country of the Hurons.
+
+=1620=
+
+A useful chart which shows the growth of Canada is to be found in
+Taylor's _Cardinal Facts of Canadian History_, reproduced in Duncan's
+_The Canadian People_. An Illustrated Chart of Canadian History is
+published by the United Editors Company, of Toronto.
+
+
+NOTE-BOOKS AND CLASS EXERCISES
+
+In the Fourth Form, pupils should copy into a notebook the black-board
+work--topical outlines, time chart, etc., as a basis for review and for
+class exercises in composition. Such a topical summary, the joint work
+of teacher and class, is the best means of review for examination
+purposes, when one is held.
+
+Pupils may occasionally be asked to make from the text-book, without
+preceding class work, a topical analysis either of a subject which is
+treated consecutively in the book, such as the War of 1812-14, or of a
+subject that requires the pupil to collect his material from various
+parts of the book, or even from several books. In the latter case the
+teacher should direct the pupil to the proper sources.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+A. FOR TEACHERS
+
+I. _Histories_:
+
+(_a_) English:
+
+     1. A Short History of the English People. Green. $1.50. The
+     Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. Ontario High School History of England. 65c. The Macmillan
+     Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     3. A History of the British Nation. A.D. Innes. $1.25. E.C. & T.C.
+     Jack, Edinburgh.
+
+(_b_) Canadian:
+
+     1. A History of Canada. Roberts. $1.00. The Macmillan Company of
+     Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. Story of Canada (Story of the Nations Series). Bourinot. $1.50.
+     G.P. Putnam's, New York.
+
+     3. A Historical Geography of the British Colonies, 10 vols. Canada:
+     Part I, $1.60; Part II, $1.10. Lucas and Egerton, Clarendon Press,
+     Oxford.
+
+          One of the best histories of Canada; on a geographical basis.
+
+     4. Ontario High School History of Canada. Grant. 19c. The T. Eaton
+     Company, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     5. A Short History of the Canadian People. Bryce. $2.00. William
+     Briggs, Toronto.
+
+(_c_) Civics:
+
+     1. Canadian Civics. Jenkins. 35c. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. How Canada is Governed. Bourinot. $1.00. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd.,
+     Toronto.
+
+(_d_) General History:
+
+     1. General Sketch of European History. Freeman. $1.00. The
+     Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. History of Our Own Times. McCarthy. $1.25. Crowell and Company,
+     New York.
+
+     3. The Nineteenth Century--A History. MacKenzie. $1.00. T. Nelson
+     and Sons, Toronto.
+
+For help in preparing lessons every teacher should possess one book of
+each of the above classes, in addition to the Ontario Public School
+Histories.
+
+
+II. _On Methods_:
+
+1. Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary
+Schools. Bourne. $1.50. Longmans Green and Company, London, England.
+
+     The best book on general method.
+
+2. Methods in History. Mace. $1.00. Ginn and Company, New York.
+
+3. Special Method in History. McMurry. 75c. The Macmillan Company of
+Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+
+B. MATERIAL FOR CLASS WORK
+
+ESPECIALLY IN CORRELATED SUBJECTS
+
+1. Reader's Guide to English History. Allen. 25c. Ginn and Company, New
+York.
+
+     (Contains a list of historical authorities for the various periods;
+     and lists of historical poems and fiction to illustrate these
+     periods.)
+
+2. School Atlas of English History. S.R. Gardiner. $1.50. Longmans,
+Green and Company, London, England.
+
+3. Atlas of Canada. Published by Department of the Interior, Ottawa.
+
+     (The Department of the Interior also publishes maps giving the
+     latest information concerning railways, distribution of minerals,
+     etc., which can be had by asking for them.)
+
+4. Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+5. Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+6. Literary and Historical Atlas of America. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+
+C. HISTORICAL READERS AND SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS
+
+Group I.
+
+1. Highroads of History. 13 Vols. T. Nelson and Sons, Toronto.
+
+     Well illustrated; a great favourite with children.
+
+2. Gateways to History. 7 Vols. 9s. 1d. Edward Arnold, London, England.
+
+3. Longmans' Ship Historical Readers. 7 Vols. 9s. Longmans, Green and
+Company, London, England.
+
+4. The Little Cousin Series. 25 Vols. 60c. each. The Page Co., Boston,
+Mass.
+
+     Get list of titles and select.
+
+5. Peeps at many Lands and Cities. 50 Vols. 50c. each. The Macmillan
+Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     Get list of titles and select.
+
+Group II.
+
+1. Stories from Canadian History. Marquis. 50c. Copp Clark Company,
+Ltd., Toronto.
+
+2. Brief Biographies. Supplementing Canadian History. J.O. Miller. 35c.
+Copp Clark Company, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+3. Stories of the Maple Land. C.A. Young. 25c. Copp Clark Company, Ltd.,
+Toronto.
+
+4. Heroines of Canadian History. W.S. Herrington. Cloth 30c., paper 18c.
+Wm. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+5. Ryerson Memorial Volume. J.G. Hodgins.
+
+     A graphic sketch of the old log school-house and its belongings,
+     and the life of a pioneer teacher.
+
+6. Stories of New France. Machar and Marquis. $1.50. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+7. Martyrs of New France. Herrington. 60c. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+
+Group III.
+
+1. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. Baldwin. 35c. The American Book Company,
+New York.
+
+2. Thirty More Famous Stories. Baldwin. 50c. The American Book Company,
+New York.
+
+3. Book of Legends. Scudder. Riverside Literature Series 15c. Copp Clark
+Company, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+4. Legends Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 90c. Doubleday, Page
+and Co., New York.
+
+
+Group IV.--Miscellaneous:
+
+1. Heroes Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 60c. Doubleday, New
+York.
+
+2. Famous Men of Greece. 50c. The American Book Company, New York.
+
+3. Famous Men of Rome. The American Book Company, New York.
+
+4. Famous Men of the Middle Ages. 50c. The American Book Company, New
+York.
+
+5. Famous Men of Modern Times. 50c. The American Book Co., New York.
+
+6. Stories of Great Inventors. Macombe. 40c. Wm. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+7. Calendar Stories. M.P. Boyle. 30c. McClelland, Goodchild, & Stewart,
+Toronto.
+
+8. Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road From Long Ago to Now. Jane Andrews.
+75c. Sch. ed. 60c. Ginn and Company, New York.
+
+9. Seven Little Sisters. Jane Andrews. 75c. Sch. ed. 50c. Ginn and
+Company, New York.
+
+10. The Romance of Canadian History. Selections from Parkman; edited by
+Pelham Edgar. 75c. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+11. English Life 300 Years Ago. Trevelyan. 1s. Methuen and Company,
+London.
+
+12. Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Reformers, Great Orators,
+Great Teachers, English Authors, Good men and Great. Hubbard. 10c each.
+The Roycrofters, East Aurora, N.Y.
+
+In Group I the first, and any of the others may be read. The first are
+very interesting and great favourites with children.
+
+In Groups II and III one of each may be taken as they, to some extent,
+cover the same ground.
+
+All of those in Group IV are useful, and may be added as opportunity
+permits.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE
+
+Did you ever hear the story of the first Christmas tree? This is the way
+it was told to me: Martin Luther was a good man who lived in Germany
+long ago. One Christmas Eve he was walking to his home. The night was
+cold and frosty with many stars in the sky. He thought he had never seen
+stars look so bright. When he got home he tried to tell his wife and
+children how pretty the stars were, but they didn't seem to understand.
+So Luther went out into his garden and cut a little evergreen tree. This
+he set up in the room and fastened tiny candles all over it, and when he
+had lighted them they shone like stars.
+
+One of Luther's neighbours came in that night, and when she saw the tree
+she thought how one would please her children. Soon she had one in her
+house, too. And the idea spread from one house to another until there
+were Christmas trees all over Germany.
+
+Queen Victoria of England was married to a German prince, and the German
+custom of a Christmas tree for the children was followed in the royal
+palace. Of course after the Queen had a tree other people must have one,
+too. So the Christmas tree came to England.
+
+The little French boys and girls have not had them so long. Not very
+many years ago there was a war between France and Germany. At Christmas
+time the German soldiers were in Paris. They felt sorry to be so far
+from their own little boys and girls on Christmas eve. But they knew how
+to have something to remind them of home. Every soldier who could got a
+little evergreen tree and put candles on it. The French saw them, and
+were so pleased that now, every year, they too have Christmas trees.
+
+So many people from England, and from Germany, and from France have come
+to our country to live, of course, we too have learned about Christmas
+trees. And that is why you and so many other little girls and boys have
+such pretty trees on Christmas eve.
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE EASTER BUNNY
+
+Childish voices are asking why the rabbit is seen with the eggs
+and the chickens that fill the shop windows and show-cases at Easter.
+The legend that established the hare as a symbol of the Eastertide is
+not generally known. It is of German origin and runs as follows:
+
+Many years ago, during a cruel war, the Duchess of Lindenburg with her
+two children and an old servant fled for safety to a little obscure
+village in the mountains. She found the people very poor, and one thing
+that surprised her much was that they used no eggs. She learned that
+they had never seen or heard of hens, and so when the old servant went
+to get tidings of his master and of the war he brought back with him
+some of these birds.
+
+The simple village folk were greatly interested in the strange fowl, and
+when they saw the tiny yellow chickens breaking their way out of the
+eggs they were full of delight. But the Duchess was saddened by the
+thought that Easter was drawing near and that she had no gifts for the
+little mountain children. Then an idea came to her. The spring was
+beginning to colour the earth with leaves and flowers, and she made
+bright dyes out of herbs and roots and coloured the eggs. Then the
+children were invited to visit the Duchess, and she told them stories
+of the glad Easter day, and afterwards bade each make a nest of moss
+among the bushes. When they had all enjoyed the little feast provided in
+their honour, they went back to the woods to look at their nests. Lo! in
+each were five coloured eggs.
+
+"What a good hen it must have been to lay such beautiful eggs," said one
+child.
+
+"It could not have been a hen," said another. "The eggs that the hens
+lay are white. It must have been the rabbit that jumped out of the tree
+when I made my nest."
+
+And all the children agreed that it was the rabbit, and to this day the
+mystic Bunny is supposed to bring eggs and gifts at Easter to the little
+children of the "fatherland" who have been loving and kind during the
+year.
+
+
+THE STORY OF ST. VALENTINE
+
+Once upon a time, there lived in a monastery across the sea a
+humble monk called Valentine. Every brother save himself seemed to have
+some special gift.
+
+Now there was Brother Angelo, who was an artist, and painted such
+wonderful Madonnas that it seemed as if the holy mother must step down
+from the frame and bless her children.
+
+Brother Vittorio had a wonderful voice, and on saints' days the
+monastery chapel would be crowded with visitors, who came from far and
+near just to listen to that wonderful voice as it soared up among the
+dim old arches.
+
+Brother Anselmo was a doctor, and knew the virtues of all roots, herbs,
+and drugs, and was kept very busy going about among the sick, followed
+by their tearful, grateful blessing.
+
+Brother Johannes was skilled in illuminating, and Valentine often
+watched the page grow under his clever hand. How beautiful would then be
+the gospel story in brightly-coloured letters, with dainty flowers,
+bright-winged butterflies, and downy, nestling birds about the borders!
+
+Brother Paul was a great teacher in the monastery school, and even
+learned scholars came to consult him. Friar John ruled the affairs of
+the little monastery world with wisdom and prudence. Indeed, out of the
+whole number only Valentine seemed without special talent.
+
+The poor man felt it keenly. He longed to do some great thing. "Why did
+not the good God give me a voice like Vittorio or a skilled hand like
+Angelo?" he would often inquire of himself bitterly. One day as he sat
+sadly musing on these things, a voice within him said clearly and
+earnestly: "Do the little things, Valentine; there the blessing lies."
+"What are the little things?" asked Valentine, much perplexed. But no
+answer came to this question. Like every one else, Valentine had to find
+his work himself.
+
+He had a little plot where he loved to work, and the other monks said
+that Valentine's pinks, lilies, and violets were larger and brighter
+than any raised in the whole monastery garden.
+
+He used to gather bunches of his flowers and drop them into the chubby
+hands of children as they trotted to school under the gray monastery
+walls. Many a happy village bride wore his roses on her way to the
+altar. Scarcely a coffin was taken to the cemetery but Valentine's
+lilies or violets filled the silent hands.
+
+He got to know the birthday of every child in the village, and was fond
+of hanging on the cottage door some little gift his loving hands had
+made. He could mend a child's broken windmill and carve quaint faces
+from walnut shells. He made beautiful crosses of silvery gray lichens,
+and pressed mosses and rosy weeds from the seashore. The same tender
+hands were ready to pick up a fallen baby, or carry the water bucket for
+some weary mother.
+
+Everybody learned to love the good Brother Valentine. The children clung
+to his long, gray skirts, and the babies crept out on the streets to
+receive his pat on their shining hair. Even the cats and dogs rubbed
+against him, and the little birds fluttered near him unafraid.
+
+St. Valentine grew old, loving and beloved, never dreaming that he had
+found his great thing. When the simple monk died the whole countryside
+mourned, and hundreds came to look for the last time on the quiet face
+in the rude coffin.
+
+A great duke walked bare-headed after that coffin, and one of the most
+noted brothers of the church spoke the last words of blessing to the
+weeping people.
+
+After his death, it was remembered how sweet had been his little gifts,
+and the villagers said: "Let us, too, give gifts to our friends on the
+good Valentine's birthday." So ever since has the pretty custom been
+carried out, and on St. Valentine's day we send our friends little
+tokens of remembrance to say we love them.
+
+
+THE FIRST THANKSGIVING
+
+It is nearly three hundred years since the first Thanksgiving
+Day. Though we have even more to be grateful for, I think that there are
+not many of us who feel quite so thankful as the little handful of
+people who set apart the first Thanksgiving Day.
+
+There were not very many of them, just one little village in a big
+forest land, and by the edge of a great ocean. Here, on the map, is
+where they lived. It is on the north-eastern shores of the United States
+and is called Plymouth. The people I am telling you about gave it that
+name when they came to it, nearly two years before they had their first
+Thanksgiving Day. It was the name of the last town they had seen in
+England. Here, on the map, is the English Plymouth, and you see what a
+long trip they had in their little vessel, called the _Mayflower_, to
+their new home.
+
+You still wonder why they travelled so far to make new homes for
+themselves. It was because they wanted to worship God in their own way
+that they left England. They were not afraid of the long voyage and all
+its hardships; for they felt sure they were doing as God wished them to
+do. They arrived safely, too, and built their little village by the
+sea--the new Plymouth. One of the first buildings they put up was a
+little log church.
+
+The first year was very hard for everybody. The winter was colder than
+any they had ever known in England, and their houses were small and
+poorly built. They could not get any letters or news from their friends
+in England for many months. Food was not scarce, for there was always
+plenty of game and fish. But it was such a change from their old way of
+living that many people became ill, and in the spring there were many
+graves. But the worst thing about the new land was the Indians. These
+English people were afraid of them--and with good reason, too, for they
+were very fierce and sometimes very cruel. They tried not to let the
+Indians know how few they were, and even planted grain about the graves
+in the churchyard so that the Indians could not count how many had
+died.
+
+But one of the Indian Chiefs was friendly to the English and kept the
+other tribes from making war on them, and the second summer they had a
+great harvest and everything was more comfortable. It was in that
+autumn, just after the grain was gathered, that the minister spoke to
+them one Sunday about having a Thanksgiving day. "It seemeth right," he
+said, "God hath granted us peace and plenty. He has blessed us with a
+dwelling-place of peace. He has held back the savage red man from
+bringing harm to us. Therefore let us appoint a day of Thanksgiving."
+
+After that all the people, even the boys and girls, were busy getting
+ready. The men took their guns and fishing-rods and went into the
+forest, and brought home fowl, fish, and deer, and perhaps bear meat as
+well. The boys and girls gathered wild plums, and grapes, and corn, and
+brought in pumpkins from the gardens; and the women made pies, puddings,
+cakes, and bread, and baked the meat and corn. They had great piles of
+cakes, and rows and rows of pies, and loaves of bread and platters of
+meat, for they all expected company. You could not guess, I am sure, who
+was coming! They had sent word to the Indians near to come and spend
+Thanksgiving Day with them.
+
+Do you suppose they came? Indeed they did. They came before breakfast
+and stayed until long after supper, and had a good time, and tasted
+everything the white women had cooked, and nodded their heads and said,
+"How" a great many times, to say it was good. Some of the little girls
+and boys were half afraid of them, but they need not have been; for that
+day the Indians felt very kindly toward the English.
+
+     Ask pupils to mention things for which they are thankful.
+
+
+LETTER FROM MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS, TO QUEEN ELIZABETH
+
+Believe, Madame (and the doctors whom you sent to me this last
+summer can have formed an opinion), that I am not likely long to be in a
+condition which can justify jealousy or distrust. And this
+notwithstanding, exact from me such assurances, and just and reasonable
+conditions as you wish. Superior force is always on your side to make me
+keep them, even though for any reason whatever I should wish to break
+them. You have had from observation enough experience of my bare
+promises, sometimes even to my own damage, as I showed you on this
+subject two years ago. Remember, if you please, what I then wrote you,
+and that in no way could you so much win over my heart to yourself as by
+kindness, although you have confined forever my poor body to languish
+between four walls; those of my rank and disposition not permitting
+themselves to be gained over or forced by any amount of harshness.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In conclusion, I have to request two things especially; the one that as
+I am about to leave this world I may have by me for my consolation some
+honourable churchman, in order that I may daily examine the road that I
+have to traverse and be instructed how to complete it according to my
+religion, in which I am firmly resolved to live and die. This is a last
+duty which cannot be denied to the most wretched and miserable person
+alive; it is a liberty which you give to all foreign ambassadors, just
+as all other Catholic kings allow yours the practice of their religion.
+And as for myself, have I ever forced my own subjects to do anything
+against their religion even when I had all power and authority over
+them? And you cannot justly bring it to pass that I should be in this
+extremity deprived of such a privilege. What advantage can accrue to you
+from denying me this? I hope that God will forgive me if, oppressed by
+you in this wise, I do not cease from paying Him that duty which in my
+heart will be permitted. But you will give a very ill example to other
+princes of Christendom of employing towards their subjects and
+relatives, the same harshness which you mete out to me, a sovereign
+queen and your nearest relative, as I am and shall be in spite of my
+enemies so long as I live.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+     Aims of Study, 13
+
+     Amount of Material, 18
+
+     Appendix, 136
+       First Christmas Tree, The, 136
+       First Thanksgiving, The, 140
+       Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143
+       Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137
+       Story of St. Valentine, 138
+
+     Bibliography, 130
+
+     Black-board Work in Teaching History, 27, 31, 40, 47, 50
+
+     Capture of Quebec, The, 66
+
+     Characteristics of a Good Text-book, 24
+
+     Chronological Chart, 128
+
+     Chronological Method, 21
+
+     Civics, 20, 51, 52
+
+     Civilization and Inventions, 119
+
+     Clergy Reserves, The, 36
+
+     Colours of the Flag, The, 73
+
+     Combination of Methods, 25
+
+     Comparative Method, 22
+
+     Concentric Method, 22
+
+     Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107
+
+     Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124
+
+     Correlation of Subjects, 39, 40, 50
+
+     Course of Study, 1
+
+     Current Events, 49
+
+     Dates, 47
+
+     Devices for Teaching, 127
+
+     Dramatization of History, 46
+
+     Drill and Review, 31
+
+     Empire Day, 75
+
+     Feudal System, 100
+
+     First Christmas Tree, The, 136
+
+     First Thanksgiving, The, 140
+
+     Flag, The, 68
+
+     Flag Days, 72
+
+     Florence Nightingale, 62
+
+     Genealogical Tables, 37, 128
+
+     Historical Sense, The, 17
+
+     History and Art, 45
+       "      "  Chronology, 47
+       "      "  Composition, 26, 46
+       "      "  Constructive Work, 44, 67
+       "      "  Geography, 40, 108
+       "      "  Literature, 41
+       "      "  Oral Reading, 26
+       "      "  Science, 43, 119
+
+     How to Make History Real, 34
+
+     Illustrative Lessons, 60
+       Type Lesson in the Story Stage, 60
+       First Thanksgiving, The, 61
+       Florence Nightingale, 62
+       Postmaster, 65
+       Capture of Quebec, The, 66
+       Coming of the United Empire Loyalists, The, 67
+       Flag, The, 68
+       Suggestions for Empire Day, 75
+       Egerton Ryerson, 78
+       The Intercolonial Railway, 82
+       The Industrial Revolution, 87
+       The Road to Cathay, 92
+       The Armada, 97
+       The Feudal System, 100
+       Seigniorial Tenure, 103
+       Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107
+       Influence of Geographical Conditions on History, 108
+       The St. Lawrence River, 112
+       Relations Between England and Scotland, 114
+       Analysis of Secs. 160-170 in Ontario P.S. History of England, 116
+       Outlines for Reviews, 118
+       The Development of Civilization, 119
+       The New Learning, 121
+       The Fight for Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124
+
+     Importance of Facts in History, 19
+
+     Industrial Revolution, The, 87
+
+     Influence of Geography on History, 108, 110
+
+     Information Stage, The, 18
+
+     Interest, 16, 19, 34, 38, 44, 58, 78
+
+     Intercolonial Railway, The, 82
+
+     Inventions and History, 43, 87, 119
+
+     Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143
+
+     Local Material, 51
+
+     Maps, 35, 40, 68, 127
+
+     Memorizing History, 38
+
+     Methods for Forms I and II, 25
+
+        "     "  Form III, 26
+
+        "     "  Form IV, 28, 78
+
+     Moral Value of History, 14, 28, 53
+
+     Museums, 128
+
+     New Learning, The, 121
+
+     Newspapers, 49
+
+     Note-books, 31, 129
+
+     Oral Method, The, 23, 25, 27, 28, 34, 58, 60, 62, 64
+
+     Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137
+
+     Patriotism, 13
+
+     Pictures, 35, 45, 127
+
+     Postmaster, 65
+
+     Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68, 76, 78, 83, 119
+
+     Reflective Stage, 18
+
+     Regressive Method, 22
+
+     Relations of England and Scotland, 114
+
+     Reviews, 23, 31, 39, 92, 112, 118
+
+     Road to Cathay, 92
+
+     Ryerson, Egerton, 78
+
+     Scope of Study, 15
+
+     Seigniorial Tenure, 103
+
+     Source Books, 37, 128, 143
+
+     Spanish Armada, 97
+
+     St. Lawrence River, 112
+
+     St. Valentine, 138
+
+     Stages of Study, 15
+
+     Story Stage, 15
+
+     Story Telling, 1, 15, 17
+
+     Taxation, 11, 55, 56, 57
+
+     Teacher of History, 57
+
+     Text-book Method, 24
+
+     Topical Analysis, 21, 78, 87, 97, 107, 114, 116, 124
+
+     Topical Method, 21
+
+     Training in the Use of the Text-book, 29
+
+     United Empire Loyalists, 67
+
+     Union Jack, 68, 74
+
+     Use of Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68,
+       76, 78, 83, 119
+
+     Where to Begin the Study of History, 19
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: HISTORY ***
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History, by The Minister of Education for Ontario.
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: December 9, 2005 [EBook #17268]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
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+produced from images generously made available by The
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+
+
+<h1>ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS</h1>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h1>HISTORY</h1>
+
+
+<h3>AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<h5>
+TORONTO<br />
+THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Copyright, Canada, 1915, by The Minister of Education for Ontario</span><br />
+</h5>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="TABLE OF CONTENTS">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#PUBLIC_AND_SEPARATE_SCHOOL_COURSE_OF_STUDY"><span class="smcap">Public and Separate School Course of Study</span></a></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><span class="smcap">Chapter I</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap ind1">The Aims and Stages of Study</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_13'>13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><span class="smcap">Chapter II</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap ind1">General Methods in the Teaching of History</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_21'>21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><span class="smcap">Chapter III</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap ind1">Correlation of Subjects</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_40'>40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap ind1">Special Topics</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Current Events</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_49'>49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Local Material</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_51'>51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Civics</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The Teacher of History</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><span class="smcap">Chapter V</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap ind1">Illustrative Lessons</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Forms I and II</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Form II</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Form III</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Form III and IV</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Form IV</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">For Teachers' Reference</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_119'>119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#DEVICES"><span class="smcap">Devices</span></a></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_127'>127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></a></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'>130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#APPENDIX"><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></a></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_136'>136</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h1>MANUAL OF SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS OF HISTORY</h1>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+<h2><a name="PUBLIC_AND_SEPARATE_SCHOOL_COURSE_OF_STUDY" id="PUBLIC_AND_SEPARATE_SCHOOL_COURSE_OF_STUDY"></a>PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY</h2>
+
+<h3>DETAILS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The course in literature and composition includes the telling by the
+teacher of suitable stories from the Bible, stories of primitive
+peoples, of child life in other lands, of famous persons and peoples;
+and the oral reproduction of these stories by the pupils. In this way
+history, literature, and composition are combined.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>For Method in telling stories, consult <i>How to Tell Stories to
+Children</i>, by Sara Cone Bryant, Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston,
+$1.00.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>FORM I</h3>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bible Stories</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Moses in the Bulrushes, his Childhood, the Burning Bush, the Crossing of
+the Red Sea, the Tables of Stone; Joseph's Boyhood Dreams, Joseph sold
+into Egypt, the Famine, the Visits of his Brethren; David and Goliath;
+Samson.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stories of Child Life</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The Eskimo Girl, the Andean Girl, the Arabian Girl, the Little Syrian
+Girl, the Swiss Girl, the Chinese Girl, the African Girl, the German
+Girl, the Canadian Girl; the Little Red Child, the Little White Child,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+the Little Black Child, the Little Yellow Child, the Little Brown Child.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Consult <i>The Seven Little Sisters</i>, by Jane Andrews, Ginn &amp; Co.,
+Boston, 50c.; <i>The Little Cousin Series</i>, by Mary Hazelton Wade,
+The Page Co., Boston, 60c. each; <i>Five Little Strangers</i>, Julia
+Augusta Schwarz, American Book Co., New York; <i>Each and All</i>, Jane
+Andrews (sequel to <i>The Seven Little Sisters</i>), 50 cents.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Special Days</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Christmas: The Birth of Christ, the First Christmas Tree (see <a href="#APPENDIX">Appendix</a>);
+Arbor Day; Constructive work suggested by St. Valentine's Day and
+Thanksgiving Day; Stories of these Days.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>: Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to
+teach obedience to authority and respect for the property and
+rights of others.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+<h3>FORM II</h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bible Stories</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Abraham and Lot, Joshua, David and Jonathan, David and Saul, Ruth and
+Naomi, Daniel, Miriam and Moses, Abraham and Isaac, Boyhood of Christ,
+the Shipwreck of St. Paul.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stories of Child Life</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The Aryan Boy, the Persian Boy, the Greek Boy, the Roman Boy, the Saxon
+Boy, the Page Boy, the English Boy, the Puritan Boy, the Canadian Boy of
+To-day, Child Life in Canada (<i>a</i>) in the early days, (<i>b</i>) to-day on
+the farm and in the city or town; occupations, games, and plays, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Consult <i>Ten Little Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago till
+Now</i>, by Jane Andrews, Ginn &amp; Co., 50c.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stories of Famous People</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Boadicea, Alfred, Harold, First Prince of Wales, Sir Francis Drake, Sir
+Walter Raleigh, Columbus, Cabot,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> Cartier, Champlain, Madeleine de
+Verch&egrave;res, Pontiac, Brock, Laura Secord, Florence Nightingale.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Consult <i>The Story of the British People</i>, Thomas Nelson &amp; Sons,
+Toronto, 35c. (For Florence Nightingale, see Appendix.)</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pioneer Life</span>:</p>
+
+<p>In Ancient Britain: See <i>Second Reader</i>, p. 109; <i>Ontario Public School
+History of England</i>, p. 10.</p>
+
+<p>In Roman Britain: See <i>The Story of The British People</i>, pp. 18-24.</p>
+
+<p>Old English Life: See <i>Third Reader</i>, p. 325; <i>Ontario High School
+History of England</i>, pp. 33-40.</p>
+
+<p>At the Close of the French Period in Canada: See <i>Fourth Reader</i>, p. 65.</p>
+
+<p>In Upper Canada in the "Thirties": See <i>Fourth Reader</i>, p. 122.</p>
+
+<p>Our Forefathers: Where they lived before coming here, how they got here,
+hardships in travel, condition of the country at that time, how they
+cleared the land, their homes, their difficulties, danger from wild
+animals, the natives of the country, modes of travel, implements and
+tools, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Consult <i>Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada</i>,
+Briggs, $2.00; <i>Ontario High School History of Canada</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Inventors</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Watt, Stephenson, Fulton, Bell, Edison, Marconi.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Civics</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Elementary lessons in local government:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) In cities, towns, and incorporated villages&mdash;the postmaster, (see
+Illustrative Lesson, p. <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>), the postman and policeman; city or town
+hall, post-office, mail boxes, school-houses.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) For rural districts&mdash;postmaster, trustees, roads and bridges,
+rural mail delivery.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Special Days</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Empire Day, Victoria Day, Dominion Day; local occasions such as Fair
+Day, Election Day; review of those Days taken in Form I.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+<h3>FORMS III AND IV</h3>
+
+<h3>PRELIMINARY NOTE</h3>
+
+
+<p>Below are the topics and sub-topics of the Course in History for Forms
+III and IV.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the subject in both Forms, the teacher should keep
+constantly in mind the chief aims suited to this stage of the pupil's
+development. (See pp. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>.) The most vital of these is "to create and
+foster a liking for historical study." The teacher should make use of
+simple map drawing to illustrate the subject. This is especially
+necessary in dealing with the history of Canada. There should be much
+illustration by means of maps and pictures. See Educational Pamphlet No.
+4, <i>Visual Aids in the Teaching of History</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The chapter numbers in the Course for Form III are those of the chapters
+in <i>The Story of the British People</i> prescribed for the Form. These
+chapters should be carefully read and, in Form IV, the authorized
+text-books should be followed for the main account. <i>Having regard to
+the time available for the Course, only the most important details
+should be taken up.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+<h3>FORMS III</h3>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Junior Grade</span></h3>
+
+<h4>CANADIAN HISTORY</h4>
+<p>
+     Columbus&mdash;The Discovery of America (Chap. XX)<br />
+     John Cabot and the New World (Chap. XXI)<br />
+     Jacques Cartier (Chap. XXIII)<br />
+     Raleigh and Gilbert (Chap. XXVI)<br />
+     The Beginnings of Acadia (Chap. XXVII)<br />
+     Champlain, the Father of New France (Chap. XXVIII)<br />
+     The Pilgrim Fathers (Chap. XXIX)<br />
+     The Jesuits in Canada (Chap. XXXI)<br />
+     The Settlement of French Canada (Chap. XXXI)<br />
+     La Salle (Chap. XXXIV)<br />
+     Henry Hudson&mdash;New York and Hudson Bay (Chap. XXXV)<br />
+     Frontenac (Chaps. XXXIV, XXXVII)<br />
+     The Conquest of Canada&mdash;Wolfe and Montcalm, Pontiac (Chap. XLI)<br />
+     The Coming of the Loyalists (Chap. XLII)<br />
+     How Canada Fought for the Empire (Chap. XLIV)<br />
+     William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XLVI)<br />
+     The Great North-West&mdash;Selkirk, Mackenzie, Strathcona, Riel (Chap. XLVII)<br />
+     Canada and the Empire&mdash;Royal Visitors (Chap. L)<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Senior Grade</span></h3>
+
+<h4>BRITISH HISTORY</h4>
+
+
+<p>
+     The First Britons (Chap. I)<br />
+     The Coming of the Romans (Chap. II)<br />
+     A Day in Roman Britain (Chap. III)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+     The Coming of the English (Chap. IV)<br />
+     The Coming of Christianity (Chap. V)<br />
+     The Vikings (Chap. VI)<br />
+     Alfred the Great (Chap. VII)<br />
+     Rivals for a Throne (Chap. VIII)<br />
+     The Coming of the Normans (Chap. IX)<br />
+     A Norman Castle (Chap. X)<br />
+     A Glance at Scotland (Chap. XI)<br />
+     Henry the Second and Ireland (Chap. XII)<br />
+     Richard the Lion Heart (Chap. XIII)<br />
+     King John and the Great Charter (Chap. XIV)<br />
+     The First Prince of Wales (Chap. XV)<br />
+     Wallace and Bruce (Chaps. XVI, XVII)<br />
+     The Black Prince (Chap. XVIII)<br />
+     The Father of the British Navy (Chap. XXII)<br />
+     The New Worship (Chap. XXIV)<br />
+     Francis Drake, Sea-dog (Chap. XXV)<br />
+     King Charles the First (Chap. XXX)<br />
+     The Rule of Cromwell (Chap. XXXII)<br />
+     The King Enjoys his Own again (Chap. XXXIII)<br />
+     The Revolution and After (Chap. XXXVI)<br />
+     The Greatest Soldier of his Time (Chap. XXXVIII)<br />
+     Bonnie Prince Charlie (Chap. XXXIX)<br />
+     Robert Clive, the Daring in War (Chap. XL)<br />
+     The Terror of Europe (Chap. XLIII)<br />
+     Waterloo (Chap. XLV)<br />
+     Victoria the Good (Chaps. XLVI, XLVIII, XLIX)<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Civics</span></h3>
+
+<p>Review of the work in Form II; election of town or township council;
+taxes&mdash;the money people pay to keep up schools and roads, etc.; how
+local taxes are levied for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> the support of the school; election of
+members of County Council, of members of Provincial Legislature; duties
+of citizenship.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+<h3>FORM IV</h3>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Junior Grade</span></h3>
+
+<h4>CANADIAN HISTORY</h4>
+
+
+<p>Before the British Conquest&mdash;an introductory account:</p>
+
+<p>The French settlements: Extent, life of the seignior, habitant, and
+coureur de bois; system of trade; government at Quebec&mdash;governor,
+bishop, intendant; territorial claims (Chaps. VII, VIII, IX, XI)</p>
+
+<p>The English settlements&mdash;Hudson's Bay Company, English colonies in New
+York, New England, Acadia, and Newfoundland; population, life, trade,
+government, territorial claims (Chaps. VIII, X, XI)</p>
+
+<p>British Conquest of New France&mdash;fall of Quebec (Chap. XI)</p>
+
+<p>Conspiracy of Pontiac (Chap. XII)</p>
+
+<p>Quebec Act (Chap. XII)</p>
+
+<p>Canada and the American Revolution; U.E. Loyalists (Chaps. XIII, XV)</p>
+
+<p>Constitutional Act&mdash;Representative Government (Chap. XIV)</p>
+
+<p>Social Conditions, 1763-1812 (Chap. XV)</p>
+
+<p>Hudson's Bay Company (Chaps. VIII, XVI, XXI)</p>
+
+<p>North-West Company (Chap. XVI)</p>
+
+<p>Exploration in North-West&mdash;Hearne, Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson (Chap.
+XVI)</p>
+
+<p>War of 1812-14 (Chap. XVII)</p>
+
+<p>Family Compact (Chap. XVII)</p>
+
+<p>Clergy Reserves (Chap. XVII)</p>
+
+<p>William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XVII)</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lord Durham, Act of Union, 1840&mdash;Responsible Government (Chap. XVIII)</p>
+
+<p>Social Progress, 1812-1841 (Chap. XIX)</p>
+
+<p>Settlement of the North-West&mdash;Selkirk (Chaps. XVI, XX)</p>
+
+<p>Confederation of the Provinces, 1867 (Chap. XXII)</p>
+
+<p>Intercolonial Railway (Chap. XXIV)</p>
+
+<p>Expansion of the Dominion by addition of new provinces (Chap. XXII)</p>
+
+<p>Social Progress, 1841-1867 (Chap. XXIII)</p>
+
+<p>Canadian Pacific Railway (Chap. XXIV)</p>
+
+<p>Riel Rebellion (Chap. XXIV)</p>
+
+<p>Disputes between Canada and the United States since 1814 settled by
+treaty or arbitration. The Hundred Years of Peace</p>
+
+<p>Canada, at the opening of the twentieth century; transportation,
+industry, means of defence, education (Chap. XXV)</p>
+
+<p>Ontario since Confederation: John Sandfield Macdonald, Sir Oliver Mowat,
+Arthur Sturgis Hardy, Sir George W. Ross, Sir James P. Whitney (Chap.
+XXVI)</p>
+
+<p>An account of how Canada is governed, simple and concrete and as far as
+possible related to the experience of the pupils; Municipal Government,
+Provincial Government, Federal Government (Chap. XXVII)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+<h3>FORM IV</h3>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Senior Grade</span></h3>
+
+<h4>BRITISH HISTORY</h4>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>A</b></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b><i>A Course of about Two Months</i></b></p>
+
+
+<p>The Early Inhabitants&mdash;The Britons</p>
+
+<p>The Coming of the Romans</p>
+
+<p>The Coming of the Saxons</p>
+
+<p>The Coming of Christianity</p>
+
+<p>Alfred the Great</p>
+
+<p>The Coming of the Normans&mdash;The Feudal System</p>
+
+<p>Richard I and the Crusaders</p>
+
+<p>John and Magna Charta</p>
+
+<p>The Scottish War of Independence</p>
+
+<p>The Hundred Years' War&mdash;Crecy, Agincourt, Joan of Arc.</p>
+
+<p>The Wars of the Roses (no lists of battles or details of fighting)</p>
+
+<p>Caxton and Printing</p>
+
+<p>Separation between the English Church and Rome</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>B</b></p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b><i>A Course of about Eight Months</i></b></p>
+
+
+<p>Brief account of the British Isles, territorial, political, and
+religious, as an introduction to the reign of Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots; the Spanish Armada; Drake, Hawkins,
+Gilbert, Raleigh, Shakespeare.</p>
+
+<p>The Stuarts: "Divine Right of Kings" supported by majority of gentry and
+landowners (cavaliers), opposed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> the commercial and trading classes
+and yeomen (roundheads). The Kings strove for absolute power, the
+Parliament for constitutional government.</p>
+
+<p>James I: Union of the English and Scottish Crowns.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I: Struggle between King and Parliament; Petition of Right, Ship
+Money, rebellion, execution of Charles.</p>
+
+<p>Commonwealth: nominally a republic, really a dictatorship under
+Cromwell. He gave Britain a strong government at home, and made her
+respected abroad, and laid the foundations of Britain's foreign trade
+and colonial empire.</p>
+
+<p>Charles II: The Restoration: Reaction in state, church, and society;
+King striving for absolute power; Nonconformists persecuted; society
+profligate in its revolt against the strictness of Puritanism; Habeas
+Corpus Act; Test Act; Plague and Great Fire.</p>
+
+<p>James II: Revolution of 1688, the death-knell of "divine right";
+Parliament supreme; Declaration of Rights.</p>
+
+<p>William and Mary: Party government&mdash;Whigs and Tories; King to act by
+advice of his ministers; each parliament limited to three years; Bill of
+Rights; Act of Settlement.</p>
+
+<p>Anne: Marlborough; Union between England and Scotland, 1707; the
+Jacobites, 1715 and 1745.</p>
+
+<p>George II: Walpole, the great peace minister&mdash;home and colonial trade
+fostered and material wealth of the nation greatly increased; Pitt, the
+great war minister; territorial expansion in Canada and India&mdash;Wolfe,
+Clive; the Methodist Movement, Wesley.</p>
+
+<p>George III: The American Revolution, 1776-83: loss of the American
+Colonies; Pitt; Washington; acquisition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> of Australia by Great Britain,
+1788; legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, 1801; Napoleonic
+wars; Nelson, Wellington, Aboukir, Trafalgar, and Waterloo; industrial
+revolution&mdash;the change from an agricultural to an industrial country.</p>
+
+<p>William IV: Reform Act of 1832, a great forward movement in democratic
+government; abolition of slavery, 1833; railways and steamships.</p>
+
+<p>Victoria: First British settlement in New Zealand, 1839; Repeal of the
+Corn Laws, 1846&mdash;free trade, the commercial policy of England;
+Elementary Education Act, 1870, education compulsory; parliamentary
+franchise extended&mdash;vote by ballot; Crimean war; Indian Mutiny; Egypt
+and the Suez Canal; Boer War&mdash;Orange Free State and South African
+Republic annexed; social progress.</p>
+
+<p>Edward VII: Irish Land Act of 1903; pensions for aged labourers; King
+Edward, "the Peace-maker."</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Civics</span></p>
+
+<p>Taxation&mdash;direct and indirect; how the revenue of the Dominion,
+provinces, and municipalities, respectively, is collected.</p>
+
+<p>Federal Government&mdash;Governor-general, Senate, House of Commons, Premier,
+Cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>Imperial Government&mdash;King, House of Lords, House of Commons, Premier,
+Cabinet.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h1>HISTORY</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h2>THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY</h2>
+
+
+<h3>AIMS</h3>
+
+<p>History may be made, in several ways, an important factor in forming
+intelligent, patriotic citizens:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) It must be remembered that society, with all its institutions, is
+a growth, not a sudden creation. It follows that, if we wish to
+understand the present and to use that knowledge as a guide to future
+action, we must know the story of how our present institutions and
+conditions have come to be what they are; we must know the ideals of our
+forefathers, the means they took to realize them, and to what extent
+they succeeded. It is only in this way that we become capable of passing
+judgment, as citizens, on what is proposed by political and social
+reformers, and thus justify and guarantee our existence as a democracy.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Patriotism, which depends largely on the associations formed in
+childhood, is intensified by learning how our forefathers fought and
+laboured and suffered to obtain all that we now value most in our homes
+and social life. The courage with which the early settlers of Upper
+Canada faced their tremendous labours and hardships should make us
+appreciate our inheritance in the Ontario of to-day, and determine, as
+they did, to leave our country better than we found it.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To-morrow yet would reap to-day,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As we bear blossom of the dead.<br /></span>
+</div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) "History teaches that right and wrong are real distinctions." The
+study of history, especially in the sphere of biography, has a moral
+value, and much may be done, even in the primary classes, to inspire
+children to admire the heroic and the self-sacrificing, and to despise
+the treacherous and the self-seeking. The constant struggle to right
+what is wrong in the world may be emphasized in the senior classes to
+show that nothing is ever settled until it is settled right.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) History affords specially good exercise for the judgment we use in
+everyday life in weighing evidence and balancing probabilities. Such a
+question as "Did Champlain do right in taking the side of the Hurons
+against the Iroquois, or even in taking sides at all?" may be suggested
+to the older pupils for consideration.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) History, when taught by a broad-minded, well-informed teacher, may
+do much to correct the prejudices&mdash;social, political, religious&mdash;of
+individuals and communities.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) The imagination is exercised in the effort to recall or
+reconstruct the scenes of the past and in discovering relations of cause
+and effect.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>g</i>) The memory is aided and stimulated by the increase in the number
+of the centres of interest round which facts, both new and old, may be
+grouped.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>h</i>) A knowledge of the facts and inferences of history is invaluable
+for general reading and culture.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up: It is important that the good citizen should know his
+physical environment; it is just as important for him "to know his
+social and political environment, to have some appreciation of the
+nature of the state and society, some sense of the duties and
+responsibilities of citizenship, some capacity in dealing with political
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> governmental questions, something of the broad and tolerant spirit
+which is bred by the study of past times and conditions."</p>
+
+
+<h3>SCOPE</h3>
+
+<p>The ideal course in history would include (1) a general view of the
+history of the world, giving the pupil knowledge enough to provide the
+proper setting for the history of his own country; (2) a more detailed
+knowledge of the whole history of his own country; (3) and a special
+knowledge of certain outstanding periods or tendencies in that history.
