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diff --git a/17268.txt b/17268.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8a5be77 --- /dev/null +++ b/17268.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5664 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History +by Ontario Ministry of Education + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History + +Author: Ontario Ministry of Education + +Release Date: December 9, 2005 [EBook #17268] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + +ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS + +HISTORY + + +AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION + +TORONTO +THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED + +COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + +PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY 1 + +CHAPTER I +THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY 13 + +CHAPTER II +GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 21 + +CHAPTER III +CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS 40 + +CHAPTER IV +SPECIAL TOPICS 49 + Current Events 49 + Local Material 51 + Civics 52 + The Teacher of History 57 + +CHAPTER V +ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 60 + Forms I and II 60 + Form II 62 + Form III 66 + Forms III and IV 75 + Form IV 78 + For Teachers' Reference 119 + +DEVICES 127 + +BIBLIOGRAPHY 130 + +APPENDIX 136 + + + + +MANUAL OF SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS OF HISTORY + + + + +PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY + + +DETAILS + +The course in literature and composition includes the telling by the +teacher of suitable stories from the Bible, stories of primitive +peoples, of child life in other lands, of famous persons and peoples; +and the oral reproduction of these stories by the pupils. In this way +history, literature, and composition are combined. + + For Method in telling stories, consult _How to Tell Stories to + Children_, by Sara Cone Bryant, Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston, + $1.00. + + + + +FORM I + + +BIBLE STORIES: + +Moses in the Bulrushes, his Childhood, the Burning Bush, the Crossing of +the Red Sea, the Tables of Stone; Joseph's Boyhood Dreams, Joseph sold +into Egypt, the Famine, the Visits of his Brethren; David and Goliath; +Samson. + +STORIES OF CHILD LIFE: + +The Eskimo Girl, the Andean Girl, the Arabian Girl, the Little Syrian +Girl, the Swiss Girl, the Chinese Girl, the African Girl, the German +Girl, the Canadian Girl; the Little Red Child, the Little White Child, +the Little Black Child, the Little Yellow Child, the Little Brown Child. + + Consult _The Seven Little Sisters_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co., + Boston, 50c.; _The Little Cousin Series_, by Mary Hazelton Wade, + The Page Co., Boston, 60c. each; _Five Little Strangers_, Julia + Augusta Schwarz, American Book Co., New York; _Each and All_, Jane + Andrews (sequel to _The Seven Little Sisters_), 50 cents. + +SPECIAL DAYS: + +Christmas: The Birth of Christ, the First Christmas Tree (see Appendix); +Arbor Day; Constructive work suggested by St. Valentine's Day and +Thanksgiving Day; Stories of these Days. + + NOTE: Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to + teach obedience to authority and respect for the property and + rights of others. + + + + +FORM II + + +BIBLE STORIES: + +Abraham and Lot, Joshua, David and Jonathan, David and Saul, Ruth and +Naomi, Daniel, Miriam and Moses, Abraham and Isaac, Boyhood of Christ, +the Shipwreck of St. Paul. + +STORIES OF CHILD LIFE: + +The Aryan Boy, the Persian Boy, the Greek Boy, the Roman Boy, the Saxon +Boy, the Page Boy, the English Boy, the Puritan Boy, the Canadian Boy of +To-day, Child Life in Canada (_a_) in the early days, (_b_) to-day on +the farm and in the city or town; occupations, games, and plays, etc. + + Consult _Ten Little Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago till + Now_, by Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co., 50c. + +STORIES OF FAMOUS PEOPLE: + +Boadicea, Alfred, Harold, First Prince of Wales, Sir Francis Drake, Sir +Walter Raleigh, Columbus, Cabot, Cartier, Champlain, Madeleine de +Vercheres, Pontiac, Brock, Laura Secord, Florence Nightingale. + + Consult _The Story of the British People_, Thomas Nelson & Sons, + Toronto, 35c. (For Florence Nightingale, see Appendix.) + +PIONEER LIFE: + +In Ancient Britain: See _Second Reader_, p. 109; _Ontario Public School +History of England_, p. 10. + +In Roman Britain: See _The Story of The British People_, pp. 18-24. + +Old English Life: See _Third Reader_, p. 325; _Ontario High School +History of England_, pp. 33-40. + +At the Close of the French Period in Canada: See _Fourth Reader_, p. 65. + +In Upper Canada in the "Thirties": See _Fourth Reader_, p. 122. + +Our Forefathers: Where they lived before coming here, how they got here, +hardships in travel, condition of the country at that time, how they +cleared the land, their homes, their difficulties, danger from wild +animals, the natives of the country, modes of travel, implements and +tools, etc. + + Consult _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada_, + Briggs, $2.00; _Ontario High School History of Canada_. + +INVENTORS: + +Watt, Stephenson, Fulton, Bell, Edison, Marconi. + +CIVICS: + +Elementary lessons in local government: + +(_a_) In cities, towns, and incorporated villages--the postmaster, (see +Illustrative Lesson, p. 65), the postman and policeman; city or town +hall, post-office, mail boxes, school-houses. + +(_b_) For rural districts--postmaster, trustees, roads and bridges, +rural mail delivery. + +SPECIAL DAYS: + +Empire Day, Victoria Day, Dominion Day; local occasions such as Fair +Day, Election Day; review of those Days taken in Form I. + + + + +FORMS III AND IV + + +PRELIMINARY NOTE + +Below are the topics and sub-topics of the Course in History for Forms +III and IV. + +In dealing with the subject in both Forms, the teacher should keep +constantly in mind the chief aims suited to this stage of the pupil's +development. (See pp. 16, 17.) The most vital of these is "to create and +foster a liking for historical study." The teacher should make use of +simple map drawing to illustrate the subject. This is especially +necessary in dealing with the history of Canada. There should be much +illustration by means of maps and pictures. See Educational Pamphlet No. +4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_. + +The chapter numbers in the Course for Form III are those of the chapters +in _The Story of the British People_ prescribed for the Form. These +chapters should be carefully read and, in Form IV, the authorized +text-books should be followed for the main account. _Having regard to +the time available for the Course, only the most important details +should be taken up._ + + + + +FORM III + +JUNIOR GRADE + + +CANADIAN HISTORY + + Columbus--The Discovery of America (Chap. XX) + John Cabot and the New World (Chap. XXI) + Jacques Cartier (Chap. XXIII) + Raleigh and Gilbert (Chap. XXVI) + The Beginnings of Acadia (Chap. XXVII) + Champlain, the Father of New France (Chap. XXVIII) + The Pilgrim Fathers (Chap. XXIX) + The Jesuits in Canada (Chap. XXXI) + The Settlement of French Canada (Chap. XXXI) + La Salle (Chap. XXXIV) + Henry Hudson--New York and Hudson Bay (Chap. XXXV) + Frontenac (Chaps. XXXIV, XXXVII) + The Conquest of Canada--Wolfe and Montcalm, Pontiac (Chap. XLI) + The Coming of the Loyalists (Chap. XLII) + How Canada Fought for the Empire (Chap. XLIV) + William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XLVI) + The Great North-West--Selkirk, Mackenzie, Strathcona, Riel + (Chap. XLVII) + Canada and the Empire--Royal Visitors (Chap. L) + + + + +FORM III + +SENIOR GRADE + + +BRITISH HISTORY + + The First Britons (Chap. I) + The Coming of the Romans (Chap. II) + A Day in Roman Britain (Chap. III) + The Coming of the English (Chap. IV) + The Coming of Christianity (Chap. V) + The Vikings (Chap. VI) + Alfred the Great (Chap. VII) + Rivals for a Throne (Chap. VIII) + The Coming of the Normans (Chap. IX) + A Norman Castle (Chap. X) + A Glance at Scotland (Chap. XI) + Henry the Second and Ireland (Chap. XII) + Richard the Lion Heart (Chap. XIII) + King John and the Great Charter (Chap. XIV) + The First Prince of Wales (Chap. XV) + Wallace and Bruce (Chaps. XVI, XVII) + The Black Prince (Chap. XVIII) + The Father of the British Navy (Chap. XXII) + The New Worship (Chap. XXIV) + Francis Drake, Sea-dog (Chap. XXV) + King Charles the First (Chap. XXX) + The Rule of Cromwell (Chap. XXXII) + The King Enjoys his Own again (Chap. XXXIII) + The Revolution and After (Chap. XXXVI) + The Greatest Soldier of his Time (Chap. XXXVIII) + Bonnie Prince Charlie (Chap. XXXIX) + Robert Clive, the Daring in War (Chap. XL) + The Terror of Europe (Chap. XLIII) + Waterloo (Chap. XLV) + Victoria the Good (Chaps. XLVI, XLVIII, XLIX) + +CIVICS + +Review of the work in Form II; election of town or township council; +taxes--the money people pay to keep up schools and roads, etc.; how +local taxes are levied for the support of the school; election of +members of County Council, of members of Provincial Legislature; duties +of citizenship. + + + + +FORM IV + +JUNIOR GRADE + + +CANADIAN HISTORY + +Before the British Conquest--an introductory account: + +The French settlements: Extent, life of the seignior, habitant, and +coureur de bois; system of trade; government at Quebec--governor, +bishop, intendant; territorial claims (Chaps. VII, VIII, IX, XI) + +The English settlements--Hudson's Bay Company, English colonies in New +York, New England, Acadia, and Newfoundland; population, life, trade, +government, territorial claims (Chaps. VIII, X, XI) + +British Conquest of New France--fall of Quebec (Chap. XI) + +Conspiracy of Pontiac (Chap. XII) + +Quebec Act (Chap. XII) + +Canada and the American Revolution; U.E. Loyalists (Chaps. XIII, XV) + +Constitutional Act--Representative Government (Chap. XIV) + +Social Conditions, 1763-1812 (Chap. XV) + +Hudson's Bay Company (Chaps. VIII, XVI, XXI) + +North-West Company (Chap. XVI) + +Exploration in North-West--Hearne, Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson (Chap. +XVI) + +War of 1812-14 (Chap. XVII) + +Family Compact (Chap. XVII) + +Clergy Reserves (Chap. XVII) + +William Lyon Mackenzie (Chap. XVII) + +Lord Durham, Act of Union, 1840--Responsible Government (Chap. XVIII) + +Social Progress, 1812-1841 (Chap. XIX) + +Settlement of the North-West--Selkirk (Chaps. XVI, XX) + +Confederation of the Provinces, 1867 (Chap. XXII) + +Intercolonial Railway (Chap. XXIV) + +Expansion of the Dominion by addition of new provinces (Chap. XXII) + +Social Progress, 1841-1867 (Chap. XXIII) + +Canadian Pacific Railway (Chap. XXIV) + +Riel Rebellion (Chap. XXIV) + +Disputes between Canada and the United States since 1814 settled by +treaty or arbitration. The Hundred Years of Peace + +Canada, at the opening of the twentieth century; transportation, +industry, means of defence, education (Chap. XXV) + +Ontario since Confederation: John Sandfield Macdonald, Sir Oliver Mowat, +Arthur Sturgis Hardy, Sir George W. Ross, Sir James P. Whitney (Chap. +XXVI) + +An account of how Canada is governed, simple and concrete and as far as +possible related to the experience of the pupils; Municipal Government, +Provincial Government, Federal Government (Chap. XXVII) + + + + +FORM IV + +SENIOR GRADE + + +BRITISH HISTORY + +A + +_A Course of about Two Months_ + + +The Early Inhabitants--The Britons + +The Coming of the Romans + +The Coming of the Saxons + +The Coming of Christianity + +Alfred the Great + +The Coming of the Normans--The Feudal System + +Richard I and the Crusaders + +John and Magna Charta + +The Scottish War of Independence + +The Hundred Years' War--Crecy, Agincourt, Joan of Arc. + +The Wars of the Roses (no lists of battles or details of fighting) + +Caxton and Printing + +Separation between the English Church and Rome + + +B + +_A Course of about Eight Months_ + + +Brief account of the British Isles, territorial, political, and +religious, as an introduction to the reign of Elizabeth. + +Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots; the Spanish Armada; Drake, Hawkins, +Gilbert, Raleigh, Shakespeare. + +The Stuarts: "Divine Right of Kings" supported by majority of gentry and +landowners (cavaliers), opposed by the commercial and trading classes +and yeomen (roundheads). The Kings strove for absolute power, the +Parliament for constitutional government. + +James I: Union of the English and Scottish Crowns. + +Charles I: Struggle between King and Parliament; Petition of Right, Ship +Money, rebellion, execution of Charles. + +Commonwealth: nominally a republic, really a dictatorship under +Cromwell. He gave Britain a strong government at home, and made her +respected abroad, and laid the foundations of Britain's foreign trade +and colonial empire. + +Charles II: The Restoration: Reaction in state, church, and society; +King striving for absolute power; Nonconformists persecuted; society +profligate in its revolt against the strictness of Puritanism; Habeas +Corpus Act; Test Act; Plague and Great Fire. + +James II: Revolution of 1688, the death-knell of "divine right"; +Parliament supreme; Declaration of Rights. + +William and Mary: Party government--Whigs and Tories; King to act by +advice of his ministers; each parliament limited to three years; Bill of +Rights; Act of Settlement. + +Anne: Marlborough; Union between England and Scotland, 1707; the +Jacobites, 1715 and 1745. + +George II: Walpole, the great peace minister--home and colonial trade +fostered and material wealth of the nation greatly increased; Pitt, the +great war minister; territorial expansion in Canada and India--Wolfe, +Clive; the Methodist Movement, Wesley. + +George III: The American Revolution, 1776-83: loss of the American +Colonies; Pitt; Washington; acquisition of Australia by Great Britain, +1788; legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, 1801; Napoleonic +wars; Nelson, Wellington, Aboukir, Trafalgar, and Waterloo; industrial +revolution--the change from an agricultural to an industrial country. + +William IV: Reform Act of 1832, a great forward movement in democratic +government; abolition of slavery, 1833; railways and steamships. + +Victoria: First British settlement in New Zealand, 1839; Repeal of the +Corn Laws, 1846--free trade, the commercial policy of England; +Elementary Education Act, 1870, education compulsory; parliamentary +franchise extended--vote by ballot; Crimean war; Indian Mutiny; Egypt +and the Suez Canal; Boer War--Orange Free State and South African +Republic annexed; social progress. + +Edward VII: Irish Land Act of 1903; pensions for aged labourers; King +Edward, "the Peace-maker." + + +CIVICS + +Taxation--direct and indirect; how the revenue of the Dominion, +provinces, and municipalities, respectively, is collected. + +Federal Government--Governor-general, Senate, House of Commons, Premier, +Cabinet. + +Imperial Government--King, House of Lords, House of Commons, Premier, +Cabinet. + + + + +HISTORY + +CHAPTER I + +THE AIMS AND STAGES OF STUDY + + +AIMS + +History may be made, in several ways, an important factor in forming +intelligent, patriotic citizens: + +(_a_) It must be remembered that society, with all its institutions, is +a growth, not a sudden creation. It follows that, if we wish to +understand the present and to use that knowledge as a guide to future +action, we must know the story of how our present institutions and +conditions have come to be what they are; we must know the ideals of our +forefathers, the means they took to realize them, and to what extent +they succeeded. It is only in this way that we become capable of passing +judgment, as citizens, on what is proposed by political and social +reformers, and thus justify and guarantee our existence as a democracy. + +(_b_) Patriotism, which depends largely on the associations formed in +childhood, is intensified by learning how our forefathers fought and +laboured and suffered to obtain all that we now value most in our homes +and social life. The courage with which the early