+In our schools, we should give most attention to the study of Canadian
+and British history as a whole, to enough of the history of France and
+other countries to make clear certain parts of our own history, and to
+certain important periods, such as the settlement of Upper Canada by the
+United Empire Loyalists, etc. (See Detailed Course of Study, p. <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>.) We
+may also study our history along special lines of
+development&mdash;political, military, social, educational, religious,
+industrial, and commercial&mdash;but these phases are subjects of study
+rather for secondary schools and colleges.</p>
+
+
+<h3>STAGES OF STUDY</h3>
+
+<p>There are three stages in the study of history which, though they
+overlap each other, yet indicate different methods of treatment for
+pupils at different ages. They are the Story stage, the Information
+stage, and the Reflective stage. These stages are not exclusive, nor do
+they coincide with the first three Forms in the schools.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE STORY STAGE</h3>
+
+<p>This stage is suitable for children in the primary grades and is chiefly
+preparatory to the real study of history in the higher grades. The need
+for this stage lies in the fact<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> that the child's "ideas are of the
+pictorial rather than of the abstract order"; yet his spontaneous
+interest in these things must be made to serve "as a stepping-stone to
+the acquired interests of civilized life." The definite objects at this
+stage are:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) To create and foster a liking for historical study. It is
+impossible, in the public school life of a child, which is usually ended
+at the age of twelve to fourteen years, to accomplish all that has been
+indicated above concerning the aims of history teaching. The most that
+can be done is to lay the foundation and give the pupil a desire to
+continue his reading after his school days are over. Serious blame rests
+on the teacher whose methods of teaching history, instead of attracting
+the child to the subject, give him a distaste for it. If history is made
+real and living to children, it is usually not difficult to have them
+like it. (For suggestions, see p. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) To acquaint the pupils with some of the important historical
+persons. We wish to take advantage of the fact that "the primitive form
+of attention which is captured at once by objects that strike the senses
+is giving place in some degree to appreciative attention, which is
+yielded to things that connect themselves with what we already know, and
+which implies ability to adopt the reflective attitude towards a
+proposed problem."<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> Now children are more interested in people than in
+institutions or events; and, if we can give them a knowledge of some of
+the striking incidents in the lives of important characters in history,
+we may expect them to be more interested in the study of history at a
+later period, because they will frequently meet with these familiar
+names. The emphasis at this stage is therefore on biography.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) To help the development of the "historical sense." The "historical
+sense" includes the notion of time, the notion of a social unit and,
+according to some, the notion of cause and effect. The notion of time
+implies the power "to represent the past as if it were present"&mdash;that
+is, the power to enter into the thoughts and feelings of people of the
+past as if we were living amongst them. This notion of time comes at
+different ages; to some early, to others very late. It came to Professor
+Shaler at the age of about eight or nine years, as the direct result of
+vivid story-telling:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Of all the folk who were about me, the survivors of the Indian wars
+were the most interesting. There were several of these old
+clapper-clawed fellows still living, with their more or less
+apocryphal tales of adventures they had heard of or shared. There
+was current a tradition&mdash;I have seen it in print&mdash;that there had
+been a fight between the Indians and whites where the government
+barracks stood, and that two wounded whites had been left upon the
+ground, where they were not found by the savages. One of these had
+both arms broken, the other was similarly disabled as to his legs.
+It was told that they managed to subsist by combining their limited
+resources. The man with sound legs drove game up within range of
+the other cripple's gun, and as the turkeys or rabbits fell, he
+kicked them within reach of his hands, and in like manner provided
+him with sticks for their fire. This legend, much elaborated in the
+telling, gave me, I believe at about my eighth year, my first sense
+of a historic past, and it led to much in the way of fanciful
+invention of like tales. (N.F. Shaler: <i>Autobiography</i>, Chap. I.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The best means at the teacher's command to assist its coming is to tell
+good stories from history with all the skill he has; the stories need
+not be told in chronological order. The notion of time implies also in
+the older pupils the power to place events in chronological order.</p>
+
+<p>The notion of a social unit is also of slow growth and must spring from
+the child's conception of the social units he belongs to&mdash;the home, the
+school, the community.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The notion of cause and effect does not belong so wholly to the study of
+history as the notions of time and of the social unit; it is surprising,
+however, how soon it makes its appearance in the child's conceptions of
+history, in his desire to know the "why" of things. (See Barnes'
+<i>Studies in Historical Method</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE INFORMATION STAGE</h3>
+
+<p>There are several questions that children soon come to ask: "When?" and
+"Where?" "What?" and "Who?" This stage may be said to begin in earnest
+with the Second Form, and it continues through the whole course. One of
+the essential elements in history study is to have a knowledge of the
+important facts of history, without which there can be no inferences of
+value for present use. The all-important point in this teaching of facts
+is to keep the lessons interesting and not allow them to become mere
+lifeless memorizing of isolated happenings; for a fact is of value only
+when related to other facts. (See pp. <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE REFLECTIVE STAGE</h3>
+
+<p>This stage naturally follows the Information stage, as one must acquire
+facts before reflecting on them in order to draw inferences. But
+reflection of a simple kind may begin as soon as any facts are given
+that will show the relations of cause and effect. The question for the
+pupil here is "Why?" just as in the preceding stage the questions were
+"When?" and "Where?" "What?" and "Who?" Information and reflection may
+therefore be combined&mdash;with due regard to the pupil's capacity.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES</h3>
+
+<p>We may speak of two difficulties. The first concerns the enormous amount
+of historical material that exists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> It is increased still more by the
+intermingling of legend with history and by the partial narratives of
+prejudiced writers. The legendary part may be taken up in the Story
+stage; and the evils of one-sided accounts are often balanced by the
+greater vigour and interest of the narrative, as in Macaulay's writings.
+The difficulty connected with the great amount of material can be solved
+by the selection (already largely made by the text-books) of the more
+important parts, that is, those facts of history that have the greatest
+influence on after times&mdash;"the points of vital growth and large
+connection" without which subsequent history cannot be properly
+understood.</p>
+
+<p>The second difficulty has to do with deciding where to begin the
+teaching of history. There are two principles of teaching that will help
+to solve this difficulty: (1) The child learns by relating everything
+new to his present fund of experiences; (2) A child's notions grow more
+complex as his knowledge increases. To apply these, we must know the
+child's experiences and his present notions. We cannot assume that the
+present conditions of social life are known to the child through his
+experiences. Our social life is also too complex to be understood by him
+yet; he can understand an <i>individual</i> hero better than he can the
+complex idea of a <i>nation</i>. How many children would be able to begin a
+study of history by having, as one writer suggests, "a short series of
+lessons ... to make some simple and fundamental historical ideas
+intelligible&mdash;a state, a nation, a dynasty, a monarch, a parliament,
+legislation, the administration of justice, taxes, civil and foreign
+war!" These are ideas far beyond the comprehension of the beginner. We
+must be guided, not by "what happens to be near the child in time and
+place, but by what lies near his interests." As Professor Bourne says:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+"it may be that medi&aelig;val man, because his characteristics belong to a
+simple type, is closer to the experience of a child than many a later
+hero." With older children it is more likely to be true that the life of
+history lies "in its personal connections with what is here and now and
+still alive with us"; with historic places and relics, etc., which make
+their appeal first through the senses; with institutions, such as trial
+by jury; with anniversaries and celebrations of great events which may
+be used to arouse interest in the history which they suggest and recall.</p>
+
+<p>However, as McMurry points out, we are in a peculiarly favourable
+position in Canada, because we have in our own history, in the
+comparatively short time of 400 years, the development of a free and
+prosperous country from a state of wildness and savagery. The early
+stages of our history present those elements of life that appeal
+strongly to children&mdash;namely, Indians with all their ways of living and
+fighting, and the early settlers with their simpler problems and
+difficulties. The development of this simpler life to the more complex
+life of the present can be more readily understood by children as they
+follow up the changes that have taken place. (See McMurry, <i>Special
+Method in History</i>, pp. 26-30.) Of course, at every step appeal must be
+made to the experiences of children, as the teacher knows them. In
+Civics, however, the beginning must be made with conditions that exist
+to-day&mdash;schools, taxes, the policeman, the postmaster, etc. The
+beginning of the real teaching of history may then be made at the
+beginning of Canadian History, as this will enable the child to go
+gradually from the simple, or individual, to the complex, and will also
+allow the teacher to make use of whatever historical remains may be
+within reach.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Raymont: <i>Principles of Education</i></p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2>GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY</h2>
+
+
+<p>There are many methods used in the teaching of history. A brief
+description of the principal ones is given for reference merely, since
+their best features are incorporated in a combination of methods, which
+is strongly recommended to teachers, and is described fully in
+succeeding pages.</p>
+
+
+<h3>1. <i>Methods based on the arrangement and selection of the matter</i>:<br />
+Chronological, Topical</h3>
+
+
+<h4>THE CHRONOLOGICAL METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>The matter is chosen according to the "time" order, beginning at the
+first of the history, and the events are taught in the order of
+occurrence without any marked emphasis on their importance, or without
+considering whether a knowledge of the event is useful or interesting to
+the class at this stage. Such an arrangement of matter is more suitable
+when the formal study of history is begun.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TOPICAL METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>In studying a certain period of history the events are arranged under
+topics or heads; for example, the period of discovery in Canadian
+History may be arranged thus&mdash;Discoveries, Explorations, Early
+Settlements, Indian Wars&mdash;and the study of each of these pursued to
+completion, contemporary events belonging to other topics being
+neglected for a time.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Events having the same underlying purpose, though occurring in different
+periods, may be arranged under one topic for review; for example, all
+the voyages of discovery to America may be grouped under the topic, "The
+Road to Cathay." (See p. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.) In this way a comprehensive knowledge is
+gained. This method gives a full treatment of each topic and may be used
+to best advantage in connection with reviews in junior classes and
+occasionally as a text-book or library exercise in senior classes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>2. <i>Methods based on the treatment of historical facts</i>:<br /> Comparative,
+Regressive, Concentric</h3>
+
+
+<h4>THE COMPARATIVE METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>By this method a comparison is made between two events, two biographies,
+two reigns, etc., a very useful device when applied in connection with
+other methods.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE REGRESSIVE METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>In this method the pupil is expected to begin with the present and work
+backward; that is, to begin with institutions as they are to-day and to
+work back through the various steps in their progress to their present
+state. This method may be followed most profitably in advanced classes.
+In junior classes it is sufficient to refer to things as they exist
+to-day in order to arouse curiosity regarding the facts of history that
+are to be taught; for example, by the use of local material; by a visit
+to some place of historical interest to prepare for the story of what
+has occurred there in the past. (See p. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>.)</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE CONCENTRIC METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>This method, which is much used, deals in ever widening circles with the
+same topic or event; for example, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> simple story of Champlain's life
+and voyages to Canada is told to Form II; the same story is considered
+again in Form III, but this time the different voyages are noted, the
+results of each investigated, and the whole summarized and memorized;
+again, in Form IV, but this time by the topical and comparative methods,
+where comparison is made of the purposes and achievements of the
+explorer with those of other explorers&mdash;Jacques Cartier, La Salle, etc.
+In this third discussion a full knowledge of Champlain's work is given.</p>
+
+<p>The excellence of this work lies in its review and repetition. The old
+or former knowledge is recalled and used in each succeeding discussion
+of the topic. The pupils grow gradually into fuller knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<h3>3. <i>Methods based on class procedure</i>:<br /> Oral, Text-book</h3>
+
+
+<h4>THE ORAL METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>This usually takes the form of an oral presentation of the story or
+description of the event by the teacher, while the pupils listen and
+afterwards reproduce what they have heard. The narration of the story is
+accompanied by pictures, sketches, maps, etc., illustrative of persons,
+places, and facts mentioned. It may also take the "development" form, in
+which a combination of narrative and questioning is employed. (See pp.
+<a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The Lecture method of Colleges and Universities is an advanced oral
+method. In this the teacher narrates and describes events, propounds
+questions, and discusses and answers them himself, while the pupils
+listen and during the lecture, or afterwards, make notes of what has
+been heard.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>By this method the teacher assigns a lesson in the book and, after the
+pupils have an opportunity to study it, he asks questions concerning the
+facts learned. The exclusive use of this method results ordinarily in
+dull, lifeless teaching, and with junior pupils will prevent their
+enjoying, or receiving much benefit from, the study of history. There
+are two reasons for the too general use of it&mdash;first, it is an easy
+method for the teacher, and secondly, it is easy for the pupils to
+memorize facts for the sole purpose of passing examinations. While this
+criticism is true when an exclusive use is made of the text-book, the
+same cannot be said when the text-book is used as an auxiliary to the
+teacher. Following the oral presentation of the story, reference may be
+made to the book for another version or for a fuller account and, in
+Form IV, topics may be assigned and the pupils directed to consult the
+text-book for the necessary information. (See pp. <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The text-book should be one that does not show an abrupt change from the
+story told by the teacher. It should not be merely a short outline of
+the important facts in history, written separately and then pieced
+together in chronological order, but should be written in a readable
+form by one who is able to distinguish the important and necessary from
+the unimportant and burdensome. It should have short summaries at the
+ends of chapters or stories of events, so that a grasp of what has been
+read may be easily obtained. It should also have many pictures,
+illustrations, and maps, to take the place of the teacher's explanations
+in the earlier stage. (On the use of the text-book, see p. <a href='#Page_29'>29</a>.)</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>A COMBINATION OF THESE METHODS</h3>
+
+<p>General Description.&mdash;As each of the above methods has its strong and
+its weak points, we should attempt to combine the strong points into one
+method, varied to keep pace with the mental development of the pupil,
+and thus secure the best results. The general outline of such a
+combination may be given as follows: The "oral story" is to be used in
+the junior classes, with "development" problems presented where helpful;
+in Form III the pupils should be introduced to the text-book (The
+History Reader for Form III), besides being taught by the oral method;
+in Form IV, the oral method is still to be the chief means used by the
+teacher, who will now, however, pay more attention to the arrangement of
+the matter (for example, in topical outlines), to accustom the pupils to
+grasp more thoroughly the relations of cause and effect in history. The
+topics of history will also be taken up more exhaustively than in the
+junior classes, and the pupils must have more practice in acquiring
+knowledge from the text-books.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DETAILS OF METHOD</h3>
+
+
+<h4>FORMS I, II</h4>
+
+<p>In Forms I and II, the pupils are accustomed to the oral reproduction of
+stories told by the teacher. In these should be included a good many
+historical stories, such as those suggested in the Course of Study in
+History for these Forms; they will serve the usual purposes of oral
+reproduction work for composition and literature, and will be, besides,
+a good foundation for the study of history in the higher forms. (For
+objects of the Story stage, see p. <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The oral presentation of a story or description of an event requires a
+certain degree of skill on the part of a teacher&mdash;skill in
+story-telling, in grasping the important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> parts of the story or
+description, in knowing what details to omit as well as what to narrate,
+in explaining the story in a way that will make it real to the pupils,
+in preparing pictures and sketches to illustrate the different parts,
+and in questioning so that the minds of the pupils will be active as
+well as receptive. The care and time necessary to secure this skill will
+be well repaid by the interest aroused in history, by the appreciation
+of the thoughts thus presented, and by the lasting impressions conveyed.
+Simple, clear language should be employed, not necessarily small words,
+but words whose meaning is made clear by the context or illustration.
+(For material for these Forms, see Bibliography, C, p. <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>When the whole story is told, revision may be made by having the pupils
+reproduce it after suitable questioning, either immediately or at some
+future time. Exercises in reproduction may also be given, for either
+seat work or class work, in constructive or art work; for example, after
+the story of the North American Indians, the pupils may be asked to
+construct a wigwam, a canoe, a bow and arrow, or to make pictures of
+Indians, of their houses, of their dress, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Further exercise in composition may also be given by having the pupils
+write the story. To each pupil may be assigned a special part; for
+example, the story of Moses may be divided thus: (1) As a babe; (2) His
+adoption by the Princess; (3) His life at the palace; (4) His flight to
+Midian; (5) The Burning Bush, etc. The whole story is then reproduced by
+having these parts read aloud in a reading lesson.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FORM III</h4>
+
+<p>The value of the oral work done in Forms I and II will be realized by
+the teacher when the real study of history<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> is begun in Forms III and
+IV. The pupils have a liking for the stories of history and have a
+knowledge of some of the leading actors and of the chief events in
+history that calls for more complete satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>There are several methods of using the History Reader which is the basis
+of the work in Form III. Perhaps the best method is to continue to make
+oral teaching the chief feature, and to add to that the use by the
+pupils, in various ways, of the History Reader.</p>
+
+<p>For example, the teacher will tell the story of Jacques Cartier,
+following in the main the narrative as given in the History Reader. It
+is well, however, not to follow it too closely in order that, when the
+pupils come to read the story in the book for themselves, they will find
+it an interesting combination of the familiar and the new. For that
+reason, it will be necessary for the teacher to have prepared the story
+from a somewhat different narrative in some other book at her command.
+In the telling of the story, problems may be asked, if thought advisable
+(see p. <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>); a few headings may be placed on the black-board for
+subsequent reproduction, oral or written, by the pupils; all
+difficulties of pronunciation, especially of proper names, should be
+attended to, orally and on the black-board; the places mentioned should
+be found on the map; pictures and sketches should be used; and in fact,
+every possible means taken to make the narrative more real to the class.
+(See p. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>When the oral teaching is finished, the pupils may have the books to
+read at their desks, and they often ask permission to take them home.
+They may sometimes be required to read aloud from the History Reader for
+supplementary practice in oral reading. Reproduction by the pupils,
+either immediately or in a subsequent lesson, should follow. Teachers,
+however, are advised not to insist on too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> much written reproduction, as
+that might very easily arouse a dislike for both history and written
+composition. Procedure as outlined above has had most gratifying results
+in the way of creating a liking for, and an intelligent interest in, the
+study of history.</p>
+
+<p>Other methods have also had good results. The teacher may, instead of
+telling the story, read aloud from the Reader to pave the way for the
+reading of the story by the pupils themselves. Difficulties, either in
+language or in meaning, may be taken up as in a literature lesson. The
+pupils will at first find the reading somewhat difficult, but the
+interest generated by the teacher's reading or oral narrative will carry
+them through that stage till they acquire a love for reading history,
+and have enlarged their vocabulary till reading is no longer a
+burdensome task.</p>
+
+<p>A taste of the more serious study of history may be given by asking the
+pupils a few not very difficult questions that they can answer only by
+combining facts contained in several stories. For example, in the
+chapters selected for Form III, Junior Grade, the answer can be found to
+a question about the explorers of Canada, the order of their visits, and
+a comparison of their work; to another question about the expansion of
+Canada from the little part of Quebec first visited to the whole of
+British North America.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary, perhaps, to add that the emphasis in Form III history
+should be still very largely on biography, so as to influence the
+forming of moral ideals by concrete examples.</p>
+
+
+<h4>FORM IV</h4>
+
+<p>Although the pupils have now had some experience in the use of the
+History Reader, yet that is no reason why oral teaching should be
+discarded in Form IV history, any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> more than in arithmetic or geography.
+It is scarcely a high estimate to have of history, to think that pupils
+of this age can grasp even the simpler lines of development in history
+without guidance from the teacher. Hence it is necessary for the
+attainment of good results, that many of the lessons should be taught
+orally before the pupils are asked to study their books. The aim of the
+teaching should be not merely the acquisition of facts, but the welding
+of them together in a sequence of cause and effect, and the pupils at
+this stage can scarcely be expected to do that for themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing for a lesson in Form IV history, the teacher should analyse
+the incidents of the period to be studied, should see how certain causes
+have led to certain results, and should be sure enough of the facts to
+have little recourse to the text-book while teaching. It does not look
+like fair play to expect a class to answer questions that the teacher
+cannot answer without consulting the text. On the other hand, it is
+refreshing to see the interest aroused in a class by a teacher who
+thinks enough of the subject to be able to teach it without constant
+reference to the text-book. Therefore, let the oral method be here again
+the chief dependence of the teacher. In such a lesson, for example, as
+that on the Intercolonial Railway (see p. <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>) no book is needed&mdash;only
+the map and the black-board.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TRAINING IN USE OF TEXT-BOOK</h3>
+
+<p>However, as the pupils must learn, for their own profit in after years,
+how to read history without a guiding hand, they need training in the
+use of the text-book. The chief line on which such training may proceed
+is to have the pupils search out the answers to definite questions. Any
+one who has searched for material on a certain topic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> will appreciate
+the good results that have come in the way of added knowledge and
+increased interest. The topics at first should be quite simple,
+gradually increasing in breadth. A few suggestions for such work are
+given below; they may be called examination questions to be answered
+with the help of the text-book:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Name, and tell something about, four of the explorers of Canada
+before 1759.</p>
+
+<p>2. Name several other explorers of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>3. Which explorer did the most for Canada, Champlain or La Salle?</p>
+
+<p>4. In what wars did the French fight against the Iroquois? With
+what result?</p>
+
+<p>5. What explorers of North America were trying to find a way to
+China and India? (This investigation by the class may precede the
+lesson on the "Road to Cathay." See p. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. On what did English kings base their claim to be the overlords
+of Scotland? Trace the dispute down to the Union of the Crowns in
+1603.</p>
+
+<p>7. Find out how the slave trade was treated by the English.</p>
+
+<p>8. Make a list of the early newspapers in Canada. Did they have
+much influence on public opinion?</p>
+
+<p>9. Compare the struggles for the control of taxation in Canada and
+in the Thirteen Colonies of America. Explain why these were settled
+differently in the two cases.</p></div>
+
+<p>With questions such as these for investigation, no pupil will be likely
+to secure the full facts; each may state in the next lesson what he has
+found, and the work of each will be supplemented by that of the others.
+With succeeding investigations it may be expected that the pupils will
+be more eager to get at all the facts in the text-book. At any rate they
+are learning how to gather material from books&mdash;a very valuable
+training, no matter how simple the topic is.</p>
+
+<p>When, in the ordinary course of work, lessons from the text-book are
+assigned, the teacher should indicate the important points, should
+suggest certain matters for discussion, and should note certain
+questions to be answered, indicating precisely where the information may
+be obtained. In the recitation period following, the topic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> should be
+fully discussed, the pupils giving the information they have secured
+from the text-book, and the teacher supplementing this from his
+knowledge gained through wider reading. During the discussion an outline
+should be made on the board, largely by the suggestions of the pupils,
+and kept in their note-books for reference and review. (See p. <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>,
+Lesson on the Feudal System.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>DRILL AND REVIEW</h3>
+
+<p>As has been already stated (p. <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>), the Story stage is useful chiefly
+for the purpose of arousing interest and developing the historical
+sense; no drill or review is necessary other than the oral, and, in Form
+II, sometimes the written, reproduction of the stories. The oral
+reproduction can be obtained in Form I by using the stories as topics in
+language lessons.</p>
+
+<p>In the Information stage, where we are concerned more with the acquiring
+of facts, and in the Reflective stage, where we wish to relate facts to
+each other according to cause and effect, drills and reviews are
+necessary. During the lesson, a summary is placed on the black-board by
+the teacher or pupil, as indicated above. It is used as a guide in oral
+reproduction and may also be copied in special note-books and used for
+reference when preparing for review lessons. The teacher may look over
+these note-books occasionally.</p>
+
+<p>There is great difference of opinion on the value of note-taking by
+pupils, but it may be said of such notes as those mentioned above that
+they have the advantage of being largely the pupil's own work,
+especially when the pupils are asked to suggest the headings; they are a
+record of what has been decided in the class to be important points;
+they are arranged in the order in which the subject has been treated in
+the lesson, and are in every way<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> superior to the small note-books in
+history that are sometimes used as aids or helps. For the proper
+teaching of history, the latter are hindrances rather than helps,
+because they rob the pupil of the profit gained by doing the work for
+himself. Notes obtained from books or dictated by the teacher are
+harmful to the right spirit of study, and create a distaste for the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>Special review lessons should be taken when a series of lessons on one
+topic, or on a series of connected topics, has been finished. At the
+close of each lesson, the facts learned are fixed more firmly in the
+mind by the usual drill; but there must be further organization of the
+several lessons by a proper review, so that history will not be a number
+of unconnected events, but will be seen as an orderly development. This
+may be accomplished: (1) by questioning the class from a point of view
+different from that taken in the first lessons, (2) by oral or written
+expansion of a topical outline, (3) by illustrations with maps or
+drawings, (4) by tracing the sequence of events backwards, (5) by
+submitting some new situation that will recall the old knowledge in a
+different way. It must be remembered that it is not a mere repetition
+that we seek, but a <i>re-view</i> of the facts, a new view that will prove
+the power of the pupils to use the knowledge they have gained. Thus the
+lesson on the St. Lawrence River (p. <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>) is a good review of the facts
+of history suggested by the places mentioned; the lesson on the Road to
+Cathay (p. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>) may be considered a review of the chief explorers of
+North America. Such a review aims at seeing new relations, at connecting
+new knowledge and old, at "giving freshness and vividness to knowledge
+that may be somewhat faded, at throwing a number of discrete facts into
+a bird's-eye view."</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE USE OF PROBLEMS IN TEACHING HISTORY</h3>
+
+<p>The development, or problem, method is intended to get the pupils to do
+some independent thinking, instead of merely absorbing knowledge from
+the teacher. The plan is simply to set clearly before the pupils the
+conditions existing at a certain moment in the story so that they may
+see for themselves the difficulties that the people in the story had to
+overcome. The question for the class is: "What would you do in the
+circumstances?"</p>
+
+<p>Let us take an example from the life of Ulysses. Ulysses had heard of
+the Sirens, who sang so beautifully that any one in a passing ship who
+heard them was impelled to throw himself overboard, with a frantic
+desire to swim to their island. Naturally the swimmers were all drowned
+in the attempt. Ulysses desired to hear for himself the wonderful
+singing, and to experience, perhaps, its terrible effect; but he
+certainly did not want to run any risk of drowning. Now, how did he
+accomplish his desire, without paying the penalty?</p>
+
+<p>Again, in the story of Madeleine de Verch&egrave;res, the narrative may proceed
+to the point where Madeleine has succeeded in securing the gates. She
+finds herself in a weak fort with few to help her, and outside a
+numerous band of Indians, who are kept at bay for a whole week, without
+even attempting their usual night attacks. How did she do it?</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the U.E. Loyalists, the teacher may narrate the story to
+the point where the Loyalists, after the treaty was signed, saw that
+they must remove to Canada. The class must know where the Loyalist
+centres in the New England States were. Now, what routes would they be
+likely to take in going to Canada? With the map before them, the class
+can usually tell the next part of the story themselves.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Even if the pupil is not able to give the correct answer to the problem
+submitted, he is nevertheless having an opportunity to exercise his
+judgment, he can see wherein his judgment differs from that of the
+persons concerned, his interest in their actions is increased, and the
+whole story will be more deeply impressed on his memory.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HOW TO MAKE HISTORY REAL</h3>
+
+<p>The chief difficulty in teaching history is to give a meaning to the
+language of history. Much of the language is merely empty words. The
+Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves mean just about as much to pupils
+as <i>x</i> does in algebra, and even when they give a definition or
+description of these terms, it usually amounts to saying that <i>x</i> equals
+<i>y</i>; the definition is just as vague as the original terms. The problem
+is to give the language more meaning, to ensure that the words give
+mental pictures and ideas; in short, to turn the abstract into concrete
+facts.</p>
+
+<p>Children can make their own only such knowledge as their experience
+helps them to interpret. Their interests are in the present, and the
+past appeals to them just so far as they can see in it their own
+activities, thoughts, and feelings. The great aim of the teacher, then,
+should be to help pupils to translate the facts of history into terms of
+their own experiences; unless that is done, they are really not learning
+anything. Some of the ways in which this may be attempted are outlined
+below.</p>
+
+<p>1. In the junior classes where the children are intensely interested in
+stories, the stress should be put on giving them <i>interesting personal
+details</i> about the famous people in history, details that they can
+understand with their limited experiences of life, and that will appeal
+to their emotions. These stories should be told to the pupils<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> with such
+vividness and animation that they will struggle with Columbus against a
+mutinous crew, will help the early explorers to blaze their way through
+the dense forests, will toil with the pioneers in making homes for
+themselves in Canada, and will suffer with the missionaries in their
+hardships and perils.</p>
+
+<p>For these pupils the oral method is the only one to use, for there is
+nothing that appeals to children more quickly and with more reality than
+what they <i>hear</i> from the teacher. The oral method should find a large
+place in the teaching of history in all the Forms. It may be added that
+the teachers who use this method will find history become a more real
+and interesting study to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>2. What the pupils hear should be reinforced by giving them something to
+<i>see</i>. Whatever pictures are obtainable (see pp. <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>) should be used
+freely at all stages, for the visual images of children are a powerful
+aid to their understanding; it is for this reason that books for
+children are now so fully illustrated, and the same principle should be
+applied to the teaching of history.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the children are ready for it, reference should be made to
+maps to illustrate historical facts. (See p. <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>.) They should see on
+the map the course that Columbus took across the unknown sea;
+Champlain's explorations become real when they are traced on the map and
+the children have a concrete picture to carry away with them. In fact
+the subjects of geography, art, and constructive work, treated under the
+head of correlated subjects, are used in history with the aim of making
+it real through the eye. (See pp. <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>3. A greater difficulty presents itself when we have to deal, in the
+higher Forms, with topics like the Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves,
+and it is a difficulty that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> will test to the full the resourcefulness
+of the teacher. How can the preceding conditions and the terms of the
+Magna Charta be brought home to a class? How can children be brought to
+appreciate the difficulties connected with the question of Clergy
+Reserves? A few words about the latter may suggest a means.</p>
+
+<p>Two aspects of the Clergy Reserves question stand out prominently, the
+religious and the economic. The religious aspect will be the most
+difficult for Ontario children, for they have no immediate knowledge of
+what a State Church is&mdash;the point on which the religious dispute turned;
+nor do they know enough about the government of the religious bodies to
+which they belong to make the matter clear to them. A full understanding
+must come later. The best point of approach seems to be to give the
+class some idea of the number of settlers belonging to the churches of
+England and of Scotland, which claimed the right to the lands reserved,
+and compare with this the number of all other Protestant bodies that
+claimed to share in them; for this difference in numbers was one of the
+chief causes of bitterness. An arithmetical appeal is concrete. There
+was also the economic aspect. The Clergy Reserves were one seventh of
+the land in each township. Another seventh was withheld from free
+settlement as Crown Lands. Now in some townships there were about 50,000
+acres. Let the class find out how many acres were thus kept from
+settlement. Tell them that this land was not all in one block, but
+distributed through the township. They can now be asked to consider how
+this would interfere with close settlement and therefore with the
+establishment of schools, churches, post-offices, mills, and stores. A
+diagram of a township would be of great help. These two points will help
+them to see why an early and fair settlement of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> vexed question was
+desired. Wherever possible, present problems for them to solve by their
+own experiences.</p>
+
+<p>4. The reading to the class of accounts of events written by people
+living at the time will give an atmosphere of reality and human interest
+to the events. For example, a story of early pioneer days told by a
+pioneer gives a personal element (see <i>Pioneer Days</i>, Kennedy); a letter
+by Mary Queen of Scots, to Elizabeth (see p. <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>), will make both of
+these queens real living people, not mere names in history. (See
+<i>Studies in the Teaching of History</i>, Keatinge, p. 97, also selections
+from <i>The Sources of English History</i>, Colby, p. 163.) Not much of this
+may be possible, but more use might easily be made of such materials,
+especially with the early history of Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>5. The use of local history and of current events will be treated
+elsewhere. (See pp. <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. When possible, let the pupils form their idea of an historical person
+from his actions and words just as we form our estimate of each other,
+instead of having them memorize mere summaries of his character before
+they know his actions.</p>
+
+<p>7. Genealogical and chronological tables, written on the black-board and
+discussed with the class, will be of service in understanding certain
+periods, such as the Wars of the Roses, and in helping to form the
+time-sense of pupils. (See Chronological Chart, p. <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>8. Chief dependence must be placed, however, on increasing the pupil's
+knowledge of present-day conditions in agriculture, commerce,
+transportation, manufactures, in fact, in all social, economic, and
+political conditions, in order to enable him by comparison to realize
+earlier methods and ways of living. The pupil who understands<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> best how
+we do things to-day can understand best the state of affairs when people
+had to depend on primitive methods, and can realize how they would
+strive to make things better.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ON MEMORIZING HISTORY</h3>
+
+<p>History is usually called a "memory" subject, and is accordingly often
+taught as a mere memorizing of facts, names, and dates. The following
+statement of the chief principles of memorizing will, it is hoped, put
+mere verbal repetition in its proper place. Interest is the chief
+condition for teaching history in the public schools, in order that the
+pupils may acquire a liking for the subject that will tempt them to
+pursue their reading in after years; without that interest, the small
+amount of historical fact they can accumulate in their school-days will
+be of little real value to them when they become full-fledged citizens.
+In fact, through this emphasis on interest instead of verbal repetition,
+the pupils are likely to obtain a better knowledge of history and, at
+the same time, will have a chance to develop, in no slight degree, their
+powers of judgment.</p>
+
+<p>1. Memory depends on attention; we must observe attentively what we wish
+to remember. In history, attention may be secured by making the lessons
+interesting through the skill of the teacher in presenting the matter
+vividly to the pupils; also by using means to make history real instead
+of having it a mere mass of meaningless words. (See p. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>2. Facts that we wish to remember should be grouped, or studied in
+relation to other facts with which they are vitally connected. The facts
+of history should be presented to the class in their relation of cause
+and effect, or associated with some larger centre of interest; in other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+words, pupils must understand, in some degree, what they are asked to
+remember. (See pp. <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>3. If we increase the number of connections for facts, we are more
+likely to remember them. It is largely for this reason that history
+should be taught with correlated subjects, such as geography,
+literature, science (inventions), etc. For example, the story of the
+Spanish Armada is remembered better if we have read <i>Westward Ho!</i> and
+the story of the Renaissance is made clearer and is therefore remembered
+better, if we connect with it the inventions of printing, gunpowder, and
+the mariner's compass. (See p. <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>4. Repetition is necessary to memory. Facts or groups of facts must be
+repeated to be remembered. This is the purpose of the drills which are
+necessary to good teaching, but are only a part of it. Reviews are not
+to be considered merely as repetitions, but should be treated more as
+aids to better understanding. (See p. <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>.)</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2>CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY</h3>
+
+<p>These subjects are very intimately related, and each should be used in
+teaching the other. Geography, which is often called one of the "eyes of
+history," may be used in the teaching of this subject in two ways. In
+the first place, an account of an historical event lacks, to a certain
+degree, reality in the minds of the pupils if they do not know something
+of the place where it occurred. Accordingly, in studying or teaching
+history, reference should be constantly made to the map to give a local
+setting to the story. The voyage of Columbus, the operations of Wolfe,
+the coming of the Loyalists, are made more real if they are traced out
+on the map, and are therefore better understood and remembered by the
+pupils. For this purpose, it is better, in most cases, to use an outline
+map, which may be sketched on the black-board by the teacher or the
+pupils, because on the ordinary wall maps there are so many names and so
+much detail that the attention may be distracted. Many of the details on
+the map are, moreover, more modern than the events that are to be
+illustrated, so that wrong impressions may be given.</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, it must be kept constantly in mind that many events
+in history have been influenced by the physical features of a country.
+For example: the lack of a natural boundary between France and Germany
+has led to many disputes between these countries; the fact of Great
+Britain being an island accounts for many things in her history (see p.
+<a href='#Page_108'>108</a>); the physical features of Quebec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> and Gibraltar explain the
+importance of these places; and the waterways of Canada account for the
+progress of early settlement. The climate and soil of a country affect
+its history; treaties are often based on physical conditions, and trade
+routes determined by them; a nation's commerce and wealth depend largely
+on the character of its natural resources.</p>
+
+<p>Some easy problems may be given to the senior classes to be answered by
+reference to physical conditions:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Why are London, New York, Chicago, Montreal, and Halifax, such
+important centres? Why are certain places fitted for certain
+manufactures? Will Winnipeg become a more important city than
+Montreal? Will Vancouver outstrip San Francisco? What is a possible
+future for the Western Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan? What
+might have been the state of North America to-day, if the Rocky
+Mountains had run along the East coast, instead of along the West?</p></div>
+
+<p>On the other hand, history contributes a human interest to geography;
+the places of greatest interest are often those associated with great
+events in history&mdash;Athens, Mount Sinai, Waterloo, Queenston Heights.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY AND LITERATURE</h3>
+
+<p>Literature gives life and human interest to both history and geography.
+By means of literature we are able to get a better notion of the ideals
+and motives of a people than the mere recital of the facts of their
+history can give. In this connection we naturally think of Homer's
+<i>Iliad</i> and its influence on the Greeks. It was their storehouse of
+history, morals, religion, &aelig;sthetics, and rules for the practical
+guidance of life, as well as their literary masterpiece.</p>
+
+<p>It is often easy to interest pupils in a period of history by reading or
+quoting to them some ballad, poem, or prose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> narrative that colours the
+historical facts with the element of human feeling. Macaulay's
+<i>Horatius</i> gives a deeper impression of Roman patriotism than almost
+anything in pure history can; the various aspects of the Crusades are
+vividly shown by W. Stearns Davis in <i>God Wills It</i>, a story of the
+first Crusade. In fact, if stirring events can be linked in the child's
+mind with stirring verse, if the struggles and progress of nations can
+be presented in a vigorous narrative that echoes the thoughts, feelings,
+and interests of the time, we make an appeal to the interest of the
+pupil that is almost irresistible. The objection is sometimes urged
+against the reading of standard historical tales and novels, that these
+are somewhat exaggerated in sentiment and inaccurate in facts. Even if
+this be so, it may be said that they give in outline a fair picture of
+the period described, that the interest in history aroused by such tales
+begets a liking for history itself, and that such exaggerations and
+inaccuracies are soon corrected when the pupil begins to read history.</p>
+
+<p>The course of history has been modified by songs, ballads, and stories.
+The influence on the national spirit and ideals of songs such as <i>Rule
+Britannia</i> and <i>The Marseillaise</i>, of stories such as <i>Uncle Tom's
+Cabin</i>, of novels such as those of Dickens and of Charles Reade is
+incalculable.</p>
+
+<p>A few poems and prose compositions are given here as suggestions; a
+fuller list may be found in Allen's <i>Reader's Guide to English History</i>,
+Ginn &amp; Co., 30c.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Poems: <i>Boadicea</i>, Cowper; <i>Recessional</i>, Kipling; <i>Edinburgh After
+Flodden</i>, Aytoun; <i>Hands All Round</i>, Tennyson; <i>Columbus</i>, Joaquin
+Miller; <i>Waterloo</i>, Byron; <i>The Armada</i>, Macaulay; <i>The Revenge</i>,
+Tennyson; <i>The Charge of the Light Brigade</i>, Tennyson.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Prose: "United Empire Loyalists," Roberts' <i>History of Canada</i>,
+Chap. XV; "Departure and Death of Nelson," Southey; <i>Montcalm and
+Wolfe</i>, Parkman; "The Crusader and the Saracen," in Scott's <i>The
+Talisman</i>; "The Heroine of Castle Dangerous," in <i>Stories of New
+France</i>, Machar and Marquis; "Adam Daulac," in <i>Martyrs of New
+France</i>, Herrington.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY AND SCIENCE</h3>
+
+<p>The connection between history and science is very close, because it was
+only after the invention of writing that history, the record of human
+progress, became possible. Further, the remarkable way in which the
+chief stages in the development of civilization coincide with certain
+inventions and discoveries makes the study of history very incomplete
+without a knowledge of the inventions and discoveries, inasmuch as these
+opened a road for human development. (See p. <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>To make this evident, it is enough merely to mention a few comparatively
+recent inventions, such as the mariner's compass, the printing-press,
+gunpowder, the steam-engine, the power-loom, the cotton-gin, and the
+telegraph.</p>
+
+<p>To the introduction of the mariner's compass in the fourteenth century,
+by which sailors were made independent of landmarks and the stars, and
+could therefore go more boldly into the open sea, we owe the
+explorations of the fifteenth century that culminated in the discovery
+of America, and the way to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The
+introduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth century gave the lower and
+middle classes a weapon that made them equal in power with the nobles
+and brought about the downfall of the feudal system and the rise of
+modern democracies. The printing-press gave to the world the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> learning
+of the past and revolutionized social conditions. The invention of high
+explosives has made possible many of the great engineering works of
+to-day. The inventions that have made transportation and communication
+so easy and rapid have already done a great deal to bring nations to a
+better understanding of each other and thus to promote the peace of the
+world. Discoveries in medicine alone have had an incalculable influence
+on the health and prosperity of society. In fact, the study of history
+and an understanding of modern social and industrial conditions are
+impossible without a knowledge of scientific inventions and discoveries.
+(See pp. <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Children naturally take an interest in what individuals have done, and
+it is easy to interest them in the work of men such as Watt, Stephenson,
+Whitney, Fulton, Morse, Edison, Marconi, and their fellows. The
+biographies of famous inventors should therefore be given, both as a
+record of what they did and as an inspiration to like achievements.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK</h3>
+
+<p>Constructive work may be used to advantage in history and civics. It
+gives concrete expression to some facts of history through the
+construction by the pupils of objects mentioned therein. In studying
+Indian life, the class may make in paper, wood, etc., wigwams, bows and
+arrows, stockades, etc.; in connection with pioneer life, they may make
+some of the buildings and implements used by the pioneers,&mdash;log houses,
+spinning-wheels, hominy blocks, Red River carts, etc.; in studying
+campaigns, they may make models in plasticine or clay, or on the sand
+table, of forts, battle-fields, etc., for example&mdash;the Plains of
+Abraham, Queenston Heights, Chateauguay, Plymouth Harbour; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> Union
+Jack may be cut out and coloured. (See p. <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>.) In this way the
+activities of the child may be made of practical use.</p>
+
+<p>On the industrial and social side of history, which is being more and
+more emphasized, it is of great value to the child to become acquainted,
+even though on a small scale and through the simplest implements and
+machines, with the construction of machinery and modes of manufacture.
+For a lesson on the Industrial Revolution in England, for example, it
+will give pupils a better understanding of the changes, if they know
+something, through their own activities, of the way of making cloth.</p>
+
+<p>For suggestions on constructive work, see the Manual on Manual Training:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">P. 22: Suggestions for the various seasons and days.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">P. 26: On the use of the sand table.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">P. 55: On collecting and preserving pictures.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">P. 58: On relief maps and geographical formations.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY AND ART</h3>
+
+<p>Art assists history in two ways. First, pictures may be used to
+illustrate events in history and make them real. It is often difficult
+for children to form a definite mental image of historical scenes merely
+from the words of the teacher or of the text-book, because their
+experiences are limited and the power to combine these properly is
+lacking. This is recognized now in the many text-books which are freely
+illustrated. Pictures of persons famous in history are also of value, in
+that they make these persons more real to the pupils. Materials for
+class use may be collected by the teacher and pupils,&mdash;engravings,
+prints, cuts from newspapers and magazines of famous people, buildings,
+cities, monuments, events; for example, the Landing of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> Columbus, the
+Coming of the Loyalists, the Fathers of Confederation, the Landing of
+the Pilgrim Fathers, an Old-Time Trading Post, the Death of Brock. A
+good idea is to have a class scrap-book, to be filled with suitable
+contributions from the class. The teacher will find a private scrap-book
+exceedingly useful. Many fine pictures are given in <i>The Highroads of
+History</i>, and <i>The Story of the British People</i> for Form III. It may be
+added that these pictures should be supplemented freely by descriptions
+and narratives given by the teacher. (See <i>Visual Aids in the Teaching
+of History</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Second, the pupils may be asked to illustrate, by drawings and sketch
+maps, historic places, routes of armies and of explorers, the journeys
+of settlers, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY AND COMPOSITION</h3>
+
+<p>History, no less than other subjects of study, needs to be expressed by
+the pupils, if it is to make them more efficient. Some of the usual
+modes of expression are given above in connection with constructive work
+and art. The chief mode of expression, however, for history is through
+composition, both oral and written.</p>
+
+<p>In the Junior Forms the stories should be reproduced orally (see Details
+of Method for Forms I and II, p. <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>), either by pure narration or by
+dramatization; the pupils relate in their own language what they have
+learned, or are allowed to dramatize the story. In the dramatization,
+the pupils should be given a good deal of freedom in constructing the
+conversation, once they get to know what is wanted, the only restriction
+being that no pupil shall be allowed to take part who does not know the
+story thoroughly. Incidents such as Harold taking the oath to help
+William of Normandy gain the crown of England, Joseph being sold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> into
+Egypt, the Greeks using the wooden horse to capture Troy, are very
+easily dramatized.</p>
+
+<p>In the Senior Forms the black-board outline may be used as the basis of
+written or oral reproduction. The subject of composition will itself be
+less objectionable by reason of these exercises, as the pupils are asked
+to reproduce the history as material valuable and interesting in itself,
+not merely as a means of showing their skill in expression. Moreover, in
+the study of history, the pupil hears or reads the compositions of
+others, and unconsciously gains, by these examples, much in vocabulary
+and in power of expression. In fact, much of the culture value of
+history depends on the training it affords in composition, and, by
+intimately connecting these two subjects, a double advantage is
+gained&mdash;the ability to comprehend historical material, and practice in
+effective expression.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OR THE USE OF DATES</h3>
+
+<p>Geography is one of "the eyes of history"; chronology, or the arranging
+of events according to their dates, is the other. This suggests that
+dates are to be used merely as a help in "seeing" events in history in
+their proper order, so that their relations to other events may be
+better understood. When these relations are seen, the dates lose much of
+their value.</p>
+
+<p>For example, let us consider the following dates: 1763, 1774, 1775,
+1783, 1791. The short interval between 1763, when Great Britain finally
+assumed control of Canada by treaty, and 1774, when the Quebec Act was
+passed, helps to make clear the reason for the French citizens receiving
+so many concessions. They outnumbered the English so much that these
+concessions were deemed necessary to hold their allegiance to the Crown
+in face of the efforts made by the discontented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> New England colonies to
+get their support in the coming revolution against Great Britain. The
+success of the Act was shown in 1775, when the invasion by the
+revolutionists failed. The war of the Revolution was ended by treaty in
+1783, and Canada received as settlers, principally in Upper Canada, the
+United Empire Loyalists, whose ideas of government were so different
+from those of the Lower Canadians that the separation of Upper and Lower
+Canada by the Constitutional Act of 1791 became necessary. These dates,
+so close together, emphasize the rapidity with which events moved in
+that period, as well as the sequence of cause and effect. We think also
+of the dates of Cartier's voyages, 1534, 1535, and 1541, merely to raise
+the question as to why so much time elapsed between the second and third
+voyages. When these points are properly seen, the events are kept in
+place by their relation of cause and effect, and the dates lose their
+value. Moreover, the relations thus discovered will do most toward
+fixing these dates in the memory. It should be understood, therefore,
+that dates are only a means to an end, not an end in themselves.</p>
+
+<p>It is important also to know the dates of certain events when we are
+studying the history of several countries, in order that we may consider
+together those events that are contemporary.</p>
+
+<p>There are, of course, some dates that should be remembered because of
+the importance of the events connected with them, for example: 1066,
+1215, 1492, 1603, 1688, 1759, 1776, 1789, 1841, 1867.</p>
+
+<p>In the Junior Forms, because the pupils are still lacking in the
+"historical sense," little emphasis need be put on the giving of dates.