settlers of Upper +Canada faced their tremendous labours and hardships should make us +appreciate our inheritance in the Ontario of to-day, and determine, as +they did, to leave our country better than we found it. + + To-morrow yet would reap to-day, + As we bear blossom of the dead. + +(_c_) "History teaches that right and wrong are real distinctions." The +study of history, especially in the sphere of biography, has a moral +value, and much may be done, even in the primary classes, to inspire +children to admire the heroic and the self-sacrificing, and to despise +the treacherous and the self-seeking. The constant struggle to right +what is wrong in the world may be emphasized in the senior classes to +show that nothing is ever settled until it is settled right. + +(_d_) History affords specially good exercise for the judgment we use in +everyday life in weighing evidence and balancing probabilities. Such a +question as "Did Champlain do right in taking the side of the Hurons +against the Iroquois, or even in taking sides at all?" may be suggested +to the older pupils for consideration. + +(_e_) History, when taught by a broad-minded, well-informed teacher, may +do much to correct the prejudices--social, political, religious--of +individuals and communities. + +(_f_) The imagination is exercised in the effort to recall or +reconstruct the scenes of the past and in discovering relations of cause +and effect. + +(_g_) The memory is aided and stimulated by the increase in the number +of the centres of interest round which facts, both new and old, may be +grouped. + +(_h_) A knowledge of the facts and inferences of history is invaluable +for general reading and culture. + +To sum up: It is important that the good citizen should know his +physical environment; it is just as important for him "to know his +social and political environment, to have some appreciation of the +nature of the state and society, some sense of the duties and +responsibilities of citizenship, some capacity in dealing with political +and governmental questions, something of the broad and tolerant spirit +which is bred by the study of past times and conditions." + + +SCOPE + +The ideal course in history would include (1) a general view of the +history of the world, giving the pupil knowledge enough to provide the +proper setting for the history of his own country; (2) a more detailed +knowledge of the whole history of his own country; (3) and a special +knowledge of certain outstanding periods or tendencies in that history. +In our schools, we should give most attention to the study of Canadian +and British history as a whole, to enough of the history of France +and other countries to make clear certain parts of our own history, +and to certain important periods, such as the settlement of Upper +Canada by the United Empire Loyalists, etc. (See Detailed Course of +Study, p. 5.) We may also study our history along special lines of +development--political, military, social, educational, religious, +industrial, and commercial--but these phases are subjects of study +rather for secondary schools and colleges. + + +STAGES OF STUDY + +There are three stages in the study of history which, though they +overlap each other, yet indicate different methods of treatment for +pupils at different ages. They are the Story stage, the Information +stage, and the Reflective stage. These stages are not exclusive, nor do +they coincide with the first three Forms in the schools. + + +THE STORY STAGE + +This stage is suitable for children in the primary grades and is chiefly +preparatory to the real study of history in the higher grades. The need +for this stage lies in the fact that the child's "ideas are of the +pictorial rather than of the abstract order"; yet his spontaneous +interest in these things must be made to serve "as a stepping-stone to +the acquired interests of civilized life." The definite objects at this +stage are: + +(_a_) To create and foster a liking for historical study. It is +impossible, in the public school life of a child, which is usually ended +at the age of twelve to fourteen years, to accomplish all that has been +indicated above concerning the aims of history teaching. The most that +can be done is to lay the foundation and give the pupil a desire to +continue his reading after his school days are over. Serious blame rests +on the teacher whose methods of teaching history, instead of attracting +the child to the subject, give him a distaste for it. If history is made +real and living to children, it is usually not difficult to have them +like it. (For suggestions, see p. 34.) + +(_b_) To acquaint the pupils with some of the important historical +persons. We wish to take advantage of the fact that "the primitive form +of attention which is captured at once by objects that strike the senses +is giving place in some degree to appreciative attention, which is +yielded to things that connect themselves with what we already know, and +which implies ability to adopt the reflective attitude towards a +proposed problem."[A] Now children are more interested in people than in +institutions or events; and, if we can give them a knowledge of some of +the striking incidents in the lives of important characters in history, +we may expect them to be more interested in the study of history at a +later period, because they will frequently meet with these familiar +names. The emphasis at this stage is therefore on biography. + +[Footnote A: Raymont: _Principles of Education_] + +(_c_) To help the development of the "historical sense." The "historical +sense" includes the notion of time, the notion of a social unit and, +according to some, the notion of cause and effect. The notion of time +implies the power "to represent the past as if it were present"--that +is, the power to enter into the thoughts and feelings of people of the +past as if we were living amongst them. This notion of time comes at +different ages; to some early, to others very late. It came to Professor +Shaler at the age of about eight or nine years, as the direct result of +vivid story-telling: + + Of all the folk who were about me, the survivors of the Indian wars + were the most interesting. There were several of these old + clapper-clawed fellows still living, with their more or less + apocryphal tales of adventures they had heard of or shared. There + was current a tradition--I have seen it in print--that there had + been a fight between the Indians and whites where the government + barracks stood, and that two wounded whites had been left upon the + ground, where they were not found by the savages. One of these had + both arms broken, the other was similarly disabled as to his legs. + It was told that they managed to subsist by combining their limited + resources. The man with sound legs drove game up within range of + the other cripple's gun, and as the turkeys or rabbits fell, he + kicked them within reach of his hands, and in like manner provided + him with sticks for their fire. This legend, much elaborated in the + telling, gave me, I believe at about my eighth year, my first sense + of a historic past, and it led to much in the way of fanciful + invention of like tales. (N.F. Shaler: _Autobiography_, Chap. I.) + +The best means at the teacher's command to assist its coming is to tell +good stories from history with all the skill he has; the stories need +not be told in chronological order. The notion of time implies also in +the older pupils the power to place events in chronological order. + +The notion of a social unit is also of slow growth and must spring from +the child's conception of the social units he belongs to--the home, the +school, the community. + +The notion of cause and effect does not belong so wholly to the study of +history as the notions of time and of the social unit; it is surprising, +however, how soon it makes its appearance in the child's conceptions of +history, in his desire to know the "why" of things. (See Barnes' +_Studies in Historical Method_.) + + +THE INFORMATION STAGE + +There are several questions that children soon come to ask: "When?" and +"Where?" "What?" and "Who?" This stage may be said to begin in earnest +with the Second Form, and it continues through the whole course. One of +the essential elements in history study is to have a knowledge of the +important facts of history, without which there can be no inferences of +value for present use. The all-important point in this teaching of facts +is to keep the lessons interesting and not allow them to become mere +lifeless memorizing of isolated happenings; for a fact is of value only +when related to other facts. (See pp. 36, 38.) + + +THE REFLECTIVE STAGE + +This stage naturally follows the Information stage, as one must acquire +facts before reflecting on them in order to draw inferences. But +reflection of a simple kind may begin as soon as any facts are given +that will show the relations of cause and effect. The question for the +pupil here is "Why?" just as in the preceding stage the questions were +"When?" and "Where?" "What?" and "Who?" Information and reflection may +therefore be combined--with due regard to the pupil's capacity. + + +PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES + +We may speak of two difficulties. The first concerns the enormous amount +of historical material that exists. It is increased still more by the +intermingling of legend with history and by the partial narratives of +prejudiced writers. The legendary part may be taken up in the Story +stage; and the evils of one-sided accounts are often balanced by the +greater vigour and interest of the narrative, as in Macaulay's writings. +The difficulty connected with the great amount of material can be solved +by the selection (already largely made by the text-books) of the more +important parts, that is, those facts of history that have the greatest +influence on after times--"the points of vital growth and large +connection" without which subsequent history cannot be properly +understood. + +The second difficulty has to do with deciding where to begin the +teaching of history. There are two principles of teaching that will help +to solve this difficulty: (1) The child learns by relating everything +new to his present fund of experiences; (2) A child's notions grow more +complex as his knowledge increases. To apply these, we must know the +child's experiences and his present notions. We cannot assume that the +present conditions of social life are known to the child through his +experiences. Our social life is also too complex to be understood by him +yet; he can understand an _individual_ hero better than he can the +complex idea of a _nation_. How many children would be able to begin a +study of history by having, as one writer suggests, "a short series of +lessons ... to make some simple and fundamental historical ideas +intelligible--a state, a nation, a dynasty, a monarch, a parliament, +legislation, the administration of justice, taxes, civil and foreign +war!" These are ideas far beyond the comprehension of the beginner. We +must be guided, not by "what happens to be near the child in time and +place, but by what lies near his interests." As Professor Bourne says: +"it may be that mediaeval man, because his characteristics belong to a +simple type, is closer to the experience of a child than many a later +hero." With older children it is more likely to be true that the life of +history lies "in its personal connections with what is here and now and +still alive with us"; with historic places and relics, etc., which make +their appeal first through the senses; with institutions, such as trial +by jury; with anniversaries and celebrations of great events which may +be used to arouse interest in the history which they suggest and recall. + +However, as McMurry points out, we are in a peculiarly favourable +position in Canada, because we have in our own history, in the +comparatively short time of 400 years, the development of a free and +prosperous country from a state of wildness and savagery. The early +stages of our history present those elements of life that appeal +strongly to children--namely, Indians with all their ways of living and +fighting, and the early settlers with their simpler problems and +difficulties. The development of this simpler life to the more complex +life of the present can be more readily understood by children as they +follow up the changes that have taken place. (See McMurry, _Special +Method in History_, pp. 26-30.) Of course, at every step appeal must be +made to the experiences of children, as the teacher knows them. In +Civics, however, the beginning must be made with conditions that exist +to-day--schools, taxes, the policeman, the postmaster, etc. The +beginning of the real teaching of history may then be made at the +beginning of Canadian History, as this will enable the child to go +gradually from the simple, or individual, to the complex, and will also +allow the teacher to make use of whatever historical remains may be +within reach. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +GENERAL METHODS IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY + + +There are many methods used in the teaching of history. A brief +description of the principal ones is given for reference merely, since +their best features are incorporated in a combination of methods, which +is strongly recommended to teachers, and is described fully in +succeeding pages. + + +1. _Methods based on the arrangement and selection of the matter_: +Chronological, Topical + + +THE CHRONOLOGICAL METHOD + +The matter is chosen according to the "time" order, beginning at the +first of the history, and the events are taught in the order of +occurrence without any marked emphasis on their importance, or without +considering whether a knowledge of the event is useful or interesting to +the class at this stage. Such an arrangement of matter is more suitable +when the formal study of history is begun. + + +THE TOPICAL METHOD + +In studying a certain period of history the events are arranged under +topics or heads; for example, the period of discovery in Canadian +History may be arranged thus--Discoveries, Explorations, Early +Settlements, Indian Wars--and the study of each of these pursued to +completion, contemporary events belonging to other topics being +neglected for a time. + +Events having the same underlying purpose, though occurring in different +periods, may be arranged under one topic for review; for example, all +the voyages of discovery to America may be grouped under the topic, "The +Road to Cathay." (See p. 92.) In this way a comprehensive knowledge is +gained. This method gives a full treatment of each topic and may be used +to best advantage in connection with reviews in junior classes and +occasionally as a text-book or library exercise in senior classes. + + +2. _Methods based on the treatment of historical facts_: Comparative, +Regressive, Concentric + + +THE COMPARATIVE METHOD + +By this method a comparison is made between two events, two biographies, +two reigns, etc., a very useful device when applied in connection with +other methods. + + +THE REGRESSIVE METHOD + +In this method the pupil is expected to begin with the present and work +backward; that is, to begin with institutions as they are to-day and to +work back through the various steps in their progress to their present +state. This method may be followed most profitably in advanced classes. +In junior classes it is sufficient to refer to things as they exist +to-day in order to arouse curiosity regarding the facts of history that +are to be taught; for example, by the use of local material; by a visit +to some place of historical interest to prepare for the story of what +has occurred there in the past. (See p. 112.) + + +THE CONCENTRIC METHOD + +This method, which is much used, deals in ever widening circles with the +same topic or event; for example, a simple story of Champlain's life +and voyages to Canada is told to Form II; the same story is considered +again in Form III, but this time the different voyages are noted, the +results of each investigated, and the whole summarized