+A few of the most important may be given in Form II, but it is very
+questionable if they have any significance to the pupils at this early
+stage.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h2>SPECIAL TOPICS</h2>
+
+<h3>CURRENT EVENTS</h3>
+
+
+<p>The study of history should not end with what is contained in
+text-books, for the making of history never ceases. The study of current
+events will be found to be a very valuable element in history teaching.
+Teachers and pupils who are interested in the events of to-day are much
+more likely to be interested in the events of the past. A knowledge of
+current events will arouse curiosity in what led up to them, will
+suggest a motive for studying the past, and will often supply concrete
+examples for both history and civics. In fact, the teaching of civics
+may be based almost entirely on current events. (See Civics, p. <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> et
+seq.) The influence of a knowledge of current events on the study of
+history is very plainly seen to-day in the earnest and widespread effort
+to discover the causes of the war that is devastating Europe at the
+present time. History becomes real when pupils understand that what is
+happening now has its roots in the past and, at the same time, is
+history in the making. For example, the present war will certainly
+intensify our interest in the great movement to prevent war by means of
+world-wide arbitration of disputes between nations, or by any other
+means. The value of this phase of history teaching depends very largely
+on the interest taken in it by the teacher and on the work that the
+pupils can be induced to do for themselves. The teacher talks to the
+pupils about some important current event in an interesting way. Then
+the pupils are encouraged to add to what he has said by relating what
+they have heard, or have read in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> newspapers. After a few lessons
+the chief difficulty is to make a suitable selection of topics to be
+discussed in class. Those of national importance, if within the scope of
+the Form work, will have prominence, and the pupils will be given hints
+as to articles about these topics in papers, magazines, and books. It is
+obvious that topics likely to arouse religious, political, or other
+party feeling, should be avoided. For actual school-room practice the
+following scheme has been used successfully in Form III:</p>
+
+
+<h3>CURRENT EVENTS (10 MINUTES DAILY)</h3>
+
+<p>The teacher has suggested the kinds of events that are worthy of
+discussion, and the pupils come to class prepared to tell what they have
+read in the papers about some of these. The teacher aids them to give
+fit expression to their information, and the pupil who has been chosen
+as editor writes a summary of the lesson on the black-board, and later,
+on a sheet of paper.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily, the editors should be chosen from those who write and spell
+well.</p>
+
+<p>Where the subject-matter lends itself to such treatment, these summaries
+may be placed in two columns&mdash;one, the <i>Girls' News Column</i>; the other,
+the <i>Boys' News Column</i>. The summaries on the sheets of paper may be
+arranged in order for a week or a month and be known as <i>The School
+Review</i>. Such a lesson includes history, and oral and written
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>The following items of news were those discussed in a Form III room at
+the end of the week, when some time is taken to talk over the events of
+the week:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;" class="smcap">Feb. 5th, 1915</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Rescue of the crew of the Japanese cruiser Asama.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Rescue work in the earthquake in Italy.</span><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Wireless message frustrates a German plot to blow up a French steamer.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Fire in a New York factory&mdash;rescue of the inmates.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Inhuman treatment of Belgian women and children.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">British officer praises the enemy.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">The Austrians are defeated by the Montenegrins.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Canadians wounded in France.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Importance of discipline and accurate shooting for Canadian troops.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Germany proclaims a war zone around Britain.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Two New York boy heroes of a fire.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Tsar honours a girl wounded while carrying ammunition to the troops.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Opening of the war session of the Canadian Parliament.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>These items are sifted from a great many suggested by the pupils. In the
+sifting process, a very useful discussion is had as to what constitutes
+real "news," and what is mere "gossip"; that is, what is of value as
+news to the world at large, and what is of purely local, personal
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>In civics, current topics may be made very useful. Items of municipal,
+provincial, or federal affairs furnish a concrete basis for the study of
+our system of government, and may also suggest moral examples.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LOCAL MATERIAL</h3>
+
+<p>One of the chief uses of local history in the class-room is to make the
+study of general history more vivid and interesting (1) by making more
+real those facts of history associated with the locality in which we
+live, and (2) by providing suitable illustrations, from the pupil's own
+experience, of facts in general history. When a pupil has seen the place
+where an event of history has happened, he has an interest in that event
+that he could scarcely gain in any other way, and the history of that
+period may then be taught with more interest and profit to him. A pupil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+finds also in local history certain facts that he must understand in
+order to interpret the story of happenings, distant in time and place.</p>
+
+<p>Some parts of Ontario are much richer in material than others, but in
+all historic spots may be found. On the St. Lawrence River, in the
+Niagara peninsula, in the Talbot settlement district, in York county,
+along the Ottawa River, in the Huron tract, there is no lack of useful
+material. But it is not necessary to confine such local history to the
+outstanding events of war or the larger happenings of civil progress. In
+every locality there are remains of the earlier Indian inhabitants, in
+the form of mounds, sites of villages, relics of war and the chase
+(arrow-heads, stone implements, beads, etc.); relics of the early
+settlers, in the form of roads and old log houses; relics of pioneer
+life consisting of furniture, household and outdoor implements, etc.,
+that will serve as a basis for comparison with present-day conditions,
+and make real to the children the lives of the earlier inhabitants and
+settlers of Ontario.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CIVICS</h3>
+
+<p>The teaching of civics has a threefold aim:</p>
+
+<p>1. To instruct in the mechanism of government. (Descriptive)</p>
+
+<p>2. To instruct in the history of national institutions so as to show the
+line of development, and also to impress the fact that existing
+institutions are capable of development, are not fixed. (Historical)</p>
+
+<p>3. "To show the cost of each institution in the efforts and sacrifices
+of past generations and to quicken and make permanent the children's
+interest in public life and their sense of responsibility to their
+fellows." (Patriotic and Ethical)</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Two points stand out clearly&mdash;to teach the machinery of government and
+to instil ideals of public conduct. Of these the second is by far the
+more important and the more difficult to teach directly. The best way to
+attempt it is by means of biography and personal references. There are
+great men and women in history whose lives are worthy examples to the
+young: Sir John Eliot, Pym, Hampden, who stood for freedom of speech and
+debate; Gladstone, who helped to right historic wrongs in the East;
+Lincoln, who stood for union and the freedom of the individual; many
+eminent Canadians, such as Sir John Macdonald, George Brown, Alexander
+Mackenzie, Egerton Ryerson, Sir Oliver Mowat, and Sir James Whitney;
+women such as Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Fry, Laura Secord and
+Sarah Maxwell. Besides these eminent examples, there are in every
+locality men and women who give unselfishly of their energy and time for
+the good of the community.</p>
+
+<p>There should also be impressed on the minds of the young a sense of
+their responsibility for an honest and faithful use of the ballot, a
+right won for them by the long and earnest effort of their forefathers;
+and the necessity for purity of government in our democratic form of
+administration. In school life, a good deal can be done to create a
+sense of fair play, respect for the rights of others, and of the
+necessity for submission to lawful authority by encouraging the pupils
+to conduct all their school organizations, whether in play or in work,
+honourably and by right methods.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the lessons that may be taught to children during their school
+life are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Respect for the rights of others. Pupils may be brought to see that
+misconduct on their part affects others, not themselves only.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Respect for the property of others. This may be secured best by
+teaching them to take good care of their own property first, for unless
+a child cares rightly for his own, he is not likely to take much thought
+for the things of others.</p>
+
+<p>3. Respect for public property. This is something that needs attention
+badly. It is a very common thing to find people destroying trees,
+flowers, etc., in public places, throwing refuse on the street, and
+otherwise disfiguring their surroundings. A beginning of better habits
+may be made by getting the pupils to aid in beautifying and decorating
+the school building by means of pictures, either prints or their own
+work, by flowers in pots, by keeping the floor and walls clean and free
+from marks and litter; also in making the grounds around the school more
+attractive by means of flowers and shrubs. Arbor Day may be made of
+great use in this respect, if the spirit of that Day can be carried
+through the whole year. A pride in the attractiveness of the school will
+have its influence on the pupils in the wider life of the community.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the machinery of government may be based on the pupils'
+knowledge of the organization of the school. The appointment, power, and
+duties of the teacher are the starting-point. The next step will be to
+investigate the composition of the board of school trustees. This may be
+done at the time of an election for school trustees. The following
+questions may serve as an outline of study for all the political bodies
+by which we are governed:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Who compose the board of trustees? (In the smaller local bodies,
+the names of the members may be mentioned, as giving a personal
+interest in the matter.)</p>
+
+<p>2. How and by whom are they elected?</p>
+
+<p>3. For what period are they elected?</p>
+
+<p>4. How is the board organized for the conduct of business?</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. What powers do they possess?</p>
+
+<p>6. What duties have they to fulfil?</p>
+
+<p>7. How do they raise the money needed for their work?</p>
+
+<p>8. How is the board rendered continuous? (By electing a successor
+to a member who resigns; by the trustees remaining in office till
+their successors are elected.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Other governing bodies may be taken up similarly, for example: Municipal
+Councils (township, county, village, town, or city council), Provincial
+Legislature, Dominion or Federal Parliament, Imperial Parliament. A
+suitable time to bring up the topic of how elections are conducted would
+be when an election for any of the above bodies is in progress.
+Information on this topic may be found in <i>Canadian Civics</i>, by Jenkins;
+a fuller account is given in Bourinot's <i>How Canada is Governed</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Lessons concerning special bodies of municipal and civil servants may be
+taken; for example, the assessor, tax-collector, policeman, postal
+employees, firemen, etc. In connection with all of these, the question
+of taxation is constantly arising. It is suggested that something should
+be done to put the pupils in the right attitude toward this subject.
+Many people have an idea that when they pay taxes they are being robbed,
+because they do not stop to think of what they are getting in return for
+their money. The chief reason for this seems to be that the taxes are
+usually paid once or twice a year, while the services rendered are
+continuous. A good way to proceed is to have the class calculate the
+value of the services given in return for the taxes. For example,
+suppose it is found that the yearly cost for each pupil in a certain
+section is $25.00. Divide this by the number of days (200) a pupil
+attends school during the year, and the cost each day for each pupil is
+shown be only 12-1/2 cents, not a very large sum for a community to pay
+for a child's education.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Other calculations may be made to show the saving to farmers by spending
+money in the construction of good roads to make teaming more profitable.
+For example: In a strip of country served by a road ten miles long,
+there is room for eighty farms of one hundred acres each, all the
+produce of which would be hauled on that road. Let us suppose that this
+produce would amount to 3,000 loads, such as could be hauled on an
+ordinary country road. The average haul being five miles, two trips a
+day could be made. At $5.00 a day, the cost of haulage would be $7,500.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose this road to be converted into a good stone road at a cost of
+$3,000 a mile, a total cost of $30,000. On this road, with the larger
+and heavier wagons that could now be used, the farmers could easily
+double the size of the load. This would mean that, instead of 3,000
+loads being necessary, 1,500 would be sufficient. At the same rate as
+before, the cost of haulage would be $3,750, an annual saving of $3,750;
+so that the whole cost of the road would be saved in eight years, to say
+nothing of the greater ease and comfort of travel to both man and beast.
+Better roads would also give the farmer access to market for a greater
+part of the year and thus enable him to take advantage of higher prices
+at certain seasons. It is believed that these figures are quite within
+the bounds of probability.</p>
+
+<p>In large towns and cities the cost of public utilities may be
+calculated; for example, the expense of a fire-station in buildings,
+equipment, horses, men, etc., to show how the money raised by taxes is
+spent for the good of the whole community, and helps to keep down the
+rates for fire insurance. The kinds of taxation may also be
+discussed&mdash;direct and indirect; also the sources from which direct<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+taxes are derived&mdash;customs, excise, etc.; methods of levying and
+collecting taxes; how taxes are spent for the various educational and
+charitable institutions&mdash;schools, libraries, hospitals, asylums, homes
+for the poor and neglected, etc.; for the protection of life and
+property; for the administration of justice, etc. The distribution of
+taxes among public institutions may be studied from the public accounts
+printed for the use of ratepayers.</p>
+
+<p>The lessons learned about the fairness of taxation may be used to
+illustrate certain periods of history when people struggled against
+unjust and arbitrary taxation; for example, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, the
+Civil War in England in the seventeenth century, the American and French
+Revolutions, Acts of Parliament in Canada from the Quebec Act to the Act
+of Confederation.</p>
+
+<p>A Dominion or Provincial election offers a good opportunity for a lesson
+on how to vote and how we came to have the right to vote; on the
+constitution of Parliament; on the sanctity of the ballot, etc.</p>
+
+<p>A trial by jury in which the people of the district are interested may
+be used to introduce the history and purpose of the jury.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE TEACHER OF HISTORY</h3>
+
+<p>The teacher of history must know his subject. This does not mean that
+every school teacher must have an expert knowledge of the whole subject,
+but he should know the history that is to be taught thoroughly enough to
+be able to teach the lesson orally without referring constantly to the
+text-book or to notes. This, at least, is the ideal to strive for. To
+accomplish this, the teacher is earnestly recommended to read at least
+one book in addition to the authorized text-book, which does not usually
+contain much more than the important facts of history.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> To clothe the
+skeleton of facts with flesh and blood so as to make history what it
+really is, a record of human beings who not only did things but had also
+thoughts and feelings like our own, it is necessary to be able to supply
+the personal details that make the figures of history real, living, men
+and women. (See the Story of Florence Nightingale, p. <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>.) The teacher
+who does this will himself come to have a more lively interest in
+history.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher must also know children. For the understanding of history,
+pupils are dependent on their previous knowledge of life and its
+interests. They must be led by timely suggestions or questions to see
+the connection between their own knowledge of life and the experiences
+of the actors in history. Without this connection, the facts of history
+remain meaningless.</p>
+
+<p>To present history to the pupils in an interesting way, the oral method
+is the best. It is not necessary for the teacher to have a special gift
+for narration; any one who is really interested in the story to be told
+is able to tell it well enough to hold the attention of the class. In
+narration, mere fluency is not the chief requisite; it is more important
+that the pupils should feel the teacher's interest in the topic. The
+narration must also be confined to the facts and details that count; the
+teacher needs to know what to omit as well as what to narrate. If the
+matter has been well thought out and clearly arranged in topics with due
+regard to the relation of cause and effect, the telling of the story
+will be an easier matter, and the pupils will be trained also in a clear
+and logical way of treating history. The oral method should be supported
+by the free use of devices for making the story real. (See p. <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>.) While
+it is quite true that certain important topics are to be thoroughly
+mastered as centres of connection for the less important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> facts, yet it
+must be insisted on that a more important aim of the teacher is to
+arouse and stimulate an interest in history so that the pupil's study of
+it may continue after the close of his school-days. No mastery of facts
+through memorization alone will counterbalance the lack of interest in,
+and liking for, the subject.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive rather
+than directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may be
+applied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature and
+of children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of the
+purpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in the
+main, the choice of method. This statement is especially true of
+history, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation is
+very great to make the teaching of this subject consist in mere
+memorizing of events and dates.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORMS I AND II</h3>
+
+<h4>TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE"</h4>
+
+<p>The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and the
+Burning Bush," and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories.</p>
+
+<p>As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, or
+make sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) the
+Burning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out to
+do God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real the
+verbal story.</p>
+
+<p>A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should be
+answered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes,
+his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of the
+Egyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story of
+Moses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, his
+home with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God,
+his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God's
+will.</p>
+
+<p>In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, to
+ascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction of
+each part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attention
+and a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproduction
+should, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story.</p>
+
+<p>In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board.
+These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or written
+reproduction that follows.</p>
+
+<p>If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library,
+pupils of Form II may be asked to read them.</p>
+
+<p>When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind of
+lesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the story
+prepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORMS I AND II</h3>
+
+<h4>THE FIRST THANKSGIVING</h4>
+
+<p>Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in Plymouth
+Harbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church";
+"Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel." (Perry Picture Co. pictures)</p>
+
+<p>A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of America
+drawn on the black-board.</p>
+
+<p>Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now&mdash;the
+returning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the general
+good-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this custom
+originate?</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of the
+Pilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the different
+parts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and the
+landing-place in America marked.</p>
+
+<p>This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' <i>The
+Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers</i>, and the telling of <i>The First
+Thanksgiving</i>. (See <a href="#APPENDIX">Appendix</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I,
+accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring,
+and in modelling, as they can do.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORM II</h3>
+
+<h4>FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE</h4>
+
+<p>In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia in
+the Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terrible
+hardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in the
+hospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The people
+in England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everything
+the army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from the
+letters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London <i>Times</i>, how
+great were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked at
+this state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, many
+thousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale and
+thirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglected
+soldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so well
+cared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have died
+if these noble women had not gone out to nurse them.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out of
+all the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhood
+she was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble.
+The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. When
+quite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father's
+estates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that they
+would be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animals
+around her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurt
+them; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick up
+the nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trot
+up to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose into
+her pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had for
+it. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and the
+owner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it.
+But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well with
+Florence's nursing.</p>
+
+<p>When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting the
+sick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or in
+sight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited the
+hospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to one
+of the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in the
+best way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improve
+the hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her health
+began to fail.</p>
+
+<p>It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to go
+to the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers.
+When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sick
+and wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> they had very
+little chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave the
+patients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cooked
+food to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds when
+they were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families at
+home. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, and
+carrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was all
+right, she was called "the lady with the lamp." As she went about,
+speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how much
+the poor soldiers thought of her.</p>
+
+<p>When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to her
+that the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250,000, but
+she gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained for
+their work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what she
+thought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did.</p>
+
+<p>She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat people
+who are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air,
+pure water, cleanliness, and light." She died August 10, 1910, but the
+good she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always be
+remembered.</p>
+
+
+<h4>METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just as
+it is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told to
+pupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how the
+story may be simplified for their understanding. After the story is
+told, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class follows
+in the usual way.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>FORM II</h3>
+
+<h4>THE POSTMASTER</h4>
+
+<h4>AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS</h4>
+
+<p>This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to make
+the pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, and
+importance of the postmaster.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-office
+and describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, and
+the teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with the
+letter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulating
+these points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3)
+Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed on
+the train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date on
+which it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelope
+should be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressions
+stamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From a
+consideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils may
+be led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, and
+prompt person.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc., before
+post-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doing
+his work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help him
+in the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc.</p>
+
+<p>A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment of
+salary may follow.</p>
+
+<p>In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster&mdash;the
+registration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes,
+the receiving and forwarding of money<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> to the Savings Bank, and the
+making of reports to the Post-office Department&mdash;may be discussed.</p>
+
+<p>In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teacher
+should obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank,
+a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils in
+the proper method of filling out these forms.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h4>THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC</h4>
+
+<p>The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling the
+matter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the British
+and the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done by
+sketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on it
+with coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements to
+be mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For the
+matter of this see <i>The Ontario Public School History of Canada</i>, pages
+83-97, and Parkman's <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec,
+mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome the
+difficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence.</p>
+
+<p>When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, a
+description of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and an
+enlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this.
+(See text-book, page 100.) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may be
+emphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model the
+disposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems may
+be given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: How
+would you<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land his
+soldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as the
+Montmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but the
+probability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns to
+the high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. The
+teacher will then tell what was done and with what results.</p>
+
+<p>This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problem
+questions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French at
+Montmorenci.</p>
+
+<p>This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which the
+teacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on the
+illness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown in
+attempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forces
+were drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome.</p>
+
+<p>This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orally
+before the class is dismissed.</p>
+
+<p>As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils are
+directed to read the full story in Parkman's <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>, or in
+the History Reader, pp. 284-292.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships,
+bridges, etc., may be placed in position and a realistic
+explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and
+the whole story would require several lesson spaces.</p>
+
+<p>References: The text-book, Weaver's <i>Canadian History for Boys and
+Girls</i>, and Parkman's <i>Montcalm and Wolfe</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h4>THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show why
+they had to leave the country; describe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> the treatment given to them by
+the revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were driven
+from their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatal
+to the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyalty
+in face of all their troubles.</p>
+
+<p>2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where the
+British flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map before
+them, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were the
+probable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they lived
+in the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will see
+from a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routes
+they followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have to
+be emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Boston
+to Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec and
+Eastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc.,
+to Western Ontario. (See <i>Fourth Reader</i>, p. 170.)</p>
+
+<p>3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any account
+of life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information.
+It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply the
+story to one of the children.</p>
+
+<p>4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the political
+ideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes in
+affairs in Upper Canada.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORM III</h3>
+
+<h4>THE FLAG</h4>
+
+<p>In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerful
+aid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is the
+emblem of a nation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should have
+a prominent place in the education of the young. Children should be
+taught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of our
+forefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) the
+significance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice;
+and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part.</p>
+
+<p>The last point&mdash;the construction of the Union Jack&mdash;should be preceded
+by a series of lessons on the individual "jacks." These lessons should
+explain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories of
+St. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saint
+of Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and the
+reasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the several
+countries. (See <a href="#APPENDIX">Appendix</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St.
+George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after the
+lesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lesson
+on the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow.</p>
+
+<p>The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of the
+flag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then the
+children will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacks
+may be given afterwards in the history lessons.</p>
+
+<p>As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct the
+flags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use in
+the final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>For St. George's&mdash;white ground&mdash;2-1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/2
+in.</p>
+
+<p>For St. Andrew's&mdash;blue ground&mdash;2-1/2 in. x 5 in., white cross 1/2
+in.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For St. Patrick's&mdash;white ground&mdash;2 1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/3
+in.</p></div>
+
+<p>When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the
+reign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attempt
+the problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose the
+flags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount that
+of Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, the
+white ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrow
+border of white along each arm being retained to represent the ground
+colour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of the
+red cross.</p>
+
+<p>The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, should
+be given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction the
+teacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referring
+also to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting the
+Irish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they are
+not likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacher
+to place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to lead
+them to observe:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. that it is usually oblong&mdash;twice as long as wide; (it may also
+be square);</p>
+
+<p>2. that the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St.
+Patrick's;</p>
+
+<p>3. that the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the
+width of the jack;</p>
+
+<p>4. that along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of
+white;</p>
+
+<p>5. that this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal
+the broad white of the St. Andrew's;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross
+and partly white ground;</p>
+
+<p>7. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the
+parts near the staff.</p></div>
+
+<p>When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flags
+which they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away all
+of the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross,
+retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew's
+Cross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white ground
+of the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), and
+paste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly made
+jack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth.</p>
+
+<p>Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, the
+following method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paper
+and red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of the
+jack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given:</p>
+
+<p>First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five inches
+wide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place the
+cross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to the
+measurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the border
+one third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividing
+lines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place the
+saltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St.
+Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St.
+Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St.
+Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick is
+placed touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, and
+above in the second and fourth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> quarters. Great care must be exercised
+in making the drawing of the Union Jack.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The following are the official regulations for the proportions of
+the Union Jack:</p>
+
+<p>1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide.</p>
+
+<p>2. The proportions are:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>
+Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag.<br />
+White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George.<br />
+Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George.<br />
+White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George.<br />
+Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George.<br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next
+the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other
+quarters.</p></div>
+
+<p>Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On the
+political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St.
+Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, and
+to this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick,
+a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jack
+are red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity;
+and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardly
+without disgracing our flag.</p>
+
+<p>On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that have
+helped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer to
+the colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empire
+rests.</p>
+
+<p>For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested:</p>
+
+
+<h4>FLAG DAYS</h4>
+
+<p>Opening and closing of each term</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Jan. 1.&mdash;Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be
+celebrated on the first school day of the new year.)</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Feb. 10.&mdash;Union of the Canadas, 1841.</p>
+
+<p>March 11.&mdash;First Responsible Ministry, 1848.</p>
+
+<p>March 14.&mdash;Founding of Upper Canada&mdash;Constitutional Act, 1791.</p>
+
+<p>March 24.&mdash;Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882).</p>
+
+<p>Empire Day.&mdash;The school day immediately preceding May 24.</p>
+
+<p>May 24.&mdash;Victoria Day.</p>
+
+<p>June 3.&mdash;The King's Birthday, 1865.</p>
+
+<p>July 1.&mdash;Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867.</p>
+
+<p>July 17.&mdash;First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792.</p>
+
+<p>September 13.&mdash;Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759.</p>
+
+<p>October 13.&mdash;Battle of Queenston Heights&mdash;Death of Sir Isaac Brock,
+1812.</p>
+
+<p>October 21.&mdash;Trafalgar Day, 1805.</p>
+
+<p>December 24.&mdash;Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of
+Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Other days commemorating events connected with various localities may
+also be chosen.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to
+Barlow Cumberland's <i>History of the Union Jack</i> (latest edition),
+to the <i>Flag Charts</i>, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to <i>The Flag of
+Canada</i>, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints
+of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG</h4>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">What is the blue on our flag, boys?<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The waves of the boundless sea,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And the feet of the winds are free;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From the sun and smiles of the coral isles<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To the ice of the South and North,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With dauntless tread through tempests dread<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The guardian ships go forth.<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">What is the white on our flag, boys?<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The honour of our land,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which burns in our sight like a beacon light<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And stands while the hills shall stand;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And we fight, wherever we be,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Of the brave hearts over the sea.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">What is the red on our flag, boys?<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The blood of our heroes slain,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On the burning sands in the wild waste lands<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And the froth of the purple main;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And the crest of the waves outrolled,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That He send us men to fight again<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As our fathers fought of old.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Whatever be said or done,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And the foe be ten to one&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And a bullet in heart or brain.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">What matters one gone, if the flag float on<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And Britain be Lord of the main!<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i4">&mdash;Frederick George Scott</span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<h4>THE UNION JACK</h4>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">It's only a small piece of bunting,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">It's only an old coloured rag;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yet thousands have died for its honour,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And shed their best blood for the flag.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It carries the cross of St. Patrick,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">For which Ireland's bravest have bled.<br /></span><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Joined with these is our old English ensign,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">St. George's red cross on white field;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Round which, from Richard to Roberts,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">It flutters triumphant o'er ocean,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">As free as the wind and the waves;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And bondsmen from shackles unloosened,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Britons, where'er their flag's flying,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Claim the rights which to Britons belong.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">We hoist it to show our devotion<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To our King, our country, and laws;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">It's the outward and visible emblem,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Of progress and liberty's cause.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">You may say it's an old bit of bunting,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">You may call it an old coloured rag;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But freedom has made it majestic,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And time has ennobled our flag.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+
+<h3>FORMS III AND IV</h3>
+
+<h4>SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY</h4>
+
+<p>The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of the
+subjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in these
+subjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attention
+focused on the purpose of the day.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase the
+pupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create in
+them fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling of
+responsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now and
+in the future.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>EXERCISES SUGGESTED</h4>
+
+<p>1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the Public
+School Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1,
+49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp.
+55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or two
+might be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given
+(pp. <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containing
+suitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department of
+Education on several occasions.</p>
+
+<p>2. In history: (<i>a</i>) Some information about the growth of the Empire;
+for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
+or any other part of the Empire was added; (<i>b</i>) Comparison of the size
+of the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as the
+Persian, Greek, or Roman; (<i>c</i>) The growth of Great Britain's commercial
+and naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is of
+losing it, etc.; (<i>d</i>) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of the
+Canadian ensign.</p>
+
+<p>3. In geography: (<i>a</i>) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red"
+cable&mdash;explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (<i>b</i>)
+"The sun never sets on the British flag." Make this clear by having
+pupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing British
+territory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships,
+too, are in every part of the ocean; (<i>c</i>) Compare the population and
+area of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany,
+France, etc.</p>
+
+<p>4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are to
+the square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out the
+population Canada would have if she were as densely populated as
+England,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> as the United States, as Germany, etc.; how fast did the
+population of the United States increase in the first century after the
+Revolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if it
+increases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the last
+fifty, etc.; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch up
+to Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible position
+and power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen the
+sense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let the
+pupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculations
+as they can find in their text-books.)</p>
+
+<p>5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or written
+composition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercises
+mentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them.</p>
+
+<p>6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="TYPE_LESSONS" id="TYPE_LESSONS"></a>TYPE LESSONS</h2>
+
+<h3>FORM IV</h3>
+
+<h4>INTRODUCTORY</h4>
+
+
+<p>As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>), the ideal
+method of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not only
+the narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils of
+problems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class may
+help to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would be
+like doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in the
+majority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. The
+value of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal points
+that should be described or developed and, more important still, that it
+assists the pupils to <i>understand</i> the lesson better, that is, to see
+more clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis will
+also suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no better
+evidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than the
+ability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis should
+then be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and the
+use of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher more
+expert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in the
+class.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EGERTON RYERSON</h4>
+
+<p>One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupils
+ideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life.
+The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of some
+useful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+bettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupils
+should be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these facts
+should be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible by
+appropriate personal details and concrete description. The following
+sketch may serve as an example:</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville,
+near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the
+County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British
+army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the
+Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a
+native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote
+ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American
+revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to
+New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was
+Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan
+settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his
+family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some
+2,500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the
+army, besides his pension.</p></div>
+
+<p>Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a very
+religious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egerton
+learned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling how
+she treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "though
+thoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowingly
+grieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words."</p>
+
+<p>The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it.
+Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre of
+ground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, and
+mowed every spear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, and
+then from the wagon to the haymow or stack." This was the work that gave
+him strength and health to do the great things that were before him. His
+years in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of them
+that when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the place
+of one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instruction
+from teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went to
+Hamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Here
+he studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brain
+fever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life was
+despaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursing
+restored him to health.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. When
+twenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at the
+Credit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them better
+ways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Between
+daylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in succession
+and, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, and
+plough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon I
+called out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn the
+brushwood in and around the village."</p>
+
+<p>In 1829 <i>The Christian Guardian</i> newspaper was organized as the organ of
+the Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in
+1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College.</p>
+
+<p>In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for
+Upper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to a
+proper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve the
+qualifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> schools
+and to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could be
+engaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methods
+that he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. A
+Provincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better books
+were provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for all
+schools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitable
+in a new country&mdash;popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to build
+schools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition of
+many who did not set the same value on education that he himself did had
+also to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailing
+patience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devoted
+his matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing a
+public sentiment in favour of education, and of building on sure
+foundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is the
+just pride of our Province and his own best monument.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and was
+succeeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promise
+he made on accepting office in 1844&mdash;"to provide for my native country a
+system of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement not
+second to those in any country in the world."</p>
+
+<p>He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in his
+life the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at his
+funeral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities,
+ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he had
+founded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he never
+failed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadian
+who had lived so faithfully and well for his country.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim
+Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add
+interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction
+to them.</p></div>
+
+<p>For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the
+history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was
+worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new
+interest in its political life was awakened, new movements
+inaugurated. These were along three lines&mdash;one, political with
+responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal
+rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third,
+educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without
+distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is
+known as the struggle for Responsible Government&mdash;the struggle for
+equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the
+Clergy Reserves&mdash;the struggle for equal religious rights; the third
+as the University Question&mdash;the struggle for non-denominational
+control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson
+played a very prominent part and, because these affected the
+politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;For purposes of reference, consult <i>The Story of My
+Life</i> by Dr. Ryerson; <i>The Ryerson Memorial Volume</i> by Dr. J.G.
+Hodgins; <i>Egerton Ryerson</i> by Nathaniel Burwash in <span class="smcap">The Makers
+of Canada</span>; and <i>Egerton Ryerson</i> by J.H. Putnam.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY</h4>
+
+<p>The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the
+British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class
+knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day,
+and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+Day. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for
+reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian
+Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with
+Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union."</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Teacher.</i>&mdash;Did you notice the two places that were to be connected
+by the road?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil.</i>&mdash;They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Because it is near the sea.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;It freezes up.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter,
+and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was
+chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on
+the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;We can tell better a little later which one was actually
+chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should
+they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many
+people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How
+would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we
+send our goods to Europe now in winter?</p>
+
+<p>(Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could
+ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence
+before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;By using the canals.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;How can we ship by rail?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and
+the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals
+already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and
+others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before
+Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to
+Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have
+a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may
+see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can
+you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as
+the western terminus of the new railway?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Yes, Quebec would be the one.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Why?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for
+sending their goods as far as Quebec city.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;The next point to think about is&mdash;How had Canada been
+shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?</p>
+
+<p>(Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything
+till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections
+were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible.
+Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through
+the United States.)</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of
+wanting to build a railway of their own?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made
+between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity
+Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely.
+This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to
+depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of
+trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the
+Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils
+are told here about the "Trent"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> and "Alabama" affairs, and the
+Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that
+there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that
+would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway
+was needed from Quebec to Halifax?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Because there was danger of war, and because the United
+States might interfere with Canadian trade.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;There were both military and commercial reasons. We have
+found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why
+it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out
+is&mdash;Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and
+had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it
+done, what route would you be likely to follow?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;I think I should take the shortest way.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Where would the road go then?</p>
+
+<p>(Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)</p>
+
+<p>Tell where it would run.</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick,
+and Nova Scotia.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the
+reasons for building it at all.</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is
+in the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;What is the next way they might think of?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine,
+into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Would they take that way?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;No, because it is too near the border of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Why do you say "too near"?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come
+over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear
+up the rails.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route
+could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;They would stay as far from the border as possible.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;How far?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to
+Halifax.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Would that be the cheapest line to build?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which
+of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as
+far from the border as they could?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;The military reason.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most
+interested in the military considerations?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where
+would the money come from?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Why?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Because there were not very many people here then.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes
+even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the
+railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was
+to be built.</p></div>
+
+<p>The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places
+on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher
+would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles),
+and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that
+the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized,
+that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer
+together, and that other railways have since been built on the two
+rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand
+Trunk Pacific.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the
+black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of
+the road</p>
+
+<p>2. Reasons for building the road</p>
+
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) Military<br />
+(<i>b</i>) Commercial<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>3. Selection of the route</p>
+
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) Routes that were possible<br />
+(<i>b</i>) Reasons for the final choice<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>4. Facts about the road</p>
+
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>
+(<i>a</i>) Principal places on the road<br />
+(<i>b</i>) Branches of the road<br />
+(<i>c</i>) Length and cost<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>5. Value of the road to the new Dominion</p></div>
+
+<p>The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and
+the chief commercial centres served by the railway.</p>
+
+
+<h4>INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;This lesson should be preceded by an information
+lesson on the making of cotton goods&mdash;the material, how and where
+the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference
+between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof.</p></div>
+
+<p>The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions
+changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the
+greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of
+wealth that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon.
+The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in
+English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation,
+in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible
+to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without
+understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at
+such length.</p>
+
+<p>This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The
+dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are
+introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize
+further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention
+would be needed next. The oral method&mdash;both pure narrative, and
+development&mdash;is supposed to be used.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Domestic System of Manufacture.</i>&mdash;Before 1760 the manufacture of
+cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would
+procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where,
+with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and
+return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power
+on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only
+one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the
+use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn
+was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use
+the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some
+way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny.</i>&mdash;The first important invention of the
+period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an
+ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was
+returning from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home
+before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to
+rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in
+motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle,
+usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave
+him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with
+which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight).
+From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame.</i> Sir Richard Arkwright
+invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of
+spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the
+thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with
+hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Mule.</i> In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a
+finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to
+weave any grade of cloth.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Power-loom.</i> The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the
+weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled
+the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners
+could make.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Steam-engine.</i> These machines were run by hand or water-power.
+In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was
+used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to
+use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of
+water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was
+plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. <i>The Cotton-gin.</i> Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it
+could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly
+hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came
+from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could
+be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the
+cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very
+quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of
+cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an
+hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover
+how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton
+was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England
+was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be
+added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for
+its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin
+was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern
+States that led to the Civil War.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Coal-mining and Smelting.</i> These machines were made of iron, and
+coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was
+plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam
+pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this
+was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater
+amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in
+England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which
+is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until
+Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a
+plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>9. <i>The Safety Lamp.</i> Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of
+the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the
+miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives
+thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in
+1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these
+explosions.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Transportation.</i> Now that there was so much manufacturing carried
+on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to
+where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many
+parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as
+the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to
+form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in
+road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)</p>
+
+<p>Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in
+rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in
+1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800
+many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Agriculture.</i> The number of people engaged in the factories was
+increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it
+necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger;
+better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making
+it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater
+quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the
+exhaustion of the soil.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Social Conditions.</i> Out of the factory system grew the division of
+classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great
+problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from
+an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and
+became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money
+to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it
+was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles."</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;The teacher may refer to some of the modern social
+problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the
+country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and
+suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance,
+decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see <i>A
+History of the British Nation</i>, by A.D. Innes, T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack,
+Edinburgh.)</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>THE ROAD TO CATHAY</h4>
+
+<p>The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European
+nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the
+East&mdash;India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)&mdash;led to the
+discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a
+review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil
+practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show
+the development of history along a certain line.</p>
+
+<p>The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher
+thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are
+not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical
+sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to
+memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used
+frequently.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>THE LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations
+the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice
+became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay
+after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in
+silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the
+desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up,
+carried on principally by the great Italian cities&mdash;Venice, Florence,
+Genoa, Pisa, Milan&mdash;and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean,
+the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern
+trade, and kept for a time the other western nations&mdash;Spain, Portugal,
+France, and England&mdash;from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the
+hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not
+long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the
+introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer
+guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the
+use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the medi&aelig;val
+castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the
+invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men
+travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes
+were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia
+Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was
+closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez
+Canal was not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good
+Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the
+Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.</p></div>
+
+<p>Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to
+solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by
+Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still
+earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more
+complete solution.</p>
+
+<p>Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of
+geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and
+not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by
+sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean&mdash;a
+route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the
+Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying
+it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not
+want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal.
+The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of
+Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer;
+but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made
+his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave
+ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile
+he was enabled to put his dream to the test.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus&mdash;his
+efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher
+may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's
+Poem, "Columbus," <i>High School Reader</i>, pp. 143-145.</p></div>
+
+<p>When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought
+he had found what he had set out to find&mdash;the eastern country of India;
+and he believed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> it all his life. This idea survived for several
+generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When
+Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again
+to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely
+as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their
+chief ambition.</p>
+
+<p>In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out
+to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his
+son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South
+Carolina, with the same object.</p>
+
+<p>In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gasp&eacute;
+and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the
+gateway to the East.</p>
+
+<p>With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu
+River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to
+the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a
+large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the
+continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a
+North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he
+sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked.
+A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been
+only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring
+Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth
+voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and
+he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the
+West, that he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> at last successful. He wintered there, and when the
+ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son,
+and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of
+again. (See <i>The Story of the British People</i> pp. 234-235.)</p>
+
+<p>The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific
+Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and
+Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of
+Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on
+Montreal Island was called <i>La Chine</i> (the French word for China), in
+allusion to his desire to find the way to that country.</p>
+
+<p>Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of
+what is now Canada. V&eacute;rendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by
+way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the
+junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands;
+also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored
+the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West
+Company&mdash;Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne&mdash;amid great
+hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of
+exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the
+Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and
+steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to
+Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it
+has been our lot to accomplish.</p>
+
+<p>Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up
+afterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> Canal and its effect
+on trade&mdash;why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the
+opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the
+reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA</h4>
+
+<p>The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline
+of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will
+use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the
+Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the
+lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat
+different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should
+show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print
+indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils
+after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are
+suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the
+black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either
+teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and
+development methods.</p>
+
+<p>For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is <i>A
+History of the British Nation</i>, by A.D. Innes, T.C. &amp; E.C. Jack,
+Edinburgh.</p>
+
+
+<h4>I. CAUSES</h4>
+
+<p>1. <i>Political.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief
+obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the
+marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had
+refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> were in full
+revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and
+the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant
+power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.)</p></div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off
+negotiations of marriage with Philip.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots to
+the English throne.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Commercial</i>.&mdash;Interference of the English in the New World, to which
+Spain claimed sole right.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of
+Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.)</p></div>
+
+<p>3. <i>Religious.</i>&mdash;Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in
+Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.)</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>II. EVENTS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Preparations in Spain and England.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well
+as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His
+death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible
+for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the
+Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet
+was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it
+actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were
+very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the
+eve of battle should be made.)</p></div>
+
+<p>2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were
+ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were
+defending their homes; they forgot their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> religious and political
+differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless,
+and most skilful in handling their ships.)</p></div>
+
+<p>3. The affair at Cadiz.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for
+preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.)</p></div>
+
+<p>4. The battle in the Channel.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588;
+fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance
+for a vivid description by the teacher.)</p></div>
+
+<p>5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories
+of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and
+recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's <i>Westward
+Ho!</i>)</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>III. RESULTS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (<i>a</i>)]</p>
+
+<p>2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power.</p>
+
+<p>3. Greater religious tolerance in England.</p>
+
+<p>4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this.</p>
+
+<p>5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule
+the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals
+of political, social, and religious liberty.</p>
+
+<p>(See <i>P.S. History of England</i>, secs. 135-142.)</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM</h3>
+
+<p>(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)</p>
+
+<p><i>Aim.</i> To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was
+held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in
+England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the
+Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STEP I</h4>
+
+<p>1. <i>Introduction.</i> By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil
+that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm;
+from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be
+derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as
+applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel
+may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on
+shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a
+florist's business, a rink, etc.</p>
+
+<p>2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the
+<i>Ontario Public School History of England</i>, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw
+a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STEP II</h4>
+
+<p>(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Saxon System:</i> Further study of the early land tenure of the
+Saxons. (See <i>Ontario High School History of England</i>, p. 33.) The
+following extract from Oman's <i>England before the Norman Conquest</i> may
+be of assistance:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The typical free settlement of an English <i>maegth</i> (or kindred)
+consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow
+strips, of which each household<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> possessed several, next of the
+almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into
+appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter,
+and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole
+community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture
+its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some
+seasons.</p>
+
+<p>The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with
+a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year,
+fallow&mdash;to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of
+its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the
+cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when
+they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had
+been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional
+cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently
+allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or
+otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an
+abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in
+each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the
+fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its
+various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.</p></div>
+
+<p>Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (<i>P.S. Hist. of
+Eng.</i>, pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (<i>P.S. Hist. of Eng.</i>, p.
+37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of
+necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the
+freeman.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Courts</i>: The <i>Witan</i>, which could displace the king for certain
+reasons, the <i>Shire</i> or <i>folk-moot</i>, and the <i>Tun-moot</i>; their powers;
+the people looked to these courts for justice.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Change</i> brought about by Danish raids&mdash;small freeholders sought
+protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small
+landowners to "eorls."</p>
+
+
+<h4>STEP III</h4>
+
+<p><i>The Feudal System in France:</i> (Read Scott's <i>Quentin Durward</i>.) Barons
+too powerful for the king for various reasons:</p>
+
+<p>1. Their property was large and compact.</p>
+
+<p>2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc.</p>
+
+<p>3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior.</p>
+
+<p>By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would
+probably do to strengthen his own position.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STEP IV</h4>
+
+<p><i>The Feudal System under William:</i> (Note the innovations of William.)</p>
+
+<p>1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a
+tribe, but William personally, who conquered England.</p>
+
+<p>2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or
+because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was
+conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.)</p>
+
+<p>3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which
+were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him.</p>
+
+<p>5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the
+military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in
+later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them.</p>
+
+<p>7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath.</p>
+
+<p>The important points of each step should be written on the black-board
+as they are described or developed.</p>
+
+<p>(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another
+lesson.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>SEIGNIORIAL TENURE</h3>
+
+<p>The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of
+land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to
+trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the
+development of the country; and to increase their interest in the
+present system of tenure.</p>
+
+
+<h4>METHOD</h4>
+
+<p>In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System
+would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him
+by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by
+the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it.
+Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this
+description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher
+supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the
+pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for
+his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in
+Canada. Then the evils connected with this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> system may be presented as
+another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be
+discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In
+connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding
+land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and
+can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then
+ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what
+cost.</p>
+
+<p>The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development,
+or problem, methods.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in
+Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading
+principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this
+method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system
+of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See
+<i>Ontario Public School History</i>, Chapter IX, also <i>Ontario High School
+History of Canada</i>, Chap. VIII.)</p>
+
+<p>2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure,
+which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was
+paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service.
+Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles.
+An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors
+annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These
+<i>seigniors</i>, as they were called, had great powers within their domains.
+This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in
+France, called the Feudal System.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>At this point the teacher might give a short description of the
+Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its
+surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in
+comparison with the lords.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year
+1527. He had two objects in view: (<i>a</i>) to create a Canadian
+aristocracy, (<i>b</i>) to establish an easy system of dividing land among
+settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial
+Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became
+his vassal, and in turn made grants to the <i>censitaires</i>, those who held
+their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured
+<i>habitants</i> to cultivate the soil.</p>
+
+<p>4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a
+certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to
+two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire
+sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth
+of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the
+King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very
+attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in
+this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted
+patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from
+cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their
+attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and
+the most gallant defenders of New France.</p>
+
+<p>5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and English
+settlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Their
+number was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who came
+over after the American Revolution. The English disliked the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> French
+method of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land in
+a seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to one
+twelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on the
+value of the land, but also on the value of all buildings and
+improvements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often more
+valuable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlers
+an intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System had
+been abolished in England.)</p>
+
+<p>6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act which
+gave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in their
+own name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to avail
+themselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantage
+of their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished,
+the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of their
+ancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, was
+introduced.</p>
+
+<p>7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) It was not adapted to conditions in Canada.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) It did not provide sufficient incentive to settlers to
+improve their lands.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) It gave the habitant no chance to rise.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) It tended to divide the population into three classes.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) It failed to develop a civic spirit. This fact alone made
+progress practically impossible. Each seignior was the master of
+his own domain. Thus the people had no opportunity of working
+together, and under such circumstances no great national spirit
+could be developed.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>8. Note the effect of the conquest of Canada and of the American
+Revolution, upon Seigniorial Tenure.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONFEDERATION OF CANADIAN PROVINCES</h3>
+
+<h4>TOPICAL ANALYSIS</h4>
+
+<p><i>Causes:</i></p>
+
+<p>1. The idea of union an old one in Canada and the Maritime Provinces;
+foreshadowed in Durham's Report.</p>
+
+<p>2. Immediate cause in Canada was the question of representation by
+population; deadlock in Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>3. Immediate cause in Maritime Provinces was the feeling between Britain
+and the Colonies and the United States over the <i>Trent</i> affair, the
+<i>Alabama</i> trouble, and the idea in the Northern States that the British
+Colonies favoured the cause of the South in the Civil War.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Steps toward Confederation:</i></p>
+
+<p>1. Meeting of delegates from the Maritime Provinces in Charlottetown in
+1864.</p>
+
+<p>2. Meeting in Quebec, 1864, of delegates from all the provinces favours
+Confederation.</p>
+
+<p>3. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island reject the proposal, and
+delegates from Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), Nova
+Scotia, and New Brunswick proceed to London to secure an Act of Union
+from the Imperial Government.</p>
+
+<p>4. Movement in favour of union hastened by United States giving notice
+in 1865 of the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty in a year, and by
+the Fenian Raid, 1866.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. Union accomplished by means of the British North America Act passed
+by the British Parliament in 1867, and brought into force on July 1st,
+1867. The provinces confederated as the Dominion of Canada; a Federal
+Union.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Outline of Terms:</i></p>
+
+<p>See <i>Ontario Public School History of Canada</i>, p. 215. Provision made
+for admission of new provinces.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Expansion of Confederation:</i></p>
+
+<p>Admission of other provinces&mdash;Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871;
+Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Yukon
+territory also represented in the Dominion Parliament.</p>
+
+
+<h3>NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS ON THE
+HISTORY OF A COUNTRY</h3>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Correlation of History and Geography</span></h3>
+
+
+<h4>GENERAL</h4>
+
+<p>The history of a nation is influenced very largely by geographical
+facts. Its internal relations, whether friendly or hostile, are affected
+by these. Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, or great lakes and
+rivers, are often political frontiers exerting protecting or isolating
+influence.</p>
+
+<p>Its industrial progress depends primarily upon its natural
+products&mdash;minerals, grains, woods, fish, etc., and the facilities which
+its structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign. A sea-coast,
+with satisfactory harbours, tends to produce a sea-faring people, and
+therefore a trading people.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The character of its people is conditioned by the zone in which the
+nation is situated. In the north temperate zone is the climate best
+suited for the growth of peoples vigorous in mind and body, and lovers
+of freedom.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ENGLAND</h4>
+
+<p><i>Position:</i> The forming of the Straits of Dover cut off a corner of
+Europe, made Great Britain an island, and later a single political unit.
+Situated between Europe and America with ports opening toward each, her
+position gives her the opportunity for naval and commercial greatness.
+The narrow sea separating her from the continent is a defence in war and
+a means of intercourse in peace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Structure:</i> Two regions&mdash;one of plain, the other of hills; a line drawn
+from the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn and continued to
+the south coast roughly divides these regions. The part lying east of
+this line is, roughly speaking, level and fertile, tempting emigration
+from the continent, and easily explored inward. The Angles, the Saxons,
+and the Jutes found their way into this plain through the rivers that
+flowed east and south. The Pennines, the Welsh Peninsula, and the
+southwest of England from Bristol are in the hilly part, which, because
+of its mineral wealth, has become the great industrial district.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate:</i> Though England lies north of the fiftieth parallel, the moist
+southwest winds from the ocean temper the climate, making the winters
+mild and the summers cool, a climate favourable to the growth of a
+vigorous race. There is an abundant rainfall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Products:</i> On the plains a fertile soil supported a large agricultural,
+and therefore self-contained, population in the earlier days, and the
+slopes furnished pasturage for cattle and sheep. Proximity to coal is an
+almost indis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>pensable condition for industries, though other
+considerations come in. In the hill country coal and iron, essential
+materials for a manufacturing nation, lie near to the deposits of
+limestone necessary for smelting the iron ore. The coal-fields on or
+near the coast are centres of shipbuilding; and the interior coal-fields
+the centres of the great textile industries. Because of her insular
+position and fleets of ships the raw products from other countries can
+be brought to England easily and cheaply, and then shipped out as
+manufactured goods.</p>
+
+<p>Consult: <i>A Historical Geography of the British Empire</i>. Hereford B.
+George, Methuen &amp; Co., London. <i>The Relations of Geography and History</i>.
+Hereford B. George, Clarendon Press, Oxford.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ANOTHER FORM OF THE LESSON</h4>
+
+<p>The teacher will announce the topic for discussion, namely, how the
+history of Great Britain has been affected by her insular position.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Trace on the map the coast line of Great Britain. (Pupil does
+so.) What do you notice about the coast line in comparison to the
+size of the Island?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;It is very irregular and has a good many bays and inlets.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Would this have any effect on the life and occupations of the
+people?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;They would almost have to be sailors.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;In other words, a maritime people. Do you think that is
+usual? Look at the coast line of Japan. (Class sees that it is much
+the same as that of Britain: the Japanese are also a maritime
+race.) What is one occupation the people would follow?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;They would probably be fishermen. (The teacher may give some
+idea of the extent of the fishing. The same may be done with each
+new point, as it comes up.)</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;What else would they do?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;They would probably engage in trade or commerce.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;With which countries? Study the map for a moment.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;With those on the west of Europe, and with America.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Yes. You must notice that Great Britain is situated very
+favourably for trade with the whole world. Is there anything on the
+map to show this?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;There are a great many lines on the map that show the water
+routes from Britain to almost every country in the world.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Suppose Britain had trouble with any other country that might
+be a cause of war, would her position make any difference to her?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;No country could attack her except by water.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;How would she defend herself?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;She would have to depend on her ships. (A good opening for a
+brief outline of the growth of the navy.)</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Where would she get her ships?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;She builds them herself.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Isn't she dependent on any other nation at all?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;No, she has always had the material in her own country for
+that.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;What are they built of?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;The old ships were wooden, and she had plenty of the best
+timber,&mdash;oak.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;What are they built of to-day?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Most of them are of iron.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Where does she get that?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;From her own mines.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Now, look at the latitude of Britain. What part of our
+country has the same latitude?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Labrador.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;What is the climate of Labrador?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;Very cold.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Then the climate of Britain ought to be the same?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;The water around it would make it not so cold.</p>
+
+<p><i>T.</i>&mdash;Yes. The ocean currents from the south help to make the
+climate milder, too. There would be plenty of rain, besides. Now,
+how would a moist, mild climate affect agriculture in England?</p>
+
+<p><i>P.</i>&mdash;They ought to be able to grow almost everything that we can.</p></div>
+
+<p>(Similarly, many other points may be taken up and developed with the
+class.)</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>ST. LAWRENCE RIVER</h3>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Incidental Teaching of History with Geography</span></h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Aim.</i>&mdash;To show general connection between history and geography.</p>
+
+<p><i>Material Required.</i>&mdash;A black-board sketch of that part of Canada
+adjacent to the St. Lawrence and a set of pictures (or picture
+post-cards) showing the important historical sites along the banks of
+the river.</p>
+
+<p><i>Introduction.</i>&mdash;The teacher asks a few questions to make clear the
+purpose of the map and to fix the location of the principal towns and
+cities&mdash;Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Ogdensburg, Morrisburg,
+Cornwall, Lachine, Montreal, Three Rivers, Levis, Quebec, Tadoussac, and
+Gasp&eacute;.</p>
+
+<p><i>Presentation.</i>&mdash;The lesson is assumed to be a pleasure trip by boat
+from Port Hope to the Atlantic. The teacher will tell of the departure
+from Port Hope and the arrival at Kingston, the first port. While there,
+he will ask why the place was given the name of Kingston. (It was named
+in honour of George III; as Queenston, at the upper end of the lake, was
+in honour of Queen Charlotte.) Leaving Kingston the teacher will
+describe (showing pictures) the appearance of the fort on the point and,
+with the pupils, will recall its establishment by Frontenac in 1673, and
+its use as a check on the Indians, and will note its use now as a
+storehouse, barracks, and training camp for soldiers. (<i>Ontario Public
+School History</i>, pp. 51, 114.)</p>
+
+<p>As the trip is continued down the river, they notice, in passing, the
+beautiful Thousand Islands, and the town of Brockville&mdash;its name
+commemorating the hero of Queenston Heights. Immediately below Prescott
+is seen on the bank of the river an old wind-mill, the scene of the
+Patriot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> invasion under Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer. (See <i>Ontario
+Public School History</i>, p. 178, and picture in Weaver's <i>Canadian
+History for Boys and Girls</i>, p. 227.)</p>
+
+<p>Across the river lies Ogdensburg, the scene of a raid in 1813. Colonel
+Macdonell, the British leader, who was drilling his small force on the
+ice, made a sudden attack upon the town, defeated the Americans,
+captured a large amount of stores and ammunition, and burned four armed
+vessels which lay in the harbour. (See <i>Ontario Public School History</i>,
+p. 155.)</p>
+
+<p>From this point the boat passes rapidly through the narrow part of the
+river at Iroquois (recall the Indians of that name), past the
+flourishing town of Morrisburg, until, on the north bank, appears a
+monument of gray granite, erected as a memorial of the battle of
+Crysler's Farm, fought in this vicinity in 1813. (See <i>Ontario Public
+School History</i>, p. 159.)</p>
+
+<p>After passing through the Long Sault Rapids, Cornwall, noted as the seat
+of the first Grammar School in Ontario, is reached. The river now widens
+into a lake and does not narrow until it passes Coteau, after which it
+passes through a chain of rapids and nears Lachine, the "La Chine" of La
+Salle, and the scene of numerous Indian fights and massacres. (See
+<i>Ontario School Geography</i>, p. 116, and <i>Ontario Public School History
+of Canada</i>, p. 60.) Ten miles to the east is Montreal, the most populous
+city in Canada, with its Royal Mount, and its many memories of early
+settlement in Canada. (See <i>Ontario School Geography</i>, p. 121.)</p>
+
+<p>Just above Quebec the river, now two miles wide, passes the bold cliffs
+up which Wolfe's men climbed to the Plains of Abraham, and sweeps around
+the Citadel and Lower Town. On the heights may be seen the monuments
+erected in honour of Champlain, and Wolfe and Mont<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>calm. In imagination,
+pictures may be formed of the scenes that marked the close of French
+Rule in Canada. The river flows on past Tadoussac, long the centre of
+the Canadian fur-trade, past Gasp&eacute; where Cartier landed and laid claim
+to the surrounding country in the name of the king of France, till its
+banks fade from sight and its waters mingle with those of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>In teaching such lessons as this, the oral narrative and question method
+is used. It is a review lesson, and reproduction may follow in a written
+exercise.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND FROM 1066 TO 1603</h3>
+
+<p>The purpose of this analysis is to explain by what show of right the
+kings of England interfered so much in Scottish affairs. The analysis
+also aims to show how correct and definite views on certain topics may
+be had only by following out those topics through history, neglecting
+all facts but those bearing on the topic studied.</p>
+
+<p>1. In the tenth century, Malcolm I obtained Strathclyde (see map,
+<i>Ontario Public School History of England</i>, p. 27) as a fief from Edmund
+of England. His grandson, Malcolm II, was invested with Lothian, before
+this a part of the English earldom of Northumbria. These fiefs are the
+basis of all claims afterwards made by English kings as overlords of
+Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>2. Malcolm III (1057-1093) married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling.
+The Norman conquest drove many Saxons north, and the Saxon element in
+Scotland was strengthened by this.</p>
+
+<p>3. William the Conqueror compelled Malcolm's submission, 1072. This kept
+alive the English claims.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. Henry I married Matilda of Scotland. Many Normans went to Scotland in
+the reign of David (1124-1153). The Feudal System was introduced and
+firmly established under Norman influence. Ecclesiastical foundation
+begun. Friendly relations strengthened.</p>
+
+<p>5. As the price of his liberty, William the Lyon agreed, by the
+Convention of Falaise, 1174, to hold Scotland as a fief of England.</p>
+
+<p>6. To raise money for his Crusade, Richard I of England renounced, in
+1189, his feudal rights over Scotland for 10,000 marks, and for the
+first time acknowledged her independence.</p>
+
+<p>7. The border line was fixed for the first time in 1222.</p>
+
+<p>8. The death of Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 1286, left the
+crown a bone of contention; Balliol finally secured it by favour of
+Edward I of England, the overlord of Scotland. Then followed the War of
+Independence under Wallace and Bruce and the Battle of Bannockburn,
+1314. This long and destructive war caused the Scots to have a deadly
+hatred of the English, and drove Scotland into alliance with France, the
+great enemy of England, and consolidated the different races in
+Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>9. Scotland thus became involved in the many wars between England and
+France and attacked England whenever she and France were at war.</p>
+
+<p>10. In 1327, the independence of Scotland was acknowledged.</p>
+
+<p>11. Friendship with France and distrust of England continued well into
+the Reformation period, and in the main determined Scotland's foreign
+policy.</p>
+
+<p>12. With the change of religion in Scotland at the Reformation, French
+influence came to an end. Religious sympathy overcame the political
+hatred of England.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>13. The trouble in connection with Mary Queen of Scots and her
+imprisonment made for peace between the two countries, as Scotland did
+not want to have Mary released for fear of further civil war.</p>
+
+<p>14. The accession of James VI, a Scottish king, to the throne of
+England, ended almost entirely the differences between the two
+countries, and led finally to the Legislative Union a century later
+(1707).</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS 160-170, ONTARIO PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND</h3>
+
+<p>The Parliament had already established its sole right to levy taxation.
+(See Green's <i>Short History of the English People</i>, p. 478.) Under
+Charles I the struggle was mainly about the manner in which the taxes
+should be spent; in other words, the Parliament was trying to secure
+control of the executive, the other important element in Responsible
+Government.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I held very strongly the belief in the "divine right" of kings
+and, naturally, this belief did not harmonize with the aim of
+Parliament. Disputes were constant:</p>
+
+<p>1. Differences concerning Charles' marriage.</p>
+
+<p>2. First Parliament, 1626, would grant "tonnage and poundage" for only
+one year.</p>
+
+<p>3. Second Parliament, 1626, refused money unless the conduct of the
+Spanish war by Buckingham was inquired into by Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>4. Third Parliament, 1628-9. Charles raised some money by "forced
+loans," but far too little, for a new war with France was begun.
+Parliament refused to grant money till the king signed the Petition of
+Right, which embodied all the points in dispute between them.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. Charles did not long observe the Petition of Right which he had
+signed; Laud, Bishop of London, was making changes in the church
+ceremonies that seemed to bring back the old religion. Parliament
+solemnly protested against both these things, then quietly adjourned.
+Some members were arrested&mdash;Sir John Eliot died in the Tower&mdash;others
+were kept in prison for eleven years.</p>
+
+<p>6. No Parliament for eleven years. Charles aimed during this period to
+raise money without Parliament, and to establish the English Church in
+the whole country.</p>
+
+<p>His methods of raising money were:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) By granting monopolies (&pound;200,000).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) By Star Chamber fines&mdash;large fines for slight offences.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) By illegal duties.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) By "ship-money" (Trial of Hampden).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His methods of establishing the English Church were:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Religious oppression&mdash;chief agent, Laud; chief sufferers, the
+Puritans.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Attempt to force the English Church prayer-book on Scotland led to
+rebellion.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This rebellion forced Charles to summon Parliament in order to raise
+money. Parliament refused to give money till their grievances were
+redressed. It was dissolved in three weeks. Urgent need of troops to
+keep back the Scottish rebels made Charles summon Parliament again in
+six months (1640). This is known as the "Long Parliament."</p>
+
+<p>7. (<i>a</i>) Parliament first accused Laud and Strafford.</p>
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The "Grand Remonstrance" named the illegal acts of Charles.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) This led to Charles' final blunder&mdash;the attempt to arrest the five
+members.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<p>8. Open war, now the only way out, went on till Charles was captured and
+beheaded, and Parliament held, for a time, entire control.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SUGGESTIVE OUTLINES FOR REVIEWS</h3>
+
+<h4>FORM IV</h4>
+
+<p>I. <i>The Era of Reform in Britain</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>       1. The Methodist Revival, which stirred the hearts of the people, and
+       gave them higher ideals</p>
+
+<p>       2. Social Reforms: <br />
+                          <span class="ind2">(<i>a</i>) Canning, the friend of the oppressed</span><br />
+                          <span class="ind2">(<i>b</i>) Wilberforce and the abolition of slavery</span><br />
+                          <span class="ind2">(<i>c</i>) Elizabeth Fry and prison reform</span><br />
+                          <span class="ind2">(<i>d</i>) Revision of the criminal code</span></p>
+
+<p>       3. Political Reforms: <br />
+                             <span class="ind2">(<i>a</i>) The Reform Bill</span><br />
+                             <span class="ind2">(<i>b</i>) The Chartist Agitation</span><br />
+                             <span class="ind2">(<i>c</i>) The repeal of the Corn Laws</span></p>
+</div>
+<p>     II. <i>The Puritan Movement</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>       1. Its beginning under Elizabeth</p>
+
+<p>       2. Its growth under James I</p>
+
+<p>       3. The struggle and victory under Charles I</p>
+
+<p>       4. Triumph and decay under the Commonwealth</p>
+
+<p>       5. Its dissolution under Charles II</p>
+
+<p>       6. It was the root of the resistance offered to the
+       misrule of James II.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p>
+<h3>FOR TEACHERS' REFERENCE</h3>
+
+<h3>THE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION</h3>
+
+<h4>CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND SCIENCE</h4>
+
+
+<p>The purpose of these notes, which are condensed from the article on
+"Civilization" in the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> (latest edition), is to
+provide the teacher with some interesting material, by the use of which
+he may impress on the pupils the far-reaching effects of certain
+inventions and discoveries, which are in such common use to-day that
+they are very likely to be underestimated. The number of lessons must be
+left entirely to the discretion of the teacher.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NOTES</h4>
+
+<p>The close relation between the progress of civilization, as told in
+history, and scientific inventions and discoveries is shown by Lewis H.
+Morgan, who has indicated nine stages in the upward march of mankind
+from the earliest times to the present. There are three stages of
+savagery, three of barbarism, and three of civilization, the close of
+each stage being marked by an important discovery or invention. The
+problem method may be used, by asking what each invention or discovery
+would enable the people to do that they could not do before.</p>
+
+<p>1. The savages in the first stage were developing speech, lived on raw
+nuts and fruits, and were restricted to places where they could have
+warmth and food. This stage was ended by the discovery of <i>fire</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. With the use of fire, their food now included fish and perhaps flesh;
+they could migrate to colder climates. This stage ended with the
+invention of the <i>bow and arrow</i>.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. With the bow and arrow, the savage was safer from fierce animals; he
+could kill also to get food, and skins for clothing and tents; with
+stronger food and better protection he could and did migrate into more
+distant, colder countries. This stage ended with the invention of
+<i>pottery</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. Hitherto man had had no cooking utensils that could withstand fire.
+Now he could boil his food, and his diet was extended to include boiled
+meat and vegetables. The next stage was reached by the <i>domestication of
+animals</i>.</p>
+
+<p>5. The dog, the sheep, the ox, the camel, the horse were rapidly
+domesticated; some of these provided man with food independent of the
+chase; others gave him better, swifter means of travel and
+transportation. Distant peoples were thus brought into contact and
+commerce began. New ideas were gained from each other. Larger
+communities were formed, and towns and cities began. Property became
+individual, instead of being communal.</p>
+
+<p>6. This stage began with the invention of <i>iron-smelting</i>. Immense
+progress was now possible in the various arts of peace: house-building,
+road-making, construction of vehicles, the making of all sorts of tools.
+By these tools man was now able to express his &aelig;sthetic nature as never
+before. Implements of war also became more numerous and more deadly.</p>
+
+<p>7. The human race was now lifted from the highest stage of barbarism to
+the lowest stage of civilization by one of the most important inventions
+that man has ever made&mdash;<i>writing</i>. This made possible the recording of
+man's deeds and thoughts for posterity, thus securing the gains of each
+generation for all succeeding generations, and making history possible.</p>
+
+<p>8. The next stage of progress is marked by a group of
+inventions,&mdash;<i>gunpowder</i>, <i>the mariner's compass</i>, and <i>paper</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> and the
+<i>printing press</i>. The Middle Ages, as we call them, were now ended, and
+the human race found itself on a stage as wide as the world.</p>
+
+<p>9. The next invention, which came quickly after the preceding ones, and
+placed mankind in the present stage of civilization, was the
+<i>steam-engine</i>. The revolution which this brought about is so recent as
+to need no details here. (See lesson on the Industrial Revolution, p.
+<a href='#Page_87'>87</a>.) What is to be the invention that will mark the entrance of the race
+on a higher stage still, when Tennyson's dream of a "Federation of the
+World the Parliament of Man" may be realized? Is it the airship, giving
+man the conquest of the last element still unmastered?</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE NEW LEARNING</h4>
+
+<p>1. The aim of this lesson is to make the pupils familiar with one of the
+most important movements in English history, by having them study the
+meaning, causes, tendencies, and effects of the New Learning.</p>
+
+<p>2. As an introduction, a lesson or two should be given on the conditions
+prevailing in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages, because
+a knowledge of these conditions is essential to a right understanding of
+many of the causes of the New Learning.</p>
+
+<p>The New Learning was a phase of a greater movement called the
+Renaissance, which arose in Italy during the fourteenth century. The
+Renaissance marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of
+modern history. It meant re-birth, a new life. People took a new
+interest in living. The influence of the monk and of the knight was
+passing, and the man of affairs, with his broader<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> sympathies, his
+keener vision, his more varied interests, and his love of liberty, was
+coming into prominence.</p>
+
+<p>How to enjoy life, how to get the greatest value out of it, became the
+great problem. In their attempt to solve this problem people turned
+their attention to the ancient literature of Greece and Rome; for it was
+believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans had a fine appreciation of
+the meaning and beauty of life. They began to seek out the old
+literature and to study it. This new study has been called the Revival
+of Learning or the New Learning. The influence of these two great
+literatures soon made itself felt. Every province of knowledge was
+investigated, and people everywhere were influenced by this great
+intellectual awakening.</p>
+
+<p>3. The following were the chief causes of the movement:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The Crusades</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The Fall of Constantinople, 1453</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The introduction of the mariner's compass</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The invention of gunpowder</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) The invention of the printing press</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) The overthrow of the feudal system</p>
+
+<p>(<i>g</i>) The desire for knowledge stimulated by the universities</p>
+
+<p>(<i>h</i>) The failure of the schools of the Middle Ages to meet the demands
+and needs of the times</p></div>
+
+<p>4. The relation of each of these causes to the New Learning must be
+shown. In dealing with the Crusade movement as a cause, it will be
+necessary to help the children to see the effect produced on the people
+of northern Europe by their coming into contact with the more highly
+cultivated people in southern Europe; and the effect produced on the
+people of Europe by their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> mingling with the nations of the luxurious
+East&mdash;the Greeks of Constantinople and the brilliant Mohammedan scholars
+of Palestine. The Crusades made the people dissatisfied with the
+conditions that had prevailed so long in Europe, and this fact alone
+gave an impetus to the New Learning.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of printing to the spread of the movement is evident. The
+introduction of printing meant the cheapening of books, their more
+general use, and the spread of education. This was followed by a growing
+independence of thought, and a desire for greater political and
+religious freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The other causes may be similarly treated.</p>
+
+<p>5. The New Learning was represented in England by a group of scholars of
+whom Erasmus, Colet, and More were the chief. The great churchmen, too,
+were its patrons. Men of every rank were interested, and the movement
+affected the whole life of the people. A new interest was taken in
+education, in art, in religion, and in social reform. Old methods of
+instruction were superseded by more rational ones. Hundreds of new
+schools were established for the benefit of the middle classes. The
+whole tendency of the New Learning was toward a higher intellectual and
+more moral life.</p>
+
+<p>6. Its effects:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) It awakened a desire for an intellectual life and for social
+reform;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) It made possible the Reformation;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) It led to the establishment of schools and libraries and to the
+extension of the usefulness of the universities;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) It aroused the desire for liberty and the spirit of enterprise,
+and encouraged commercial activity;</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) It inspired some of the world's greatest artists in painting,
+sculpture, architecture, literature, and music.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) It implanted the seeds of freedom of thought and fostered the
+spirit of scientific research;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>g</i>) It supplied higher ideals of life and conduct, a fact which became
+responsible to a large extent for the great improvement made in the
+condition of the people, and in the development of Europe since that
+time.</p>
+
+<div class="ind2"><p><span class="smcap">Note</span>: References to the discoveries made by Copernicus,
+Columbus, and the Cabots should be made. Pupils should read or hear
+short accounts of Erasmus, More, and Colet. A careful development
+of the causes and meaning of the movement should aid the pupils to
+anticipate its chief results.</p>
+
+<p>It is assumed, of course, that the study of this topic will occupy
+several lesson periods.</p></div></div>
+
+
+<h4>THE FIGHT FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY IN CANADA, 1759-1867.</h4>
+
+<p>In the struggle for constitutional liberty in British Canada, there are
+several distinct stages:</p>
+
+<p>I. 1760 to 1763&mdash;Military Rule:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Amherst the nominal governor; Canada divided into three
+districts</p>
+
+<p>2. Little disturbance of French customs; the <i>habitants</i> content</p>
+
+<p>3. Influx of "old" subjects&mdash;their character. (See <i>Ontario Public
+School History of Canada</i>, p. 109; <i>History of Canada</i>, Lucas and
+Egerton, Part II, pp. 4 and 7.)</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>II. 1763 to 1774 (Quebec Act):</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Period of Civil Government under General Murray</p>
+
+<p>2. Unrest owing to demands of the "old" subjects</p>
+
+<p>3. Conditions of government:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1"><p>(<i>a</i>) Governor and Advisory Council of twelve all
+appointed by Crown</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Assembly permitted but not feasible; depended
+on will of Governor</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) British law, both civil and criminal, prevailed</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) All money matters in hands of Council.</p></div>
+
+<p>4. At this time the French greatly outnumbered the British, and the
+fear of the Revolution of the American Colonies led to the French
+being favoured in the Quebec Act, 1774.</p></div>
+
+<p>III. 1774 to 1791&mdash;Quebec Act to Constitutional Act:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Both "old" and "new" subjects dissatisfied&mdash;the French with
+British Court procedure, the British with French feudal customs.</p>
+
+<p>2. Provisions of the Quebec Act:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1"><p>(<i>a</i>) Change of boundaries (See text-book.)</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Governor and Legislative Council appointed; no
+assembly called.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) French Civil Law; British Criminal Law</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) No oath required, as before, hostile to the Roman
+Catholic Church&mdash;beginning of religious liberty</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Legislative Council had no control of taxation</p></div></div>
+
+<p>IV. 1791 to 1841&mdash;Constitutional Act to Act of Union Provisions of
+Constitutional Act:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Upper and Lower Canada divided, because French and British could
+not agree on many points.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Each Province had a Governor, a Legislative Council, a
+Legislative Assembly, and an Executive Council. The Legislative
+Council was composed of the highest officials, appointed
+practically for life, and responsible to no one. Many of these were
+also members of the Executive Council. The Legislative Assembly was
+elected and was yet without control of the whole revenue, as the
+Home Government still collected "all duties regulating colonial
+navigation and commerce."</p>
+
+<p>3. The Clergy Reserves were established; later to become a bone of
+contention.</p></div>
+
+<p>V. 1841 to 1867&mdash;Act of Union to British North America Act.</p>
+
+<p>The demands of the people for responsible government, that is, for
+control of the Executive and of taxation, became so insistent that the
+Act of Union was passed, following Lord Durham's report on the Rebellion
+of 1837.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Provisions of the Act of Union:</p>
+
+<p>1. Legislative Council appointed (20 members)</p>
+
+<p>2. Legislative Assembly elected (42 from each Province, later 65
+from each)</p>
+
+<p>3. Executive Council selected from both Houses</p>
+
+<p>4. A permanent Civil List of &pound;75,000 was granted</p>
+
+<p>5. The Legislative Assembly controlled the rest of the revenue.
+Money bills were to originate with the Government. This was really
+Responsible Government, as it was developed under Elgin.</p></div>
+
+<p>VI. 1867 to the present:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The British North America Act was the statement of a complete victory of
+the people for Responsible Government. The Executive Council (Cabinet)
+is wholly re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>sponsible to Parliament, in which the members of the
+Executive must have seats; the raising and the spending of revenue is
+wholly in the hands of the people's representatives. For a clear summary
+of the concessions won by Canadians, see Bourinot, <i>How Canada is
+Governed</i>, page 34; see also <i>Ontario Public School History of Canada</i>,
+pp. 267 et seq.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="DEVICES" id="DEVICES"></a>DEVICES</h2>
+
+
+<h3>MAPS</h3>
+
+<p>1. Wall maps for general study, especially of modern history.</p>
+
+<p>2. Outline or sketch maps drawn on the black-board by the teacher or the
+pupils for use in the study of earlier history, or explorations, etc.
+For these purposes the details of a wall map are not only not needed,
+but are rather a hindrance.</p>
+
+<p>3. Relief maps of plasticine, clay, or salt and flour, to be made by the
+pupils to illustrate the influence of geographical facts in history, and
+to make events in history more real to the pupils.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PICTURES</h3>
+
+<p>1. Many good historical pictures of persons, buildings, monuments, and
+events may be collected by the pupils and the teacher from magazines and
+newspapers, and pasted in a scrap-book. (See Educational Pamphlet, No.
+4, <i>Visual Aids in the Teaching of History</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>2. The Perry Picture Co., Malden, Mass., publishes pictures in different
+sizes, costing from one cent upward. Many of these are useful in
+teaching history. Similar pictures may be obtained from the Cosmos
+Picture Co., New York.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Good picture post-cards can be easily obtained.</p>
+
+<p>4. Lantern slides and stereopticon views may be used. (For lists of
+dealers and publishers of 3 and 4, see also <i>Visual Aids in the Teaching
+of History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>MUSEUMS</h3>
+
+<p>These often contain relics of earlier times in the form of implements,
+utensils, weapons, dress. A visit to one will interest pupils.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOURCE BOOKS</h3>
+
+<p>Some source books for illustrating earlier conditions in Ontario are:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Talbot R&eacute;gime.</i> By Charles Oakes Ermatinger, St. Thomas.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Pioneer Days.</i> By David Kennedy, Port Elgin. Sold by author, 50c.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>United Empire Loyalists.</i> By Egerton Ryerson. William Briggs.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Canadian Constitutional Development.</i> Selected speeches and
+dispatches, 1766-1867. By Egerton and Grant Murray. $3.00.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada.</i> William Briggs,
+Toronto, $2.00.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GENEALOGICAL TABLES</h3>
+
+<p>Those needed to illustrate special periods may be found in the larger
+histories. Pupils should be instructed how to interpret them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHRONOLOGICAL CHART</h3>
+
+<p>This may be made by the class, on the black-board or on a slated cloth
+as the work advances. On the left hand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> of a vertical line are set down
+the dates, allowing the same space for each ten years, the close of each
+decade being shown in larger figures. On the right side are set down the
+events in their proper place. For example, in studying the career of
+Champlain, the Chart will be begun as follows:</p>
+
+
+<h4>CHAMPLAIN</h4>
+
+<p><b>1600</b></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1603 First visit, when 36 years old, with Pontgrav&eacute;.</p>
+
+<p>1604 With De Monts and Poutrincourt he undertakes to colonize Acadia;
+forms a settlement at Port Royal.</p>
+
+<p>1608 Founds Quebec.</p>
+
+<p>1609 Explores Richelieu River and Lake Champlain; forms an alliance with
+the Hurons and Algonquins against the Iroquois.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>1610</b> Marriage.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1611 Establishes a trading station at what is now Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>1613 Ascends the Ottawa River, expecting to find the way to China;
+deceived, returns to France.</p>
+
+<p>1615 Brings out the Recollet Fathers to Christianize the Indians;
+explores the country of the Hurons.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>1620</b></p>
+
+<p>A useful chart which shows the growth of Canada is to be found in
+Taylor's <i>Cardinal Facts of Canadian History</i>, reproduced in Duncan's
+<i>The Canadian People</i>. An Illustrated Chart of Canadian History is
+published by the United Editors Company, of Toronto.</p>
+
+
+<h3>NOTE-BOOKS AND CLASS EXERCISES</h3>
+
+<p>In the Fourth Form, pupils should copy into a notebook the black-board
+work&mdash;topical outlines, time chart, etc., as a basis for review and for
+class exercises in composition. Such a topical summary, the joint work
+of teacher and class, is the best means of review for examination
+purposes, when one is held.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Pupils may occasionally be asked to make from the text-book, without
+preceding class work, a topical analysis either of a subject which is
+treated consecutively in the book, such as the War of 1812-14, or of a
+subject that requires the pupil to collect his material from various
+parts of the book, or even from several books. In the latter case the
+teacher should direct the pupil to the proper sources.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+<h3>A. FOR TEACHERS</h3>
+
+<p>I. <i>Histories</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) English:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1">
+<p>1. A Short History of the English People. Green. $1.50. The
+Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>2. Ontario High School History of England. 65c. The Macmillan
+Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>3. A History of the British Nation. A.D. Innes. $1.25. E.C. &amp; T.C.
+Jack, Edinburgh.</p></div>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Canadian:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1"><p>1. A History of Canada. Roberts. $1.00. The Macmillan Company of
+Canada, Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>2. Story of Canada (Story of the Nations Series). Bourinot. $1.50.
+G.P. Putnam's, New York.</p>
+
+<p>3. A Historical Geography of the British Colonies, 10 vols. Canada:
+Part I, $1.60; Part II, $1.10. Lucas and Egerton, Clarendon Press,
+Oxford.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>One of the best histories of Canada; on a geographical basis.</p></div>
+
+<div class="ind1"><p>4. Ontario High School History of Canada. Grant. 19c. The T. Eaton
+Company, Ltd., Toronto.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. A Short History of the Canadian People. Bryce. $2.00. William
+Briggs, Toronto.</p></div>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Civics:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1"><p>1. Canadian Civics. Jenkins. 35c. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>2. How Canada is Governed. Bourinot. $1.00. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd.,
+Toronto.</p></div>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) General History:</p>
+
+<div class="ind1"><p>1. General Sketch of European History. Freeman. $1.00. The
+Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>2. History of Our Own Times. McCarthy. $1.25. Crowell and Company,
+New York.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Nineteenth Century&mdash;A History. MacKenzie. $1.00. T. Nelson
+and Sons, Toronto.</p></div>
+
+<p>For help in preparing lessons every teacher should possess one book of
+each of the above classes, in addition to the Ontario Public School
+Histories.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>II. <i>On Methods</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary
+Schools. Bourne. $1.50. Longmans Green and Company, London, England.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The best book on general method.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. Methods in History. Mace. $1.00. Ginn and Company, New York.</p>
+
+<p>3. Special Method in History. McMurry. 75c. The Macmillan Company of
+Canada, Ltd., Toronto.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>B. MATERIAL FOR CLASS WORK</h3>
+
+<h4>ESPECIALLY IN CORRELATED SUBJECTS</h4>
+
+<p>1. Reader's Guide to English History. Allen. 25c. Ginn and Company, New
+York.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(Contains a list of historical authorities for the various periods;
+and lists of historical poems and fiction to illustrate these
+periods.)</p></div>
+
+<p>2. School Atlas of English History. S.R. Gardiner. $1.50. Longmans,
+Green and Company, London, England.</p>
+
+<p>3. Atlas of Canada. Published by Department of the Interior, Ottawa.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(The Department of the Interior also publishes maps giving the
+latest information concerning railways, distribution of minerals,
+etc., which can be had by asking for them.)</p></div>
+
+<p>4. Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent &amp; Co., Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>5. Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent &amp; Co., Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>6. Literary and Historical Atlas of America. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent &amp; Co., Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+
+<h3>C. HISTORICAL READERS AND SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS</h3>
+
+<p>Group I.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Highroads of History. 13 Vols. T. Nelson and Sons, Toronto.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Well illustrated; a great favourite with children.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. Gateways to History. 7 Vols. 9s. 1d. Edward Arnold, London, England.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Longmans' Ship Historical Readers. 7 Vols. 9s. Longmans, Green and
+Company, London, England.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Little Cousin Series. 25 Vols. 60c. each. The Page Co., Boston,
+Mass.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Get list of titles and select.</p></div>
+
+<p>5. Peeps at many Lands and Cities. 50 Vols. 50c. each. The Macmillan
+Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Get list of titles and select.</p></div></div>
+
+<p>Group II.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Stories from Canadian History. Marquis. 50c. Copp Clark Company,
+Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>2. Brief Biographies. Supplementing Canadian History. J.O. Miller. 35c.
+Copp Clark Company, Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>3. Stories of the Maple Land. C.A. Young. 25c. Copp Clark Company, Ltd.,
+Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>4. Heroines of Canadian History. W.S. Herrington. Cloth 30c., paper 18c.
+Wm. Briggs, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>5. Ryerson Memorial Volume. J.G. Hodgins.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A graphic sketch of the old log school-house and its belongings,
+and the life of a pioneer teacher.</p></div>
+
+<p>6. Stories of New France. Machar and Marquis. $1.50. Briggs, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>7. Martyrs of New France. Herrington. 60c. Briggs, Toronto.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Group III.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. Baldwin. 35c. The American Book Company,
+New York.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Thirty More Famous Stories. Baldwin. 50c. The American Book Company,
+New York.</p>
+
+<p>3. Book of Legends. Scudder. Riverside Literature Series 15c. Copp Clark
+Company, Ltd., Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>4. Legends Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 90c. Doubleday, Page
+and Co., New York.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Group IV.&mdash;Miscellaneous:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>1. Heroes Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 60c. Doubleday, New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>2. Famous Men of Greece. 50c. The American Book Company, New York.</p>
+
+<p>3. Famous Men of Rome. The American Book Company, New York.</p>
+
+<p>4. Famous Men of the Middle Ages. 50c. The American Book Company, New
+York.</p>
+
+<p>5. Famous Men of Modern Times. 50c. The American Book Co., New York.</p>
+
+<p>6. Stories of Great Inventors. Macombe. 40c. Wm. Briggs, Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>7. Calendar Stories. M.P. Boyle. 30c. McClelland, Goodchild, &amp; Stewart,
+Toronto.</p>
+
+<p>8. Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road From Long Ago to Now. Jane Andrews.
+75c. Sch. ed. 60c. Ginn and Company, New York.</p>
+
+<p>9. Seven Little Sisters. Jane Andrews. 75c. Sch. ed. 50c. Ginn and
+Company, New York.</p>
+
+<p>10. The Romance of Canadian History. Selections from Parkman; edited by
+Pelham Edgar. 75c. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>11. English Life 300 Years Ago. Trevelyan. 1s. Methuen and Company,
+London.</p>
+
+<p>12. Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Reformers, Great Orators,
+Great Teachers, English Authors, Good men and Great. Hubbard. 10c each.
+The Roycrofters, East Aurora, N.Y.</p></div>
+
+<p>In Group I the first, and any of the others may be read. The first are
+very interesting and great favourites with children.</p>
+
+<p>In Groups II and III one of each may be taken as they, to some extent,
+cover the same ground.</p>
+
+<p>All of those in Group IV are useful, and may be added as opportunity
+permits.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+
+<h3>THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE</h3>
+
+<p>Did you ever hear the story of the first Christmas tree? This is the way
+it was told to me: Martin Luther was a good man who lived in Germany
+long ago. One Christmas Eve he was walking to his home. The night was
+cold and frosty with many stars in the sky. He thought he had never seen
+stars look so bright. When he got home he tried to tell his wife and
+children how pretty the stars were, but they didn't seem to understand.
+So Luther went out into his garden and cut a little evergreen tree. This
+he set up in the room and fastened tiny candles all over it, and when he
+had lighted them they shone like stars.</p>
+
+<p>One of Luther's neighbours came in that night, and when she saw the tree
+she thought how one would please her children. Soon she had one in her
+house, too. And the idea spread from one house to another until there
+were Christmas trees all over Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Victoria of England was married to a German prince, and the German
+custom of a Christmas tree for the children was followed in the royal
+palace. Of course after the Queen had a tree other people must have one,
+too. So the Christmas tree came to England.</p>
+
+<p>The little French boys and girls have not had them so long. Not very
+many years ago there was a war between France and Germany. At Christmas
+time the German soldiers were in Paris. They felt sorry to be so far
+from their own little boys and girls on Christmas eve. But they knew how
+to have something to remind them of home. Every soldier who could got a
+little evergreen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> tree and put candles on it. The French saw them, and
+were so pleased that now, every year, they too have Christmas trees.</p>
+
+<p>So many people from England, and from Germany, and from France have come
+to our country to live, of course, we too have learned about Christmas
+trees. And that is why you and so many other little girls and boys have
+such pretty trees on Christmas eve.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE ORIGIN OF THE EASTER BUNNY</h3>
+
+<p>Childish voices are asking why the rabbit is seen with the eggs
+and the chickens that fill the shop windows and show-cases at Easter.