and memorized; +again, in Form IV, but this time by the topical and comparative methods, +where comparison is made of the purposes and achievements of the +explorer with those of other explorers--Jacques Cartier, La Salle, etc. +In this third discussion a full knowledge of Champlain's work is given. + +The excellence of this work lies in its review and repetition. The old +or former knowledge is recalled and used in each succeeding discussion +of the topic. The pupils grow gradually into fuller knowledge. + + +3. _Methods based on class procedure_: Oral, Text-book + + +THE ORAL METHOD + +This usually takes the form of an oral presentation of the story or +description of the event by the teacher, while the pupils listen and +afterwards reproduce what they have heard. The narration of the story is +accompanied by pictures, sketches, maps, etc., illustrative of persons, +places, and facts mentioned. It may also take the "development" form, in +which a combination of narrative and questioning is employed. (See pp. +66, 92.) + +The Lecture method of Colleges and Universities is an advanced oral +method. In this the teacher narrates and describes events, propounds +questions, and discusses and answers them himself, while the pupils +listen and during the lecture, or afterwards, make notes of what has +been heard. + + +THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD + +By this method the teacher assigns a lesson in the book and, after the +pupils have an opportunity to study it, he asks questions concerning the +facts learned. The exclusive use of this method results ordinarily in +dull, lifeless teaching, and with junior pupils will prevent their +enjoying, or receiving much benefit from, the study of history. There +are two reasons for the too general use of it--first, it is an easy +method for the teacher, and secondly, it is easy for the pupils to +memorize facts for the sole purpose of passing examinations. While this +criticism is true when an exclusive use is made of the text-book, the +same cannot be said when the text-book is used as an auxiliary to the +teacher. Following the oral presentation of the story, reference may be +made to the book for another version or for a fuller account and, in +Form IV, topics may be assigned and the pupils directed to consult the +text-book for the necessary information. (See pp. 26, 28.) + +The text-book should be one that does not show an abrupt change from the +story told by the teacher. It should not be merely a short outline of +the important facts in history, written separately and then pieced +together in chronological order, but should be written in a readable +form by one who is able to distinguish the important and necessary from +the unimportant and burdensome. It should have short summaries at the +ends of chapters or stories of events, so that a grasp of what has been +read may be easily obtained. It should also have many pictures, +illustrations, and maps, to take the place of the teacher's explanations +in the earlier stage. (On the use of the text-book, see p. 29.) + + +A COMBINATION OF THESE METHODS + +General Description.--As each of the above methods has its strong and +its weak points, we should attempt to combine the strong points into one +method, varied to keep pace with the mental development of the pupil, +and thus secure the best results. The general outline of such a +combination may be given as follows: The "oral story" is to be used in +the junior classes, with "development" problems presented where helpful; +in Form III the pupils should be introduced to the text-book (The +History Reader for Form III), besides being taught by the oral method; +in Form IV, the oral method is still to be the chief means used by the +teacher, who will now, however, pay more attention to the arrangement of +the matter (for example, in topical outlines), to accustom the pupils to +grasp more thoroughly the relations of cause and effect in history. The +topics of history will also be taken up more exhaustively than in the +junior classes, and the pupils must have more practice in acquiring +knowledge from the text-books. + + +DETAILS OF METHOD + + +FORMS I, II + +In Forms I and II, the pupils are accustomed to the oral reproduction of +stories told by the teacher. In these should be included a good many +historical stories, such as those suggested in the Course of Study in +History for these Forms; they will serve the usual purposes of oral +reproduction work for composition and literature, and will be, besides, +a good foundation for the study of history in the higher forms. (For +objects of the Story stage, see p. 16.) + +The oral presentation of a story or description of an event requires a +certain degree of skill on the part of a teacher--skill in +story-telling, in grasping the important parts of the story or +description, in knowing what details to omit as well as what to narrate, +in explaining the story in a way that will make it real to the pupils, +in preparing pictures and sketches to illustrate the different parts, +and in questioning so that the minds of the pupils will be active as +well as receptive. The care and time necessary to secure this skill will +be well repaid by the interest aroused in history, by the appreciation +of the thoughts thus presented, and by the lasting impressions conveyed. +Simple, clear language should be employed, not necessarily small words, +but words whose meaning is made clear by the context or illustration. +(For material for these Forms, see Bibliography, C, p. 132.) + +When the whole story is told, revision may be made by having the pupils +reproduce it after suitable questioning, either immediately or at some +future time. Exercises in reproduction may also be given, for either +seat work or class work, in constructive or art work; for example, after +the story of the North American Indians, the pupils may be asked to +construct a wigwam, a canoe, a bow and arrow, or to make pictures of +Indians, of their houses, of their dress, etc. + +Further exercise in composition may also be given by having the pupils +write the story. To each pupil may be assigned a special part; for +example, the story of Moses may be divided thus: (1) As a babe; (2) His +adoption by the Princess; (3) His life at the palace; (4) His flight to +Midian; (5) The Burning Bush, etc. The whole story is then reproduced by +having these parts read aloud in a reading lesson. + + +FORM III + +The value of the oral work done in Forms I and II will be realized by +the teacher when the real study of history is begun in Forms III and +IV. The pupils have a liking for the stories of history and have a +knowledge of some of the leading actors and of the chief events in +history that calls for more complete satisfaction. + +There are several methods of using the History Reader which is the basis +of the work in Form III. Perhaps the best method is to continue to make +oral teaching the chief feature, and to add to that the use by the +pupils, in various ways, of the History Reader. + +For example, the teacher will tell the story of Jacques Cartier, +following in the main the narrative as given in the History Reader. It +is well, however, not to follow it too closely in order that, when the +pupils come to read the story in the book for themselves, they will find +it an interesting combination of the familiar and the new. For that +reason, it will be necessary for the teacher to have prepared the story +from a somewhat different narrative in some other book at her command. +In the telling of the story, problems may be asked, if thought advisable +(see p. 33); a few headings may be placed on the black-board for +subsequent reproduction, oral or written, by the pupils; all +difficulties of pronunciation, especially of proper names, should be +attended to, orally and on the black-board; the places mentioned should +be found on the map; pictures and sketches should be used; and in fact, +every possible means taken to make the narrative more real to the class. +(See p. 34.) + +When the oral teaching is finished, the pupils may have the books to +read at their desks, and they often ask permission to take them home. +They may sometimes be required to read aloud from the History Reader for +supplementary practice in oral reading. Reproduction by the pupils, +either immediately or in a subsequent lesson, should follow. Teachers, +however, are advised not to insist on too much written reproduction, as +that might very easily arouse a dislike for both history and written +composition. Procedure as outlined above has had most gratifying results +in the way of creating a liking for, and an intelligent interest in, the +study of history. + +Other methods have also had good results. The teacher may, instead of +telling the story, read aloud from the Reader to pave the way for the +reading of the story by the pupils themselves. Difficulties, either in +language or in meaning, may be taken up as in a literature lesson. The +pupils will at first find the reading somewhat difficult, but the +interest generated by the teacher's reading or oral narrative will carry +them through that stage till they acquire a love for reading history, +and have enlarged their vocabulary till reading is no longer a +burdensome task. + +A taste of the more serious study of history may be given by asking the +pupils a few not very difficult questions that they can answer only by +combining facts contained in several stories. For example, in the +chapters selected for Form III, Junior Grade, the answer can be found to +a question about the explorers of Canada, the order of their visits, and +a comparison of their work; to another question about the expansion of +Canada from the little part of Quebec first visited to the whole of +British North America. + +It is unnecessary, perhaps, to add that the emphasis in Form III history +should be still very largely on biography, so as to influence the +forming of moral ideals by concrete examples. + + +FORM IV + +Although the pupils have now had some experience in the use of the +History Reader, yet that is no reason why oral teaching should be +discarded in Form IV history, any more than in arithmetic or geography. +It is scarcely a high estimate to have of history, to think that pupils +of this age can grasp even the simpler lines of development in history +without guidance from the teacher. Hence it is necessary for the +attainment of good results, that many of the lessons should be taught +orally before the pupils are asked to study their books. The aim of the +teaching should be not merely the acquisition of facts, but the welding +of them together in a sequence of cause and effect, and the pupils at +this stage can scarcely be expected to do that for themselves. + +In preparing for a lesson in Form IV history, the teacher should analyse +the incidents of the period to be studied, should see how certain causes +have led to certain results, and should be sure enough of the facts to +have little recourse to the text-book while teaching. It does not look +like fair play to expect a class to answer questions that the teacher +cannot answer without consulting the text. On the other hand, it is +refreshing to see the interest aroused in a class by a teacher who +thinks enough of the subject to be able to teach it without constant +reference to the text-book. Therefore, let the oral method be here again +the chief dependence of the teacher. In such a lesson, for example, as +that on the Intercolonial Railway (see p. 82) no book is needed--only +the map and the black-board. + + +TRAINING IN USE OF TEXT-BOOK + +However, as the pupils must learn, for their own profit in after years, +how to read history without a guiding hand, they need training in the +use of the text-book. The chief line on which such training may proceed +is to have the pupils search out the answers to definite questions. Any +one who has searched for material on a certain topic will appreciate +the good results that have come in the way of added knowledge and +increased interest. The topics at first should be quite simple, +gradually increasing in breadth. A few suggestions for such work are +given below; they may be called examination questions to be answered +with the help of the text-book: + + 1. Name, and tell something about, four of the explorers of Canada + before 1759. + + 2. Name several other explorers of the New World. + + 3. Which explorer did the most for Canada, Champlain or La Salle? + + 4. In what wars did the French fight against the Iroquois? With + what result? + + 5. What explorers of North America were trying to find a way to + China and India? (This investigation by the class may precede the + lesson on the "Road to Cathay." See p. 92.) + + 6. On what did English kings base their claim to be the overlords + of Scotland? Trace the dispute down to the Union of the Crowns in + 1603. + + 7. Find out how the slave trade was treated by the English. + + 8. Make a list of the early newspapers in Canada. Did they have + much influence on public opinion? + + 9. Compare the struggles for the control of taxation in Canada and + in the Thirteen Colonies of America. Explain why these were settled + differently in the two cases. + +With questions such as these for investigation, no pupil will be likely +to secure the full facts; each may state in the next lesson what he has +found, and the work of each will be supplemented by that of the others. +With succeeding investigations it may be expected that the pupils will +be more eager to get at all the facts in the text-book. At any rate they +are learning how to gather material from books--a very valuable +training, no matter how simple the topic is. + +When, in the ordinary course of work, lessons from the text-book are +assigned, the teacher should indicate the important points, should +suggest certain matters for discussion, and should note certain +questions to be answered, indicating precisely where the information may +be obtained. In the recitation period following, the topic should be +fully discussed, the pupils giving the information they have secured +from the text-book, and the teacher supplementing this from his +knowledge gained through wider reading. During the discussion an outline +should be made on the board, largely by the suggestions of the pupils, +and kept in their note-books for reference and review. (See p. 100, +Lesson on the Feudal System.) + + +DRILL AND REVIEW + +As has been already stated (p. 15), the Story stage is useful chiefly +for the purpose of arousing interest and developing the historical +sense; no drill or review is necessary other than the oral, and, in Form +II, sometimes the written, reproduction of the stories. The oral +reproduction can be obtained in Form I by using the stories as topics in +language lessons. + +In the Information stage, where we are concerned more with the acquiring +of facts, and in the Reflective stage, where we wish to relate facts to +each other according to cause and effect, drills and reviews are +necessary. During the lesson, a summary is placed on the black-board by +the teacher or pupil, as indicated above. It is used as a guide in oral +reproduction and may also be copied in special note-books and used for +reference when preparing for review lessons. The teacher may look over +these note-books occasionally. + +There is great difference of opinion on the value of note-taking by +pupils, but it may be said of such notes as those mentioned above that +they have the advantage of being largely the pupil's own work, +especially when the pupils are asked to suggest the headings; they are a +record of what has been decided in the class to be important points; +they are arranged in the order in which the subject has been treated in +the lesson, and are in every way superior to the small note-books in +history that are sometimes used as aids or helps. For the proper +teaching of history, the latter are hindrances rather than helps, +because they rob the pupil of the profit gained by doing the work for +himself. Notes obtained from books or dictated by the teacher are +harmful to the right spirit of study, and create a distaste for the +subject. + +Special review lessons should be taken when a series of lessons on one +topic, or on a series of connected topics, has been finished. At the +close of each lesson, the facts learned are fixed more firmly in the +mind by the usual drill; but there must be further organization of the +several lessons by a proper review, so that history will not be a number +of unconnected events, but will be seen as an orderly development. This +may be accomplished: (1) by questioning the class from a point of view +different from that taken in the first lessons, (2) by oral or written +expansion of a topical outline, (3) by illustrations with maps or +drawings, (4) by tracing the sequence of events backwards, (5) by +submitting some new situation that will recall the old knowledge in a +different way. It must be remembered that it is not a mere repetition +that we seek, but a _re-view_ of the facts, a new view that will prove +the power of the pupils to use the knowledge they have gained. Thus the +lesson on the St. Lawrence River (p. 112) is a good review of the facts +of history suggested by the places mentioned; the lesson on the Road to +Cathay (p. 92) may be considered a review of the chief explorers of +North America. Such a review aims at seeing new relations, at connecting +new knowledge and old, at "giving freshness and vividness to knowledge +that may be somewhat faded, at throwing a number of discrete facts into +a bird's-eye view." + + +THE USE OF PROBLEMS IN TEACHING HISTORY + +The development, or problem, method is intended to get the pupils to do +some independent thinking, instead of merely absorbing knowledge from +the teacher. The plan is simply to set clearly before the pupils the +conditions existing at a certain moment in the story so that they may +see for themselves the difficulties that the people in the story had to +overcome. The question for the class is: "What would you do in the +circumstances?" + +Let us take an example from the life of Ulysses. Ulysses had heard of +the Sirens, who sang so beautifully that any one in a passing ship who +heard them was impelled to throw himself overboard, with a frantic +desire to swim to their island. Naturally the swimmers were all drowned +in the attempt. Ulysses desired to hear for himself the wonderful +singing, and to experience, perhaps, its terrible effect; but he +certainly did not want to run any risk of drowning. Now, how did he +accomplish his desire, without paying the penalty? + +Again, in the story of Madeleine de Vercheres, the narrative may proceed +to the point where Madeleine has succeeded in securing the gates. She +finds herself in a weak fort with few to help her, and outside a +numerous band of Indians, who are kept at bay for a whole week, without +even attempting their usual night attacks. How did she do it? + +In the case of the U.E. Loyalists, the teacher may narrate the story to +the point where the Loyalists, after the treaty was signed, saw that +they must remove to Canada. The class must know where the Loyalist +centres in the New England States were. Now, what routes would they be +likely to take in going to Canada? With the map before them, the class +can usually tell the next part of the story themselves. + +Even if the pupil is not able to give the correct answer to the problem +submitted, he is nevertheless having an opportunity to exercise his +judgment, he can see wherein his judgment differs from that of the +persons concerned, his interest in their actions is increased, and the +whole story will be more deeply impressed on his memory. + + +HOW TO MAKE HISTORY REAL + +The chief difficulty in teaching history is to give a meaning to the +language of history. Much of the language is merely empty words. The +Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves mean just about as much to pupils +as _x_ does in algebra, and even when they give a definition or +description of these terms, it usually amounts to saying that _x_ equals +_y_; the definition is just as vague as the original terms. The problem +is to give the language more meaning, to ensure that the words give +mental pictures and ideas; in short, to turn the abstract into concrete +facts. + +Children can make their own only such knowledge as their experience +helps them to interpret. Their interests are in the present, and the +past appeals to them just so far as they can see in it their own +activities, thoughts, and feelings. The great aim of the teacher, then, +should be to help pupils to translate the facts of history into terms of +their own experiences; unless that is done, they are really not learning +anything. Some of the ways in which this may be attempted are outlined +below. + +1. In the junior classes where the children are intensely interested in +stories, the stress should be put on giving them _interesting personal +details_ about the famous people in history, details that they can +understand with their limited experiences of life, and that will appeal +to their emotions. These stories should be told to the pupils with such +vividness and animation that they will struggle with Columbus against a +mutinous crew, will help the early explorers to blaze their way through +the dense forests, will toil with the pioneers in making homes for +themselves in Canada, and will suffer with the missionaries in their +hardships and perils. + +For these pupils the oral method is the only one to use, for there is +nothing that appeals to children more quickly and with more reality than +what they _hear_ from the teacher. The oral method should find a large +place in the teaching of history in all the Forms. It may be added that +the teachers who use this method will find history become a more real +and interesting study to themselves. + +2. What the pupils hear should be reinforced by giving them something to +_see_. Whatever pictures are obtainable (see pp. 45, 127) should be used +freely at all stages, for the visual images of children are a powerful +aid to their understanding; it is for this reason that books for +children are now so fully illustrated, and the same principle should be +applied to the teaching of history. + +As soon as the children are ready for it, reference should be made to +maps to illustrate historical facts. (See p. 127.) They should see on +the map the course that Columbus took across the unknown sea; +Champlain's explorations become real when they are traced on the map and +the children have a concrete picture to carry away with them. In fact +the subjects of geography, art, and constructive work, treated under the +head of correlated subjects, are used in history with the aim of making +it real through the eye. (See pp. 40, 44, 45.) + +3. A greater difficulty presents itself when we have to deal, in the +higher Forms, with topics like the Magna Charta and the Clergy Reserves, +and it is a difficulty that will test to the full the resourcefulness +of the teacher. How can the preceding conditions and the terms of the +Magna Charta be brought home to a class? How can children be brought to +appreciate the difficulties connected with the question of Clergy +Reserves? A few words about the latter may suggest a means. + +Two aspects of the Clergy Reserves question stand out prominently, the +religious and the economic. The religious aspect will be the most +difficult for Ontario children, for they have no immediate knowledge of +what a State Church is--the point on which the religious dispute turned; +nor do they know enough about the government of the religious bodies to +which they belong to make the matter clear to them. A full understanding +must come later. The best point of approach seems to be to give the +class some idea of the number of settlers belonging to the churches of +England and of Scotland, which claimed the right to the lands reserved, +and compare with this the number of all other Protestant bodies that +claimed to share in them; for this difference in numbers was one of the +chief causes of bitterness. An arithmetical appeal is concrete. There +was also the economic aspect. The Clergy Reserves were one seventh of +the land in each township. Another seventh was withheld from free +settlement as Crown Lands. Now in some townships there were about 50,000 +acres. Let the class find out how many acres were thus kept from +settlement. Tell them that this land was not all in one block, but +distributed through the township. They can now be asked to consider how +this would interfere with close settlement and therefore with the +establishment of schools, churches, post-offices, mills, and stores. A +diagram of a township would be of great help. These two points will help +them to see why an early and fair settlement of the vexed question was +desired. Wherever possible, present problems for them to solve by their +own experiences. + +4. The reading to the class of accounts of events written by people +living at the time will give an atmosphere of reality and human interest +to the events. For example, a story of early pioneer days told by a +pioneer gives a personal element (see _Pioneer Days_, Kennedy); a letter +by Mary Queen of Scots, to Elizabeth (see p. 143), will make both of +these queens real living people, not mere names in history. (See +_Studies in the Teaching of History_, Keatinge, p. 97, also selections +from _The Sources of English History_, Colby, p. 163.) Not much of this +may be possible, but more use might easily be made of such materials, +especially with the early history of Ontario. + +5. The use of local history and of current events will be treated +elsewhere. (See pp. 49, 51.) + +6. When possible, let the pupils form their idea of an historical person +from his actions and words just as we form our estimate of each other, +instead of having them memorize mere summaries of his character before +they know his actions. + +7. Genealogical and chronological tables, written on the black-board and +discussed with the class, will be of service in understanding certain +periods, such as the Wars of the Roses, and in helping to form the +time-sense of pupils. (See Chronological Chart, p. 128.) + +8. Chief dependence must be placed, however, on increasing the pupil's +knowledge of present-day conditions in agriculture, commerce, +transportation, manufactures, in fact, in all social, economic, and +political conditions, in order to enable him by comparison to realize +earlier methods and ways of living. The pupil who understands best how +we do things to-day can understand best the state of affairs when people +had to depend on primitive methods, and can realize how they would +strive to make things better. + + +ON MEMORIZING HISTORY + +History is usually called a "memory" subject, and is accordingly often +taught as a mere memorizing of facts, names, and dates. The following +statement of the chief principles of memorizing will, it is hoped, put +mere verbal repetition in its proper place. Interest is the chief +condition for teaching history in the public schools, in order that the +pupils may acquire a liking for the subject that will tempt them to +pursue their reading in after years; without that interest, the small +amount of historical fact they can accumulate in their school-days will +be of little real value to them when they become full-fledged citizens. +In fact, through this emphasis on interest instead of verbal repetition, +the pupils are likely to obtain a better knowledge of history and, at +the same time, will have a chance to develop, in no slight degree, their +powers of judgment. + +1. Memory depends on attention; we must observe attentively what we wish +to remember. In history, attention may be secured by making the lessons +interesting through the skill of the teacher in presenting the matter +vividly to the pupils; also by using means to make history real instead +of having it a mere mass of meaningless words. (See p. 34.) + +2. Facts that we wish to remember should be grouped, or studied in +relation to other facts with which they are vitally connected. The facts +of history should be presented to the class in their relation of cause +and effect, or associated with some larger centre of interest; in other +words, pupils must understand, in some degree, what they are asked to +remember. (See pp. 92, 97.) + +3. If we increase the number of connections for facts, we are more +likely to remember them. It is largely for this reason that history +should be taught with correlated subjects, such as geography, +literature, science (inventions), etc. For example, the story of the +Spanish Armada is remembered better if we have read _Westward Ho!_ and +the story of the Renaissance is made clearer and is therefore remembered +better, if we connect with it the inventions of printing, gunpowder, and +the mariner's compass. (See p. 121.) + +4. Repetition is necessary to memory. Facts or groups of facts must be +repeated to be remembered. This is the purpose of the drills which are +necessary to good teaching, but are only a part of it. Reviews are not +to be considered merely as repetitions, but should be treated more as +aids to better understanding. (See p. 31.) + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS + + +HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY + +These subjects are very intimately related, and each should be used in +teaching the other. Geography, which is often called one of the "eyes of +history," may be used in the teaching of this subject in two ways. In +the first place, an account of an historical event lacks, to a certain +degree, reality in the minds of the pupils if they do not know something +of the place where it occurred. Accordingly, in studying or teaching +history, reference should be constantly made to the map to give a local +setting to the story. The voyage of Columbus, the operations of Wolfe, +the coming of the Loyalists, are made more real if they are traced out +on the map, and are therefore better understood and remembered by the +pupils. For this purpose, it is better, in most cases, to use an outline +map, which may be sketched on the black-board by the teacher or the +pupils, because on the ordinary wall maps there are so many names and so +much detail that the attention may be distracted. Many of the details on +the map are, moreover, more modern than the events that are to be +illustrated, so that wrong impressions may be given. + +In the second place, it must be kept constantly in mind that many events +in history have been influenced by the physical features of a country. +For example: the lack of a natural boundary between France and Germany +has led to many disputes between these countries; the fact of Great +Britain being an island accounts for many things in her history (see p. +108); the physical features of Quebec and Gibraltar explain the +importance of these places; and the waterways of Canada account for the +progress of early settlement. The climate and soil of a country affect +its history; treaties are often based on physical conditions, and trade +routes determined by them; a nation's commerce and wealth depend largely +on the character of its natural resources. + +Some easy problems may be given to the senior classes to be answered by +reference to physical conditions: + + Why are London, New York, Chicago, Montreal, and Halifax, such + important centres? Why are certain places fitted for certain + manufactures? Will Winnipeg become a more important city than + Montreal? Will Vancouver outstrip San Francisco? What is a possible + future for the Western Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan? What + might have been the state of North America to-day, if the Rocky + Mountains had run along the East coast, instead of along the West? + +On the other hand, history contributes a human interest to geography; +the places of greatest interest are often those associated with great +events in history--Athens, Mount Sinai, Waterloo, Queenston Heights. + + +HISTORY AND LITERATURE + +Literature gives life and human interest to both history and geography. +By means of literature we are able to get a better notion of the ideals +and motives of a people than the mere recital of the facts of their +history can give. In this connection we naturally think of Homer's +_Iliad_ and its influence on the Greeks. It was their storehouse of +history, morals, religion, aesthetics, and rules for the practical +guidance of life, as well as their literary masterpiece. + +It is often easy to interest pupils in a period of history by reading or +quoting to them some ballad, poem, or prose narrative that colours the +historical facts with the element of human feeling. Macaulay's +_Horatius_ gives a deeper impression of Roman patriotism than almost +anything in pure history can; the various aspects of the Crusades are +vividly shown by W. Stearns Davis in _God Wills It_, a story of the +first Crusade. In fact, if stirring events can be linked in the child's +mind with stirring verse, if the struggles and progress of nations can +be presented in a vigorous narrative that echoes the thoughts, feelings, +and interests of the time, we make an appeal to the interest of the +pupil that is almost irresistible. The objection is sometimes urged +against the reading of standard historical tales and novels, that these +are somewhat exaggerated in sentiment and inaccurate in facts. Even if +this be so, it may be said that they give in outline a fair picture of +the period described, that the interest in history aroused by such tales +begets a liking for history itself, and that such exaggerations and +inaccuracies are soon corrected when the pupil begins to read history. + +The course of history has been modified by songs, ballads, and stories. +The influence on the national spirit and ideals of songs such as _Rule +Britannia_ and _The Marseillaise_, of stories such as _Uncle Tom's +Cabin_, of novels such as those of Dickens and of Charles Reade is +incalculable. + +A few poems and prose compositions are given here as suggestions; a +fuller list may be found in Allen's _Reader's Guide to English History_, +Ginn & Co., 30c. + + Poems: _Boadicea_, Cowper; _Recessional_, Kipling; _Edinburgh After + Flodden_, Aytoun; _Hands All Round_, Tennyson; _Columbus_, Joaquin + Miller; _Waterloo_, Byron; _The Armada_, Macaulay; _The Revenge_, + Tennyson; _The Charge of the Light Brigade_, Tennyson. + + Prose: "United Empire Loyalists," Roberts' _History of Canada_, + Chap. XV; "Departure and Death of Nelson," Southey; _Montcalm and + Wolfe_, Parkman; "The Crusader and the Saracen," in Scott's _The + Talisman_; "The Heroine of Castle Dangerous," in _Stories of New + France_, Machar and Marquis; "Adam Daulac," in _Martyrs of New + France_, Herrington. + + +HISTORY AND SCIENCE + +The connection between history and science is very close, because it was +only after the invention of writing that history, the record of human +progress, became possible. Further, the remarkable way in which the +chief stages in the development of civilization coincide with certain +inventions and discoveries makes the study of history very incomplete +without a knowledge of the inventions and discoveries, inasmuch as these +opened a road for human development. (See p. 119.) + +To make this evident, it is enough merely to mention a few comparatively +recent inventions, such as the mariner's compass, the printing-press, +gunpowder, the steam-engine, the power-loom, the cotton-gin, and the +telegraph. + +To the introduction of the mariner's compass in the fourteenth century, +by which sailors were made independent of landmarks and the stars, and +could therefore go more boldly into the open sea, we owe the +explorations of the fifteenth century that culminated in the discovery +of America, and the way to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The +introduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth century gave the lower and +middle classes a weapon that made them equal in power with the nobles +and brought about the downfall of the feudal system and the rise of +modern democracies. The printing-press gave to the world the learning +of the past and revolutionized social conditions. The invention of high +explosives has made possible many of the great engineering works of +to-day. The inventions that have made transportation and communication +so easy and rapid have already done a great deal to bring nations to a +better understanding of each other and thus to promote the peace of the +world. Discoveries in medicine alone have had an incalculable influence +on the health and prosperity of society. In fact, the study of history +and an understanding of modern social and industrial conditions are +impossible without a knowledge of scientific inventions and discoveries. +(See pp. 87, 92.) + +Children naturally take an interest in what individuals have done, and +it is easy to interest them in the work of men such as Watt, Stephenson, +Whitney, Fulton, Morse, Edison, Marconi, and their fellows. The +biographies of famous inventors should therefore be given, both as a +record of what they did and as an inspiration to like achievements. + + +HISTORY AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK + +Constructive work may be used to advantage in history and civics. It +gives concrete expression to some facts of history through the +construction by the pupils of objects mentioned therein. In studying +Indian life, the class may make in paper, wood, etc., wigwams, bows and +arrows, stockades, etc.; in connection with pioneer life, they may make +some of the buildings and implements used by the pioneers,--log houses, +spinning-wheels, hominy blocks, Red River carts, etc.; in studying +campaigns, they may make models in plasticine or clay, or on the sand +table, of forts, battle-fields, etc., for example--the Plains of +Abraham, Queenston Heights, Chateauguay, Plymouth Harbour; the Union +Jack may be cut out and coloured. (See p. 68.) In this way the +activities of the child may be made of practical use. + +On the industrial and social side of history, which is being more and +more emphasized, it is of great value to the child to become acquainted, +even though on a small scale and through the simplest implements and +machines, with the construction of machinery and modes of manufacture. +For a lesson on the Industrial Revolution in England, for example, it +will give pupils a better understanding of the changes, if they know +something, through their own activities, of the way of making cloth. + +For suggestions on constructive work, see the Manual on Manual Training: + + P. 22: Suggestions for the various seasons and days. + P. 26: On the use of the sand table. + P. 55: On collecting and preserving pictures. + P. 58: On relief maps and geographical formations. + + +HISTORY AND ART + +Art assists history in two ways. First, pictures may be used to +illustrate events in history and make them real. It is often difficult +for children to form a definite mental image of historical scenes merely +from the words of the teacher or of the text-book, because their +experiences are limited and the power to combine these properly is +lacking. This is recognized now in the many text-books which are freely +illustrated. Pictures of persons famous in history are also of value, in +that they make these persons more real to the pupils. Materials for +class use may be collected by the teacher and pupils,--engravings, +prints, cuts from newspapers and magazines of famous people, buildings, +cities, monuments, events; for example, the Landing of Columbus, the +Coming of the Loyalists, the Fathers of Confederation, the Landing of +the Pilgrim Fathers, an Old-Time Trading Post, the Death of Brock. A +good idea is to have a class scrap-book, to be filled with suitable +contributions from the class. The teacher will find a private scrap-book +exceedingly useful. Many fine pictures are given in _The Highroads of +History_, and _The Story of the British People_ for Form III. It may be +added that these pictures should be supplemented freely by descriptions +and narratives given by the teacher. (See _Visual Aids in the Teaching +of History_.) + +Second, the pupils may be asked to illustrate, by drawings and sketch +maps, historic places, routes of armies and of explorers, the journeys +of settlers, etc. + + +HISTORY AND COMPOSITION + +History, no less than other subjects of study, needs to be expressed by +the pupils, if it is to make them more efficient. Some of the usual +modes of expression are given above in connection with constructive work +and art. The chief mode of expression, however, for history is through +composition, both oral and written. + +In the Junior Forms the stories should be reproduced orally (see Details +of Method for Forms I and II, p. 25), either by pure narration or by +dramatization; the pupils relate in their own language what they have +learned, or are allowed to dramatize the story. In the dramatization, +the pupils should be given a good deal of freedom in constructing the +conversation, once they get to know what is wanted, the only restriction +being that no pupil shall be allowed to take part who does not know the +story thoroughly. Incidents such as Harold taking the oath to help +William of Normandy gain the crown of England, Joseph being sold into +Egypt, the Greeks using the wooden horse to capture Troy, are very +easily dramatized. + +In the Senior Forms the black-board outline may be used as the basis of +written or oral reproduction. The subject of composition will itself be +less objectionable by reason of these exercises, as the pupils are asked +to reproduce the history as material valuable and interesting in itself, +not merely as a means of showing their skill in expression. Moreover, in +the study of history, the pupil hears or reads the compositions of +others, and unconsciously gains, by these examples, much in vocabulary +and in power of expression. In fact, much of the culture value of +history depends on the training it affords in composition, and, by +intimately connecting these two subjects, a double advantage is +gained--the ability to comprehend historical material, and practice in +effective expression. + + +HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OR THE USE OF DATES + +Geography is one of "the eyes of history"; chronology, or the arranging +of events according to their dates, is the other. This suggests that +dates are to be used merely as a help in "seeing" events in history in +their proper order, so that their relations to other events may be +better understood. When these relations are seen, the dates lose much of +their value. + +For example, let us consider the following dates: 1763, 1774, 1775, +1783, 1791. The short interval between 1763, when Great Britain finally +assumed control of Canada by treaty, and 1774, when the Quebec Act was +passed, helps to make clear the reason for the French citizens receiving +so many concessions. They outnumbered the English so much that these +concessions were deemed necessary to hold their allegiance to the Crown +in face of the efforts made by the discontented New England colonies to +get their support in the coming revolution against Great Britain. The +success of the Act was shown in 1775, when the invasion by the +revolutionists failed. The war of the Revolution was ended by treaty in +1783, and Canada received as settlers, principally in Upper Canada, the +United Empire Loyalists, whose ideas of government were so different +from those of the Lower Canadians that the separation of Upper and Lower +Canada by the Constitutional Act of 1791 became necessary. These dates, +so close together, emphasize the rapidity with which events moved in +that period, as well as the sequence of cause and effect. We think also +of the dates of Cartier's voyages, 1534, 1535, and 1541, merely to raise +the question as to why so much time elapsed between the second and third +voyages. When these points are properly seen, the events are kept in +place by their relation of cause and effect, and the dates lose their +value. Moreover, the relations thus discovered will do most toward +fixing these dates in the memory. It should be understood, therefore, +that dates are only a means to an end, not an end in themselves. + +It is important also to know the dates of certain events when we are +studying the history of several countries, in order that we may consider +together those events that are contemporary. + +There are, of course, some dates that should be remembered because of +the importance of the events connected with them, for example: 1066, +1215, 1492, 1603, 1688, 1759, 1776, 1789, 1841, 1867. + +In the Junior Forms, because the pupils are still lacking in the +"historical sense," little emphasis need be put on the giving of dates. +A few of the most important may be given in Form II, but it is very +questionable if they have any significance to the pupils at this early +stage. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +SPECIAL TOPICS + + +CURRENT EVENTS + +The study of history should not end with what is contained in +text-books, for the making of history never ceases. The study of current +events will be found to be a very valuable element in history teaching. +Teachers and pupils who are interested in the events of to-day are much +more likely to be interested in the events of the past. A knowledge of +current events will arouse curiosity in what led up to them, will +suggest a motive for studying the past, and will often supply concrete +examples for both history and civics. In fact, the teaching of civics +may be based almost entirely on current events. (See Civics, p. 52 et +seq.) The influence of a knowledge of current events on the study of +history is very plainly seen to-day in the earnest and widespread effort +to discover the causes of the war that is devastating Europe at the +present time. History becomes real when pupils understand that what is +happening now has its roots in the past and, at the same time, is +history in the making. For example, the present war will certainly +intensify our interest in the great movement to prevent war by means of +world-wide arbitration of disputes between nations, or by any other +means. The value of this phase of history teaching depends very largely +on the interest taken in it by the teacher and on the work that the +pupils can be induced to do for themselves. The teacher talks to the +pupils about some important current event in an interesting way. Then +the pupils are encouraged to add to what he has said by relating what +they have heard, or have read in the newspapers. After a few lessons +the chief difficulty is to make a suitable selection of topics to be +discussed in class. Those of national importance, if within the scope of +the Form work, will have prominence, and the pupils will be given hints +as to articles about these topics in papers, magazines, and books. It is +obvious that topics likely to arouse religious, political, or other +party feeling, should be avoided. For actual school-room practice the +following scheme has been used successfully in Form III: + + +CURRENT EVENTS (10 MINUTES DAILY) + +The teacher has suggested the kinds of events that are worthy of +discussion, and the pupils come to class prepared to tell what they have +read in the papers about some of these. The teacher aids them to give +fit expression to their information, and the pupil who has been chosen +as editor writes a summary of the lesson on the black-board, and later, +on a sheet of paper. + +Ordinarily, the editors should be chosen from those who write and spell +well. + +Where the subject-matter lends itself to such treatment, these summaries +may be placed in two columns--one, the _Girls' News Column_; the other, +the _Boys' News Column_. The summaries on the sheets of paper may be +arranged in order for a week or a month and be known as _The School +Review_. Such a lesson includes history, and oral and written +composition. + +The following items of news were those discussed in a Form III room at +the end of the week, when some time is taken to talk over the events of +the week: + + FEB. 5TH, 1915 + + Rescue of the crew of the Japanese cruiser Asama. + Rescue work in the earthquake in Italy. + Wireless message frustrates a German plot to blow up a French steamer. + Fire in a