+The legend that established the hare as a symbol of the Eastertide is
+not generally known. It is of German origin and runs as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago, during a cruel war, the Duchess of Lindenburg with her
+two children and an old servant fled for safety to a little obscure
+village in the mountains. She found the people very poor, and one thing
+that surprised her much was that they used no eggs. She learned that
+they had never seen or heard of hens, and so when the old servant went
+to get tidings of his master and of the war he brought back with him
+some of these birds.</p>
+
+<p>The simple village folk were greatly interested in the strange fowl, and
+when they saw the tiny yellow chickens breaking their way out of the
+eggs they were full of delight. But the Duchess was saddened by the
+thought that Easter was drawing near and that she had no gifts for the
+little mountain children. Then an idea came to her. The spring was
+beginning to colour the earth with leaves and flowers, and she made
+bright dyes out of herbs and roots and coloured the eggs. Then the
+children were in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>vited to visit the Duchess, and she told them stories
+of the glad Easter day, and afterwards bade each make a nest of moss
+among the bushes. When they had all enjoyed the little feast provided in
+their honour, they went back to the woods to look at their nests. Lo! in
+each were five coloured eggs.</p>
+
+<p>"What a good hen it must have been to lay such beautiful eggs," said one
+child.</p>
+
+<p>"It could not have been a hen," said another. "The eggs that the hens
+lay are white. It must have been the rabbit that jumped out of the tree
+when I made my nest."</p>
+
+<p>And all the children agreed that it was the rabbit, and to this day the
+mystic Bunny is supposed to bring eggs and gifts at Easter to the little
+children of the "fatherland" who have been loving and kind during the
+year.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE STORY OF ST. VALENTINE</h3>
+
+<p>Once upon a time, there lived in a monastery across the sea a
+humble monk called Valentine. Every brother save himself seemed to have
+some special gift.</p>
+
+<p>Now there was Brother Angelo, who was an artist, and painted such
+wonderful Madonnas that it seemed as if the holy mother must step down
+from the frame and bless her children.</p>
+
+<p>Brother Vittorio had a wonderful voice, and on saints' days the
+monastery chapel would be crowded with visitors, who came from far and
+near just to listen to that wonderful voice as it soared up among the
+dim old arches.</p>
+
+<p>Brother Anselmo was a doctor, and knew the virtues of all roots, herbs,
+and drugs, and was kept very busy going about among the sick, followed
+by their tearful, grateful blessing.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Brother Johannes was skilled in illuminating, and Valentine often
+watched the page grow under his clever hand. How beautiful would then be
+the gospel story in brightly-coloured letters, with dainty flowers,
+bright-winged butterflies, and downy, nestling birds about the borders!</p>
+
+<p>Brother Paul was a great teacher in the monastery school, and even
+learned scholars came to consult him. Friar John ruled the affairs of
+the little monastery world with wisdom and prudence. Indeed, out of the
+whole number only Valentine seemed without special talent.</p>
+
+<p>The poor man felt it keenly. He longed to do some great thing. "Why did
+not the good God give me a voice like Vittorio or a skilled hand like
+Angelo?" he would often inquire of himself bitterly. One day as he sat
+sadly musing on these things, a voice within him said clearly and
+earnestly: "Do the little things, Valentine; there the blessing lies."
+"What are the little things?" asked Valentine, much perplexed. But no
+answer came to this question. Like every one else, Valentine had to find
+his work himself.</p>
+
+<p>He had a little plot where he loved to work, and the other monks said
+that Valentine's pinks, lilies, and violets were larger and brighter
+than any raised in the whole monastery garden.</p>
+
+<p>He used to gather bunches of his flowers and drop them into the chubby
+hands of children as they trotted to school under the gray monastery
+walls. Many a happy village bride wore his roses on her way to the
+altar. Scarcely a coffin was taken to the cemetery but Valentine's
+lilies or violets filled the silent hands.</p>
+
+<p>He got to know the birthday of every child in the village, and was fond
+of hanging on the cottage door some little gift his loving hands had
+made. He could mend a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> child's broken windmill and carve quaint faces
+from walnut shells. He made beautiful crosses of silvery gray lichens,
+and pressed mosses and rosy weeds from the seashore. The same tender
+hands were ready to pick up a fallen baby, or carry the water bucket for
+some weary mother.</p>
+
+<p>Everybody learned to love the good Brother Valentine. The children clung
+to his long, gray skirts, and the babies crept out on the streets to
+receive his pat on their shining hair. Even the cats and dogs rubbed
+against him, and the little birds fluttered near him unafraid.</p>
+
+<p>St. Valentine grew old, loving and beloved, never dreaming that he had
+found his great thing. When the simple monk died the whole countryside
+mourned, and hundreds came to look for the last time on the quiet face
+in the rude coffin.</p>
+
+<p>A great duke walked bare-headed after that coffin, and one of the most
+noted brothers of the church spoke the last words of blessing to the
+weeping people.</p>
+
+<p>After his death, it was remembered how sweet had been his little gifts,
+and the villagers said: "Let us, too, give gifts to our friends on the
+good Valentine's birthday." So ever since has the pretty custom been
+carried out, and on St. Valentine's day we send our friends little
+tokens of remembrance to say we love them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE FIRST THANKSGIVING</h3>
+
+<p>It is nearly three hundred years since the first Thanksgiving
+Day. Though we have even more to be grateful for, I think that there are
+not many of us who feel quite so thankful as the little handful of
+people who set apart the first Thanksgiving Day.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There were not very many of them, just one little village in a big
+forest land, and by the edge of a great ocean. Here, on the map, is
+where they lived. It is on the north-eastern shores of the United States
+and is called Plymouth. The people I am telling you about gave it that
+name when they came to it, nearly two years before they had their first
+Thanksgiving Day. It was the name of the last town they had seen in
+England. Here, on the map, is the English Plymouth, and you see what a
+long trip they had in their little vessel, called the <i>Mayflower</i>, to
+their new home.</p>
+
+<p>You still wonder why they travelled so far to make new homes for
+themselves. It was because they wanted to worship God in their own way
+that they left England. They were not afraid of the long voyage and all
+its hardships; for they felt sure they were doing as God wished them to
+do. They arrived safely, too, and built their little village by the
+sea&mdash;the new Plymouth. One of the first buildings they put up was a
+little log church.</p>
+
+<p>The first year was very hard for everybody. The winter was colder than
+any they had ever known in England, and their houses were small and
+poorly built. They could not get any letters or news from their friends
+in England for many months. Food was not scarce, for there was always
+plenty of game and fish. But it was such a change from their old way of
+living that many people became ill, and in the spring there were many
+graves. But the worst thing about the new land was the Indians. These
+English people were afraid of them&mdash;and with good reason, too, for they
+were very fierce and sometimes very cruel. They tried not to let the
+Indians know how few they were, and even planted grain about the graves
+in the churchyard so that the Indians could not count how many had
+died.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But one of the Indian Chiefs was friendly to the English and kept the
+other tribes from making war on them, and the second summer they had a
+great harvest and everything was more comfortable. It was in that
+autumn, just after the grain was gathered, that the minister spoke to
+them one Sunday about having a Thanksgiving day. "It seemeth right," he
+said, "God hath granted us peace and plenty. He has blessed us with a
+dwelling-place of peace. He has held back the savage red man from
+bringing harm to us. Therefore let us appoint a day of Thanksgiving."</p>
+
+<p>After that all the people, even the boys and girls, were busy getting
+ready. The men took their guns and fishing-rods and went into the
+forest, and brought home fowl, fish, and deer, and perhaps bear meat as
+well. The boys and girls gathered wild plums, and grapes, and corn, and
+brought in pumpkins from the gardens; and the women made pies, puddings,
+cakes, and bread, and baked the meat and corn. They had great piles of
+cakes, and rows and rows of pies, and loaves of bread and platters of
+meat, for they all expected company. You could not guess, I am sure, who
+was coming! They had sent word to the Indians near to come and spend
+Thanksgiving Day with them.</p>
+
+<p>Do you suppose they came? Indeed they did. They came before breakfast
+and stayed until long after supper, and had a good time, and tasted
+everything the white women had cooked, and nodded their heads and said,
+"How" a great many times, to say it was good. Some of the little girls
+and boys were half afraid of them, but they need not have been; for that
+day the Indians felt very kindly toward the English.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Ask pupils to mention things for which they are thankful.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>LETTER FROM MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS, TO QUEEN ELIZABETH</h3>
+
+<p>Believe, Madame (and the doctors whom you sent to me this last
+summer can have formed an opinion), that I am not likely long to be in a
+condition which can justify jealousy or distrust. And this
+notwithstanding, exact from me such assurances, and just and reasonable
+conditions as you wish. Superior force is always on your side to make me
+keep them, even though for any reason whatever I should wish to break
+them. You have had from observation enough experience of my bare
+promises, sometimes even to my own damage, as I showed you on this
+subject two years ago. Remember, if you please, what I then wrote you,
+and that in no way could you so much win over my heart to yourself as by
+kindness, although you have confined forever my poor body to languish
+between four walls; those of my rank and disposition not permitting
+themselves to be gained over or forced by any amount of harshness.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>In conclusion, I have to request two things especially; the one that as
+I am about to leave this world I may have by me for my consolation some
+honourable churchman, in order that I may daily examine the road that I
+have to traverse and be instructed how to complete it according to my
+religion, in which I am firmly resolved to live and die. This is a last
+duty which cannot be denied to the most wretched and miserable person
+alive; it is a liberty which you give to all foreign ambassadors, just
+as all other Catholic kings allow yours the practice of their religion.
+And as for myself, have I ever forced my own subjects to do anything
+against their religion even when I had all power and authority over
+them? And you can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>not justly bring it to pass that I should be in this
+extremity deprived of such a privilege. What advantage can accrue to you
+from denying me this? I hope that God will forgive me if, oppressed by
+you in this wise, I do not cease from paying Him that duty which in my
+heart will be permitted. But you will give a very ill example to other
+princes of Christendom of employing towards their subjects and
+relatives, the same harshness which you mete out to me, a sovereign
+queen and your nearest relative, as I am and shall be in spite of my
+enemies so long as I live.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>Aims of Study, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></p>
+
+<p>Amount of Material, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p>
+
+<p>Appendix, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Christmas Tree, The, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Thanksgiving, The, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Origin of the Easter Bunny, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Story of St. Valentine, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bibliography, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a></p>
+
+<p>Black-board Work in Teaching History, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></p>
+
+<p>Capture of Quebec, The, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></p>
+
+<p>Characteristics of a Good Text-book, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></p>
+
+<p>Chronological Chart, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></p>
+
+<p>Chronological Method, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p>
+
+<p>Civics, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></p>
+
+<p>Civilization and Inventions, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></p>
+
+<p>Clergy Reserves, The, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a></p>
+
+<p>Colours of the Flag, The, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></p>
+
+<p>Combination of Methods, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></p>
+
+<p>Comparative Method, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p>
+
+<p>Concentric Method, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p>
+
+<p>Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></p>
+
+<p>Constitutional Liberty in Canada, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></p>
+
+<p>Correlation of Subjects, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></p>
+
+<p>Course of Study, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a></p>
+
+<p>Current Events, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></p>
+
+<p>Dates, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></p>
+
+<p>Devices for Teaching, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></p>
+
+<p>Dramatization of History, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></p>
+
+<p>Drill and Review, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a></p>
+
+<p>Empire Day, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></p>
+
+<p>Feudal System, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></p>
+
+<p>First Christmas Tree, The, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a></p>
+
+<p>First Thanksgiving, The, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a></p>
+
+<p>Flag, The, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></p>
+
+<p>Flag Days, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></p>
+
+<p>Florence Nightingale, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></p>
+
+<p>Genealogical Tables, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></p>
+
+<p>Historical Sense, The, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p>
+
+<p>History and Art, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"      "  Chronology, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"      "  Composition, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"      "  Constructive Work, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"      "  Geography, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"      "  Literature, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"      "  Oral Reading, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"      "  Science, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br /></p>
+
+<p>How to Make History Real, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a></p>
+
+<p>Illustrative Lessons, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Type Lesson in the Story Stage, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First Thanksgiving, The, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Florence Nightingale, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Postmaster, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capture of Quebec, The, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coming of the United Empire Loyalists, The, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Flag, The, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Suggestions for Empire Day, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Egerton Ryerson, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Intercolonial Railway, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Industrial Revolution, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Road to Cathay, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Armada, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Feudal System, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seigniorial Tenure, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Influence of Geographical Conditions on History, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The St. Lawrence River, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Relations Between England and Scotland, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Analysis of Secs. 160-170 in Ontario P.S. History of England, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Outlines for Reviews, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Development of Civilization, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The New Learning, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The Fight for Constitutional Liberty in Canada, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Importance of Facts in History, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p>
+
+<p>Industrial Revolution, The, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></p>
+
+<p>Influence of Geography on History, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></p>
+
+<p>Information Stage, The, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p>
+
+<p>Interest, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></p>
+
+<p>Intercolonial Railway, The, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></p>
+
+<p>Inventions and History, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></p>
+
+<p>Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></p>
+
+<p>Local Material, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></p>
+
+<p>Maps, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></p>
+
+<p>Memorizing History, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></p>
+
+<p>Methods for Forms I and II, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a><br />
+
+ <span style="margin-left: 2em;">"     "  Form III, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></span><br />
+
+ <span style="margin-left: 2em;">"     "  Form IV, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Moral Value of History, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></p>
+
+<p>Museums, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></p>
+
+<p>New Learning, The, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></p>
+
+<p>Newspapers, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a></p>
+
+<p>Note-books, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a></p>
+
+<p>Oral Method, The, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></p>
+
+<p>Origin of the Easter Bunny, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a></p>
+
+<p>Patriotism, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></p>
+
+<p>Pictures, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a></p>
+
+<p>Postmaster, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></p>
+
+<p>Problems in History, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></p>
+
+<p>Reflective Stage, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></p>
+
+<p>Regressive Method, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></p>
+
+<p>Relations of England and Scotland, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a></p>
+
+<p>Reviews, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a></p>
+
+<p>Road to Cathay, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></p>
+
+<p>Ryerson, Egerton, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></p>
+
+<p>Scope of Study, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p>
+
+<p>Seigniorial Tenure, <a href='#Page_103'>103</a></p>
+
+<p>Source Books, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a></p>
+
+<p>Spanish Armada, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Lawrence River, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a></p>
+
+<p>St. Valentine, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a></p>
+
+<p>Stages of Study, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p>
+
+<p>Story Stage, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></p>
+
+<p>Story Telling, <a href='#Page_1'>1</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></p>
+
+<p>Taxation, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></p>
+
+<p>Teacher of History, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a></p>
+
+<p>Text-book Method, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></p>
+
+<p>Topical Analysis, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#Page_124'>124</a></p>
+
+<p>Topical Method, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a></p>
+
+<p>Training in the Use of the Text-book, <a href='#Page_29'>29</a></p>
+
+<p>United Empire Loyalists, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></p>
+
+<p>Union Jack, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></p>
+
+<p>Use of Problems in History, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a></p>
+
+<p>Where to Begin the Study of History, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
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diff --git a/17268.txt b/17268.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a5be77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17268.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,5664 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: December 9, 2005 [EBook #17268]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS
+
+HISTORY
+
+
+AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
+
+TORONTO
+THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED
+
+COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                      PAGE
+
+PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY               1
+
+CHAPTER I
+THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY                            13
+
+CHAPTER II
+GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY              21
+
+CHAPTER III
+CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS                                 40
+
+CHAPTER IV
+SPECIAL TOPICS                                          49
+  Current Events                                        49
+  Local Material                                        51
+  Civics                                                52
+  The Teacher of History                                57
+
+CHAPTER V
+ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS                                    60
+  Forms I and II                                        60
+  Form II                                               62
+  Form III                                              66
+  Forms III and IV                                      75
+  Form IV                                               78
+  For Teachers' Reference                              119
+
+DEVICES                                                127
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY                                           130
+
+APPENDIX                                               136
+
+
+
+
+MANUAL OF SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS OF HISTORY
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY
+
+
+DETAILS
+
+The course in literature and composition includes the telling by the
+teacher of suitable stories from the Bible, stories of primitive
+peoples, of child life in other lands, of famous persons and peoples;
+and the oral reproduction of these stories by the pupils. In this way
+history, literature, and composition are combined.
+
+     For Method in telling stories, consult _How to Tell Stories to
+     Children_, by Sara Cone Bryant, Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston,
+     $1.00.
+
+
+
+
+FORM I
+
+
+BIBLE STORIES:
+
+Moses in the Bulrushes, his Childhood, the Burning Bush, the Crossing of
+the Red Sea, the Tables of Stone; Joseph's Boyhood Dreams, Joseph sold
+into Egypt, the Famine, the Visits of his Brethren; David and Goliath;
+Samson.
+
+STORIES OF CHILD LIFE:
+
+The Eskimo Girl, the Andean Girl, the Arabian Girl, the Little Syrian
+Girl, the Swiss Girl, the Chinese Girl, the African Girl, the German
+Girl, the Canadian Girl; the Little Red Child, the Little White Child,
+the Little Black Child, the Little Yellow Child, the Little Brown Child.
+
+     Consult _The Seven Little Sisters_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co.,
+     Boston, 50c.; _The Little Cousin Series_, by Mary Hazelton Wade,
+     The Page Co., Boston, 60c. each; _Five Little Strangers_, Julia
+     Augusta Schwarz, American Book Co., New York; _Each and All_, Jane
+     Andrews (sequel to _The Seven Little Sisters_), 50 cents.
+
+SPECIAL DAYS:
+
+Christmas: The Birth of Christ, the First Christmas Tree (see Appendix);
+Arbor Day; Constructive work suggested by St. Valentine's Day and
+Thanksgiving Day; Stories of these Days.
+
+     NOTE: Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to
+     teach obedience to authority and respect for the property and
+     rights of others.
+
+
+
+
+FORM II
+
+
+BIBLE STORIES:
+
+Abraham and Lot, Joshua, David and Jonathan, David and Saul, Ruth and
+Naomi, Daniel, Miriam and Moses, Abraham and Isaac, Boyhood of Christ,
+the Shipwreck of St. Paul.
+
+STORIES OF CHILD LIFE:
+
+The Aryan Boy, the Persian Boy, the Greek Boy, the Roman Boy, the Saxon
+Boy, the Page Boy, the English Boy, the Puritan Boy, the Canadian Boy of
+To-day, Child Life in Canada (_a_) in the early days, (_b_) to-day on
+the farm and in the city or town; occupations, games, and plays, etc.
+
+     Consult _Ten Little Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago till
+     Now_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co., 50c.
+
+STORIES OF FAMOUS PEOPLE:
+
+Boadicea, Alfred, Harold, First Prince of Wales, Sir Francis Drake, Sir
+Walter Raleigh, Columbus, Cabot, Cartier, Champlain, Madeleine de
+Vercheres, Pontiac, Brock, Laura Secord, Florence Nightingale.
+
+     Consult _The Story of the British People_, Thomas Nelson & Sons,
+     Toronto, 35c. (For Florence Nightingale, see Appendix.)
+
+PIONEER LIFE:
+
+In Ancient Britain: See _Second Reader_, p. 109; _Ontario Public School
+History of England_, p. 10.
+
+In Roman Britain: See _The Story of The British People_, pp. 18-24.
+
+Old English Life: See _Third Reader_, p. 325; _Ontario High School
+History of England_, pp. 33-40.
+
+At the Close of the French Period in Canada: See _Fourth Reader_, p. 65.
+
+In Upper Canada in the "Thirties": See _Fourth Reader_, p. 122.
+
+Our Forefathers: Where they lived before coming here, how they got here,
+hardships in travel, condition of the country at that time, how they
+cleared the land, their homes, their difficulties, danger from wild
+animals, the natives of the country, modes of travel, implements and
+tools, etc.
+
+     Consult _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada_,
+     Briggs, $2.00; _Ontario High School History of Canada_.
+
+INVENTORS:
+
+Watt, Stephenson, Fulton, Bell, Edison, Marconi.
+
+CIVICS:
+
+Elementary lessons in local government:
+
+(_a_) In cities, towns, and incorporated villages--the postmaster, (see
+Illustrative Lesson, p. 65), the postman and policeman; city or town
+hall, post-office, mail boxes, school-houses.
+
+(_b_) For rural districts--postmaster, trustees, roads and bridges,
+rural mail delivery.
+
+SPECIAL DAYS:
+
+Empire Day, Victoria Day, Dominion Day; local occasions such as Fair
+Day, Election Day; review of those Days taken in Form I.
+
+
+
+
+FORMS III AND IV
+
+
+PRELIMINARY NOTE
+
+Below are the topics and sub-topics of the Course in History for Forms
+III and IV.
+
+In dealing with the subject in both Forms, the teacher should keep
+constantly in mind the chief aims suited to this stage of the pupil's
+development. (See pp. 16, 17.) The most vital of these is "to create and
+foster a liking for historical study." The teacher should make use of
+simple map drawing to illustrate the subject. This is especially
+necessary in dealing with the history of Canada. There should be much
+illustration by means of maps and pictures. See Educational Pamphlet No.
+4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_.
+
+The chapter numbers in the Course for Form III are those of the chapters
+in _The Story of the British People_ prescribed for the Form. These
+chapters should be carefully read and, in Form IV, the authorized
+text-books should be followed for the main account. _Having regard to
+the time available for the Course, only the most important details
+should be taken up._
+
+
+
+
+FORM III
+
+JUNIOR GRADE
+
+
+CANADIAN HISTORY
+
+     Columbus--The Discovery of America (Chap. XX)
+     John Cabot and the New World (Chap. XXI)
+     Jacques Cartier (Chap. XXIII)
+     Raleigh and Gilbert (Chap. XXVI)
+     The Beginnings of Acadia (Chap. XXVII)
+     Champlain, the Father of New France (Chap. XXVIII)
+     The Pilgrim Fathers (Chap. XXIX)
+     The Jesuits in Canada (Chap. XXXI)
+     The Settlement of French Canada (Chap. XXXI)
+     La Salle (Chap. XXXIV)
+     Henry Hudson--New York and Hudson Bay (Chap. XXXV)
+     Frontenac (Chaps. XXXIV, XXXVII)
+     The Conquest of Canada--Wolfe and Montcalm, Pontiac (Chap. XLI)
+     The Coming of the Loyalists (Chap. XLII)
+     How Canada Fought for the Empire (Chap. XLIV)
+     William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XLVI)
+     The Great North-West--Selkirk, Mackenzie, Strathcona, Riel
+       (Chap. XLVII)
+     Canada and the Empire--Royal Visitors (Chap. L)
+
+
+
+
+FORM III
+
+SENIOR GRADE
+
+
+BRITISH HISTORY
+
+     The First Britons (Chap. I)
+     The Coming of the Romans (Chap. II)
+     A Day in Roman Britain (Chap. III)
+     The Coming of the English (Chap. IV)
+     The Coming of Christianity (Chap. V)
+     The Vikings (Chap. VI)
+     Alfred the Great (Chap. VII)
+     Rivals for a Throne (Chap. VIII)
+     The Coming of the Normans (Chap. IX)
+     A Norman Castle (Chap. X)
+     A Glance at Scotland (Chap. XI)
+     Henry the Second and Ireland (Chap. XII)
+     Richard the Lion Heart (Chap. XIII)
+     King John and the Great Charter (Chap. XIV)
+     The First Prince of Wales (Chap. XV)
+     Wallace and Bruce (Chaps. XVI, XVII)
+     The Black Prince (Chap. XVIII)
+     The Father of the British Navy (Chap. XXII)
+     The New Worship (Chap. XXIV)
+     Francis Drake, Sea-dog (Chap. XXV)
+     King Charles the First (Chap. XXX)
+     The Rule of Cromwell (Chap. XXXII)
+     The King Enjoys his Own again (Chap. XXXIII)
+     The Revolution and After (Chap. XXXVI)
+     The Greatest Soldier of his Time (Chap. XXXVIII)
+     Bonnie Prince Charlie (Chap. XXXIX)
+     Robert Clive, the Daring in War (Chap. XL)
+     The Terror of Europe (Chap. XLIII)
+     Waterloo (Chap. XLV)
+     Victoria the Good (Chaps. XLVI, XLVIII, XLIX)
+
+CIVICS
+
+Review of the work in Form II; election of town or township council;
+taxes--the money people pay to keep up schools and roads, etc.; how
+local taxes are levied for the support of the school; election of
+members of County Council, of members of Provincial Legislature; duties
+of citizenship.
+
+
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+JUNIOR GRADE
+
+
+CANADIAN HISTORY
+
+Before the British Conquest--an introductory account:
+
+The French settlements: Extent, life of the seignior, habitant, and
+coureur de bois; system of trade; government at Quebec--governor,
+bishop, intendant; territorial claims (Chaps. VII, VIII, IX, XI)
+
+The English settlements--Hudson's Bay Company, English colonies in New
+York, New England, Acadia, and Newfoundland; population, life, trade,
+government, territorial claims (Chaps. VIII, X, XI)
+
+British Conquest of New France--fall of Quebec (Chap. XI)
+
+Conspiracy of Pontiac (Chap. XII)
+
+Quebec Act (Chap. XII)
+
+Canada and the American Revolution; U.E. Loyalists (Chaps. XIII, XV)
+
+Constitutional Act--Representative Government (Chap. XIV)
+
+Social Conditions, 1763-1812 (Chap. XV)
+
+Hudson's Bay Company (Chaps. VIII, XVI, XXI)
+
+North-West Company (Chap. XVI)
+
+Exploration in North-West--Hearne, Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson (Chap.
+XVI)
+
+War of 1812-14 (Chap. XVII)
+
+Family Compact (Chap. XVII)
+
+Clergy Reserves (Chap. XVII)
+
+William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XVII)
+
+Lord Durham, Act of Union, 1840--Responsible Government (Chap. XVIII)
+
+Social Progress, 1812-1841 (Chap. XIX)
+
+Settlement of the North-West--Selkirk (Chaps. XVI, XX)
+
+Confederation of the Provinces, 1867 (Chap. XXII)
+
+Intercolonial Railway (Chap. XXIV)
+
+Expansion of the Dominion by addition of new provinces (Chap. XXII)
+
+Social Progress, 1841-1867 (Chap. XXIII)
+
+Canadian Pacific Railway (Chap. XXIV)
+
+Riel Rebellion (Chap. XXIV)
+
+Disputes between Canada and the United States since 1814 settled by
+treaty or arbitration. The Hundred Years of Peace
+
+Canada, at the opening of the twentieth century; transportation,
+industry, means of defence, education (Chap. XXV)
+
+Ontario since Confederation: John Sandfield Macdonald, Sir Oliver Mowat,
+Arthur Sturgis Hardy, Sir George W. Ross, Sir James P. Whitney (Chap.
+XXVI)
+
+An account of how Canada is governed, simple and concrete and as far as
+possible related to the experience of the pupils; Municipal Government,
+Provincial Government, Federal Government (Chap. XXVII)
+
+
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+SENIOR GRADE
+
+
+BRITISH HISTORY
+
+A
+
+_A Course of about Two Months_
+
+
+The Early Inhabitants--The Britons
+
+The Coming of the Romans
+
+The Coming of the Saxons
+
+The Coming of Christianity
+
+Alfred the Great
+
+The Coming of the Normans--The Feudal System
+
+Richard I and the Crusaders
+
+John and Magna Charta
+
+The Scottish War of Independence
+
+The Hundred Years' War--Crecy, Agincourt, Joan of Arc.
+
+The Wars of the Roses (no lists of battles or details of fighting)
+
+Caxton and Printing
+
+Separation between the English Church and Rome
+
+
+B
+
+_A Course of about Eight Months_
+
+
+Brief account of the British Isles, territorial, political, and
+religious, as an introduction to the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots; the Spanish Armada; Drake, Hawkins,
+Gilbert, Raleigh, Shakespeare.
+
+The Stuarts: "Divine Right of Kings" supported by majority of gentry and
+landowners (cavaliers), opposed by the commercial and trading classes
+and yeomen (roundheads). The Kings strove for absolute power, the
+Parliament for constitutional government.
+
+James I: Union of the English and Scottish Crowns.
+
+Charles I: Struggle between King and Parliament; Petition of Right, Ship
+Money, rebellion, execution of Charles.
+
+Commonwealth: nominally a republic, really a dictatorship under
+Cromwell. He gave Britain a strong government at home, and made her
+respected abroad, and laid the foundations of Britain's foreign trade
+and colonial empire.
+
+Charles II: The Restoration: Reaction in state, church, and society;
+King striving for absolute power; Nonconformists persecuted; society
+profligate in its revolt against the strictness of Puritanism; Habeas
+Corpus Act; Test Act; Plague and Great Fire.
+
+James II: Revolution of 1688, the death-knell of "divine right";
+Parliament supreme; Declaration of Rights.
+
+William and Mary: Party government--Whigs and Tories; King to act by
+advice of his ministers; each parliament limited to three years; Bill of
+Rights; Act of Settlement.
+
+Anne: Marlborough; Union between England and Scotland, 1707; the
+Jacobites, 1715 and 1745.
+
+George II: Walpole, the great peace minister--home and colonial trade
+fostered and material wealth of the nation greatly increased; Pitt, the
+great war minister; territorial expansion in Canada and India--Wolfe,
+Clive; the Methodist Movement, Wesley.
+
+George III: The American Revolution, 1776-83: loss of the American
+Colonies; Pitt; Washington; acquisition of Australia by Great Britain,
+1788; legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, 1801; Napoleonic
+wars; Nelson, Wellington, Aboukir, Trafalgar, and Waterloo; industrial
+revolution--the change from an agricultural to an industrial country.
+
+William IV: Reform Act of 1832, a great forward movement in democratic
+government; abolition of slavery, 1833; railways and steamships.
+
+Victoria: First British settlement in New Zealand, 1839; Repeal of the
+Corn Laws, 1846--free trade, the commercial policy of England;
+Elementary Education Act, 1870, education compulsory; parliamentary
+franchise extended--vote by ballot; Crimean war; Indian Mutiny; Egypt
+and the Suez Canal; Boer War--Orange Free State and South African
+Republic annexed; social progress.
+
+Edward VII: Irish Land Act of 1903; pensions for aged labourers; King
+Edward, "the Peace-maker."
+
+
+CIVICS
+
+Taxation--direct and indirect; how the revenue of the Dominion,
+provinces, and municipalities, respectively, is collected.
+
+Federal Government--Governor-general, Senate, House of Commons, Premier,
+Cabinet.
+
+Imperial Government--King, House of Lords, House of Commons, Premier,
+Cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY
+
+
+AIMS
+
+History may be made, in several ways, an important factor in forming
+intelligent, patriotic citizens:
+
+(_a_) It must be remembered that society, with all its institutions, is
+a growth, not a sudden creation. It follows that, if we wish to
+understand the present and to use that knowledge as a guide to future
+action, we must know the story of how our present institutions and
+conditions have come to be what they are; we must know the ideals of our
+forefathers, the means they took to realize them, and to what extent
+they succeeded. It is only in this way that we become capable of passing
+judgment, as citizens, on what is proposed by political and social
+reformers, and thus justify and guarantee our existence as a democracy.
+
+(_b_) Patriotism, which depends largely on the associations formed in
+childhood, is intensified by learning how our forefathers fought and
+laboured and suffered to obtain all that we now value most in our homes
+and social life. The courage with which the early settlers of Upper
+Canada faced their tremendous labours and hardships should make us
+appreciate our inheritance in the Ontario of to-day, and determine, as
+they did, to leave our country better than we found it.
+
+    To-morrow yet would reap to-day,
+    As we bear blossom of the dead.
+
+(_c_) "History teaches that right and wrong are real distinctions." The
+study of history, especially in the sphere of biography, has a moral
+value, and much may be done, even in the primary classes, to inspire
+children to admire the heroic and the self-sacrificing, and to despise
+the treacherous and the self-seeking. The constant struggle to right
+what is wrong in the world may be emphasized in the senior classes to
+show that nothing is ever settled until it is settled right.
+
+(_d_) History affords specially good exercise for the judgment we use in
+everyday life in weighing evidence and balancing probabilities. Such a
+question as "Did Champlain do right in taking the side of the Hurons
+against the Iroquois, or even in taking sides at all?" may be suggested
+to the older pupils for consideration.
+
+(_e_) History, when taught by a broad-minded, well-informed teacher, may
+do much to correct the prejudices--social, political, religious--of
+individuals and communities.
+
+(_f_) The imagination is exercised in the effort to recall or
+reconstruct the scenes of the past and in discovering relations of cause
+and effect.
+
+(_g_) The memory is aided and stimulated by the increase in the number
+of the centres of interest round which facts, both new and old, may be
+grouped.
+
+(_h_) A knowledge of the facts and inferences of history is invaluable
+for general reading and culture.
+
+To sum up: It is important that the good citizen should know his
+physical environment; it is just as important for him "to know his
+social and political environment, to have some appreciation of the
+nature of the state and society, some sense of the duties and
+responsibilities of citizenship, some capacity in dealing with political
+and governmental questions, something of the broad and tolerant spirit
+which is bred by the study of past times and conditions."
+
+
+SCOPE
+
+The ideal course in history would include (1) a general view of the
+history of the world, giving the pupil knowledge enough to provide the
+proper setting for the history of his own country; (2) a more detailed
+knowledge of the whole history of his own country; (3) and a special
+knowledge of certain outstanding periods or tendencies in that history.
+In our schools, we should give most attention to the study of Canadian
+and British history as a whole, to enough of the history of France
+and other countries to make clear certain parts of our own history,
+and to certain important periods, such as the settlement of Upper
+Canada by the United Empire Loyalists, etc. (See Detailed Course of
+Study, p. 5.) We may also study our history along special lines of
+development--political, military, social, educational, religious,
+industrial, and commercial--but these phases are subjects of study
+rather for secondary schools and colleges.
+
+
+STAGES OF STUDY
+
+There are three stages in the study of history which, though they
+overlap each other, yet indicate different methods of treatment for
+pupils at different ages. They are the Story stage, the Information
+stage, and the Reflective stage. These stages are not exclusive, nor do
+they coincide with the first three Forms in the schools.
+
+
+THE STORY STAGE
+
+This stage is suitable for children in the primary grades and is chiefly
+preparatory to the real study of history in the higher grades. The need
+for this stage lies in the fact that the child's "ideas are of the
+pictorial rather than of the abstract order"; yet his spontaneous
+interest in these things must be made to serve "as a stepping-stone to
+the acquired interests of civilized life." The definite objects at this
+stage are:
+
+(_a_) To create and foster a liking for historical study. It is
+impossible, in the public school life of a child, which is usually ended
+at the age of twelve to fourteen years, to accomplish all that has been
+indicated above concerning the aims of history teaching. The most that
+can be done is to lay the foundation and give the pupil a desire to
+continue his reading after his school days are over. Serious blame rests
+on the teacher whose methods of teaching history, instead of attracting
+the child to the subject, give him a distaste for it. If history is made
+real and living to children, it is usually not difficult to have them
+like it. (For suggestions, see p. 34.)
+
+(_b_) To acquaint the pupils with some of the important historical
+persons. We wish to take advantage of the fact that "the primitive form
+of attention which is captured at once by objects that strike the senses
+is giving place in some degree to appreciative attention, which is
+yielded to things that connect themselves with what we already know, and
+which implies ability to adopt the reflective attitude towards a
+proposed problem."[A] Now children are more interested in people than in
+institutions or events; and, if we can give them a knowledge of some of
+the striking incidents in the lives of important characters in history,
+we may expect them to be more interested in the study of history at a
+later period, because they will frequently meet with these familiar
+names. The emphasis at this stage is therefore on biography.
+
+[Footnote A: Raymont: _Principles of Education_]
+
+(_c_) To help the development of the "historical sense." The "historical
+sense" includes the notion of time, the notion of a social unit and,
+according to some, the notion of cause and effect. The notion of time
+implies the power "to represent the past as if it were present"--that
+is, the power to enter into the thoughts and feelings of people of the
+past as if we were living amongst them. This notion of time comes at
+different ages; to some early, to others very late. It came to Professor
+Shaler at the age of about eight or nine years, as the direct result of
+vivid story-telling:
+
+     Of all the folk who were about me, the survivors of the Indian wars
+     were the most interesting. There were several of these old
+     clapper-clawed fellows still living, with their more or less
+     apocryphal tales of adventures they had heard of or shared. There
+     was current a tradition--I have seen it in print--that there had
+     been a fight between the Indians and whites where the government
+     barracks stood, and that two wounded whites had been left upon the
+     ground, where they were not found by the savages. One of these had
+     both arms broken, the other was similarly disabled as to his legs.
+     It was told that they managed to subsist by combining their limited
+     resources. The man with sound legs drove game up within range of
+     the other cripple's gun, and as the turkeys or rabbits fell, he
+     kicked them within reach of his hands, and in like manner provided
+     him with sticks for their fire. This legend, much elaborated in the
+     telling, gave me, I believe at about my eighth year, my first sense
+     of a historic past, and it led to much in the way of fanciful
+     invention of like tales. (N.F. Shaler: _Autobiography_, Chap. I.)
+
+The best means at the teacher's command to assist its coming is to tell
+good stories from history with all the skill he has; the stories need
+not be told in chronological order. The notion of time implies also in
+the older pupils the power to place events in chronological order.
+
+The notion of a social unit is also of slow growth and must spring from
+the child's conception of the social units he belongs to--the home, the
+school, the community.
+
+The notion of cause and effect does not belong so wholly to the study of
+history as the notions of time and of the social unit; it is surprising,
+however, how soon it makes its appearance in the child's conceptions of
+history, in his desire to know the "why" of things. (See Barnes'
+_Studies in Historical Method_.)
+
+
+THE INFORMATION STAGE
+
+There are several questions that children soon come to ask: "When?" and
+"Where?" "What?" and "Who?" This stage may be said to begin in earnest
+with the Second Form, and it continues through the whole course. One of
+the essential elements in history study is to have a knowledge of the
+important facts of history, without which there can be no inferences of
+value for present use. The all-important point in this teaching of facts
+is to keep the lessons interesting and not allow them to become mere
+lifeless memorizing of isolated happenings; for a fact is of value only
+when related to other facts. (See pp. 36, 38.)
+
+
+THE REFLECTIVE STAGE
+
+This stage naturally follows the Information stage, as one must acquire
+facts before reflecting on them in order to draw inferences. But
+reflection of a simple kind may begin as soon as any facts are given
+that will show the relations of cause and effect. The question for the
+pupil here is "Why?" just as in the preceding stage the questions were
+"When?" and "Where?" "What?" and "Who?" Information and reflection may
+therefore be combined--with due regard to the pupil's capacity.
+
+
+PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES
+
+We may speak of two difficulties. The first concerns the enormous amount
+of historical material that exists. It is increased still more by the
+intermingling of legend with history and by the partial narratives of
+prejudiced writers. The legendary part may be taken up in the Story
+stage; and the evils of one-sided accounts are often balanced by the
+greater vigour and interest of the narrative, as in Macaulay's writings.
+The difficulty connected with the great amount of material can be solved
+by the selection (already largely made by the text-books) of the more
+important parts, that is, those facts of history that have the greatest
+influence on after times--"the points of vital growth and large
+connection" without which subsequent history cannot be properly
+understood.
+
+The second difficulty has to do with deciding where to begin the
+teaching of history. There are two principles of teaching that will help
+to solve this difficulty: (1) The child learns by relating everything
+new to his present fund of experiences; (2) A child's notions grow more
+complex as his knowledge increases. To apply these, we must know the
+child's experiences and his present notions. We cannot assume that the
+present conditions of social life are known to the child through his
+experiences. Our social life is also too complex to be understood by him
+yet; he can understand an _individual_ hero better than he can the
+complex idea of a _nation_. How many children would be able to begin a
+study of history by having, as one writer suggests, "a short series of
+lessons ... to make some simple and fundamental historical ideas
+intelligible--a state, a nation, a dynasty, a monarch, a parliament,
+legislation, the administration of justice, taxes, civil and foreign
+war!" These are ideas far beyond the comprehension of the beginner. We
+must be guided, not by "what happens to be near the child in time and
+place, but by what lies near his interests." As Professor Bourne says:
+"it may be that mediaeval man, because his characteristics belong to a
+simple type, is closer to the experience of a child than many a later
+hero." With older children it is more likely to be true that the life of
+history lies "in its personal connections with what is here and now and
+still alive with us"; with historic places and relics, etc., which make
+their appeal first through the senses; with institutions, such as trial
+by jury; with anniversaries and celebrations of great events which may
+be used to arouse interest in the history which they suggest and recall.
+
+However, as McMurry points out, we are in a peculiarly favourable
+position in Canada, because we have in our own history, in the
+comparatively short time of 400 years, the development of a free and
+prosperous country from a state of wildness and savagery. The early
+stages of our history present those elements of life that appeal
+strongly to children--namely, Indians with all their ways of living and
+fighting, and the early settlers with their simpler problems and
+difficulties. The development of this simpler life to the more complex
+life of the present can be more readily understood by children as they
+follow up the changes that have taken place. (See McMurry, _Special
+Method in History_, pp. 26-30.) Of course, at every step appeal must be
+made to the experiences of children, as the teacher knows them. In
+Civics, however, the beginning must be made with conditions that exist
+to-day--schools, taxes, the policeman, the postmaster, etc. The
+beginning of the real teaching of history may then be made at the
+beginning of Canadian History, as this will enable the child to go
+gradually from the simple, or individual, to the complex, and will also
+allow the teacher to make use of whatever historical remains may be
+within reach.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY
+
+
+There are many methods used in the teaching of history. A brief
+description of the principal ones is given for reference merely, since
+their best features are incorporated in a combination of methods, which
+is strongly recommended to teachers, and is described fully in
+succeeding pages.
+
+
+1. _Methods based on the arrangement and selection of the matter_:
+Chronological, Topical
+
+
+THE CHRONOLOGICAL METHOD
+
+The matter is chosen according to the "time" order, beginning at the
+first of the history, and the events are taught in the order of
+occurrence without any marked emphasis on their importance, or without
+considering whether a knowledge of the event is useful or interesting to
+the class at this stage. Such an arrangement of matter is more suitable
+when the formal study of history is begun.
+
+
+THE TOPICAL METHOD
+
+In studying a certain period of history the events are arranged under
+topics or heads; for example, the period of discovery in Canadian
+History may be arranged thus--Discoveries, Explorations, Early
+Settlements, Indian Wars--and the study of each of these pursued to
+completion, contemporary events belonging to other topics being
+neglected for a time.
+
+Events having the same underlying purpose, though occurring in different
+periods, may be arranged under one topic for review; for example, all
+the voyages of discovery to America may be grouped under the topic, "The
+Road to Cathay." (See p. 92.) In this way a comprehensive knowledge is
+gained. This method gives a full treatment of each topic and may be used
+to best advantage in connection with reviews in junior classes and
+occasionally as a text-book or library exercise in senior classes.
+
+
+2. _Methods based on the treatment of historical facts_: Comparative,
+Regressive, Concentric
+
+
+THE COMPARATIVE METHOD
+
+By this method a comparison is made between two events, two biographies,
+two reigns, etc., a very useful device when applied in connection with
+other methods.
+
+
+THE REGRESSIVE METHOD
+
+In this method the pupil is expected to begin with the present and work
+backward; that is, to begin with institutions as they are to-day and to
+work back through the various steps in their progress to their present
+state. This method may be followed most profitably in advanced classes.
+In junior classes it is sufficient to refer to things as they exist
+to-day in order to arouse curiosity regarding the facts of history that
+are to be taught; for example, by the use of local material; by a visit
+to some place of historical interest to prepare for the story of what
+has occurred there in the past. (See p. 112.)
+
+
+THE CONCENTRIC METHOD
+
+This method, which is much used, deals in ever widening circles with the
+same topic or event; for example, a simple story of Champlain's life
+and voyages to Canada is told to Form II; the same story is considered
+again in Form III, but this time the different voyages are noted, the
+results of each investigated, and the whole summarized and memorized;
+again, in Form IV, but this time by the topical and comparative methods,
+where comparison is made of the purposes and achievements of the
+explorer with those of other explorers--Jacques Cartier, La Salle, etc.
+In this third discussion a full knowledge of Champlain's work is given.
+
+The excellence of this work lies in its review and repetition. The old
+or former knowledge is recalled and used in each succeeding discussion
+of the topic. The pupils grow gradually into fuller knowledge.
+
+
+3. _Methods based on class procedure_: Oral, Text-book
+
+
+THE ORAL METHOD
+
+This usually takes the form of an oral presentation of the story or
+description of the event by the teacher, while the pupils listen and
+afterwards reproduce what they have heard. The narration of the story is
+accompanied by pictures, sketches, maps, etc., illustrative of persons,
+places, and facts mentioned. It may also take the "development" form, in
+which a combination of narrative and questioning is employed. (See pp.
+66, 92.)
+
+The Lecture method of Colleges and Universities is an advanced oral
+method. In this the teacher narrates and describes events, propounds
+questions, and discusses and answers them himself, while the pupils
+listen and during the lecture, or afterwards, make notes of what has
+been heard.
+
+
+THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD
+
+By this method the teacher assigns a lesson in the book and, after the
+pupils have an opportunity to study it, he asks questions concerning the
+facts learned. The exclusive use of this method results ordinarily in
+dull, lifeless teaching, and with junior pupils will prevent their
+enjoying, or receiving much benefit from, the study of history. There
+are two reasons for the too general use of it--first, it is an easy
+method for the teacher, and secondly, it is easy for the pupils to
+memorize facts for the sole purpose of passing examinations. While this
+criticism is true when an exclusive use is made of the text-book, the
+same cannot be said when the text-book is used as an auxiliary to the
+teacher. Following the oral presentation of the story, reference may be
+made to the book for another version or for a fuller account and, in
+Form IV, topics may be assigned and the pupils directed to consult the
+text-book for the necessary information. (See pp. 26, 28.)
+
+The text-book should be one that does not show an abrupt change from the
+story told by the teacher. It should not be merely a short outline of
+the important facts in history, written separately and then pieced
+together in chronological order, but should be written in a readable
+form by one who is able to distinguish the important and necessary from
+the unimportant and burdensome. It should have short summaries at the
+ends of chapters or stories of events, so that a grasp of what has been
+read may be easily obtained. It should also have many pictures,
+illustrations, and maps, to take the place of the teacher's explanations
+in the earlier stage. (On the use of the text-book, see p. 29.)
+
+
+A COMBINATION OF THESE METHODS
+
+General Description.--As each of the above methods has its strong and
+its weak points, we should attempt to combine the strong points into one
+method, varied to keep pace with the mental development of the pupil,
+and thus secure the best results. The general outline of such a
+combination may be given as follows: The "oral story" is to be used in
+the junior classes, with "development" problems presented where helpful;
+in Form III the pupils should be introduced to the text-book (The
+History Reader for Form III), besides being taught by the oral method;
+in Form IV, the oral method is still to be the chief means used by the
+teacher, who will now, however, pay more attention to the arrangement of
+the matter (for example, in topical outlines), to accustom the pupils to
+grasp more thoroughly the relations of cause and effect in history. The
+topics of history will also be taken up more exhaustively than in the
+junior classes, and the pupils must have more practice in acquiring
+knowledge from the text-books.
+
+
+DETAILS OF METHOD
+
+
+FORMS I, II
+
+In Forms I and II, the pupils are accustomed to the oral reproduction of
+stories told by the teacher. In these should be included a good many
+historical stories, such as those suggested in the Course of Study in
+History for these Forms; they will serve the usual purposes of oral
+reproduction work for composition and literature, and will be, besides,
+a good foundation for the study of history in the higher forms. (For
+objects of the Story stage, see p. 16.)
+
+The oral presentation of a story or description of an event requires a
+certain degree of skill on the part of a teacher--skill in
+story-telling, in grasping the important parts of the story or
+description, in knowing what details to omit as well as what to narrate,
+in explaining the story in a way that will make it real to the pupils,
+in preparing pictures and sketches to illustrate the different parts,
+and in questioning so that the minds of the pupils will be active as
+well as receptive. The care and time necessary to secure this skill will
+be well repaid by the interest aroused in history, by the appreciation
+of the thoughts thus presented, and by the lasting impressions conveyed.
+Simple, clear language should be employed, not necessarily small words,
+but words whose meaning is made clear by the context or illustration.
+(For material for these Forms, see Bibliography, C, p. 132.)
+
+When the whole story is told, revision may be made by having the pupils
+reproduce it after suitable questioning, either immediately or at some
+future time. Exercises in reproduction may also be given, for either
+seat work or class work, in constructive or art work; for example, after
+the story of the North American Indians, the pupils may be asked to
+construct a wigwam, a canoe, a bow and arrow, or to make pictures of
+Indians, of their houses, of their dress, etc.
+
+Further exercise in composition may also be given by having the pupils
+write the story. To each pupil may be assigned a special part; for
+example, the story of Moses may be divided thus: (1) As a babe; (2) His
+adoption by the Princess; (3) His life at the palace; (4) His flight to
+Midian; (5) The Burning Bush, etc. The whole story is then reproduced by
+having these parts read aloud in a reading lesson.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+The value of the oral work done in Forms I and II will be realized by
+the teacher when the real study of history is begun in Forms III and
+IV. The pupils have a liking for the stories of history and have a
+knowledge of some of the leading actors and of the chief events in
+history that calls for more complete satisfaction.
+
+There are several methods of using the History Reader which is the basis
+of the work in Form III. Perhaps the best method is to continue to make
+oral teaching the chief feature, and to add to that the use by the
+pupils, in various ways, of the History Reader.
+
+For example, the teacher will tell the story of Jacques Cartier,
+following in the main the narrative as given in the History Reader. It
+is well, however, not to follow it too closely in order that, when the
+pupils come to read the story in the book for themselves, they will find
+it an interesting combination of the familiar and the new. For that
+reason, it will be necessary for the teacher to have prepared the story
+from a somewhat different narrative in some other book at her command.
+In the telling of the story, problems may be asked, if thought advisable
+(see p. 33); a few headings may be placed on the black-board for
+subsequent reproduction, oral or written, by the pupils; all
+difficulties of pronunciation, especially of proper names, should be
+attended to, orally and on the black-board; the places mentioned should
+be found on the map; pictures and sketches should be used; and in fact,
+every possible means taken to make the narrative more real to the class.
+(See p. 34.)
+
+When the oral teaching is finished, the pupils may have the books to
+read at their desks, and they often ask permission to take them home.
+They may sometimes be required to read aloud from the History Reader for
+supplementary practice in oral reading. Reproduction by the pupils,
+either immediately or in a subsequent lesson, should follow. Teachers,
+however, are advised not to insist on too much written reproduction, as
+that might very easily arouse a dislike for both history and written
+composition. Procedure as outlined above has had most gratifying results
+in the way of creating a liking for, and an intelligent interest in, the
+study of history.
+
+Other methods have also had good results. The teacher may, instead of
+telling the story, read aloud from the Reader to pave the way for the
+reading of the story by the pupils themselves. Difficulties, either in
+language or in meaning, may be taken up as in a literature lesson. The
+pupils will at first find the reading somewhat difficult, but the
+interest generated by the teacher's reading or oral narrative will carry
+them through that stage till they acquire a love for reading history,
+and have enlarged their vocabulary till reading is no longer a
+burdensome task.
+
+A taste of the more serious study of history may be given by asking the
+pupils a few not very difficult questions that they can answer only by
+combining facts contained in several stories. For example, in the
+chapters selected for Form III, Junior Grade, the answer can be found to
+a question about the explorers of Canada, the order of their visits, and
+a comparison of their work; to another question about the expansion of
+Canada from the little part of Quebec first visited to the whole of
+British North America.
+
+It is unnecessary, perhaps, to add that the emphasis in Form III history
+should be still very largely on biography, so as to influence the
+forming of moral ideals by concrete examples.
+
+
+FORM IV
+
+Although the pupils have now had some experience in the use of the
+History Reader, yet that is no reason why oral teaching should be
+discarded in Form IV history, any more than in arithmetic or geography.
+It is scarcely a high estimate to have of history, to think that pupils
+of this age can grasp even the simpler lines of development in history
+without guidance from the teacher. Hence it is necessary for the
+attainment of good results, that many of the lessons should be taught
+orally before the pupils are asked to study their books. The aim of the
+teaching should be not merely the acquisition of facts, but the welding
+of them together in a sequence of cause and effect, and the pupils at
+this stage can scarcely be expected to do that for themselves.
+
+In preparing for a lesson in Form IV history, the teacher should analyse
+the incidents of the period to be studied, should see how certain causes
+have led to certain results, and should be sure enough of the facts to
+have little recourse to the text-book while teaching. It does not look
+like fair play to expect a class to answer questions that the teacher
+cannot answer without consulting the text. On the other hand, it is
+refreshing to see the interest aroused in a class by a teacher who
+thinks enough of the subject to be able to teach it without constant
+reference to the text-book. Therefore, let the oral method be here again
+the chief dependence of the teacher. In such a lesson, for example, as
+that on the Intercolonial Railway (see p. 82) no book is needed--only
+the map and the black-board.
+
+
+TRAINING IN USE OF TEXT-BOOK
+
+However, as the pupils must learn, for their own profit in after years,
+how to read history without a guiding hand, they need training in the
+use of the text-book. The chief line on which such training may proceed
+is to have the pupils search out the answers to definite questions. Any
+one who has searched for material on a certain topic will appreciate
+the good results that have come in the way of added knowledge and
+increased interest. The topics at first should be quite simple,
+gradually increasing in breadth. A few suggestions for such work are
+given below; they may be called examination questions to be answered
+with the help of the text-book:
+
+     1. Name, and tell something about, four of the explorers of Canada
+     before 1759.
+
+     2. Name several other explorers of the New World.
+
+     3. Which explorer did the most for Canada, Champlain or La Salle?
+
+     4. In what wars did the French fight against the Iroquois? With
+     what result?
+
+     5. What explorers of North America were trying to find a way to
+     China and India? (This investigation by the class may precede the
+     lesson on the "Road to Cathay." See p. 92.)
+
+     6. On what did English kings base their claim to be the overlords
+     of Scotland? Trace the dispute down to the Union of the Crowns in
+     1603.
+
+     7. Find out how the slave trade was treated by the English.
+
+     8. Make a list of the early newspapers in Canada. Did they have
+     much influence on public opinion?
+
+     9. Compare the struggles for the control of taxation in Canada and
+     in the Thirteen Colonies of America. Explain why these were settled
+     differently in the two cases.
+
+With questions such as these for investigation, no pupil will be likely
+to secure the full facts; each may state in the next lesson what he has
+found, and the work of each will be supplemented by that of the others.
+With succeeding investigations it may be expected that the pupils will
+be more eager to get at all the facts in the text-book. At any rate they
+are learning how to gather material from books--a very valuable
+training, no matter how simple the topic is.
+
+When, in the ordinary course of work, lessons from the text-book are
+assigned, the teacher should indicate the important points, should
+suggest certain matters for discussion, and should note certain
+questions to be answered, indicating precisely where the information may
+be obtained. In the recitation period following, the topic should be
+fully discussed, the pupils giving the information they have secured
+from the text-book, and the teacher supplementing this from his
+knowledge gained through wider reading. During the discussion an outline
+should be made on the board, largely by the suggestions of the pupils,
+and kept in their note-books for reference and review. (See p. 100,
+Lesson on the Feudal System.)
+
+
+DRILL AND REVIEW
+
+As has been already stated (p. 15), the Story stage is useful chiefly
+for the purpose of arousing interest and developing the historical
+sense; no drill or review is necessary other than the oral, and, in Form
+II, sometimes the written, reproduction of the stories. The oral
+reproduction can be obtained in Form I by using the stories as topics in
+language lessons.
+
+In the Information stage, where we are concerned more with the acquiring
+of facts, and in the Reflective stage, where we wish to relate facts to
+each other according to cause and effect, drills and reviews are
+necessary. During the lesson, a summary is placed on the black-board by
+the teacher or pupil, as indicated above. It is used as a guide in oral
+reproduction and may also be copied in special note-books and used for
+reference when preparing for review lessons. The teacher may look over
+these note-books occasionally.
+
+There is great difference of opinion on the value of note-taking by
+pupils, but it may be said of such notes as those mentioned above that
+they have the advantage of being largely the pupil's own work,
+especially when the pupils are asked to suggest the headings; they are a
+record of what has been decided in the class to be important points;
+they are arranged in the order in which the subject has been treated in
+the lesson, and are in every way superior to the small note-books in
+history that are sometimes used as aids or helps. For the proper
+teaching of history, the latter are hindrances rather than helps,
+because they rob the pupil of the profit gained by doing the work for
+himself. Notes obtained from books or dictated by the teacher are
+harmful to the right spirit of study, and create a distaste for the
+subject.
+
+Special review lessons should be taken when a series of lessons on one
+topic, or on a series of connected topics, has been finished. At the
+close of each lesson, the facts learned are fixed more firmly in the
+mind by the usual drill; but there must be further organization of the
+several lessons by a proper review, so that history will not be a number
+of unconnected events, but will be seen as an orderly development. This
+may be accomplished: (1) by questioning the class from a point of view
+different from that taken in the first lessons, (2) by oral or written
+expansion of a topical outline, (3) by illustrations with maps or
+drawings, (4) by tracing the sequence of events backwards, (5) by
+submitting some new situation that will recall the old knowledge in a
+different way. It must be remembered that it is not a mere repetition
+that we seek, but a _re-view_ of the facts, a new view that will prove
+the power of the pupils to use the knowledge they have gained. Thus the
+lesson on the St. Lawrence River (p. 112) is a good review of the facts
+of history suggested by the places mentioned; the lesson on the Road to
+Cathay (p. 92) may be considered a review of the chief explorers of
+North America. Such a review aims at seeing new relations, at connecting
+new knowledge and old, at "giving freshness and vividness to knowledge
+that may be somewhat faded, at throwing a number of discrete facts into
+a bird's-eye view."
+
+
+THE USE OF PROBLEMS IN TEACHING HISTORY
+
+The development, or problem, method is intended to get the pupils to do
+some independent thinking, instead of merely absorbing knowledge from
+the teacher. The plan is simply to set clearly before the pupils the
+conditions existing at a certain moment in the story so that they may
+see for themselves the difficulties that the people in the story had to
+overcome. The question for the class is: "What would you do in the
+circumstances?"
+
+Let us take an example from the life of Ulysses. Ulysses had heard of
+the Sirens, who sang so beautifully that any one in a passing ship who
+heard them was impelled to throw himself overboard, with a frantic
+desire to swim to their island. Naturally the swimmers were all drowned
+in the attempt. Ulysses desired to hear for himself the wonderful
+singing, and to experience, perhaps, its terrible effect; but he
+certainly did not want to run any risk of drowning. Now, how did he
+accomplish his desire, without paying the penalty?
+
+Again, in the story of Madeleine de Vercheres, the narrative may proceed
+to the point where Madeleine has succeeded in securing the gates. She
+finds herself in a weak fort with few to help her, and outside a
+numerous band of Indians, who are kept at bay for a whole week, without
+even attempting their usual night attacks. How did she do it?
+
+In the case of the U.E. Loyalists, the teacher may narrate the story to
+the point where the Loyalists, after the treaty was signed, saw that
+they must remove to Canada. The class must know where the Loyalist
+centres in the New England States were. Now, what routes would they be
+likely to take in going to Canada? With the map before them, the class
+can usually tell the next part of the story themselves.
+
+Even if the pupil is not able to give the correct answer to the problem
+submitted, he is nevertheless having an opportunity to exercise his
+judgment, he can see wherein his judgment differs from that of the
+persons concerned, his interest in their actions is increased, and the
+whole story will be more deeply impressed on his memory.
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE HISTORY REAL
+
+The chief difficulty in teaching history is to give a meaning to the
+language of history. Much of the language is merely empty words. The
+Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves mean just about as much to pupils
+as _x_ does in algebra, and even when they give a definition or
+description of these terms, it usually amounts to saying that _x_ equals
+_y_; the definition is just as vague as the original terms. The problem
+is to give the language more meaning, to ensure that the words give
+mental pictures and ideas; in short, to turn the abstract into concrete
+facts.
+
+Children can make their own only such knowledge as their experience
+helps them to interpret. Their interests are in the present, and the
+past appeals to them just so far as they can see in it their own
+activities, thoughts, and feelings. The great aim of the teacher, then,
+should be to help pupils to translate the facts of history into terms of
+their own experiences; unless that is done, they are really not learning
+anything. Some of the ways in which this may be attempted are outlined
+below.
+
+1. In the junior classes where the children are intensely interested in
+stories, the stress should be put on giving them _interesting personal
+details_ about the famous people in history, details that they can
+understand with their limited experiences of life, and that will appeal
+to their emotions. These stories should be told to the pupils with such
+vividness and animation that they will struggle with Columbus against a
+mutinous crew, will help the early explorers to blaze their way through
+the dense forests, will toil with the pioneers in making homes for
+themselves in Canada, and will suffer with the missionaries in their
+hardships and perils.
+
+For these pupils the oral method is the only one to use, for there is
+nothing that appeals to children more quickly and with more reality than
+what they _hear_ from the teacher. The oral method should find a large
+place in the teaching of history in all the Forms. It may be added that
+the teachers who use this method will find history become a more real
+and interesting study to themselves.
+
+2. What the pupils hear should be reinforced by giving them something to
+_see_. Whatever pictures are obtainable (see pp. 45, 127) should be used
+freely at all stages, for the visual images of children are a powerful
+aid to their understanding; it is for this reason that books for
+children are now so fully illustrated, and the same principle should be
+applied to the teaching of history.
+
+As soon as the children are ready for it, reference should be made to
+maps to illustrate historical facts. (See p. 127.) They should see on
+the map the course that Columbus took across the unknown sea;
+Champlain's explorations become real when they are traced on the map and
+the children have a concrete picture to carry away with them. In fact
+the subjects of geography, art, and constructive work, treated under the
+head of correlated subjects, are used in history with the aim of making
+it real through the eye. (See pp. 40, 44, 45.)
+
+3. A greater difficulty presents itself when we have to deal, in the
+higher Forms, with topics like the Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves,
+and it is a difficulty that will test to the full the resourcefulness
+of the teacher. How can the preceding conditions and the terms of the
+Magna Charta be brought home to a class? How can children be brought to
+appreciate the difficulties connected with the question of Clergy
+Reserves? A few words about the latter may suggest a means.
+
+Two aspects of the Clergy Reserves question stand out prominently, the
+religious and the economic. The religious aspect will be the most
+difficult for Ontario children, for they have no immediate knowledge of
+what a State Church is--the point on which the religious dispute turned;
+nor do they know enough about the government of the religious bodies to
+which they belong to make the matter clear to them. A full understanding
+must come later. The best point of approach seems to be to give the
+class some idea of the number of settlers belonging to the churches of
+England and of Scotland, which claimed the right to the lands reserved,
+and compare with this the number of all other Protestant bodies that
+claimed to share in them; for this difference in numbers was one of the
+chief causes of bitterness. An arithmetical appeal is concrete. There
+was also the economic aspect. The Clergy Reserves were one seventh of
+the land in each township. Another seventh was withheld from free
+settlement as Crown Lands. Now in some townships there were about 50,000
+acres. Let the class find out how many acres were thus kept from
+settlement. Tell them that this land was not all in one block, but
+distributed through the township. They can now be asked to consider how
+this would interfere with close settlement and therefore with the
+establishment of schools, churches, post-offices, mills, and stores. A
+diagram of a township would be of great help. These two points will help
+them to see why an early and fair settlement of the vexed question was
+desired. Wherever possible, present problems for them to solve by their
+own experiences.
+
+4. The reading to the class of accounts of events written by people
+living at the time will give an atmosphere of reality and human interest
+to the events. For example, a story of early pioneer days told by a
+pioneer gives a personal element (see _Pioneer Days_, Kennedy); a letter
+by Mary Queen of Scots, to Elizabeth (see p. 143), will make both of
+these queens real living people, not mere names in history. (See
+_Studies in the Teaching of History_, Keatinge, p. 97, also selections
+from _The Sources of English History_, Colby, p. 163.) Not much of this
+may be possible, but more use might easily be made of such materials,
+especially with the early history of Ontario.
+
+5. The use of local history and of current events will be treated
+elsewhere. (See pp. 49, 51.)
+
+6. When possible, let the pupils form their idea of an historical person
+from his actions and words just as we form our estimate of each other,
+instead of having them memorize mere summaries of his character before
+they know his actions.
+
+7. Genealogical and chronological tables, written on the black-board and
+discussed with the class, will be of service in understanding certain
+periods, such as the Wars of the Roses, and in helping to form the
+time-sense of pupils. (See Chronological Chart, p. 128.)
+
+8. Chief dependence must be placed, however, on increasing the pupil's
+knowledge of present-day conditions in agriculture, commerce,
+transportation, manufactures, in fact, in all social, economic, and
+political conditions, in order to enable him by comparison to realize
+earlier methods and ways of living. The pupil who understands best how
+we do things to-day can understand best the state of affairs when people
+had to depend on primitive methods, and can realize how they would
+strive to make things better.
+
+
+ON MEMORIZING HISTORY
+
+History is usually called a "memory" subject, and is accordingly often
+taught as a mere memorizing of facts, names, and dates. The following
+statement of the chief principles of memorizing will, it is hoped, put
+mere verbal repetition in its proper place. Interest is the chief
+condition for teaching history in the public schools, in order that the
+pupils may acquire a liking for the subject that will tempt them to
+pursue their reading in after years; without that interest, the small
+amount of historical fact they can accumulate in their school-days will
+be of little real value to them when they become full-fledged citizens.
+In fact, through this emphasis on interest instead of verbal repetition,
+the pupils are likely to obtain a better knowledge of history and, at
+the same time, will have a chance to develop, in no slight degree, their
+powers of judgment.
+
+1. Memory depends on attention; we must observe attentively what we wish
+to remember. In history, attention may be secured by making the lessons
+interesting through the skill of the teacher in presenting the matter
+vividly to the pupils; also by using means to make history real instead
+of having it a mere mass of meaningless words. (See p. 34.)
+
+2. Facts that we wish to remember should be grouped, or studied in
+relation to other facts with which they are vitally connected. The facts
+of history should be presented to the class in their relation of cause
+and effect, or associated with some larger centre of interest; in other
+words, pupils must understand, in some degree, what they are asked to
+remember. (See pp. 92, 97.)
+
+3. If we increase the number of connections for facts, we are more
+likely to remember them. It is largely for this reason that history
+should be taught with correlated subjects, such as geography,
+literature, science (inventions), etc. For example, the story of the
+Spanish Armada is remembered better if we have read _Westward Ho!_ and
+the story of the Renaissance is made clearer and is therefore remembered
+better, if we connect with it the inventions of printing, gunpowder, and
+the mariner's compass. (See p. 121.)
+
+4. Repetition is necessary to memory. Facts or groups of facts must be
+repeated to be remembered. This is the purpose of the drills which are
+necessary to good teaching, but are only a part of it. Reviews are not
+to be considered merely as repetitions, but should be treated more as
+aids to better understanding. (See p. 31.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS
+
+
+HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
+
+These subjects are very intimately related, and each should be used in
+teaching the other. Geography, which is often called one of the "eyes of
+history," may be used in the teaching of this subject in two ways. In
+the first place, an account of an historical event lacks, to a certain
+degree, reality in the minds of the pupils if they do not know something
+of the place where it occurred. Accordingly, in studying or teaching
+history, reference should be constantly made to the map to give a local
+setting to the story. The voyage of Columbus, the operations of Wolfe,
+the coming of the Loyalists, are made more real if they are traced out
+on the map, and are therefore better understood and remembered by the
+pupils. For this purpose, it is better, in most cases, to use an outline
+map, which may be sketched on the black-board by the teacher or the
+pupils, because on the ordinary wall maps there are so many names and so
+much detail that the attention may be distracted. Many of the details on
+the map are, moreover, more modern than the events that are to be
+illustrated, so that wrong impressions may be given.
+
+In the second place, it must be kept constantly in mind that many events
+in history have been influenced by the physical features of a country.
+For example: the lack of a natural boundary between France and Germany
+has led to many disputes between these countries; the fact of Great
+Britain being an island accounts for many things in her history (see p.
+108); the physical features of Quebec and Gibraltar explain the
+importance of these places; and the waterways of Canada account for the
+progress of early settlement. The climate and soil of a country affect
+its history; treaties are often based on physical conditions, and trade
+routes determined by them; a nation's commerce and wealth depend largely
+on the character of its natural resources.
+
+Some easy problems may be given to the senior classes to be answered by
+reference to physical conditions:
+
+     Why are London, New York, Chicago, Montreal, and Halifax, such
+     important centres? Why are certain places fitted for certain
+     manufactures? Will Winnipeg become a more important city than
+     Montreal? Will Vancouver outstrip San Francisco? What is a possible
+     future for the Western Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan? What
+     might have been the state of North America to-day, if the Rocky
+     Mountains had run along the East coast, instead of along the West?
+
+On the other hand, history contributes a human interest to geography;
+the places of greatest interest are often those associated with great
+events in history--Athens, Mount Sinai, Waterloo, Queenston Heights.
+
+
+HISTORY AND LITERATURE
+
+Literature gives life and human interest to both history and geography.
+By means of literature we are able to get a better notion of the ideals
+and motives of a people than the mere recital of the facts of their
+history can give. In this connection we naturally think of Homer's
+_Iliad_ and its influence on the Greeks. It was their storehouse of
+history, morals, religion, aesthetics, and rules for the practical
+guidance of life, as well as their literary masterpiece.
+
+It is often easy to interest pupils in a period of history by reading or
+quoting to them some ballad, poem, or prose narrative that colours the
+historical facts with the element of human feeling. Macaulay's
+_Horatius_ gives a deeper impression of Roman patriotism than almost
+anything in pure history can; the various aspects of the Crusades are
+vividly shown by W. Stearns Davis in _God Wills It_, a story of the
+first Crusade. In fact, if stirring events can be linked in the child's
+mind with stirring verse, if the struggles and progress of nations can
+be presented in a vigorous narrative that echoes the thoughts, feelings,
+and interests of the time, we make an appeal to the interest of the
+pupil that is almost irresistible. The objection is sometimes urged
+against the reading of standard historical tales and novels, that these
+are somewhat exaggerated in sentiment and inaccurate in facts. Even if
+this be so, it may be said that they give in outline a fair picture of
+the period described, that the interest in history aroused by such tales
+begets a liking for history itself, and that such exaggerations and
+inaccuracies are soon corrected when the pupil begins to read history.
+
+The course of history has been modified by songs, ballads, and stories.
+The influence on the national spirit and ideals of songs such as _Rule
+Britannia_ and _The Marseillaise_, of stories such as _Uncle Tom's
+Cabin_, of novels such as those of Dickens and of Charles Reade is
+incalculable.
+
+A few poems and prose compositions are given here as suggestions; a
+fuller list may be found in Allen's _Reader's Guide to English History_,
+Ginn & Co., 30c.
+
+     Poems: _Boadicea_, Cowper; _Recessional_, Kipling; _Edinburgh After
+     Flodden_, Aytoun; _Hands All Round_, Tennyson; _Columbus_, Joaquin
+     Miller; _Waterloo_, Byron; _The Armada_, Macaulay; _The Revenge_,
+     Tennyson; _The Charge of the Light Brigade_, Tennyson.
+
+     Prose: "United Empire Loyalists," Roberts' _History of Canada_,
+     Chap. XV; "Departure and Death of Nelson," Southey; _Montcalm and
+     Wolfe_, Parkman; "The Crusader and the Saracen," in Scott's _The
+     Talisman_; "The Heroine of Castle Dangerous," in _Stories of New
+     France_, Machar and Marquis; "Adam Daulac," in _Martyrs of New
+     France_, Herrington.
+
+
+HISTORY AND SCIENCE
+
+The connection between history and science is very close, because it was
+only after the invention of writing that history, the record of human
+progress, became possible. Further, the remarkable way in which the
+chief stages in the development of civilization coincide with certain
+inventions and discoveries makes the study of history very incomplete
+without a knowledge of the inventions and discoveries, inasmuch as these
+opened a road for human development. (See p. 119.)
+
+To make this evident, it is enough merely to mention a few comparatively
+recent inventions, such as the mariner's compass, the printing-press,
+gunpowder, the steam-engine, the power-loom, the cotton-gin, and the
+telegraph.
+
+To the introduction of the mariner's compass in the fourteenth century,
+by which sailors were made independent of landmarks and the stars, and
+could therefore go more boldly into the open sea, we owe the
+explorations of the fifteenth century that culminated in the discovery
+of America, and the way to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The
+introduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth century gave the lower and
+middle classes a weapon that made them equal in power with the nobles
+and brought about the downfall of the feudal system and the rise of
+modern democracies. The printing-press gave to the world the learning
+of the past and revolutionized social conditions. The invention of high
+explosives has made possible many of the great engineering works of
+to-day. The inventions that have made transportation and communication
+so easy and rapid have already done a great deal to bring nations to a
+better understanding of each other and thus to promote the peace of the
+world. Discoveries in medicine alone have had an incalculable influence
+on the health and prosperity of society. In fact, the study of history
+and an understanding of modern social and industrial conditions are
+impossible without a knowledge of scientific inventions and discoveries.
+(See pp. 87, 92.)
+
+Children naturally take an interest in what individuals have done, and
+it is easy to interest them in the work of men such as Watt, Stephenson,
+Whitney, Fulton, Morse, Edison, Marconi, and their fellows. The
+biographies of famous inventors should therefore be given, both as a
+record of what they did and as an inspiration to like achievements.
+
+
+HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK
+
+Constructive work may be used to advantage in history and civics. It
+gives concrete expression to some facts of history through the
+construction by the pupils of objects mentioned therein. In studying
+Indian life, the class may make in paper, wood, etc., wigwams, bows and
+arrows, stockades, etc.; in connection with pioneer life, they may make
+some of the buildings and implements used by the pioneers,--log houses,
+spinning-wheels, hominy blocks, Red River carts, etc.; in studying
+campaigns, they may make models in plasticine or clay, or on the sand
+table, of forts, battle-fields, etc., for example--the Plains of
+Abraham, Queenston Heights, Chateauguay, Plymouth Harbour; the Union
+Jack may be cut out and coloured. (See p. 68.) In this way the
+activities of the child may be made of practical use.
+
+On the industrial and social side of history, which is being more and
+more emphasized, it is of great value to the child to become acquainted,
+even though on a small scale and through the simplest implements and
+machines, with the construction of machinery and modes of manufacture.
+For a lesson on the Industrial Revolution in England, for example, it
+will give pupils a better understanding of the changes, if they know
+something, through their own activities, of the way of making cloth.
+
+For suggestions on constructive work, see the Manual on Manual Training:
+
+     P. 22: Suggestions for the various seasons and days.
+     P. 26: On the use of the sand table.
+     P. 55: On collecting and preserving pictures.
+     P. 58: On relief maps and geographical formations.
+
+
+HISTORY AND ART
+
+Art assists history in two ways. First, pictures may be used to
+illustrate events in history and make them real. It is often difficult
+for children to form a definite mental image of historical scenes merely
+from the words of the teacher or of the text-book, because their
+experiences are limited and the power to combine these properly is
+lacking. This is recognized now in the many text-books which are freely
+illustrated. Pictures of persons famous in history are also of value, in
+that they make these persons more real to the pupils. Materials for
+class use may be collected by the teacher and pupils,--engravings,
+prints, cuts from newspapers and magazines of famous people, buildings,
+cities, monuments, events; for example, the Landing of Columbus, the
+Coming of the Loyalists, the Fathers of Confederation, the Landing of
+the Pilgrim Fathers, an Old-Time Trading Post, the Death of Brock. A
+good idea is to have a class scrap-book, to be filled with suitable
+contributions from the class. The teacher will find a private scrap-book
+exceedingly useful. Many fine pictures are given in _The Highroads of
+History_, and _The Story of the British People_ for Form III. It may be
+added that these pictures should be supplemented freely by descriptions
+and narratives given by the teacher. (See _Visual Aids in the Teaching
+of History_.)
+
+Second, the pupils may be asked to illustrate, by drawings and sketch
+maps, historic places, routes of armies and of explorers, the journeys
+of settlers, etc.
+
+
+HISTORY AND COMPOSITION
+
+History, no less than other subjects of study, needs to be expressed by
+the pupils, if it is to make them more efficient. Some of the usual
+modes of expression are given above in connection with constructive work
+and art. The chief mode of expression, however, for history is through
+composition, both oral and written.
+
+In the Junior Forms the stories should be reproduced orally (see Details
+of Method for Forms I and II, p. 25), either by pure narration or by
+dramatization; the pupils relate in their own language what they have
+learned, or are allowed to dramatize the story. In the dramatization,
+the pupils should be given a good deal of freedom in constructing the
+conversation, once they get to know what is wanted, the only restriction
+being that no pupil shall be allowed to take part who does not know the
+story thoroughly. Incidents such as Harold taking the oath to help
+William of Normandy gain the crown of England, Joseph being sold into
+Egypt, the Greeks using the wooden horse to capture Troy, are very
+easily dramatized.
+
+In the Senior Forms the black-board outline may be used as the basis of
+written or oral reproduction. The subject of composition will itself be
+less objectionable by reason of these exercises, as the pupils are asked
+to reproduce the history as material valuable and interesting in itself,
+not merely as a means of showing their skill in expression. Moreover, in
+the study of history, the pupil hears or reads the compositions of
+others, and unconsciously gains, by these examples, much in vocabulary
+and in power of expression. In fact, much of the culture value of
+history depends on the training it affords in composition, and, by
+intimately connecting these two subjects, a double advantage is
+gained--the ability to comprehend historical material, and practice in
+effective expression.
+
+
+HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OR THE USE OF DATES
+
+Geography is one of "the eyes of history"; chronology, or the arranging
+of events according to their dates, is the other. This suggests that
+dates are to be used merely as a help in "seeing" events in history in
+their proper order, so that their relations to other events may be
+better understood. When these relations are seen, the dates lose much of
+their value.
+
+For example, let us consider the following dates: 1763, 1774, 1775,
+1783, 1791. The short interval between 1763, when Great Britain finally
+assumed control of Canada by treaty, and 1774, when the Quebec Act was
+passed, helps to make clear the reason for the French citizens receiving
+so many concessions. They outnumbered the English so much that these
+concessions were deemed necessary to hold their allegiance to the Crown
+in face of the efforts made by the discontented New England colonies to
+get their support in the coming revolution against Great Britain. The
+success of the Act was shown in 1775, when the invasion by the
+revolutionists failed. The war of the Revolution was ended by treaty in
+1783, and Canada received as settlers, principally in Upper Canada, the
+United Empire Loyalists, whose ideas of government were so different
+from those of the Lower Canadians that the separation of Upper and Lower
+Canada by the Constitutional Act of 1791 became necessary. These dates,
+so close together, emphasize the rapidity with which events moved in
+that period, as well as the sequence of cause and effect. We think also
+of the dates of Cartier's voyages, 1534, 1535, and 1541, merely to raise
+the question as to why so much time elapsed between the second and third
+voyages. When these points are properly seen, the events are kept in
+place by their relation of cause and effect, and the dates lose their
+value. Moreover, the relations thus discovered will do most toward
+fixing these dates in the memory. It should be understood, therefore,
+that dates are only a means to an end, not an end in themselves.
+
+It is important also to know the dates of certain events when we are
+studying the history of several countries, in order that we may consider
+together those events that are contemporary.
+
+There are, of course, some dates that should be remembered because of
+the importance of the events connected with them, for example: 1066,
+1215, 1492, 1603, 1688, 1759, 1776, 1789, 1841, 1867.
+
+In the Junior Forms, because the pupils are still lacking in the
+"historical sense," little emphasis need be put on the giving of dates.
+A few of the most important may be given in Form II, but it is very
+questionable if they have any significance to the pupils at this early
+stage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+SPECIAL TOPICS
+
+
+CURRENT EVENTS
+
+The study of history should not end with what is contained in
+text-books, for the making of history never ceases. The study of current
+events will be found to be a very valuable element in history teaching.
+Teachers and pupils who are interested in the events of to-day are much
+more likely to be interested in the events of the past. A knowledge of
+current events will arouse curiosity in what led up to them, will
+suggest a motive for studying the past, and will often supply concrete
+examples for both history and civics. In fact, the teaching of civics
+may be based almost entirely on current events. (See Civics, p. 52 et
+seq.) The influence of a knowledge of current events on the study of
+history is very plainly seen to-day in the earnest and widespread effort
+to discover the causes of the war that is devastating Europe at the
+present time. History becomes real when pupils understand that what is
+happening now has its roots in the past and, at the same time, is
+history in the making. For example, the present war will certainly
+intensify our interest in the great movement to prevent war by means of
+world-wide arbitration of disputes between nations, or by any other
+means. The value of this phase of history teaching depends very largely
+on the interest taken in it by the teacher and on the work that the
+pupils can be induced to do for themselves. The teacher talks to the
+pupils about some important current event in an interesting way. Then
+the pupils are encouraged to add to what he has said by relating what
+they have heard, or have read in the newspapers. After a few lessons
+the chief difficulty is to make a suitable selection of topics to be
+discussed in class. Those of national importance, if within the scope of
+the Form work, will have prominence, and the pupils will be given hints
+as to articles about these topics in papers, magazines, and books. It is
+obvious that topics likely to arouse religious, political, or other
+party feeling, should be avoided. For actual school-room practice the
+following scheme has been used successfully in Form III:
+
+
+CURRENT EVENTS (10 MINUTES DAILY)
+
+The teacher has suggested the kinds of events that are worthy of
+discussion, and the pupils come to class prepared to tell what they have
+read in the papers about some of these. The teacher aids them to give
+fit expression to their information, and the pupil who has been chosen
+as editor writes a summary of the lesson on the black-board, and later,
+on a sheet of paper.
+
+Ordinarily, the editors should be chosen from those who write and spell
+well.
+
+Where the subject-matter lends itself to such treatment, these summaries
+may be placed in two columns--one, the _Girls' News Column_; the other,
+the _Boys' News Column_. The summaries on the sheets of paper may be
+arranged in order for a week or a month and be known as _The School
+Review_. Such a lesson includes history, and oral and written
+composition.
+
+The following items of news were those discussed in a Form III room at
+the end of the week, when some time is taken to talk over the events of
+the week:
+
+     FEB. 5TH, 1915
+
+     Rescue of the crew of the Japanese cruiser Asama.
+     Rescue work in the earthquake in Italy.
+     Wireless message frustrates a German plot to blow up a French steamer.
+     Fire in a New York factory--rescue of the inmates.
+     Inhuman treatment of Belgian women and children.
+     British officer praises the enemy.
+     The Austrians are defeated by the Montenegrins.
+     Canadians wounded in France.
+     Importance of discipline and accurate shooting for Canadian troops.
+     Germany proclaims a war zone around Britain.
+     Two New York boy heroes of a fire.
+     Tsar honours a girl wounded while carrying ammunition to the troops.
+     Opening of the war session of the Canadian Parliament.
+
+These items are sifted from a great many suggested by the pupils. In the
+sifting process, a very useful discussion is had as to what constitutes
+real "news," and what is mere "gossip"; that is, what is of value as
+news to the world at large, and what is of purely local, personal
+interest.
+
+In civics, current topics may be made very useful. Items of municipal,
+provincial, or federal affairs furnish a concrete basis for the study of
+our system of government, and may also suggest moral examples.
+
+
+LOCAL MATERIAL
+
+One of the chief uses of local history in the class-room is to make the
+study of general history more vivid and interesting (1) by making more
+real those facts of history associated with the locality in which we
+live, and (2) by providing suitable illustrations, from the pupil's own
+experience, of facts in general history. When a pupil has seen the place
+where an event of history has happened, he has an interest in that event
+that he could scarcely gain in any other way, and the history of that
+period may then be taught with more interest and profit to him. A pupil
+finds also in local history certain facts that he must understand in
+order to interpret the story of happenings, distant in time and place.
+
+Some parts of Ontario are much richer in material than others, but in
+all historic spots may be found. On the St. Lawrence River, in the
+Niagara peninsula, in the Talbot settlement district, in York county,
+along the Ottawa River, in the Huron tract, there is no lack of useful
+material. But it is not necessary to confine such local history to the
+outstanding events of war or the larger happenings of civil progress. In
+every locality there are remains of the earlier Indian inhabitants, in
+the form of mounds, sites of villages, relics of war and the chase
+(arrow-heads, stone implements, beads, etc.); relics of the early
+settlers, in the form of roads and old log houses; relics of pioneer
+life consisting of furniture, household and outdoor implements, etc.,
+that will serve as a basis for comparison with present-day conditions,
+and make real to the children the lives of the earlier inhabitants and
+settlers of Ontario.
+
+
+CIVICS
+
+The teaching of civics has a threefold aim:
+
+1. To instruct in the mechanism of government. (Descriptive)
+
+2. To instruct in the history of national institutions so as to show the
+line of development, and also to impress the fact that existing
+institutions are capable of development, are not fixed. (Historical)
+
+3. "To show the cost of each institution in the efforts and sacrifices
+of past generations and to quicken and make permanent the children's
+interest in public life and their sense of responsibility to their
+fellows." (Patriotic and Ethical)
+
+Two points stand out clearly--to teach the machinery of government and
+to instil ideals of public conduct. Of these the second is by far the
+more important and the more difficult to teach directly. The best way to
+attempt it is by means of biography and personal references. There are
+great men and women in history whose lives are worthy examples to the
+young: Sir John Eliot, Pym, Hampden, who stood for freedom of speech and
+debate; Gladstone, who helped to right historic wrongs in the East;
+Lincoln, who stood for union and the freedom of the individual; many
+eminent Canadians, such as Sir John Macdonald, George Brown, Alexander
+Mackenzie, Egerton Ryerson, Sir Oliver Mowat, and Sir James Whitney;
+women such as Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Fry, Laura Secord and
+Sarah Maxwell. Besides these eminent examples, there are in every
+locality men and women who give unselfishly of their energy and time for
+the good of the community.
+
+There should also be impressed on the minds of the young a sense of
+their responsibility for an honest and faithful use of the ballot, a
+right won for them by the long and earnest effort of their forefathers;
+and the necessity for purity of government in our democratic form of
+administration. In school life, a good deal can be done to create a
+sense of fair play, respect for the rights of others, and of the
+necessity for submission to lawful authority by encouraging the pupils
+to conduct all their school organizations, whether in play or in work,
+honourably and by right methods.
+
+Some of the lessons that may be taught to children during their school
+life are as follows:
+
+1. Respect for the rights of others. Pupils may be brought to see that
+misconduct on their part affects others, not themselves only.
+
+2. Respect for the property of others. This may be secured best by
+teaching them to take good care of their own property first, for unless
+a child cares rightly for his own, he is not likely to take much thought
+for the things of others.
+
+3. Respect for public property. This is something that needs attention
+badly. It is a very common thing to find people destroying trees,
+flowers, etc., in public places, throwing refuse on the street, and
+otherwise disfiguring their surroundings. A beginning of better habits
+may be made by getting the pupils to aid in beautifying and decorating
+the school building by means of pictures, either prints or their own
+work, by flowers in pots, by keeping the floor and walls clean and free
+from marks and litter; also in making the grounds around the school more
+attractive by means of flowers and shrubs. Arbor Day may be made of
+great use in this respect, if the spirit of that Day can be carried
+through the whole year. A pride in the attractiveness of the school will
+have its influence on the pupils in the wider life of the community.
+
+A knowledge of the machinery of government may be based on the pupils'
+knowledge of the organization of the school. The appointment, power, and
+duties of the teacher are the starting-point. The next step will be to
+investigate the composition of the board of school trustees. This may be
+done at the time of an election for school trustees. The following
+questions may serve as an outline of study for all the political bodies
+by which we are governed:
+
+     1. Who compose the board of trustees? (In the smaller local bodies,
+     the names of the members may be mentioned, as giving a personal
+     interest in the matter.)
+
+     2. How and by whom are they elected?
+
+     3. For what period are they elected?
+
+     4. How is the board organized for the conduct of business?
+
+     5. What powers do they possess?
+
+     6. What duties have they to fulfil?
+
+     7. How do they raise the money needed for their work?
+
+     8. How is the board rendered continuous? (By electing a successor
+     to a member who resigns; by the trustees remaining in office till
+     their successors are elected.)
+
+Other governing bodies may be taken up similarly, for example: Municipal
+Councils (township, county, village, town, or city council), Provincial
+Legislature, Dominion or Federal Parliament, Imperial Parliament. A
+suitable time to bring up the topic of how elections are conducted would
+be when an election for any of the above bodies is in progress.
+Information on this topic may be found in _Canadian Civics_, by Jenkins;
+a fuller account is given in Bourinot's _How Canada is Governed_.
+
+Lessons concerning special bodies of municipal and civil servants may be
+taken; for example, the assessor, tax-collector, policeman, postal
+employees, firemen, etc. In connection with all of these, the question
+of taxation is constantly arising. It is suggested that something should
+be done to put the pupils in the right attitude toward this subject.
+Many people have an idea that when they pay taxes they are being robbed,
+because they do not stop to think of what they are getting in return for
+their money. The chief reason for this seems to be that the taxes are
+usually paid once or twice a year, while the services rendered are
+continuous. A good way to proceed is to have the class calculate the
+value of the services given in return for the taxes. For example,
+suppose it is found that the yearly cost for each pupil in a certain
+section is $25.00. Divide this by the number of days (200) a pupil
+attends school during the year, and the cost each day for each pupil is
+shown be only 12-1/2 cents, not a very large sum for a community to pay
+for a child's education.
+
+Other calculations may be made to show the saving to farmers by spending
+money in the construction of good roads to make teaming more profitable.
+For example: In a strip of country served by a road ten miles long,
+there is room for eighty farms of one hundred acres each, all the
+produce of which would be hauled on that road. Let us suppose that this
+produce would amount to 3,000 loads, such as could be hauled on an
+ordinary country road. The average haul being five miles, two trips a
+day could be made. At $5.00 a day, the cost of haulage would be $7,500.
+
+Suppose this road to be converted into a good stone road at a cost of
+$3,000 a mile, a total cost of $30,000. On this road, with the larger
+and heavier wagons that could now be used, the farmers could easily
+double the size of the load. This would mean that, instead of 3,000
+loads being necessary, 1,500 would be sufficient. At the same rate as
+before, the cost of haulage would be $3,750, an annual saving of $3,750;
+so that the whole cost of the road would be saved in eight years, to say
+nothing of the greater ease and comfort of travel to both man and beast.
+Better roads would also give the farmer access to market for a greater
+part of the year and thus enable him to take advantage of higher prices
+at certain seasons. It is believed that these figures are quite within
+the bounds of probability.
+
+In large towns and cities the cost of public utilities may be
+calculated; for example, the expense of a fire-station in buildings,
+equipment, horses, men, etc., to show how the money raised by taxes is
+spent for the good of the whole community, and helps to keep down the
+rates for fire insurance. The kinds of taxation may also be
+discussed--direct and indirect; also the sources from which direct
+taxes are derived--customs, excise, etc.; methods of levying and
+collecting taxes; how taxes are spent for the various educational and
+charitable institutions--schools, libraries, hospitals, asylums, homes
+for the poor and neglected, etc.; for the protection of life and
+property; for the administration of justice, etc. The distribution of
+taxes among public institutions may be studied from the public accounts
+printed for the use of ratepayers.
+
+The lessons learned about the fairness of taxation may be used to
+illustrate certain periods of history when people struggled against
+unjust and arbitrary taxation; for example, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, the
+Civil War in England in the seventeenth century, the American and French
+Revolutions, Acts of Parliament in Canada from the Quebec Act to the Act
+of Confederation.
+
+A Dominion or Provincial election offers a good opportunity for a lesson
+on how to vote and how we came to have the right to vote; on the
+constitution of Parliament; on the sanctity of the ballot, etc.
+
+A trial by jury in which the people of the district are interested may
+be used to introduce the history and purpose of the jury.
+
+
+THE TEACHER OF HISTORY
+
+The teacher of history must know his subject. This does not mean that
+every school teacher must have an expert knowledge of the whole subject,
+but he should know the history that is to be taught thoroughly enough to
+be able to teach the lesson orally without referring constantly to the
+text-book or to notes. This, at least, is the ideal to strive for. To
+accomplish this, the teacher is earnestly recommended to read at least
+one book in addition to the authorized text-book, which does not usually
+contain much more than the important facts of history. To clothe the
+skeleton of facts with flesh and blood so as to make history what it
+really is, a record of human beings who not only did things but had also
+thoughts and feelings like our own, it is necessary to be able to supply
+the personal details that make the figures of history real, living, men
+and women. (See the Story of Florence Nightingale, p. 62.) The teacher
+who does this will himself come to have a more lively interest in
+history.
+
+The teacher must also know children. For the understanding of history,
+pupils are dependent on their previous knowledge of life and its
+interests. They must be led by timely suggestions or questions to see
+the connection between their own knowledge of life and the experiences
+of the actors in history. Without this connection, the facts of history
+remain meaningless.
+
+To present history to the pupils in an interesting way, the oral method
+is the best. It is not necessary for the teacher to have a special gift
+for narration; any one who is really interested in the story to be told
+is able to tell it well enough to hold the attention of the class. In
+narration, mere fluency is not the chief requisite; it is more important
+that the pupils should feel the teacher's interest in the topic. The
+narration must also be confined to the facts and details that count; the
+teacher needs to know what to omit as well as what to narrate. If the
+matter has been well thought out and clearly arranged in topics with due
+regard to the relation of cause and effect, the telling of the story
+will be an easier matter, and the pupils will be trained also in a clear
+and logical way of treating history. The oral method should be supported
+by the free use of devices for making the story real. (See p. 34.) While
+it is quite true that certain important topics are to be thoroughly
+mastered as centres of connection for the less important facts, yet it
+must be insisted on that a more important aim of the teacher is to
+arouse and stimulate an interest in history so that the pupil's study of
+it may continue after the close of his school-days. No mastery of facts
+through memorization alone will counterbalance the lack of interest in,
+and liking for, the subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS
+
+
+The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive rather
+than directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may be
+applied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature and
+of children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of the
+purpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in the
+main, the choice of method. This statement is especially true of
+history, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation is
+very great to make the teaching of this subject consist in mere
+memorizing of events and dates.
+
+
+FORMS I AND II
+
+TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE"
+
+The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and the
+Burning Bush," and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories.
+
+As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, or
+make sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) the
+Burning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out to
+do God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real the
+verbal story.
+
+A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should be
+answered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes,
+his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of the
+Egyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian.
+
+The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story of
+Moses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, his
+home with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God,
+his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God's
+will.
+
+In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, to
+ascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction of
+each part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attention
+and a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproduction
+should, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story.
+
+In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board.
+These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or written
+reproduction that follows.
+
+If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library,
+pupils of Form II may be asked to read them.
+
+When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind of
+lesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the story
+prepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading.
+
+
+FORMS I AND II
+
+THE FIRST THANKSGIVING
+
+Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in Plymouth
+Harbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church";
+"Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel." (Perry Picture Co. pictures)
+
+A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of America
+drawn on the black-board.
+
+Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now--the
+returning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the general
+good-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this custom
+originate?
+
+Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of the
+Pilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the different
+parts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and the
+landing-place in America marked.
+
+This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' _The
+Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers_, and the telling of _The First
+Thanksgiving_. (See Appendix.)
+
+A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I,
+accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring,
+and in modelling, as they can do.
+
+
+FORM II
+
+FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
+
+In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia in
+the Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terrible
+hardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in the
+hospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The people
+in England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everything
+the army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from the
+letters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London _Times_, how
+great were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked at
+this state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, many
+thousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale and
+thirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglected
+soldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so well
+cared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have died
+if these noble women had not gone out to nurse them.
+
+Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out of
+all the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhood
+she was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble.
+The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. When
+quite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father's
+estates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that they
+would be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animals
+around her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurt
+them; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick up
+the nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trot
+up to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose into
+her pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had for
+it. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and the
+owner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it.
+But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well with
+Florence's nursing.
+
+When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting the
+sick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or in
+sight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited the
+hospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to one
+of the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in the
+best way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improve
+the hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her health
+began to fail.
+
+It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to go
+to the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers.
+When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sick
+and wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that they had very
+little chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave the
+patients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cooked
+food to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds when
+they were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families at
+home. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, and
+carrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was all
+right, she was called "the lady with the lamp." As she went about,
+speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how much
+the poor soldiers thought of her.
+
+When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to her
+that the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250,000, but
+she gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained for
+their work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what she
+thought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did.
+
+She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat people
+who are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air,
+pure water, cleanliness, and light." She died August 10, 1910, but the
+good she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always be
+remembered.
+
+
+METHOD
+
+It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just as
+it is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told to
+pupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how the
+story may be simplified for their understanding. After the story is
+told, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class follows
+in the usual way.
+
+
+FORM II
+
+THE POSTMASTER
+
+AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS
+
+This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to make
+the pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, and
+importance of the postmaster.
+
+The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-office
+and describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, and
+the teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with the
+letter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulating
+these points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3)
+Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed on
+the train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date on
+which it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelope
+should be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressions
+stamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From a
+consideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils may
+be led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, and
+prompt person.
+
+The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc., before
+post-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doing
+his work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help him
+in the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc.
+
+A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment of
+salary may follow.
+
+In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster--the
+registration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes,
+the receiving and forwarding of money to the Savings Bank, and the
+making of reports to the Post-office Department--may be discussed.
+
+In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teacher
+should obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank,
+a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils in
+the proper method of filling out these forms.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC
+
+The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling the
+matter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the British
+and the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done by
+sketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on it
+with coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements to
+be mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For the
+matter of this see _The Ontario Public School History of Canada_, pages
+83-97, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.
+
+The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec,
+mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome the
+difficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence.
+
+When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, a
+description of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and an
+enlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this.
+(See text-book, page 100.) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may be
+emphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model the
+disposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems may
+be given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: How
+would you attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land his
+soldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as the
+Montmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but the
+probability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns to
+the high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. The
+teacher will then tell what was done and with what results.
+
+This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problem
+questions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French at
+Montmorenci.
+
+This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which the
+teacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on the
+illness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown in
+attempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forces
+were drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome.
+
+This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orally
+before the class is dismissed.
+
+As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils are
+directed to read the full story in Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, or in
+the History Reader, pp. 284-292.
+
+     NOTE: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships,
+     bridges, etc., may be placed in position and a realistic
+     explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and
+     the whole story would require several lesson spaces.
+
+     References: The text-book, Weaver's _Canadian History for Boys and
+     Girls_, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS
+
+1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show why
+they had to leave the country; describe the treatment given to them by
+the revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were driven
+from their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatal
+to the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyalty
+in face of all their troubles.
+
+2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where the
+British flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map before
+them, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were the
+probable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they lived
+in the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will see
+from a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routes
+they followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have to
+be emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Boston
+to Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec and
+Eastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc.,
+to Western Ontario. (See _Fourth Reader_, p. 170.)
+
+3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any account
+of life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information.
+It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply the
+story to one of the children.
+
+4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the political
+ideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes in
+affairs in Upper Canada.
+
+
+FORM III
+
+THE FLAG
+
+In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerful
+aid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is the
+emblem of a nation, the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should have
+a prominent place in the education of the young. Children should be
+taught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of our
+forefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) the
+significance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice;
+and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part.
+
+The last point--the construction of the Union Jack--should be preceded
+by a series of lessons on the individual "jacks." These lessons should
+explain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories of
+St. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saint
+of Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and the
+reasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the several
+countries. (See Appendix.)
+
+These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St.
+George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after the
+lesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lesson
+on the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow.
+
+The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of the
+flag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then the
+children will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacks
+may be given afterwards in the history lessons.
+
+As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct the
+flags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use in
+the final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags:
+
+   For St. George's--white ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/2 in.
+   For St. Andrew's--blue ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., white cross 1/2 in.
+   For St. Patrick's--white ground--2 1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/3 in.
+
+When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the
+reign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attempt
+the problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose the
+flags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount that
+of Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, the
+white ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrow
+border of white along each arm being retained to represent the ground
+colour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of the
+red cross.
+
+The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, should
+be given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction the
+teacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referring
+also to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting the
+Irish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they are
+not likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacher
+to place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to lead
+them to observe:
+
+     1. that it is usually oblong--twice as long as wide; (it may also
+     be square);
+
+     2. that the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St.
+     Patrick's;
+
+     3. that the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the
+     width of the jack;
+
+     4. that along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of
+     white;
+
+     5. that this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal
+     the broad white of the St. Andrew's;
+
+     6. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross
+     and partly white ground;
+
+     7. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the
+     parts near the staff.
+
+When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flags
+which they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away all
+of the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross,
+retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew's
+Cross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white ground
+of the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), and
+paste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly made
+jack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth.
+
+Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, the
+following method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paper
+and red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of the
+jack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given:
+
+First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five inches
+wide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place the
+cross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to the
+measurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the border
+one third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividing
+lines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place the
+saltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St.
+Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St.
+Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St.
+Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick is
+placed touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, and
+above in the second and fourth quarters. Great care must be exercised
+in making the drawing of the Union Jack.
+
+     The following are the official regulations for the proportions of
+     the Union Jack:
+
+     1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide.
+
+     2. The proportions are:
+
+          Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag.
+          White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George.
+          Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George.
+          White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George.
+          Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George.
+
+     3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next
+     the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other
+     quarters.
+
+Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On the
+political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St.
+Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, and
+to this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick,
+a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jack
+are red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity;
+and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardly
+without disgracing our flag.
+
+On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that have
+helped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer to
+the colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empire
+rests.
+
+For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested:
+
+
+FLAG DAYS
+
+Opening and closing of each term
+
+     Jan. 1.--Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be
+     celebrated on the first school day of the new year.)
+
+     Feb. 10.--Union of the Canadas, 1841.
+
+     March 11.--First Responsible Ministry, 1848.
+
+     March 14.--Founding of Upper Canada--Constitutional Act, 1791.
+
+     March 24.--Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882).
+
+     Empire Day.--The school day immediately preceding May 24.
+
+     May 24.--Victoria Day.
+
+     June 3.--The King's Birthday, 1865.
+
+     July 1.--Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867.
+
+     July 17.--First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792.
+
+     September 13.--Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759.
+
+     October 13.--Battle of Queenston Heights--Death of Sir Isaac Brock,
+     1812.
+
+     October 21.--Trafalgar Day, 1805.
+
+     December 24.--Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of
+     Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas.)
+
+Other days commemorating events connected with various localities may
+also be chosen.
+
+     For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to
+     Barlow Cumberland's _History of the Union Jack_ (latest edition),
+     to the _Flag Charts_, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to _The Flag of
+     Canada_, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints
+     of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix.
+
+
+THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG
+
+    What is the blue on our flag, boys?
+      The waves of the boundless sea,
+    Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride,
+      And the feet of the winds are free;
+    From the sun and smiles of the coral isles
+      To the ice of the South and North,
+    With dauntless tread through tempests dread
+      The guardian ships go forth.
+
+    What is the white on our flag, boys?
+      The honour of our land,
+    Which burns in our sight like a beacon light
+      And stands while the hills shall stand;
+    Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name,
+      And we fight, wherever we be,
+    For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives
+      Of the brave hearts over the sea.
+
+    What is the red on our flag, boys?
+      The blood of our heroes slain,
+    On the burning sands in the wild waste lands
+      And the froth of the purple main;
+    And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod
+      And the crest of the waves outrolled,
+    That He send us men to fight again
+      As our fathers fought of old.
+
+    We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys,
+      Whatever be said or done,
+    Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast,
+      And the foe be ten to one--
+    Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword
+      And a bullet in heart or brain.
+    What matters one gone, if the flag float on
+      And Britain be Lord of the main!
+
+--Frederick George Scott
+
+
+THE UNION JACK
+
+    It's only a small piece of bunting,
+      It's only an old coloured rag;
+    Yet thousands have died for its honour,
+      And shed their best blood for the flag.
+
+    It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew,
+      Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led;
+    It carries the cross of St. Patrick,
+      For which Ireland's bravest have bled.
+
+    Joined with these is our old English ensign,
+      St. George's red cross on white field;
+    Round which, from Richard to Roberts,
+      Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield.
+
+    It flutters triumphant o'er ocean,
+      As free as the wind and the waves;
+    And bondsmen from shackles unloosened,
+      'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves.
+
+    It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand,
+      O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong;
+    And Britons, where'er their flag's flying,
+      Claim the rights which to Britons belong.
+
+    We hoist it to show our devotion
+      To our King, our country, and laws;
+    It's the outward and visible emblem,
+      Of progress and liberty's cause.
+
+    You may say it's an old bit of bunting,
+      You may call it an old coloured rag;
+    But freedom has made it majestic,
+      And time has ennobled our flag.
+
+
+FORMS III AND IV
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY
+
+The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of the
+subjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in these
+subjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attention
+focused on the purpose of the day.
+
+The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase the
+pupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create in
+them fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling of
+responsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now and
+in the future.
+
+
+EXERCISES SUGGESTED
+
+1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the Public
+School Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1,
+49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp.
+55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or two
+might be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given
+(pp. 73, 74) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containing
+suitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department of
+Education on several occasions.
+
+2. In history: (_a_) Some information about the growth of the Empire;
+for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,
+or any other part of the Empire was added; (_b_) Comparison of the size
+of the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as the
+Persian, Greek, or Roman; (_c_) The growth of Great Britain's commercial
+and naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is of
+losing it, etc.; (_d_) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of the
+Canadian ensign.
+
+3. In geography: (_a_) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red"
+cable--explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (_b_)
+"The sun never sets on the British flag." Make this clear by having
+pupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing British
+territory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships,
+too, are in every part of the ocean; (_c_) Compare the population and
+area of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany,
+France, etc.
+
+4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are to
+the square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out the
+population Canada would have if she were as densely populated as
+England, as the United States, as Germany, etc.; how fast did the
+population of the United States increase in the first century after the
+Revolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if it
+increases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the last
+fifty, etc.; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch up
+to Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible position
+and power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen the
+sense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let the
+pupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculations
+as they can find in their text-books.)
+
+5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or written
+composition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercises
+mentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them.
+
+6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above.
+
+
+
+
+TYPE LESSONS
+
+FORM IV
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. 28), the ideal
+method of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not only
+the narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils of
+problems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class may
+help to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would be
+like doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in the
+majority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. The
+value of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal points
+that should be described or developed and, more important still, that it
+assists the pupils to _understand_ the lesson better, that is, to see
+more clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis will
+also suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no better
+evidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than the
+ability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis should
+then be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and the
+use of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher more
+expert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in the
+class.
+
+
+EGERTON RYERSON
+
+One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupils
+ideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life.
+The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of some
+useful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to the
+bettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupils
+should be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these facts
+should be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible by
+appropriate personal details and concrete description. The following
+sketch may serve as an example:
+
+Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said:
+
+     I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville,
+     near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the
+     County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British
+     army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the
+     Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a
+     native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote
+     ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American
+     revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to
+     New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was
+     Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan
+     settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his
+     family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some
+     2,500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the
+     army, besides his pension.
+
+Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a very
+religious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egerton
+learned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling how
+she treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "though
+thoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowingly
+grieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words."
+
+The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it.
+Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre of
+ground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, and
+mowed every spear of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, and
+then from the wagon to the haymow or stack." This was the work that gave
+him strength and health to do the great things that were before him. His
+years in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of them
+that when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the place
+of one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instruction
+from teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went to
+Hamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Here
+he studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brain
+fever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life was
+despaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursing
+restored him to health.
+
+Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. When
+twenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at the
+Credit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them better
+ways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Between
+daylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in succession
+and, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, and
+plough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon I
+called out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn the
+brushwood in and around the village."
+
+In 1829 _The Christian Guardian_ newspaper was organized as the organ of
+the Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in
+1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College.
+
+In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for
+Upper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to a
+proper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve the
+qualifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better schools
+and to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could be
+engaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methods
+that he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. A
+Provincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better books
+were provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for all
+schools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitable
+in a new country--popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to build
+schools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition of
+many who did not set the same value on education that he himself did had
+also to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailing
+patience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devoted
+his matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing a
+public sentiment in favour of education, and of building on sure
+foundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is the
+just pride of our Province and his own best monument.
+
+In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and was
+succeeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promise
+he made on accepting office in 1844--"to provide for my native country a
+system of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement not
+second to those in any country in the world."
+
+He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in his
+life the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at his
+funeral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities,
+ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he had
+founded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he never
+failed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadian
+who had lived so faithfully and well for his country.
+
+     NOTE.--If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim
+     Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add
+     interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction
+     to them.
+
+For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson:
+
+     With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the
+     history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was
+     worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new
+     interest in its political life was awakened, new movements
+     inaugurated. These were along three lines--one, political with
+     responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal
+     rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third,
+     educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without
+     distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is
+     known as the struggle for Responsible Government--the struggle for
+     equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the
+     Clergy Reserves--the struggle for equal religious rights; the third
+     as the University Question--the struggle for non-denominational
+     control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson
+     played a very prominent part and, because these affected the
+     politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first.
+
+     NOTE.--For purposes of reference, consult _The Story of My
+     Life_ by Dr. Ryerson; _The Ryerson Memorial Volume_ by Dr. J.G.
+     Hodgins; _Egerton Ryerson_ by Nathaniel Burwash in THE MAKERS
+     OF CANADA; and _Egerton Ryerson_ by J.H. Putnam.
+
+
+THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY
+
+The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the
+British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class
+knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day,
+and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of the
+Day. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for
+reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian
+Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with
+Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union."
+
+     _Teacher._--Did you notice the two places that were to be connected
+     by the road?
+
+     _Pupil._--They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River.
+
+     _T._--Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus?
+
+     _P._--Because it is near the sea.
+
+     _T._--Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either.
+
+     _P._--It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers.
+
+     _T._--Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter?
+
+     _P._--It freezes up.
+
+     _T._--Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter,
+     and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was
+     chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on
+     the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus?
+
+     _P._--Most likely either Quebec or Montreal.
+
+     _T._--We can tell better a little later which one was actually
+     chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should
+     they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many
+     people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago?
+
+     _P._--Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province.
+
+     _T._--Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How
+     would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we
+     send our goods to Europe now in winter?
+
+     (Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could
+     ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.)
+
+     _T._--You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence
+     before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them?
+
+     _P._--By using the canals.
+
+     _T._--How can we ship by rail?
+
+     _P._--By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway.
+
+     _T._--Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and
+     the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals
+     already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and
+     others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before
+     Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to
+     Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have
+     a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may
+     see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can
+     you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as
+     the western terminus of the new railway?
+
+     _P._--Yes, Quebec would be the one.
+
+     _T._--Why?
+
+     _P._--Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for
+     sending their goods as far as Quebec city.
+
+     _T._--The next point to think about is--How had Canada been
+     shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this?
+
+     (Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything
+     till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections
+     were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible.
+     Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through
+     the United States.)
+
+     _T._--Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of
+     wanting to build a railway of their own?
+
+     _P._--The United States would likely make them pay for doing it.
+
+     _T._--Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made
+     between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity
+     Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely.
+     This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to
+     depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of
+     trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the
+     Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils
+     are told here about the "Trent" and "Alabama" affairs, and the
+     Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that
+     there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that
+     would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway
+     was needed from Quebec to Halifax?
+
+     _P._--Because there was danger of war, and because the United
+     States might interfere with Canadian trade.
+
+     _T._--There were both military and commercial reasons. We have
+     found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why
+     it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out
+     is--Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and
+     had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it
+     done, what route would you be likely to follow?
+
+     _P._--I think I should take the shortest way.
+
+     _T._--Where would the road go then?
+
+     (Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.)
+
+     Tell where it would run.
+
+     _P._--Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick,
+     and Nova Scotia.
+
+     _T._--Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the
+     reasons for building it at all.
+
+     _P._--They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is
+     in the United States.
+
+     _T._--What is the next way they might think of?
+
+     _P._--The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada.
+
+     _T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.)
+
+     _P._--From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine,
+     into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
+
+     _T._--Would they take that way?
+
+     _P._--No, because it is too near the border of the United States.
+
+     _T._--Why do you say "too near"?
+
+     _P._--If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come
+     over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear
+     up the rails.
+
+     _T._--As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route
+     could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind?
+
+     _P._--They would stay as far from the border as possible.
+
+     _T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.)
+
+     _P._--They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance.
+
+     _T._--How far?
+
+     _P._--Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to
+     Halifax.
+
+     _T._--Would that be the cheapest line to build?
+
+     _P._--It would cost more, because it is longer than the others.
+
+     _T._--It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which
+     of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as
+     far from the border as they could?
+
+     _P._--The military reason.
+
+     _T._--Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most
+     interested in the military considerations?
+
+     _P._--Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection.
+
+     _T._--Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where
+     would the money come from?
+
+     _P._--Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it.
+
+     _T._--Why?
+
+     _P._--Because there were not very many people here then.
+
+     _T._--Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes
+     even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the
+     railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was
+     to be built.
+
+The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places
+on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher
+would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles),
+and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that
+the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized,
+that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer
+together, and that other railways have since been built on the two
+rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand
+Trunk Pacific.
+
+The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the
+black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds.
+
+
+BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE
+
+     1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of
+     the road
+
+     2. Reasons for building the road
+
+          (_a_) Military
+          (_b_) Commercial
+
+     3. Selection of the route
+
+          (_a_) Routes that were possible
+          (_b_) Reasons for the final choice
+
+     4. Facts about the road
+
+          (_a_) Principal places on the road
+          (_b_) Branches of the road
+          (_c_) Length and cost
+
+     5. Value of the road to the new Dominion
+
+The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and
+the chief commercial centres served by the railway.
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800.
+
+     NOTE.--This lesson should be preceded by an information
+     lesson on the making of cotton goods--the material, how and where
+     the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference
+     between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof.
+
+The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions
+changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the
+greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of
+wealth that enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon.
+The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in
+English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation,
+in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible
+to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without
+understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at
+such length.
+
+This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The
+dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are
+introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize
+further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention
+would be needed next. The oral method--both pure narrative, and
+development--is supposed to be used.
+
+1. _Domestic System of Manufacture._--Before 1760 the manufacture of
+cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would
+procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where,
+with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and
+return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power
+on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only
+one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the
+use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn
+was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use
+the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some
+way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy.
+
+2. _Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny._--The first important invention of the
+period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an
+ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was
+returning from the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home
+before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to
+rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in
+motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle,
+usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave
+him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with
+which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight).
+From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used
+to-day.
+
+3. _Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame._ Sir Richard Arkwright
+invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of
+spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the
+thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with
+hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning.
+
+4. _The Mule._ In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a
+finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to
+weave any grade of cloth.
+
+5. _The Power-loom._ The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the
+weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled
+the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners
+could make.
+
+6. _The Steam-engine._ These machines were run by hand or water-power.
+In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was
+used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to
+use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of
+water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was
+plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities.
+
+7. _The Cotton-gin._ Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it
+could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly
+hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came
+from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could
+be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the
+cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very
+quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of
+cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an
+hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover
+how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton
+was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England
+was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be
+added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for
+its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin
+was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern
+States that led to the Civil War.
+
+8. _Coal-mining and Smelting._ These machines were made of iron, and
+coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was
+plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam
+pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this
+was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater
+amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in
+England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which
+is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until
+Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a
+plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines.
+
+9. _The Safety Lamp._ Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of
+the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the
+miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives
+thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in
+1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these
+explosions.
+
+10. _Transportation._ Now that there was so much manufacturing carried
+on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to
+where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many
+parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as
+the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to
+form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in
+road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.)
+
+Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in
+rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in
+1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800
+many more were dug, and transportation became much easier.
+
+11. _Agriculture._ The number of people engaged in the factories was
+increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it
+necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger;
+better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making
+it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater
+quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the
+exhaustion of the soil.
+
+12. _Social Conditions._ Out of the factory system grew the division of
+classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great
+problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence.
+
+We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from
+an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and
+became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money
+to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it
+was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles."
+
+     NOTE.--The teacher may refer to some of the modern social
+     problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the
+     country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and
+     suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance,
+     decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see _A
+     History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack,
+     Edinburgh.)
+
+
+THE ROAD TO CATHAY
+
+The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European
+nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the
+East--India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)--led to the
+discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a
+review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil
+practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show
+the development of history along a certain line.
+
+The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher
+thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are
+not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical
+sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to
+memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used
+frequently.
+
+
+THE LESSON
+
+One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations
+the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice
+became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe.
+
+In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay
+after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in
+silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the
+desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up,
+carried on principally by the great Italian cities--Venice, Florence,
+Genoa, Pisa, Milan--and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean,
+the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern
+trade, and kept for a time the other western nations--Spain, Portugal,
+France, and England--from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the
+hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not
+long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the
+introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer
+guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the
+use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediaeval
+castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the
+invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of
+knowledge.
+
+The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China.
+
+     Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men
+     travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes
+     were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia
+     Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was
+     closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez
+     Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good
+     Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the
+     Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown.
+
+Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to
+solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by
+Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still
+earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more
+complete solution.
+
+Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of
+geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and
+not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by
+sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean--a
+route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the
+Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying
+it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not
+want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal.
+The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of
+Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer;
+but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made
+his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave
+ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile
+he was enabled to put his dream to the test.
+
+     A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus--his
+     efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher
+     may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's
+     Poem, "Columbus," _High School Reader_, pp. 143-145.
+
+When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought
+he had found what he had set out to find--the eastern country of India;
+and he believed it all his life. This idea survived for several
+generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When
+Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again
+to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely
+as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their
+chief ambition.
+
+In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out
+to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his
+son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South
+Carolina, with the same object.
+
+In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspe
+and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the
+gateway to the East.
+
+With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu
+River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to
+the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a
+large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea.
+
+Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the
+continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a
+North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he
+sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked.
+A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been
+only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring
+Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth
+voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and
+he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the
+West, that he was at last successful. He wintered there, and when the
+ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son,
+and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of
+again. (See _The Story of the British People_ pp. 234-235.)
+
+The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific
+Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and
+Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of
+Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on
+Montreal Island was called _La Chine_ (the French word for China), in
+allusion to his desire to find the way to that country.
+
+Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of
+what is now Canada. Verendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by
+way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the
+junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands;
+also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored
+the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains.
+
+Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West
+Company--Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne--amid great
+hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of
+exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific.
+
+It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the
+Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and
+steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to
+Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it
+has been our lot to accomplish.
+
+Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up
+afterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez Canal and its effect
+on trade--why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the
+opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the
+reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc.
+
+
+TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA
+
+The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline
+of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will
+use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the
+Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the
+lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat
+different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should
+show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print
+indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils
+after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are
+suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the
+black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either
+teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and
+development methods.
+
+For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is _A
+History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack,
+Edinburgh.
+
+
+I. CAUSES
+
+1. _Political._--(_a_) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief
+obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands.
+
+     (The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the
+     marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had
+     refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands were in full
+     revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and
+     the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant
+     power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.)
+
+(_b_) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off
+negotiations of marriage with Philip.
+
+(_c_) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots to
+the English throne.
+
+2. _Commercial_.--Interference of the English in the New World, to which
+Spain claimed sole right.
+
+     (This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of
+     Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.)
+
+3. _Religious._--Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in
+Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England.
+
+     (This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.)
+
+
+II. EVENTS
+
+1. Preparations in Spain and England.
+
+     (Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well
+     as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His
+     death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible
+     for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the
+     Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet
+     was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it
+     actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were
+     very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the
+     eve of battle should be made.)
+
+2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries.
+
+     (The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were
+     ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were
+     defending their homes; they forgot their religious and political
+     differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless,
+     and most skilful in handling their ships.)
+
+3. The affair at Cadiz.
+
+     (Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for
+     preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.)
+
+4. The battle in the Channel.
+
+     (Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588;
+     fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance
+     for a vivid description by the teacher.)
+
+5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada.
+
+     (Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories
+     of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and
+     recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's _Westward
+     Ho!_)
+
+
+III. RESULTS
+
+1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (_a_)]
+
+2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power.
+
+3. Greater religious tolerance in England.
+
+4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this.
+
+5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule
+the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals
+of political, social, and religious liberty.
+
+(See _P.S. History of England_, secs. 135-142.)
+
+
+LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable)
+
+_Aim._ To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was
+held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in
+England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the
+Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems.
+
+
+STEP I
+
+1. _Introduction._ By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil
+that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm;
+from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be
+derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as
+applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel
+may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on
+shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a
+florist's business, a rink, etc.
+
+2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the
+_Ontario Public School History of England_, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw
+a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read.
+
+
+STEP II
+
+(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation)
+
+1. _The Saxon System:_ Further study of the early land tenure of the
+Saxons. (See _Ontario High School History of England_, p. 33.) The
+following extract from Oman's _England before the Norman Conquest_ may
+be of assistance:
+
+     The typical free settlement of an English _maegth_ (or kindred)
+     consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow
+     strips, of which each household possessed several, next of the
+     almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into
+     appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter,
+     and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole
+     community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture
+     its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some
+     seasons.
+
+     The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with
+     a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year,
+     fallow--to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of
+     its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the
+     cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when
+     they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had
+     been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional
+     cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently
+     allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or
+     otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an
+     abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in
+     each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the
+     fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its
+     various strips as a full team of oxen could plough.
+
+Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (_P.S. Hist. of
+Eng._, pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (_P.S. Hist. of Eng._, p.
+37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of
+necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the
+freeman.
+
+2. _The Courts_: The _Witan_, which could displace the king for certain
+reasons, the _Shire_ or _folk-moot_, and the _Tun-moot_; their powers;
+the people looked to these courts for justice.
+
+3. _Change_ brought about by Danish raids--small freeholders sought
+protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small
+landowners to "eorls."
+
+
+STEP III
+
+_The Feudal System in France:_ (Read Scott's _Quentin Durward_.) Barons
+too powerful for the king for various reasons:
+
+1. Their property was large and compact.
+
+2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc.
+
+3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior.
+
+By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would
+probably do to strengthen his own position.
+
+
+STEP IV
+
+_The Feudal System under William:_ (Note the innovations of William.)
+
+1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a
+tribe, but William personally, who conquered England.
+
+2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or
+because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was
+conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.)
+
+3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king.
+
+4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which
+were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him.
+
+5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the
+military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes.
+
+6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in
+later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them.
+
+7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath.
+
+The important points of each step should be written on the black-board
+as they are described or developed.
+
+(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another
+lesson.)
+
+
+SEIGNIORIAL TENURE
+
+The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of
+land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to
+trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the
+development of the country; and to increase their interest in the
+present system of tenure.
+
+
+METHOD
+
+In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System
+would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him
+by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by
+the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it.
+Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this
+description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher
+supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the
+pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for
+his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in
+Canada. Then the evils connected with this system may be presented as
+another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be
+discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In
+connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding
+land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and
+can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then
+ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what
+cost.
+
+The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development,
+or problem, methods.
+
+
+THE LESSON
+
+1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in
+Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading
+principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this
+method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system
+of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See
+_Ontario Public School History_, Chapter IX, also _Ontario High School
+History of Canada_, Chap. VIII.)
+
+2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure,
+which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was
+paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service.
+Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles.
+An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors
+annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These
+_seigniors_, as they were called, had great powers within their domains.
+This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in
+France, called the Feudal System.
+
+     At this point the teacher might give a short description of the
+     Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its
+     surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in
+     comparison with the lords.
+
+3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year
+1527. He had two objects in view: (_a_) to create a Canadian
+aristocracy, (_b_) to establish an easy system of dividing land among
+settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial
+Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became
+his vassal, and in turn made grants to the _censitaires_, those who held
+their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured
+_habitants_ to cultivate the soil.
+
+4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a
+certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to
+two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire
+sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth
+of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the
+King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very
+attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in
+this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted
+patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from
+cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their
+attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and
+the most gallant defenders of New France.
+
+5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and English
+settlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Their
+number was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who came
+over after the American Revolution. The English disliked the French
+method of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land in
+a seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to one
+twelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on the
+value of the land, but also on the value of all buildings and
+improvements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often more
+valuable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlers
+an intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System had
+been abolished in England.)
+
+6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act which
+gave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in their
+own name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to avail
+themselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantage
+of their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished,
+the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of their
+ancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, was
+introduced.
+
+7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed:
+
+     (_a_) It was not adapted to conditions in Canada.
+
+     (_b_) It did not provide sufficient incentive to settlers to
+     improve their lands.
+
+     (_c_) It gave the habitant no chance to rise.
+
+     (_d_) It tended to divide the population into three classes.
+
+     (_e_) It failed to develop a civic spirit. This fact alone made
+     progress practically impossible. Each seignior was the master of
+     his own domain. Thus the people had no opportunity of working
+     together, and under such circumstances no great national spirit
+     could be developed.
+
+8. Note the effect of the conquest of Canada and of the American
+Revolution, upon Seigniorial Tenure.
+
+
+CONFEDERATION OF CANADIAN PROVINCES
+
+TOPICAL ANALYSIS
+
+_Causes:_
+
+1. The idea of union an old one in Canada and the Maritime Provinces;
+foreshadowed in Durham's Report.
+
+2. Immediate cause in Canada was the question of representation by
+population; deadlock in Parliament.
+
+3. Immediate cause in Maritime Provinces was the feeling between Britain
+and the Colonies and the United States over the _Trent_ affair, the
+_Alabama_ trouble, and the idea in the Northern States that the British
+Colonies favoured the cause of the South in the Civil War.
+
+
+_Steps toward Confederation:_
+
+1. Meeting of delegates from the Maritime Provinces in Charlottetown in
+1864.
+
+2. Meeting in Quebec, 1864, of delegates from all the provinces favours
+Confederation.
+
+3. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island reject the proposal, and
+delegates from Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), Nova
+Scotia, and New Brunswick proceed to London to secure an Act of Union
+from the Imperial Government.
+
+4. Movement in favour of union hastened by United States giving notice
+in 1865 of the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty in a year, and by
+the Fenian Raid, 1866.
+
+5. Union accomplished by means of the British North America Act passed
+by the British Parliament in 1867, and brought into force on July 1st,
+1867. The provinces confederated as the Dominion of Canada; a Federal
+Union.
+
+
+_Outline of Terms:_
+
+See _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, p. 215. Provision made
+for admission of new provinces.
+
+
+_Expansion of Confederation:_
+
+Admission of other provinces--Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871;
+Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Yukon
+territory also represented in the Dominion Parliament.
+
+
+NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS ON THE
+HISTORY OF A COUNTRY
+
+CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
+
+
+GENERAL
+
+The history of a nation is influenced very largely by geographical
+facts. Its internal relations, whether friendly or hostile, are affected
+by these. Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, or great lakes and
+rivers, are often political frontiers exerting protecting or isolating
+influence.
+
+Its industrial progress depends primarily upon its natural
+products--minerals, grains, woods, fish, etc., and the facilities which
+its structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign. A sea-coast,
+with satisfactory harbours, tends to produce a sea-faring people, and
+therefore a trading people.
+
+The character of its people is conditioned by the zone in which the
+nation is situated. In the north temperate zone is the climate best
+suited for the growth of peoples vigorous in mind and body, and lovers
+of freedom.
+
+
+ENGLAND
+
+_Position:_ The forming of the Straits of Dover cut off a corner of
+Europe, made Great Britain an island, and later a single political unit.
+Situated between Europe and America with ports opening toward each, her
+position gives her the opportunity for naval and commercial greatness.
+The narrow sea separating her from the continent is a defence in war and
+a means of intercourse in peace.
+
+_Structure:_ Two regions--one of plain, the other of hills; a line drawn
+from the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn and continued to
+the south coast roughly divides these regions. The part lying east of
+this line is, roughly speaking, level and fertile, tempting emigration
+from the continent, and easily explored inward. The Angles, the Saxons,
+and the Jutes found their way into this plain through the rivers that
+flowed east and south. The Pennines, the Welsh Peninsula, and the
+southwest of England from Bristol are in the hilly part, which, because
+of its mineral wealth, has become the great industrial district.
+
+_Climate:_ Though England lies north of the fiftieth parallel, the moist
+southwest winds from the ocean temper the climate, making the winters
+mild and the summers cool, a climate favourable to the growth of a
+vigorous race. There is an abundant rainfall.
+
+_Products:_ On the plains a fertile soil supported a large agricultural,
+and therefore self-contained, population in the earlier days, and the
+slopes furnished pasturage for cattle and sheep. Proximity to coal is an
+almost indispensable condition for industries, though other
+considerations come in. In the hill country coal and iron, essential
+materials for a manufacturing nation, lie near to the deposits of
+limestone necessary for smelting the iron ore. The coal-fields on or
+near the coast are centres of shipbuilding; and the interior coal-fields
+the centres of the great textile industries. Because of her insular
+position and fleets of ships the raw products from other countries can
+be brought to England easily and cheaply, and then shipped out as
+manufactured goods.
+
+Consult: _A Historical Geography of the British Empire_. Hereford B.
+George, Methuen & Co., London. _The Relations of Geography and History_.
+Hereford B. George, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
+
+
+ANOTHER FORM OF THE LESSON
+
+The teacher will announce the topic for discussion, namely, how the
+history of Great Britain has been affected by her insular position.
+
+     _T._--Trace on the map the coast line of Great Britain. (Pupil does
+     so.) What do you notice about the coast line in comparison to the
+     size of the Island?
+
+     _P._--It is very irregular and has a good many bays and inlets.
+
+     _T._--Would this have any effect on the life and occupations of the
+     people?
+
+     _P._--They would almost have to be sailors.
+
+     _T._--In other words, a maritime people. Do you think that is
+     usual? Look at the coast line of Japan. (Class sees that it is much
+     the same as that of Britain: the Japanese are also a maritime
+     race.) What is one occupation the people would follow?
+
+     _P._--They would probably be fishermen. (The teacher may give some
+     idea of the extent of the fishing. The same may be done with each
+     new point, as it comes up.)
+
+     _T._--What else would they do?
+
+     _P._--They would probably engage in trade or commerce.
+
+     _T._--With which countries? Study the map for a moment.
+
+     _P._--With those on the west of Europe, and with America.
+
+     _T._--Yes. You must notice that Great Britain is situated very
+     favourably for trade with the whole world. Is there anything on the
+     map to show this?
+
+     _P._--There are a great many lines on the map that show the water
+     routes from Britain to almost every country in the world.
+
+     _T._--Suppose Britain had trouble with any other country that might
+     be a cause of war, would her position make any difference to her?
+
+     _P._--No country could attack her except by water.
+
+     _T._--How would she defend herself?
+
+     _P._--She would have to depend on her ships. (A good opening for a
+     brief outline of the growth of the navy.)
+
+     _T._--Where would she get her ships?
+
+     _P._--She builds them herself.
+
+     _T._--Isn't she dependent on any other nation at all?
+
+     _P._--No, she has always had the material in her own country for
+     that.
+
+     _T._--What are they built of?
+
+     _P._--The old ships were wooden, and she had plenty of the best
+     timber,--oak.
+
+     _T._--What are they built of to-day?
+
+     _P._--Most of them are of iron.
+
+     _T._--Where does she get that?
+
+     _P._--From her own mines.
+
+     _T._--Now, look at the latitude of Britain. What part of our
+     country has the same latitude?
+
+     _P._--Labrador.
+
+     _T._--What is the climate of Labrador?
+
+     _P._--Very cold.
+
+     _T._--Then the climate of Britain ought to be the same?
+
+     _P._--The water around it would make it not so cold.
+
+     _T._--Yes. The ocean currents from the south help to make the
+     climate milder, too. There would be plenty of rain, besides. Now,
+     how would a moist, mild climate affect agriculture in England?
+
+     _P._--They ought to be able to grow almost everything that we can.
+
+(Similarly, many other points may be taken up and developed with the
+class.)
+
+
+ST. LAWRENCE RIVER
+
+INCIDENTAL TEACHING OF HISTORY WITH GEOGRAPHY
+
+
+_Aim._--To show general connection between history and geography.
+
+_Material Required._--A black-board sketch of that part of Canada
+adjacent to the St. Lawrence and a set of pictures (or picture
+post-cards) showing the important historical sites along the banks of
+the river.
+
+_Introduction._--The teacher asks a few questions to make clear the
+purpose of the map and to fix the location of the principal towns and
+cities--Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Ogdensburg, Morrisburg,
+Cornwall, Lachine, Montreal, Three Rivers, Levis, Quebec, Tadoussac, and
+Gaspe.
+
+_Presentation._--The lesson is assumed to be a pleasure trip by boat
+from Port Hope to the Atlantic. The teacher will tell of the departure
+from Port Hope and the arrival at Kingston, the first port. While there,
+he will ask why the place was given the name of Kingston. (It was named
+in honour of George III; as Queenston, at the upper end of the lake, was
+in honour of Queen Charlotte.) Leaving Kingston the teacher will
+describe (showing pictures) the appearance of the fort on the point and,
+with the pupils, will recall its establishment by Frontenac in 1673, and
+its use as a check on the Indians, and will note its use now as a
+storehouse, barracks, and training camp for soldiers. (_Ontario Public
+School History_, pp. 51, 114.)
+
+As the trip is continued down the river, they notice, in passing, the
+beautiful Thousand Islands, and the town of Brockville--its name
+commemorating the hero of Queenston Heights. Immediately below Prescott
+is seen on the bank of the river an old wind-mill, the scene of the
+Patriot invasion under Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer. (See _Ontario
+Public School History_, p. 178, and picture in Weaver's _Canadian
+History for Boys and Girls_, p. 227.)
+
+Across the river lies Ogdensburg, the scene of a raid in 1813. Colonel
+Macdonell, the British leader, who was drilling his small force on the
+ice, made a sudden attack upon the town, defeated the Americans,
+captured a large amount of stores and ammunition, and burned four armed
+vessels which lay in the harbour. (See _Ontario Public School History_,
+p. 155.)
+
+From this point the boat passes rapidly through the narrow part of the
+river at Iroquois (recall the Indians of that name), past the
+flourishing town of Morrisburg, until, on the north bank, appears a
+monument of gray granite, erected as a memorial of the battle of
+Crysler's Farm, fought in this vicinity in 1813. (See _Ontario Public
+School History_, p. 159.)
+
+After passing through the Long Sault Rapids, Cornwall, noted as the seat
+of the first Grammar School in Ontario, is reached. The river now widens
+into a lake and does not narrow until it passes Coteau, after which it
+passes through a chain of rapids and nears Lachine, the "La Chine" of La
+Salle, and the scene of numerous Indian fights and massacres. (See
+_Ontario School Geography_, p. 116, and _Ontario Public School History
+of Canada_, p. 60.) Ten miles to the east is Montreal, the most populous
+city in Canada, with its Royal Mount, and its many memories of early
+settlement in Canada. (See _Ontario School Geography_, p. 121.)
+
+Just above Quebec the river, now two miles wide, passes the bold cliffs
+up which Wolfe's men climbed to the Plains of Abraham, and sweeps around
+the Citadel and Lower Town. On the heights may be seen the monuments
+erected in honour of Champlain, and Wolfe and Montcalm. In imagination,
+pictures may be formed of the scenes that marked the close of French
+Rule in Canada. The river flows on past Tadoussac, long the centre of
+the Canadian fur-trade, past Gaspe where Cartier landed and laid claim
+to the surrounding country in the name of the king of France, till its
+banks fade from sight and its waters mingle with those of the Atlantic.
+
+In teaching such lessons as this, the oral narrative and question method
+is used. It is a review lesson, and reproduction may follow in a written
+exercise.
+
+
+THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND FROM 1066 TO 1603
+
+The purpose of this analysis is to explain by what show of right the
+kings of England interfered so much in Scottish affairs. The analysis
+also aims to show how correct and definite views on certain topics may
+be had only by following out those topics through history, neglecting
+all facts but those bearing on the topic studied.
+
+1. In the tenth century, Malcolm I obtained Strathclyde (see map,
+_Ontario Public School History of England_, p. 27) as a fief from Edmund
+of England. His grandson, Malcolm II, was invested with Lothian, before
+this a part of the English earldom of Northumbria. These fiefs are the
+basis of all claims afterwards made by English kings as overlords of
+Scotland.
+
+2. Malcolm III (1057-1093) married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling.
+The Norman conquest drove many Saxons north, and the Saxon element in
+Scotland was strengthened by this.
+
+3. William the Conqueror compelled Malcolm's submission, 1072. This kept
+alive the English claims.
+
+4. Henry I married Matilda of Scotland. Many Normans went to Scotland in
+the reign of David (1124-1153). The Feudal System was introduced and
+firmly established under Norman influence. Ecclesiastical foundation
+begun. Friendly relations strengthened.
+
+5. As the price of his liberty, William the Lyon agreed, by the
+Convention of Falaise, 1174, to hold Scotland as a fief of England.
+
+6. To raise money for his Crusade, Richard I of England renounced, in
+1189, his feudal rights over Scotland for 10,000 marks, and for the
+first time acknowledged her independence.
+
+7. The border line was fixed for the first time in 1222.
+
+8. The death of Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 1286, left the
+crown a bone of contention; Balliol finally secured it by favour of
+Edward I of England, the overlord of Scotland. Then followed the War of
+Independence under Wallace and Bruce and the Battle of Bannockburn,
+1314. This long and destructive war caused the Scots to have a deadly
+hatred of the English, and drove Scotland into alliance with France, the
+great enemy of England, and consolidated the different races in
+Scotland.
+
+9. Scotland thus became involved in the many wars between England and
+France and attacked England whenever she and France were at war.
+
+10. In 1327, the independence of Scotland was acknowledged.
+
+11. Friendship with France and distrust of England continued well into
+the Reformation period, and in the main determined Scotland's foreign
+policy.
+
+12. With the change of religion in Scotland at the Reformation, French
+influence came to an end. Religious sympathy overcame the political
+hatred of England.
+
+13. The trouble in connection with Mary Queen of Scots and her
+imprisonment made for peace between the two countries, as Scotland did
+not want to have Mary released for fear of further civil war.
+
+14. The accession of James VI, a Scottish king, to the throne of
+England, ended almost entirely the differences between the two
+countries, and led finally to the Legislative Union a century later
+(1707).
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS 160-170, ONTARIO PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+The Parliament had already established its sole right to levy taxation.
+(See Green's _Short History of the English People_, p. 478.) Under
+Charles I the struggle was mainly about the manner in which the taxes
+should be spent; in other words, the Parliament was trying to secure
+control of the executive, the other important element in Responsible
+Government.
+
+Charles I held very strongly the belief in the "divine right" of kings
+and, naturally, this belief did not harmonize with the aim of
+Parliament. Disputes were constant:
+
+1. Differences concerning Charles' marriage.
+
+2. First Parliament, 1626, would grant "tonnage and poundage" for only
+one year.
+
+3. Second Parliament, 1626, refused money unless the conduct of the
+Spanish war by Buckingham was inquired into by Parliament.
+
+4. Third Parliament, 1628-9. Charles raised some money by "forced
+loans," but far too little, for a new war with France was begun.
+Parliament refused to grant money till the king signed the Petition of
+Right, which embodied all the points in dispute between them.
+
+5. Charles did not long observe the Petition of Right which he had
+signed; Laud, Bishop of London, was making changes in the church
+ceremonies that seemed to bring back the old religion. Parliament
+solemnly protested against both these things, then quietly adjourned.
+Some members were arrested--Sir John Eliot died in the Tower--others
+were kept in prison for eleven years.
+
+6. No Parliament for eleven years. Charles aimed during this period to
+raise money without Parliament, and to establish the English Church in
+the whole country.
+
+His methods of raising money were:
+
+(_a_) By granting monopolies (L200,000).
+
+(_b_) By Star Chamber fines--large fines for slight offences.
+
+(_c_) By illegal duties.
+
+(_d_) By "ship-money" (Trial of Hampden).
+
+His methods of establishing the English Church were:
+
+(_a_) Religious oppression--chief agent, Laud; chief sufferers, the
+Puritans.
+
+(_b_) Attempt to force the English Church prayer-book on Scotland led to
+rebellion.
+
+This rebellion forced Charles to summon Parliament in order to raise
+money. Parliament refused to give money till their grievances were
+redressed. It was dissolved in three weeks. Urgent need of troops to
+keep back the Scottish rebels made Charles summon Parliament again in
+six months (1640). This is known as the "Long Parliament."
+
+7. (_a_) Parliament first accused Laud and Strafford.
+
+(_b_) The "Grand Remonstrance" named the illegal acts of Charles.
+
+(_c_) This led to Charles' final blunder--the attempt to arrest the five
+members.
+
+8. Open war, now the only way out, went on till Charles was captured and
+beheaded, and Parliament held, for a time, entire control.
+
+
+SUGGESTIVE OUTLINES FOR REVIEWS
+
+FORM IV
+
+     I. _The Era of Reform in Britain_:
+
+       1. The Methodist Revival, which stirred the hearts of the people,
+       and gave them higher ideals
+
+       2. Social Reforms: (_a_) Canning, the friend of the oppressed
+                          (_b_) Wilberforce and the abolition of slavery
+                          (_c_) Elizabeth Fry and prison reform
+                          (_d_) Revision of the criminal code
+
+       3. Political Reforms: (_a_) The Reform Bill
+                             (_b_) The Chartist Agitation
+                             (_c_) The repeal of the Corn Laws
+
+     II. _The Puritan Movement_:
+
+       1. Its beginning under Elizabeth
+
+       2. Its growth under James I
+
+       3. The struggle and victory under Charles I
+
+       4. Triumph and decay under the Commonwealth
+
+       5. Its dissolution under Charles II
+
+       6. It was the root of the resistance offered to the
+       misrule of James II.
+
+
+
+
+FOR TEACHERS' REFERENCE
+
+THE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION
+
+CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND SCIENCE
+
+
+The purpose of these notes, which are condensed from the article on
+"Civilization" in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (latest edition), is to
+provide the teacher with some interesting material, by the use of which
+he may impress on the pupils the far-reaching effects of certain
+inventions and discoveries, which are in such common use to-day that
+they are very likely to be underestimated. The number of lessons must be
+left entirely to the discretion of the teacher.
+
+
+NOTES
+
+The close relation between the progress of civilization, as told in
+history, and scientific inventions and discoveries is shown by Lewis H.
+Morgan, who has indicated nine stages in the upward march of mankind
+from the earliest times to the present. There are three stages of
+savagery, three of barbarism, and three of civilization, the close of
+each stage being marked by an important discovery or invention. The
+problem method may be used, by asking what each invention or discovery
+would enable the people to do that they could not do before.
+
+1. The savages in the first stage were developing speech, lived on raw
+nuts and fruits, and were restricted to places where they could have
+warmth and food. This stage was ended by the discovery of _fire_.
+
+2. With the use of fire, their food now included fish and perhaps flesh;
+they could migrate to colder climates. This stage ended with the
+invention of the _bow and arrow_.
+
+3. With the bow and arrow, the savage was safer from fierce animals; he
+could kill also to get food, and skins for clothing and tents; with
+stronger food and better protection he could and did migrate into more
+distant, colder countries. This stage ended with the invention of
+_pottery_.
+
+4. Hitherto man had had no cooking utensils that could withstand fire.
+Now he could boil his food, and his diet was extended to include boiled
+meat and vegetables. The next stage was reached by the _domestication of
+animals_.
+
+5. The dog, the sheep, the ox, the camel, the horse were rapidly
+domesticated; some of these provided man with food independent of the
+chase; others gave him better, swifter means of travel and
+transportation. Distant peoples were thus brought into contact and
+commerce began. New ideas were gained from each other. Larger
+communities were formed, and towns and cities began. Property became
+individual, instead of being communal.
+
+6. This stage began with the invention of _iron-smelting_. Immense
+progress was now possible in the various arts of peace: house-building,
+road-making, construction of vehicles, the making of all sorts of tools.
+By these tools man was now able to express his aesthetic nature as never
+before. Implements of war also became more numerous and more deadly.
+
+7. The human race was now lifted from the highest stage of barbarism to
+the lowest stage of civilization by one of the most important inventions
+that man has ever made--_writing_. This made possible the recording of
+man's deeds and thoughts for posterity, thus securing the gains of each
+generation for all succeeding generations, and making history possible.
+
+8. The next stage of progress is marked by a group of
+inventions,--_gunpowder_, _the mariner's compass_, and _paper_ and the
+_printing press_. The Middle Ages, as we call them, were now ended, and
+the human race found itself on a stage as wide as the world.
+
+9. The next invention, which came quickly after the preceding ones, and
+placed mankind in the present stage of civilization, was the
+_steam-engine_. The revolution which this brought about is so recent as
+to need no details here. (See lesson on the Industrial Revolution, p.
+87.) What is to be the invention that will mark the entrance of the race
+on a higher stage still, when Tennyson's dream of a "Federation of the
+World the Parliament of Man" may be realized? Is it the airship, giving
+man the conquest of the last element still unmastered?
+
+
+THE NEW LEARNING
+
+1. The aim of this lesson is to make the pupils familiar with one of the
+most important movements in English history, by having them study the
+meaning, causes, tendencies, and effects of the New Learning.
+
+2. As an introduction, a lesson or two should be given on the conditions
+prevailing in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages, because
+a knowledge of these conditions is essential to a right understanding of
+many of the causes of the New Learning.
+
+The New Learning was a phase of a greater movement called the
+Renaissance, which arose in Italy during the fourteenth century. The
+Renaissance marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of
+modern history. It meant re-birth, a new life. People took a new
+interest in living. The influence of the monk and of the knight was
+passing, and the man of affairs, with his broader sympathies, his
+keener vision, his more varied interests, and his love of liberty, was
+coming into prominence.
+
+How to enjoy life, how to get the greatest value out of it, became the
+great problem. In their attempt to solve this problem people turned
+their attention to the ancient literature of Greece and Rome; for it was
+believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans had a fine appreciation of
+the meaning and beauty of life. They began to seek out the old
+literature and to study it. This new study has been called the Revival
+of Learning or the New Learning. The influence of these two great
+literatures soon made itself felt. Every province of knowledge was
+investigated, and people everywhere were influenced by this great
+intellectual awakening.
+
+3. The following were the chief causes of the movement:
+
+(_a_) The Crusades
+
+(_b_) The Fall of Constantinople, 1453
+
+(_c_) The introduction of the mariner's compass
+
+(_d_) The invention of gunpowder
+
+(_e_) The invention of the printing press
+
+(_f_) The overthrow of the feudal system
+
+(_g_) The desire for knowledge stimulated by the universities
+
+(_h_) The failure of the schools of the Middle Ages to meet the demands
+and needs of the times
+
+4. The relation of each of these causes to the New Learning must be
+shown. In dealing with the Crusade movement as a cause, it will be
+necessary to help the children to see the effect produced on the people
+of northern Europe by their coming into contact with the more highly
+cultivated people in southern Europe; and the effect produced on the
+people of Europe by their mingling with the nations of the luxurious
+East--the Greeks of Constantinople and the brilliant Mohammedan scholars
+of Palestine. The Crusades made the people dissatisfied with the
+conditions that had prevailed so long in Europe, and this fact alone
+gave an impetus to the New Learning.
+
+The relation of printing to the spread of the movement is evident. The
+introduction of printing meant the cheapening of books, their more
+general use, and the spread of education. This was followed by a growing
+independence of thought, and a desire for greater political and
+religious freedom.
+
+The other causes may be similarly treated.
+
+5. The New Learning was represented in England by a group of scholars of
+whom Erasmus, Colet, and More were the chief. The great churchmen, too,
+were its patrons. Men of every rank were interested, and the movement
+affected the whole life of the people. A new interest was taken in
+education, in art, in religion, and in social reform. Old methods of
+instruction were superseded by more rational ones. Hundreds of new
+schools were established for the benefit of the middle classes. The
+whole tendency of the New Learning was toward a higher intellectual and
+more moral life.
+
+6. Its effects:
+
+(_a_) It awakened a desire for an intellectual life and for social
+reform;
+
+(_b_) It made possible the Reformation;
+
+(_c_) It led to the establishment of schools and libraries and to the
+extension of the usefulness of the universities;
+
+(_d_) It aroused the desire for liberty and the spirit of enterprise,
+and encouraged commercial activity;
+
+(_e_) It inspired some of the world's greatest artists in painting,
+sculpture, architecture, literature, and music.
+
+(_f_) It implanted the seeds of freedom of thought and fostered the
+spirit of scientific research;
+
+(_g_) It supplied higher ideals of life and conduct, a fact which became
+responsible to a large extent for the great improvement made in the
+condition of the people, and in the development of Europe since that
+time.
+
+     NOTE: References to the discoveries made by Copernicus,
+     Columbus, and the Cabots should be made. Pupils should read or hear
+     short accounts of Erasmus, More, and Colet. A careful development
+     of the causes and meaning of the movement should aid the pupils to
+     anticipate its chief results.
+
+     It is assumed, of course, that the study of this topic will occupy
+     several lesson periods.
+
+
+THE FIGHT FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY IN CANADA, 1759-1867.
+
+In the struggle for constitutional liberty in British Canada, there are
+several distinct stages:
+
+I. 1760 to 1763--Military Rule:
+
+     1. Amherst the nominal governor; Canada divided into three
+     districts
+
+     2. Little disturbance of French customs; the _habitants_ content
+
+     3. Influx of "old" subjects--their character. (See _Ontario Public
+     School History of Canada_, p. 109; _History of Canada_, Lucas and
+     Egerton, Part II, pp. 4 and 7.)
+
+II. 1763 to 1774 (Quebec Act):
+
+     1. Period of Civil Government under General Murray
+
+     2. Unrest owing to demands of the "old" subjects
+
+     3. Conditions of government:
+
+          (_a_) Governor and Advisory Council of twelve all
+          appointed by Crown
+
+          (_b_) Assembly permitted but not feasible; depended
+          on will of Governor
+
+          (_c_) British law, both civil and criminal, prevailed
+
+          (_d_) All money matters in hands of Council.
+
+     4. At this time the French greatly outnumbered the British, and the
+     fear of the Revolution of the American Colonies led to the French
+     being favoured in the Quebec Act, 1774.
+
+III. 1774 to 1791--Quebec Act to Constitutional Act:
+
+     1. Both "old" and "new" subjects dissatisfied--the French with
+     British Court procedure, the British with French feudal customs.
+
+     2. Provisions of the Quebec Act:
+
+          (_a_) Change of boundaries (See text-book.)
+
+          (_b_) Governor and Legislative Council appointed; no
+          assembly called.
+
+          (_c_) French Civil Law; British Criminal Law
+
+          (_d_) No oath required, as before, hostile to the Roman
+          Catholic Church--beginning of religious liberty
+
+          (_e_) Legislative Council had no control of taxation
+
+IV. 1791 to 1841--Constitutional Act to Act of Union Provisions of
+Constitutional Act:
+
+     1. Upper and Lower Canada divided, because French and British could
+     not agree on many points.
+
+     2. Each Province had a Governor, a Legislative Council, a
+     Legislative Assembly, and an Executive Council. The Legislative
+     Council was composed of the highest officials, appointed
+     practically for life, and responsible to no one. Many of these were
+     also members of the Executive Council. The Legislative Assembly was
+     elected and was yet without control of the whole revenue, as the
+     Home Government still collected "all duties regulating colonial
+     navigation and commerce."
+
+     3. The Clergy Reserves were established; later to become a bone of
+     contention.
+
+V. 1841 to 1867--Act of Union to British North America Act.
+
+The demands of the people for responsible government, that is, for
+control of the Executive and of taxation, became so insistent that the
+Act of Union was passed, following Lord Durham's report on the Rebellion
+of 1837.
+
+     Provisions of the Act of Union:
+
+     1. Legislative Council appointed (20 members)
+
+     2. Legislative Assembly elected (42 from each Province, later 65
+     from each)
+
+     3. Executive Council selected from both Houses
+
+     4. A permanent Civil List of L75,000 was granted
+
+     5. The Legislative Assembly controlled the rest of the revenue.
+     Money bills were to originate with the Government. This was really
+     Responsible Government, as it was developed under Elgin.
+
+VI. 1867 to the present:
+
+The British North America Act was the statement of a complete victory of
+the people for Responsible Government. The Executive Council (Cabinet)
+is wholly responsible to Parliament, in which the members of the
+Executive must have seats; the raising and the spending of revenue is
+wholly in the hands of the people's representatives. For a clear summary
+of the concessions won by Canadians, see Bourinot, _How Canada is
+Governed_, page 34; see also _Ontario Public School History of Canada_,
+pp. 267 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+DEVICES
+
+
+MAPS
+
+1. Wall maps for general study, especially of modern history.
+
+2. Outline or sketch maps drawn on the black-board by the teacher or the
+pupils for use in the study of earlier history, or explorations, etc.
+For these purposes the details of a wall map are not only not needed,
+but are rather a hindrance.
+
+3. Relief maps of plasticine, clay, or salt and flour, to be made by the
+pupils to illustrate the influence of geographical facts in history, and
+to make events in history more real to the pupils.
+
+
+PICTURES
+
+1. Many good historical pictures of persons, buildings, monuments, and
+events may be collected by the pupils and the teacher from magazines and
+newspapers, and pasted in a scrap-book. (See Educational Pamphlet, No.
+4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_.)
+
+2. The Perry Picture Co., Malden, Mass., publishes pictures in different
+sizes, costing from one cent upward. Many of these are useful in
+teaching history. Similar pictures may be obtained from the Cosmos
+Picture Co., New York.
+
+3. Good picture post-cards can be easily obtained.
+
+4. Lantern slides and stereopticon views may be used. (For lists of
+dealers and publishers of 3 and 4, see also _Visual Aids in the Teaching
+of History_.)
+
+
+MUSEUMS
+
+These often contain relics of earlier times in the form of implements,
+utensils, weapons, dress. A visit to one will interest pupils.
+
+
+SOURCE BOOKS
+
+Some source books for illustrating earlier conditions in Ontario are:
+
+1. _The Talbot Regime._ By Charles Oakes Ermatinger, St. Thomas.
+
+2. _Pioneer Days._ By David Kennedy, Port Elgin. Sold by author, 50c.
+
+3. _United Empire Loyalists._ By Egerton Ryerson. William Briggs.
+
+4. _Canadian Constitutional Development._ Selected speeches and
+dispatches, 1766-1867. By Egerton and Grant Murray. $3.00.
+
+5. _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada._ William Briggs,
+Toronto, $2.00.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLES
+
+Those needed to illustrate special periods may be found in the larger
+histories. Pupils should be instructed how to interpret them.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL CHART
+
+This may be made by the class, on the black-board or on a slated cloth
+as the work advances. On the left hand of a vertical line are set down
+the dates, allowing the same space for each ten years, the close of each
+decade being shown in larger figures. On the right side are set down the
+events in their proper place. For example, in studying the career of
+Champlain, the Chart will be begun as follows:
+
+
+CHAMPLAIN
+
+=1600=
+
+1603 First visit, when 36 years old, with Pontgrave.
+
+1604 With De Monts and Poutrincourt he undertakes to colonize Acadia;
+forms a settlement at Port Royal.
+
+1608 Founds Quebec.
+
+1609 Explores Richelieu River and Lake Champlain; forms an alliance with
+the Hurons and Algonquins against the Iroquois.
+
+1610 Marriage.
+
+1611 Establishes a trading station at what is now Montreal.
+
+1613 Ascends the Ottawa River, expecting to find the way to China;
+deceived, returns to France.
+
+1615 Brings out the Recollet Fathers to Christianize the Indians;
+explores the country of the Hurons.
+
+=1620=
+
+A useful chart which shows the growth of Canada is to be found in
+Taylor's _Cardinal Facts of Canadian History_, reproduced in Duncan's
+_The Canadian People_. An Illustrated Chart of Canadian History is
+published by the United Editors Company, of Toronto.
+
+
+NOTE-BOOKS AND CLASS EXERCISES
+
+In the Fourth Form, pupils should copy into a notebook the black-board
+work--topical outlines, time chart, etc., as a basis for review and for
+class exercises in composition. Such a topical summary, the joint work
+of teacher and class, is the best means of review for examination
+purposes, when one is held.
+
+Pupils may occasionally be asked to make from the text-book, without
+preceding class work, a topical analysis either of a subject which is
+treated consecutively in the book, such as the War of 1812-14, or of a
+subject that requires the pupil to collect his material from various
+parts of the book, or even from several books. In the latter case the
+teacher should direct the pupil to the proper sources.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+A. FOR TEACHERS
+
+I. _Histories_:
+
+(_a_) English:
+
+     1. A Short History of the English People. Green. $1.50. The
+     Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. Ontario High School History of England. 65c. The Macmillan
+     Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     3. A History of the British Nation. A.D. Innes. $1.25. E.C. & T.C.
+     Jack, Edinburgh.
+
+(_b_) Canadian:
+
+     1. A History of Canada. Roberts. $1.00. The Macmillan Company of
+     Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. Story of Canada (Story of the Nations Series). Bourinot. $1.50.
+     G.P. Putnam's, New York.
+
+     3. A Historical Geography of the British Colonies, 10 vols. Canada:
+     Part I, $1.60; Part II, $1.10. Lucas and Egerton, Clarendon Press,
+     Oxford.
+
+          One of the best histories of Canada; on a geographical basis.
+
+     4. Ontario High School History of Canada. Grant. 19c. The T. Eaton
+     Company, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     5. A Short History of the Canadian People. Bryce. $2.00. William
+     Briggs, Toronto.
+
+(_c_) Civics:
+
+     1. Canadian Civics. Jenkins. 35c. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. How Canada is Governed. Bourinot. $1.00. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd.,
+     Toronto.
+
+(_d_) General History:
+
+     1. General Sketch of European History. Freeman. $1.00. The
+     Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     2. History of Our Own Times. McCarthy. $1.25. Crowell and Company,
+     New York.
+
+     3. The Nineteenth Century--A History. MacKenzie. $1.00. T. Nelson
+     and Sons, Toronto.
+
+For help in preparing lessons every teacher should possess one book of
+each of the above classes, in addition to the Ontario Public School
+Histories.
+
+
+II. _On Methods_:
+
+1. Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary
+Schools. Bourne. $1.50. Longmans Green and Company, London, England.
+
+     The best book on general method.
+
+2. Methods in History. Mace. $1.00. Ginn and Company, New York.
+
+3. Special Method in History. McMurry. 75c. The Macmillan Company of
+Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+
+B. MATERIAL FOR CLASS WORK
+
+ESPECIALLY IN CORRELATED SUBJECTS
+
+1. Reader's Guide to English History. Allen. 25c. Ginn and Company, New
+York.
+
+     (Contains a list of historical authorities for the various periods;
+     and lists of historical poems and fiction to illustrate these
+     periods.)
+
+2. School Atlas of English History. S.R. Gardiner. $1.50. Longmans,
+Green and Company, London, England.
+
+3. Atlas of Canada. Published by Department of the Interior, Ottawa.
+
+     (The Department of the Interior also publishes maps giving the
+     latest information concerning railways, distribution of minerals,
+     etc., which can be had by asking for them.)
+
+4. Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+5. Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+6. Literary and Historical Atlas of America. Everyman's Library. 25c.
+Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto.
+
+
+C. HISTORICAL READERS AND SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS
+
+Group I.
+
+1. Highroads of History. 13 Vols. T. Nelson and Sons, Toronto.
+
+     Well illustrated; a great favourite with children.
+
+2. Gateways to History. 7 Vols. 9s. 1d. Edward Arnold, London, England.
+
+3. Longmans' Ship Historical Readers. 7 Vols. 9s. Longmans, Green and
+Company, London, England.
+
+4. The Little Cousin Series. 25 Vols. 60c. each. The Page Co., Boston,
+Mass.
+
+     Get list of titles and select.
+
+5. Peeps at many Lands and Cities. 50 Vols. 50c. each. The Macmillan
+Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+     Get list of titles and select.
+
+Group II.
+
+1. Stories from Canadian History. Marquis. 50c. Copp Clark Company,
+Ltd., Toronto.
+
+2. Brief Biographies. Supplementing Canadian History. J.O. Miller. 35c.
+Copp Clark Company, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+3. Stories of the Maple Land. C.A. Young. 25c. Copp Clark Company, Ltd.,
+Toronto.
+
+4. Heroines of Canadian History. W.S. Herrington. Cloth 30c., paper 18c.
+Wm. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+5. Ryerson Memorial Volume. J.G. Hodgins.
+
+     A graphic sketch of the old log school-house and its belongings,
+     and the life of a pioneer teacher.
+
+6. Stories of New France. Machar and Marquis. $1.50. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+7. Martyrs of New France. Herrington. 60c. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+
+Group III.
+
+1. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. Baldwin. 35c. The American Book Company,
+New York.
+
+2. Thirty More Famous Stories. Baldwin. 50c. The American Book Company,
+New York.
+
+3. Book of Legends. Scudder. Riverside Literature Series 15c. Copp Clark
+Company, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+4. Legends Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 90c. Doubleday, Page
+and Co., New York.
+
+
+Group IV.--Miscellaneous:
+
+1. Heroes Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 60c. Doubleday, New
+York.
+
+2. Famous Men of Greece. 50c. The American Book Company, New York.
+
+3. Famous Men of Rome. The American Book Company, New York.
+
+4. Famous Men of the Middle Ages. 50c. The American Book Company, New
+York.
+
+5. Famous Men of Modern Times. 50c. The American Book Co., New York.
+
+6. Stories of Great Inventors. Macombe. 40c. Wm. Briggs, Toronto.
+
+7. Calendar Stories. M.P. Boyle. 30c. McClelland, Goodchild, & Stewart,
+Toronto.
+
+8. Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road From Long Ago to Now. Jane Andrews.
+75c. Sch. ed. 60c. Ginn and Company, New York.
+
+9. Seven Little Sisters. Jane Andrews. 75c. Sch. ed. 50c. Ginn and
+Company, New York.
+
+10. The Romance of Canadian History. Selections from Parkman; edited by
+Pelham Edgar. 75c. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
+
+11. English Life 300 Years Ago. Trevelyan. 1s. Methuen and Company,
+London.
+
+12. Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Reformers, Great Orators,
+Great Teachers, English Authors, Good men and Great. Hubbard. 10c each.
+The Roycrofters, East Aurora, N.Y.
+
+In Group I the first, and any of the others may be read. The first are
+very interesting and great favourites with children.
+
+In Groups II and III one of each may be taken as they, to some extent,
+cover the same ground.
+
+All of those in Group IV are useful, and may be added as opportunity
+permits.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE
+
+Did you ever hear the story of the first Christmas tree? This is the way
+it was told to me: Martin Luther was a good man who lived in Germany
+long ago. One Christmas Eve he was walking to his home. The night was
+cold and frosty with many stars in the sky. He thought he had never seen
+stars look so bright. When he got home he tried to tell his wife and
+children how pretty the stars were, but they didn't seem to understand.
+So Luther went out into his garden and cut a little evergreen tree. This
+he set up in the room and fastened tiny candles all over it, and when he
+had lighted them they shone like stars.
+
+One of Luther's neighbours came in that night, and when she saw the tree
+she thought how one would please her children. Soon she had one in her
+house, too. And the idea spread from one house to another until there
+were Christmas trees all over Germany.
+
+Queen Victoria of England was married to a German prince, and the German
+custom of a Christmas tree for the children was followed in the royal
+palace. Of course after the Queen had a tree other people must have one,
+too. So the Christmas tree came to England.
+
+The little French boys and girls have not had them so long. Not very
+many years ago there was a war between France and Germany. At Christmas
+time the German soldiers were in Paris. They felt sorry to be so far
+from their own little boys and girls on Christmas eve. But they knew how
+to have something to remind them of home. Every soldier who could got a
+little evergreen tree and put candles on it. The French saw them, and
+were so pleased that now, every year, they too have Christmas trees.
+
+So many people from England, and from Germany, and from France have come
+to our country to live, of course, we too have learned about Christmas
+trees. And that is why you and so many other little girls and boys have
+such pretty trees on Christmas eve.
+
+
+THE ORIGIN OF THE EASTER BUNNY
+
+Childish voices are asking why the rabbit is seen with the eggs
+and the chickens that fill the shop windows and show-cases at Easter.
+The legend that established the hare as a symbol of the Eastertide is
+not generally known. It is of German origin and runs as follows:
+
+Many years ago, during a cruel war, the Duchess of Lindenburg with her
+two children and an old servant fled for safety to a little obscure
+village in the mountains. She found the people very poor, and one thing
+that surprised her much was that they used no eggs. She learned that
+they had never seen or heard of hens, and so when the old servant went
+to get tidings of his master and of the war he brought back with him
+some of these birds.
+
+The simple village folk were greatly interested in the strange fowl, and
+when they saw the tiny yellow chickens breaking their way out of the
+eggs they were full of delight. But the Duchess was saddened by the
+thought that Easter was drawing near and that she had no gifts for the
+little mountain children. Then an idea came to her. The spring was
+beginning to colour the earth with leaves and flowers, and she made
+bright dyes out of herbs and roots and coloured the eggs. Then the
+children were invited to visit the Duchess, and she told them stories
+of the glad Easter day, and afterwards bade each make a nest of moss
+among the bushes. When they had all enjoyed the little feast provided in
+their honour, they went back to the woods to look at their nests. Lo! in
+each were five coloured eggs.
+
+"What a good hen it must have been to lay such beautiful eggs," said one
+child.
+
+"It could not have been a hen," said another. "The eggs that the hens
+lay are white. It must have been the rabbit that jumped out of the tree
+when I made my nest."
+
+And all the children agreed that it was the rabbit, and to this day the
+mystic Bunny is supposed to bring eggs and gifts at Easter to the little
+children of the "fatherland" who have been loving and kind during the
+year.
+
+
+THE STORY OF ST. VALENTINE
+
+Once upon a time, there lived in a monastery across the sea a
+humble monk called Valentine. Every brother save himself seemed to have
+some special gift.
+
+Now there was Brother Angelo, who was an artist, and painted such
+wonderful Madonnas that it seemed as if the holy mother must step down
+from the frame and bless her children.
+
+Brother Vittorio had a wonderful voice, and on saints' days the
+monastery chapel would be crowded with visitors, who came from far and
+near just to listen to that wonderful voice as it soared up among the
+dim old arches.
+
+Brother Anselmo was a doctor, and knew the virtues of all roots, herbs,
+and drugs, and was kept very busy going about among the sick, followed
+by their tearful, grateful blessing.
+
+Brother Johannes was skilled in illuminating, and Valentine often
+watched the page grow under his clever hand. How beautiful would then be
+the gospel story in brightly-coloured letters, with dainty flowers,
+bright-winged butterflies, and downy, nestling birds about the borders!
+
+Brother Paul was a great teacher in the monastery school, and even
+learned scholars came to consult him. Friar John ruled the affairs of
+the little monastery world with wisdom and prudence. Indeed, out of the
+whole number only Valentine seemed without special talent.
+
+The poor man felt it keenly. He longed to do some great thing. "Why did
+not the good God give me a voice like Vittorio or a skilled hand like
+Angelo?" he would often inquire of himself bitterly. One day as he sat
+sadly musing on these things, a voice within him said clearly and
+earnestly: "Do the little things, Valentine; there the blessing lies."
+"What are the little things?" asked Valentine, much perplexed. But no
+answer came to this question. Like every one else, Valentine had to find
+his work himself.
+
+He had a little plot where he loved to work, and the other monks said
+that Valentine's pinks, lilies, and violets were larger and brighter
+than any raised in the whole monastery garden.
+
+He used to gather bunches of his flowers and drop them into the chubby
+hands of children as they trotted to school under the gray monastery
+walls. Many a happy village bride wore his roses on her way to the
+altar. Scarcely a coffin was taken to the cemetery but Valentine's
+lilies or violets filled the silent hands.
+
+He got to know the birthday of every child in the village, and was fond
+of hanging on the cottage door some little gift his loving hands had
+made. He could mend a child's broken windmill and carve quaint faces
+from walnut shells. He made beautiful crosses of silvery gray lichens,
+and pressed mosses and rosy weeds from the seashore. The same tender
+hands were ready to pick up a fallen baby, or carry the water bucket for
+some weary mother.
+
+Everybody learned to love the good Brother Valentine. The children clung
+to his long, gray skirts, and the babies crept out on the streets to
+receive his pat on their shining hair. Even the cats and dogs rubbed
+against him, and the little birds fluttered near him unafraid.
+
+St. Valentine grew old, loving and beloved, never dreaming that he had
+found his great thing. When the simple monk died the whole countryside
+mourned, and hundreds came to look for the last time on the quiet face
+in the rude coffin.
+
+A great duke walked bare-headed after that coffin, and one of the most
+noted brothers of the church spoke the last words of blessing to the
+weeping people.
+
+After his death, it was remembered how sweet had been his little gifts,
+and the villagers said: "Let us, too, give gifts to our friends on the
+good Valentine's birthday." So ever since has the pretty custom been
+carried out, and on St. Valentine's day we send our friends little
+tokens of remembrance to say we love them.
+
+
+THE FIRST THANKSGIVING
+
+It is nearly three hundred years since the first Thanksgiving
+Day. Though we have even more to be grateful for, I think that there are
+not many of us who feel quite so thankful as the little handful of
+people who set apart the first Thanksgiving Day.
+
+There were not very many of them, just one little village in a big
+forest land, and by the edge of a great ocean. Here, on the map, is
+where they lived. It is on the north-eastern shores of the United States
+and is called Plymouth. The people I am telling you about gave it that
+name when they came to it, nearly two years before they had their first
+Thanksgiving Day. It was the name of the last town they had seen in
+England. Here, on the map, is the English Plymouth, and you see what a
+long trip they had in their little vessel, called the _Mayflower_, to
+their new home.
+
+You still wonder why they travelled so far to make new homes for
+themselves. It was because they wanted to worship God in their own way
+that they left England. They were not afraid of the long voyage and all
+its hardships; for they felt sure they were doing as God wished them to
+do. They arrived safely, too, and built their little village by the
+sea--the new Plymouth. One of the first buildings they put up was a
+little log church.
+
+The first year was very hard for everybody. The winter was colder than
+any they had ever known in England, and their houses were small and
+poorly built. They could not get any letters or news from their friends
+in England for many months. Food was not scarce, for there was always
+plenty of game and fish. But it was such a change from their old way of
+living that many people became ill, and in the spring there were many
+graves. But the worst thing about the new land was the Indians. These
+English people were afraid of them--and with good reason, too, for they
+were very fierce and sometimes very cruel. They tried not to let the
+Indians know how few they were, and even planted grain about the graves
+in the churchyard so that the Indians could not count how many had
+died.
+
+But one of the Indian Chiefs was friendly to the English and kept the
+other tribes from making war on them, and the second summer they had a
+great harvest and everything was more comfortable. It was in that
+autumn, just after the grain was gathered, that the minister spoke to
+them one Sunday about having a Thanksgiving day. "It seemeth right," he
+said, "God hath granted us peace and plenty. He has blessed us with a
+dwelling-place of peace. He has held back the savage red man from
+bringing harm to us. Therefore let us appoint a day of Thanksgiving."
+
+After that all the people, even the boys and girls, were busy getting
+ready. The men took their guns and fishing-rods and went into the
+forest, and brought home fowl, fish, and deer, and perhaps bear meat as
+well. The boys and girls gathered wild plums, and grapes, and corn, and
+brought in pumpkins from the gardens; and the women made pies, puddings,
+cakes, and bread, and baked the meat and corn. They had great piles of
+cakes, and rows and rows of pies, and loaves of bread and platters of
+meat, for they all expected company. You could not guess, I am sure, who
+was coming! They had sent word to the Indians near to come and spend
+Thanksgiving Day with them.
+
+Do you suppose they came? Indeed they did. They came before breakfast
+and stayed until long after supper, and had a good time, and tasted
+everything the white women had cooked, and nodded their heads and said,
+"How" a great many times, to say it was good. Some of the little girls
+and boys were half afraid of them, but they need not have been; for that
+day the Indians felt very kindly toward the English.
+
+     Ask pupils to mention things for which they are thankful.
+
+
+LETTER FROM MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS, TO QUEEN ELIZABETH
+
+Believe, Madame (and the doctors whom you sent to me this last
+summer can have formed an opinion), that I am not likely long to be in a
+condition which can justify jealousy or distrust. And this
+notwithstanding, exact from me such assurances, and just and reasonable
+conditions as you wish. Superior force is always on your side to make me
+keep them, even though for any reason whatever I should wish to break
+them. You have had from observation enough experience of my bare
+promises, sometimes even to my own damage, as I showed you on this
+subject two years ago. Remember, if you please, what I then wrote you,
+and that in no way could you so much win over my heart to yourself as by
+kindness, although you have confined forever my poor body to languish
+between four walls; those of my rank and disposition not permitting
+themselves to be gained over or forced by any amount of harshness.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In conclusion, I have to request two things especially; the one that as
+I am about to leave this world I may have by me for my consolation some
+honourable churchman, in order that I may daily examine the road that I
+have to traverse and be instructed how to complete it according to my
+religion, in which I am firmly resolved to live and die. This is a last
+duty which cannot be denied to the most wretched and miserable person
+alive; it is a liberty which you give to all foreign ambassadors, just
+as all other Catholic kings allow yours the practice of their religion.
+And as for myself, have I ever forced my own subjects to do anything
+against their religion even when I had all power and authority over
+them? And you cannot justly bring it to pass that I should be in this
+extremity deprived of such a privilege. What advantage can accrue to you
+from denying me this? I hope that God will forgive me if, oppressed by
+you in this wise, I do not cease from paying Him that duty which in my
+heart will be permitted. But you will give a very ill example to other
+princes of Christendom of employing towards their subjects and
+relatives, the same harshness which you mete out to me, a sovereign
+queen and your nearest relative, as I am and shall be in spite of my
+enemies so long as I live.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+     Aims of Study, 13
+
+     Amount of Material, 18
+
+     Appendix, 136
+       First Christmas Tree, The, 136
+       First Thanksgiving, The, 140
+       Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143
+       Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137
+       Story of St. Valentine, 138
+
+     Bibliography, 130
+
+     Black-board Work in Teaching History, 27, 31, 40, 47, 50
+
+     Capture of Quebec, The, 66
+
+     Characteristics of a Good Text-book, 24
+
+     Chronological Chart, 128
+
+     Chronological Method, 21
+
+     Civics, 20, 51, 52
+
+     Civilization and Inventions, 119
+
+     Clergy Reserves, The, 36
+
+     Colours of the Flag, The, 73
+
+     Combination of Methods, 25
+
+     Comparative Method, 22
+
+     Concentric Method, 22
+
+     Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107
+
+     Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124
+
+     Correlation of Subjects, 39, 40, 50
+
+     Course of Study, 1
+
+     Current Events, 49
+
+     Dates, 47
+
+     Devices for Teaching, 127
+
+     Dramatization of History, 46
+
+     Drill and Review, 31
+
+     Empire Day, 75
+
+     Feudal System, 100
+
+     First Christmas Tree, The, 136
+
+     First Thanksgiving, The, 140
+
+     Flag, The, 68
+
+     Flag Days, 72
+
+     Florence Nightingale, 62
+
+     Genealogical Tables, 37, 128
+
+     Historical Sense, The, 17
+
+     History and Art, 45
+       "      "  Chronology, 47
+       "      "  Composition, 26, 46
+       "      "  Constructive Work, 44, 67
+       "      "  Geography, 40, 108
+       "      "  Literature, 41
+       "      "  Oral Reading, 26
+       "      "  Science, 43, 119
+
+     How to Make History Real, 34
+
+     Illustrative Lessons, 60
+       Type Lesson in the Story Stage, 60
+       First Thanksgiving, The, 61
+       Florence Nightingale, 62
+       Postmaster, 65
+       Capture of Quebec, The, 66
+       Coming of the United Empire Loyalists, The, 67
+       Flag, The, 68
+       Suggestions for Empire Day, 75
+       Egerton Ryerson, 78
+       The Intercolonial Railway, 82
+       The Industrial Revolution, 87
+       The Road to Cathay, 92
+       The Armada, 97
+       The Feudal System, 100
+       Seigniorial Tenure, 103
+       Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107
+       Influence of Geographical Conditions on History, 108
+       The St. Lawrence River, 112
+       Relations Between England and Scotland, 114
+       Analysis of Secs. 160-170 in Ontario P.S. History of England, 116
+       Outlines for Reviews, 118
+       The Development of Civilization, 119
+       The New Learning, 121
+       The Fight for Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124
+
+     Importance of Facts in History, 19
+
+     Industrial Revolution, The, 87
+
+     Influence of Geography on History, 108, 110
+
+     Information Stage, The, 18
+
+     Interest, 16, 19, 34, 38, 44, 58, 78
+
+     Intercolonial Railway, The, 82
+
+     Inventions and History, 43, 87, 119
+
+     Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143
+
+     Local Material, 51
+
+     Maps, 35, 40, 68, 127
+
+     Memorizing History, 38
+
+     Methods for Forms I and II, 25
+
+        "     "  Form III, 26
+
+        "     "  Form IV, 28, 78
+
+     Moral Value of History, 14, 28, 53
+
+     Museums, 128
+
+     New Learning, The, 121
+
+     Newspapers, 49
+
+     Note-books, 31, 129
+
+     Oral Method, The, 23, 25, 27, 28, 34, 58, 60, 62, 64
+
+     Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137
+
+     Patriotism, 13
+
+     Pictures, 35, 45, 127
+
+     Postmaster, 65
+
+     Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68, 76, 78, 83, 119
+
+     Reflective Stage, 18
+
+     Regressive Method, 22
+
+     Relations of England and Scotland, 114
+
+     Reviews, 23, 31, 39, 92, 112, 118
+
+     Road to Cathay, 92
+
+     Ryerson, Egerton, 78
+
+     Scope of Study, 15
+
+     Seigniorial Tenure, 103
+
+     Source Books, 37, 128, 143
+
+     Spanish Armada, 97
+
+     St. Lawrence River, 112
+
+     St. Valentine, 138
+
+     Stages of Study, 15
+
+     Story Stage, 15
+
+     Story Telling, 1, 15, 17
+
+     Taxation, 11, 55, 56, 57
+
+     Teacher of History, 57
+
+     Text-book Method, 24
+
+     Topical Analysis, 21, 78, 87, 97, 107, 114, 116, 124
+
+     Topical Method, 21
+
+     Training in the Use of the Text-book, 29
+
+     United Empire Loyalists, 67
+
+     Union Jack, 68, 74
+
+     Use of Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68,
+       76, 78, 83, 119
+
+     Where to Begin the Study of History, 19
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History
+by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: HISTORY ***
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