New York factory--rescue of the inmates. + Inhuman treatment of Belgian women and children. + British officer praises the enemy. + The Austrians are defeated by the Montenegrins. + Canadians wounded in France. + Importance of discipline and accurate shooting for Canadian troops. + Germany proclaims a war zone around Britain. + Two New York boy heroes of a fire. + Tsar honours a girl wounded while carrying ammunition to the troops. + Opening of the war session of the Canadian Parliament. + +These items are sifted from a great many suggested by the pupils. In the +sifting process, a very useful discussion is had as to what constitutes +real "news," and what is mere "gossip"; that is, what is of value as +news to the world at large, and what is of purely local, personal +interest. + +In civics, current topics may be made very useful. Items of municipal, +provincial, or federal affairs furnish a concrete basis for the study of +our system of government, and may also suggest moral examples. + + +LOCAL MATERIAL + +One of the chief uses of local history in the class-room is to make the +study of general history more vivid and interesting (1) by making more +real those facts of history associated with the locality in which we +live, and (2) by providing suitable illustrations, from the pupil's own +experience, of facts in general history. When a pupil has seen the place +where an event of history has happened, he has an interest in that event +that he could scarcely gain in any other way, and the history of that +period may then be taught with more interest and profit to him. A pupil +finds also in local history certain facts that he must understand in +order to interpret the story of happenings, distant in time and place. + +Some parts of Ontario are much richer in material than others, but in +all historic spots may be found. On the St. Lawrence River, in the +Niagara peninsula, in the Talbot settlement district, in York county, +along the Ottawa River, in the Huron tract, there is no lack of useful +material. But it is not necessary to confine such local history to the +outstanding events of war or the larger happenings of civil progress. In +every locality there are remains of the earlier Indian inhabitants, in +the form of mounds, sites of villages, relics of war and the chase +(arrow-heads, stone implements, beads, etc.); relics of the early +settlers, in the form of roads and old log houses; relics of pioneer +life consisting of furniture, household and outdoor implements, etc., +that will serve as a basis for comparison with present-day conditions, +and make real to the children the lives of the earlier inhabitants and +settlers of Ontario. + + +CIVICS + +The teaching of civics has a threefold aim: + +1. To instruct in the mechanism of government. (Descriptive) + +2. To instruct in the history of national institutions so as to show the +line of development, and also to impress the fact that existing +institutions are capable of development, are not fixed. (Historical) + +3. "To show the cost of each institution in the efforts and sacrifices +of past generations and to quicken and make permanent the children's +interest in public life and their sense of responsibility to their +fellows." (Patriotic and Ethical) + +Two points stand out clearly--to teach the machinery of government and +to instil ideals of public conduct. Of these the second is by far the +more important and the more difficult to teach directly. The best way to +attempt it is by means of biography and personal references. There are +great men and women in history whose lives are worthy examples to the +young: Sir John Eliot, Pym, Hampden, who stood for freedom of speech and +debate; Gladstone, who helped to right historic wrongs in the East; +Lincoln, who stood for union and the freedom of the individual; many +eminent Canadians, such as Sir John Macdonald, George Brown, Alexander +Mackenzie, Egerton Ryerson, Sir Oliver Mowat, and Sir James Whitney; +women such as Florence Nightingale and Elizabeth Fry, Laura Secord and +Sarah Maxwell. Besides these eminent examples, there are in every +locality men and women who give unselfishly of their energy and time for +the good of the community. + +There should also be impressed on the minds of the young a sense of +their responsibility for an honest and faithful use of the ballot, a +right won for them by the long and earnest effort of their forefathers; +and the necessity for purity of government in our democratic form of +administration. In school life, a good deal can be done to create a +sense of fair play, respect for the rights of others, and of the +necessity for submission to lawful authority by encouraging the pupils +to conduct all their school organizations, whether in play or in work, +honourably and by right methods. + +Some of the lessons that may be taught to children during their school +life are as follows: + +1. Respect for the rights of others. Pupils may be brought to see that +misconduct on their part affects others, not themselves only. + +2. Respect for the property of others. This may be secured best by +teaching them to take good care of their own property first, for unless +a child cares rightly for his own, he is not likely to take much thought +for the things of others. + +3. Respect for public property. This is something that needs attention +badly. It is a very common thing to find people destroying trees, +flowers, etc., in public places, throwing refuse on the street, and +otherwise disfiguring their surroundings. A beginning of better habits +may be made by getting the pupils to aid in beautifying and decorating +the school building by means of pictures, either prints or their own +work, by flowers in pots, by keeping the floor and walls clean and free +from marks and litter; also in making the grounds around the school more +attractive by means of flowers and shrubs. Arbor Day may be made of +great use in this respect, if the spirit of that Day can be carried +through the whole year. A pride in the attractiveness of the school will +have its influence on the pupils in the wider life of the community. + +A knowledge of the machinery of government may be based on the pupils' +knowledge of the organization of the school. The appointment, power, and +duties of the teacher are the starting-point. The next step will be to +investigate the composition of the board of school trustees. This may be +done at the time of an election for school trustees. The following +questions may serve as an outline of study for all the political bodies +by which we are governed: + + 1. Who compose the board of trustees? (In the smaller local bodies, + the names of the members may be mentioned, as giving a personal + interest in the matter.) + + 2. How and by whom are they elected? + + 3. For what period are they elected? + + 4. How is the board organized for the conduct of business? + + 5. What powers do they possess? + + 6. What duties have they to fulfil? + + 7. How do they raise the money needed for their work? + + 8. How is the board rendered continuous? (By electing a successor + to a member who resigns; by the trustees remaining in office till + their successors are elected.) + +Other governing bodies may be taken up similarly, for example: Municipal +Councils (township, county, village, town, or city council), Provincial +Legislature, Dominion or Federal Parliament, Imperial Parliament. A +suitable time to bring up the topic of how elections are conducted would +be when an election for any of the above bodies is in progress. +Information on this topic may be found in _Canadian Civics_, by Jenkins; +a fuller account is given in Bourinot's _How Canada is Governed_. + +Lessons concerning special bodies of municipal and civil servants may be +taken; for example, the assessor, tax-collector, policeman, postal +employees, firemen, etc. In connection with all of these, the question +of taxation is constantly arising. It is suggested that something should +be done to put the pupils in the right attitude toward this subject. +Many people have an idea that when they pay taxes they are being robbed, +because they do not stop to think of what they are getting in return for +their money. The chief reason for this seems to be that the taxes are +usually paid once or twice a year, while the services rendered are +continuous. A good way to proceed is to have the class calculate the +value of the services given in return for the taxes. For example, +suppose it is found that the yearly cost for each pupil in a certain +section is $25.00. Divide this by the number of days (200) a pupil +attends school during the year, and the cost each day for each pupil is +shown be only 12-1/2 cents, not a very large sum for a community to pay +for a child's education. + +Other calculations may be made to show the saving to farmers by spending +money in the construction of good roads to make teaming more profitable. +For example: In a strip of country served by a road ten miles long, +there is room for eighty farms of one hundred acres each, all the +produce of which would be hauled on that road. Let us suppose that this +produce would amount to 3,000 loads, such as could be hauled on an +ordinary country road. The average haul being five miles, two trips a +day could be made. At $5.00 a day, the cost of haulage would be $7,500. + +Suppose this road to be converted into a good stone road at a cost of +$3,000 a mile, a total cost of $30,000. On this road, with the larger +and heavier wagons that could now be used, the farmers could easily +double the size of the load. This would mean that, instead of 3,000 +loads being necessary, 1,500 would be sufficient. At the same rate as +before, the cost of haulage would be $3,750, an annual saving of $3,750; +so that the whole cost of the road would be saved in eight years, to say +nothing of the greater ease and comfort of travel to both man and beast. +Better roads would also give the farmer access to market for a greater +part of the year and thus enable him to take advantage of higher prices +at certain seasons. It is believed that these figures are quite within +the bounds of probability. + +In large towns and cities the cost of public utilities may be +calculated; for example, the expense of a fire-station in buildings, +equipment, horses, men, etc., to show how the money raised by taxes is +spent for the good of the whole community, and helps to keep down the +rates for fire insurance. The kinds of taxation may also be +discussed--direct and indirect; also the sources from which direct +taxes are derived--customs, excise, etc.; methods of levying and +collecting taxes; how taxes are spent for the various educational and +charitable institutions--schools, libraries, hospitals, asylums, homes +for the poor and neglected, etc.; for the protection of life and +property; for the administration of justice, etc. The distribution of +taxes among public institutions may be studied from the public accounts +printed for the use of ratepayers. + +The lessons learned about the fairness of taxation may be used to +illustrate certain periods of history when people struggled against +unjust and arbitrary taxation; for example, Wat Tyler's Rebellion, the +Civil War in England in the seventeenth century, the American and French +Revolutions, Acts of Parliament in Canada from the Quebec Act to the Act +of Confederation. + +A Dominion or Provincial election offers a good opportunity for a lesson +on how to vote and how we came to have the right to vote; on the +constitution of Parliament; on the sanctity of the ballot, etc. + +A trial by jury in which the people of the district are interested may +be used to introduce the history and purpose of the jury. + + +THE TEACHER OF HISTORY + +The teacher of history must know his subject. This does not mean that +every school teacher must have an expert knowledge of the whole subject, +but he should know the history that is to be taught thoroughly enough to +be able to teach the lesson orally without referring constantly to the +text-book or to notes. This, at least, is the ideal to strive for. To +accomplish this, the teacher is earnestly recommended to read at least +one book in addition to the authorized text-book, which does not usually +contain much more than the important facts of history. To clothe the +skeleton of facts with flesh and blood so as to make history what it +really is, a record of human beings who not only did things but had also +thoughts and feelings like our own, it is necessary to be able to supply +the personal details that make the figures of history real, living, men +and women. (See the Story of Florence Nightingale, p. 62.) The teacher +who does this will himself come to have a more lively interest in +history. + +The teacher must also know children. For the understanding of history, +pupils are dependent on their previous knowledge of life and its +interests. They must be led by timely suggestions or questions to see +the connection between their own knowledge of life and the experiences +of the actors in history. Without this connection, the facts of history +remain meaningless. + +To present history to the pupils in an interesting way, the oral method +is the best. It is not necessary for the teacher to have a special gift +for narration; any one who is really interested in the story to be told +is able to tell it well enough to hold the attention of the class. In +narration, mere fluency is not the chief requisite; it is more important +that the pupils should feel the teacher's interest in the topic. The +narration must also be confined to the facts and details that count; the +teacher needs to know what to omit as well as what to narrate. If the +matter has been well thought out and clearly arranged in topics with due +regard to the relation of cause and effect, the telling of the story +will be an easier matter, and the pupils will be trained also in a clear +and logical way of treating history. The oral method should be supported +by the free use of devices for making the story real. (See p. 34.) While +it is quite true that certain important topics are to be thoroughly +mastered as centres of connection for the less important facts, yet it +must be insisted on that a more important aim of the teacher is to +arouse and stimulate an interest in history so that the pupil's study of +it may continue after the close of his school-days. No mastery of facts +through memorization alone will counterbalance the lack of interest in, +and liking for, the subject. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS + + +The following lessons are to be considered as suggestive rather +than directive, as illustrating how the principles of teaching may be +applied in a particular subject. Definite knowledge of child-nature and +of children's experiences, of the materials to be used, and of the +purpose to be accomplished in teaching a subject, determines, in the +main, the choice of method. This statement is especially true of +history, for, unless it is steadily borne in mind, the temptation is +very great to make the teaching of this subject consist in mere +memorizing of events and dates. + + +FORMS I AND II + +TYPE LESSON IN THE "STORY STAGE" + +The aim of this lesson is to give the pupils the story of "Moses and the +Burning Bush," and at the same time to arouse an interest in stories. + +As a preparation for the lesson, the teacher should secure pictures, or +make sketches, illustrating (1) Moses tending his flocks, (2) the +Burning Bush, (3) the rod turning to a serpent, (4) Moses setting out to +do God's will. The pictures and sketches are used to make real the +verbal story. + +A few questions recalling the earlier events in Moses' life should be +answered by the pupils, for example: Moses as a baby in the bulrushes, +his adoption by the Princess, his life in the palace, his killing of the +Egyptian, the cause of his flight into Midian. + +The teacher should then narrate in clear, simple language the story of +Moses in Midian, dividing it into parts such as: Moses at the well, his +home with Jethro, the appearance of the Burning Bush, his talk with God, +his excuses, God's proof of power to help, his setting out to do God's +will. + +In Form I it may be advisable to question, during the story, to +ascertain if the language and ideas are understood, but reproduction of +each part as it is narrated will probably result in a loss of attention +and a lack of interest in the remainder of the story. The reproduction +should, therefore, be taken after the completion of the story. + +In Form II very short topic-phrases may be written on the black-board. +These will serve as a guide to the pupils in the oral or written +reproduction that follows. + +If illustrated story-books containing this story are in the library, +pupils of Form II may be asked to read them. + +When practicable, an exercise in sight reading may follow this kind of +lesson. The teacher may have slips containing sections of the story +prepared beforehand, and may give them to the pupils for sight reading. + + +FORMS I AND II + +THE FIRST THANKSGIVING + +Materials: A set of pictures showing "The Mayflower in Plymouth +Harbour"; "The Landing of the Pilgrims"; "The Pilgrims going to Church"; +"Plymouth Rock"; "The Spinning Wheel." (Perry Picture Co. pictures) + +A map of the western coast of Europe and the eastern coast of America +drawn on the black-board. + +Introduction: A talk on Thanksgiving Day as celebrated now--the +returning of thanks to God for a bountiful harvest, the general +good-will prevailing, the dinner. How and when did this custom +originate? + +Presentation: The teacher tells the story of the emigration of the +Pilgrim Fathers, and shows the pictures that illustrate the different +parts of the story. The voyage is traced on the map and the +landing-place in America marked. + +This should be followed by a spirited reading of Mrs. Hemans' _The +Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers_, and the telling of _The First +Thanksgiving_. (See Appendix.) + +A simple version of this story may be given to pupils in Form I, +accompanied by such construction work, in paper cutting and colouring, +and in modelling, as they can do. + + +FORM II + +FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE + +In the war that England and France were carrying on against Russia in +the Crimea about fifty years ago, the English soldiers suffered terrible +hardships, so terrible that more than half the army were in the +hospital, and many men were dying of starvation and neglect. The people +in England knew nothing of this, because they thought that everything +the army needed had been sent to it. At last, they found out from the +letters of Dr. Russell, the correspondent of the London _Times_, how +great were the sufferings of the soldiers, and they were so shocked at +this state of things that they subscribed large sums of money, many +thousands of dollars, and sent out to the army Florence Nightingale and +thirty-four other nurses to do what they could for the neglected +soldiers. After they came, the wounded and sick soldiers were so well +cared for that thousands of them lived to come home who would have died +if these noble women had not gone out to nurse them. + +Do you want to know why Florence Nightingale was the one person out of +all the people of England to be asked to go? From her earliest childhood +she was always doing what she could to help those who were in trouble. +The poor and suffering appealed to her more than to most people. When +quite young, she went to visit the poor and sick on her father's +estates, carrying to them some little dainties or flowers that they +would be sure to like, and helping them to get well. All the animals +around her home liked her, because they knew that she would not hurt +them; even the shy squirrels would come quite close to her and pick up +the nuts she dropped for them. An old gray pony, named Peggy, would trot +up to her when she went into the field to see it, and put its nose into +her pocket for the apple or other little treat that she always had for +it. A sheep dog had been hurt by a stone thrown at it by a boy, and the +owner thought that its leg was broken and that he would have to kill it. +But it turned out to be only a bad bruise and the dog was soon well with +Florence's nursing. + +When her rich parents took her to London, she preferred visiting the +sick people in the hospitals to enjoying herself at parties or in +sight-seeing. When the family travelled in Europe, she visited the +hospitals to see how the sick were being looked after. She went to one +of the best hospitals in Germany to study how to nurse the sick in the +best way. When she came back to England, she did a great deal to improve +the hospitals, and for many years she worked so hard that her health +began to fail. + +It was because of what she had done in this way that she was asked to go +to the Crimea to take charge of the hospitals for the English soldiers. +When she came there she found things in a terrible condition. The sick +and wounded men were crowded in such unhealthy rooms that they had very +little chance to get well. She cleaned up the buildings, gave the +patients clean beds and clothes, and saw that they had good, well-cooked +food to eat. She looked after their comfort, sat beside their beds when +they were very ill, and wrote letters for them to their families at +home. Because she often walked through the rooms at night, alone, and +carrying a little lamp in her hand, to see that everything was all +right, she was called "the lady with the lamp." As she went about, +speaking to some, nodding and smiling to others, we can imagine how much +the poor soldiers thought of her. + +When the war was over, the people of England were so grateful to her +that the Government gave her a very large sum of money, $250,000, but +she gave it all to build a school where nurses might be trained for +their work. Queen Victoria gave her a beautiful jewel to show what she +thought of the brave work that Florence Nightingale did. + +She lived for many years, doing a great deal to show how to treat people +who are ill, and how to keep people well by securing for them "pure air, +pure water, cleanliness, and light." She died August 10, 1910, but the +good she did in saving the lives of so many soldiers will always be +remembered. + + +METHOD + +It is not intended that this story should be given to the pupils just as +it is here. This account is given to indicate what facts may be told to +pupils as young even as those in the senior part of Form I, and how the +story may be simplified for their understanding. After the story is +told, vividly and sympathetically, the reproduction by the class follows +in the usual way. + + +FORM II + +THE POSTMASTER + +AN INTRODUCTORY LESSON IN CIVICS + +This is an introductory lesson in civics, in which the aim is to make +the pupils familiar with the duties, qualifications, salary, and +importance of the postmaster. + +The teacher and class, in imagination, make a visit to the post-office +and describe what may be seen therein. A pupil's letter is prepared, and +the teacher, by using an old envelope, shows what is done with the +letter till it reaches the person to whom it is addressed, tabulating +these points on the black-board: (1) Stamped; (2) Stamp cancelled; (3) +Placed in the mail bag; (4) Taken to the railway station; (5) Placed on +the train; (6) Received at its destination; (7) Marked to show date on +which it was received; (8) Sorted; (9) Delivered. Another used envelope +should be shown to the pupils that they may trace, from the impressions +stamped upon it, its "sending" and "receiving" offices. From a +consideration of these several duties of the postmaster the pupils may +be led to see that he should be an honest, careful, courteous, and +prompt person. + +The teacher next explains how people sent letters, etc., before +post-offices were instituted, and shows that the postmaster, in doing +his work, is doing it as our representative, and that we should help him +in the performance of his duty by plainly addressing our letters, etc. + +A further explanation as to the manner of appointment and payment of +salary may follow. + +In another lesson, the secondary duties of the postmaster--the +registration of letters, issuing of money orders and of postal notes, +the receiving and forwarding of money to the Savings Bank, and the +making of reports to the Post-office Department--may be discussed. + +In teaching these the objective method should be used. The teacher +should obtain envelopes of registered letters and a registration blank, +a blank money order, and a blank postal note, and instruct the pupils in +the proper method of filling out these forms. + + +FORM III + +THE CAPTURE OF QUEBEC + +The introduction to this lesson will consist of questions recalling the +matter of the past lesson or lessons, and the positions of the British +and the French forces in the spring of 1759. This can be easily done by +sketching on the black-board a map of North America and marking on it +with coloured chalk the position of each force. The chief settlements to +be mentioned in the lesson of the day should also be marked. For the +matter of this see _The Ontario Public School History of Canada_, pages +83-97, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_. + +The teacher describes the voyage of Wolfe from Louisburg to Quebec, +mentioning the means taken to secure pilots and to overcome the +difficulties of navigating the St. Lawrence. + +When the pupils, following the voyage, have arrived at Quebec, a +description of the topography of the vicinity should be given, and an +enlarged sketch, or better still, a plasticine model, made to show this. +(See text-book, page 100.) The difficulty of capturing Quebec may be +emphasized by reference to former attempts. On this sketch or model the +disposition of the French forces should be shown, and then problems may +be given as to actions that might be taken by Wolfe. For example: How +would you attempt to destroy the fort? Where may Wolfe land his +soldiers? What led the French to place their soldiers down as far as the +Montmorenci? No doubt some wrong answers will be given, but the +probability is that some boy will say that he would take some guns to +the high bank on the Levis side and bombard the town of Quebec. The +teacher will then tell what was done and with what results. + +This should be outlined briefly on the black-board, and problem +questions proposed as to the attempt of Wolfe to dislodge the French at +Montmorenci. + +This second step is also told and added to the outline, after which the +teacher proceeds to explain the final step, dwelling particularly on the +illness of Wolfe, his careful arrangement of plans, the courage shown in +attempting the surprise of the hill, the speed with which his forces +were drawn up on the Plains, the battle with its final outcome. + +This is added to the outline, and the whole story is reproduced orally +before the class is dismissed. + +As desk work, the outline is copied in note-books and the pupils are +directed to read the full story in Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, or in +the History Reader, pp. 284-292. + + NOTE: If plasticine be used, miniature cannon, ships, + bridges, etc., may be placed in position and a realistic + explanation of the battle given. This would require more time and + the whole story would require several lesson spaces. + + References: The text-book, Weaver's _Canadian History for Boys and + Girls_, and Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_. + + +FORM III + +THE COMING OF THE UNITED EMPIRE LOYALISTS + +1. Narrate briefly the story of the American Revolution, to show why +they had to leave the country; describe the treatment given to them by +the revolutionists; how they lost their property; how they were driven +from their homes and exposed to all sorts of hardships, sometimes fatal +to the women and children; emphasize their constant feeling of loyalty +in face of all their troubles. + +2. There was nothing for them to do but go to some place where the +British flag still flew. The pupils may be asked, with the map before +them, to consider where they would be most likely to go. What were the +probable routes they would follow? That would depend on where they lived +in the States. What methods of travel could they use? The class will see +from a consideration of these points how they did travel, what routes +they followed, and where they settled down. The waterways would have to +be emphasized and traced out on the map; by sea from New York and Boston +to Nova Scotia; by Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River to Quebec and +Eastern Ontario; by the western rivers, the Mohawk, the Genesee, etc., +to Western Ontario. (See _Fourth Reader_, p. 170.) + +3. What the Government did for them and how they succeeded. Any account +of life in Canada in the early days will give the necessary information. +It may be that some old settler of the neighbourhood can supply the +story to one of the children. + +4. In the Senior Form there may be taken up slightly the political +ideals of these Loyalists and how their presence led to changes in +affairs in Upper Canada. + + +FORM III + +THE FLAG + +In itself a flag is "only a small bit of bunting"; it becomes a powerful +aid to patriotism when it receives a meaning from its history. It is the +emblem of a nation, the symbol of sovereignty, and as such should have +a prominent place in the education of the young. Children should be +taught: (1) the history of the struggles and sacrifices of our +forefathers in securing and maintaining our liberties; (2) the +significance of the flag as standing for liberty, truth, and justice; +and (3) its construction, with the special significance of each part. + +The last point--the construction of the Union Jack--should be preceded +by a series of lessons on the individual "jacks." These lessons should +explain the significance of the term "jack"; should give the stories of +St. George, the patron saint of England, of St. Andrew, the patron saint +of Scotland, and of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland; and the +reasons for the placing of the crosses on the jacks of the several +countries. (See Appendix.) + +These lessons may be taken as follows: that of the "jack" and "St. +George" after a lesson on the Crusaders; of "St. Andrew" after the +lesson on the Battle of Bannockburn; of "St. Patrick" after the lesson +on the Conquest of Ireland by Strongbow. + +The opposite course may be followed. The construction or drawing of the +flag may be taken in connection with one of the flag days; then the +children will be interested in the work itself. The story of the jacks +may be given afterwards in the history lessons. + +As desk work following each lesson, the pupils should construct the +flags, using coloured paper, and these flags should be kept for use in +the final lesson. The following sizes may be used in oblong flags: + + For St. George's--white ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/2 in. + For St. Andrew's--blue ground--2-1/2 in. x 5 in., white cross 1/2 in. + For St. Patrick's--white ground--2 1/2 in. x 5 in., red cross 1/3 in. + +When the story of the union of the crowns of England and Scotland in the +reign of James I has been taught, the pupils should be asked to attempt +the problem of uniting the two flags into one. For this purpose the +flags already made can be used. The flag of England will surmount that +of Scotland, and in order that the flag of Scotland may be seen, the +white ground of the flag of England must be removed, only a narrow +border of white along each arm being retained to represent the ground +colour. This narrow border on each side is one third of the width of the +red cross. + +The final lesson, the construction of the Union Jack of our day, should +be given on Empire Day or a few days before. As an introduction the +teacher should review the flag of each country in the Union, referring +also to the Union Jacks of James and of Anne. The problem of uniting the +Irish Jack with the other two might be given the pupils; but as they are +not likely to succeed in solving it, it will be better for the teacher +to place before them the Union Jack belonging to the school and to lead +them to observe: + + 1. that it is usually oblong--twice as long as wide; (it may also + be square); + + 2. that the St. Andrew's Cross is partially covered by the St. + Patrick's; + + 3. that the St. George's Cross, as before, is one fifth of the + width of the jack; + + 4. that along the side of the St. Patrick's Cross is a strip of + white; + + 5. that this strip of white and the red of the St. Patrick's equal + the broad white of the St. Andrew's; + + 6. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is partly white cross + and partly white ground; + + 7. that the broad white of the St. Andrew's is uppermost on the + parts near the staff. + +When these have been noted, the pupils are ready to unite the flags +which they had formerly made. The teacher directs them to cut away all +of the white ground and half of each arm of the St. Patrick's Cross, +retaining the centre. This should then be pasted upon the St. Andrew's +Cross as in the Union Jack. They next cut away all of the white ground +of the St. George's Cross, except the border (one third of the red), and +paste this above the other two. The result will be a correctly made +jack, and the pupils will know the several stages in its growth. + +Where it is not possible to conduct the series of lessons as above, the +following method is suggested. The pupils are provided with white paper +and red and blue crayons, and are led to make, as above, a study of the +jack belonging to the school. The following directions are then given: + +First line in with a ruler the dimensions of the flag, say five inches +wide and ten inches long. Draw the diagonals in faint lines. Place the +cross of St. George and its border upon the flag according to the +measurements mentioned, that is, the cross one inch wide and the border +one third of an inch wide. The diagonals will be the centre and dividing +lines of the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick. Now place the +saltire crosses according to the measurements. The white arm of St. +Andrew's Cross will be one-half inch in width, the white border of St. +Patrick's Cross one-sixth of an inch wide, and the red cross of St. +Patrick one-third of an inch wide. The red cross of St. Patrick is +placed touching the diagonal, below in the first and third quarters, and +above in the second and fourth quarters. Great care must be exercised +in making the drawing of the Union Jack. + + The following are the official regulations for the proportions of + the Union Jack: + + 1. It may be either square, or twice as long as it is wide. + + 2. The proportions are: + + Red Cross of St. George 1/5 of width of flag. + White border to St. George 1/3 of red of St. George. + Red Cross of St. Patrick 1/3 of red of St. George. + White border to St. Patrick 1/6 of red of St. George. + Broad white of St. Andrew 1/2 of red of St. George. + + 3. Broad white of St. Andrew is uppermost in the two quarters next + the staff; the red of St. Patrick is uppermost in the other + quarters. + +Its base is the cross of St. George, red on a white ground. On the +political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the cross of St. +Andrew, which is a white diagonal cross on a blue ground, was added, and +to this Union flag there was joined, in 1801, the cross of St. Patrick, +a red diagonal cross on a white ground. The colours of the Union Jack +are red, which is the emblem of courage; white, the emblem of purity; +and blue, the emblem of truth; so that we cannot do anything cowardly +without disgracing our flag. + +On memorial days the teacher, as he describes the past events that have +helped to make our country strong and keep it free, may well refer to +the colours of the flag as reminders of the virtues on which our Empire +rests. + +For memorial days the following, among others, are suggested: + + +FLAG DAYS + +Opening and closing of each term + + Jan. 1.--Municipalities incorporated in Canada, 1842. (To be + celebrated on the first school day of the new year.) + + Feb. 10.--Union of the Canadas, 1841. + + March 11.--First Responsible Ministry, 1848. + + March 14.--Founding of Upper Canada--Constitutional Act, 1791. + + March 24.--Egerton Ryerson's birthday (1803-1882). + + Empire Day.--The school day immediately preceding May 24. + + May 24.--Victoria Day. + + June 3.--The King's Birthday, 1865. + + July 1.--Dominion Day: Confederation of the Provinces, 1867. + + July 17.--First Parliament of Upper Canada, 1792. + + September 13.--Battle of the Plains of Abraham, 1759. + + October 13.--Battle of Queenston Heights--Death of Sir Isaac Brock, + 1812. + + October 21.--Trafalgar Day, 1805. + + December 24.--Close of the War of 1812-1814, by the Treaty of + Ghent. (To be celebrated on the last school day before Christmas.) + +Other days commemorating events connected with various localities may +also be chosen. + + For information respecting the flag, teachers are referred to + Barlow Cumberland's _History of the Union Jack_ (latest edition), + to the _Flag Charts_, by Mrs. Fessenden, and to _The Flag of + Canada_, by Sir Joseph Pope. For the stories of the patron saints + of England, Scotland, and Ireland, see Appendix. + + +THE COLOURS OF THE FLAG + + What is the blue on our flag, boys? + The waves of the boundless sea, + Where our vessels ride in their tameless pride, + And the feet of the winds are free; + From the sun and smiles of the coral isles + To the ice of the South and North, + With dauntless tread through tempests dread + The guardian ships go forth. + + What is the white on our flag, boys? + The honour of our land, + Which burns in our sight like a beacon light + And stands while the hills shall stand; + Yea, dearer than fame is our land's great name, + And we fight, wherever we be, + For the mothers and wives that pray for the lives + Of the brave hearts over the sea. + + What is the red on our flag, boys? + The blood of our heroes slain, + On the burning sands in the wild waste lands + And the froth of the purple main; + And it cries to God from the crimsoned sod + And the crest of the waves outrolled, + That He send us men to fight again + As our fathers fought of old. + + We'll stand by the dear old flag, boys, + Whatever be said or done, + Though the shots come fast, as we face the blast, + And the foe be ten to one-- + Though our only reward be the thrust of a sword + And a bullet in heart or brain. + What matters one gone, if the flag float on + And Britain be Lord of the main! + +--Frederick George Scott + + +THE UNION JACK + + It's only a small piece of bunting, + It's only an old coloured rag; + Yet thousands have died for its honour, + And shed their best blood for the flag. + + It's charged with the cross of St. Andrew, + Which, of old, Scotland's heroes has led; + It carries the cross of St. Patrick, + For which Ireland's bravest have bled. + + Joined with these is our old English ensign, + St. George's red cross on white field; + Round which, from Richard to Roberts, + Britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield. + + It flutters triumphant o'er ocean, + As free as the wind and the waves; + And bondsmen from shackles unloosened, + 'Neath its shadows no longer are slaves. + + It floats o'er Australia, New Zealand, + O'er Canada, the Indies, Hong Kong; + And Britons, where'er their flag's flying, + Claim the rights which to Britons belong. + + We hoist it to show our devotion + To our King, our country, and laws; + It's the outward and visible emblem, + Of progress and liberty's cause. + + You may say it's an old bit of bunting, + You may call it an old coloured rag; + But freedom has made it majestic, + And time has ennobled our flag. + + +FORMS III AND IV + +SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPIRE DAY + +The exercises on Empire Day may be extended to include most of the +subjects on the time-table by providing interesting problems in these +subjects which will, at the same time, keep the pupils' attention +focused on the purpose of the day. + +The purpose of Empire Day may be stated briefly: (1) To increase the +pupils' knowledge of the various parts of the Empire; (2) To create in +them fine ideals of a larger citizenship; (3) To give a feeling of +responsibility for Canada's place and work in the Empire, both now and +in the future. + + +EXERCISES SUGGESTED + +1. In literature: Study one or more of the selections in the Public +School Readers that are suitable; for example, in the IV Reader, pp. 1, +49, 74, 154, 155, 227, 231, 248, 302, 358, 409; in the III Reader, pp. +55, 140, 246, 258, 274. If these have been studied before, one or two +might be read or recited by the pupils. In this Manual poems are given +(pp. 73, 74) that may be used in the same way. Pamphlets containing +suitable matter for Empire Day have been sent out by the Department of +Education on several occasions. + +2. In history: (_a_) Some information about the growth of the Empire; +for example, how and when Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, +or any other part of the Empire was added; (_b_) Comparison of the size +of the British Empire with that of any earlier Empire, such as the +Persian, Greek, or Roman; (_c_) The growth of Great Britain's commercial +and naval supremacy, on what it is founded, what danger there is of +losing it, etc.; (_d_) Interpretation of the Union Jack, or of the +Canadian ensign. + +3. In geography: (_a_) Story of the "All-Red" route, or of the "All-Red" +cable--explain the meaning of "All-Red" by reference to the map; (_b_) +"The sun never sets on the British flag." Make this clear by having +pupils notice on the map that there are red spots, showing British +territory, on or not very far from every meridian line; British ships, +too, are in every part of the ocean; (_c_) Compare the population and +area of Great Britain, Canada, Australia, the United States, Germany, +France, etc. + +4. In arithmetic: The pupils may discover how many people there are to +the square mile in these countries; they may be asked to work out the +population Canada would have if she were as densely populated as +England, as the United States, as Germany, etc.; how fast did the +population of the United States increase in the first century after the +Revolution; what will the population of Canada be in fifty years, if it +increases as rapidly as the population of the United States in the last +fifty, etc.; at the present rate of increase, when will Canada catch up +to Great Britain? When surpass her? Indicate thus the possible position +and power of Canada in the not distant future, in order to deepen the +sense of responsibility for the use made of our opportunities. (Let the +pupils search for as much of the material needed for these calculations +as they can find in their text-books.) + +5. In composition: Subjects may be given for either oral or written +composition; they may be reproductions of some of the exercises +mentioned above, or may be on topics connected with them. + +6. In drawing: Pupils may draw the flag, or any map needed above. + + + + +TYPE LESSONS + +FORM IV + + +INTRODUCTORY + +As described in the details of method for Form IV (see p. 28), the ideal +method of teaching in this Form is the oral method, which means not only +the narration of the story, but the presentation to the pupils of +problems connected with the lesson that the experiences of the class may +help to solve. The full narration here of the lessons selected would be +like doing over again the work of the text-book; accordingly, in the +majority of the lessons, a topical analysis is all that is given. The +value of a topical analysis is that it emphasizes the principal points +that should be described or developed and, more important still, that it +assists the pupils to _understand_ the lesson better, that is, to see +more clearly the relation of cause and effect. The topical analysis will +also suggest to the teacher how to prepare a lesson. There is no better +evidence that a period of history is understood by the teacher than the +ability to make a clear, concise analysis of it. This analysis should +then be used instead of the text-book in teaching the lesson, and the +use of it will, after a little practice has made the teacher more +expert, contribute, to a surprising degree, to increased interest in the +class. + + +EGERTON RYERSON + +One of the objects of instruction in civics is to create in the pupils +ideals of citizenship that may influence their conduct in after life. +The most powerful agency to use for this object is the life of some +useful and patriotic citizen who gave his talents and energy to the +bettering of his country. In using biography for this purpose the pupils +should be given only such facts as they can comprehend, and these facts +should be made as real, vivid, and interesting as possible by +appropriate personal details and concrete description. The following +sketch may serve as an example: + +Dr. Ryerson, in speaking of his birth and parentage, said: + + I was born on March 24th, 1803, in the township of Charlotteville, + near the village of Vittoria, in the then London district, now the + County of Norfolk. My father had been an officer in the British + army during the American Revolution, being a volunteer in the + Prince of Wales' Regiment of New Jersey, of which place he was a + native. His forefathers were from Holland, and his more remote + ancestors were from Denmark. At the close of the American + revolutionary war, he, with many others of the same class, went to + New Brunswick, where he married my mother, whose maiden name was + Stickney, a descendant of one of the early Massachusetts Puritan + settlers. Near the close of the last century, my father with his + family followed an elder brother to Canada, where he drew some + 2,500 acres of land from the Government for his services in the + army, besides his pension. + +Ryerson's mother had a very strong influence over him. She was a very +religious woman with a great love for her children, and from her Egerton +learned lessons that never ceased to influence him. After telling how +she treated him when he had done something naughty, he says that "though +thoughtless and full of playful mischief, I never afterwards knowingly +grieved my mother, or gave her other than respectful and kind words." + +The whole family had to work hard at clearing the land and farming it. +Before he was twenty-one years of age he "had ploughed every acre of +ground for the season, cradled every stalk of wheat, rye, and oats, and +mowed every spear of grass, pitched the whole first on a wagon, and +then from the wagon to the haymow or stack." This was the work that gave +him strength and health to do the great things that were before him. His +years in the district school were few, yet he made such good use of them +that when he was only fifteen years old he was asked to take the place +of one of his teachers during the latter's illness. Further instruction +from teachers was not given him till he came of age. Then he went to +Hamilton to study in the Gore district grammar school for one year. Here +he studied so strenuously that he was seized with an attack of brain +fever, which was followed by inflammation of the lungs. His life was +despaired of, but his good constitution and his mother's nursing +restored him to health. + +Shortly afterwards he began his work as a Methodist preacher. When +twenty-three years old, he undertook a mission to the Indians at the +Credit and resided among them as one of themselves, to show them better +ways of living and working. This is part of his account: "Between +daylight and sunrise, I called out four of the Indians in succession +and, working with them, showed them how to clear and fence in, and +plough and plant their first wheat and cornfields. In the afternoon I +called out the schoolboys to go with me, and cut and pile and burn the +brushwood in and around the village." + +In 1829 _The Christian Guardian_ newspaper was organized as the organ of +the Methodists, and the young preacher placed in the editorial chair; in +1841 he was chosen President of Victoria College. + +In 1844 Dr. Ryerson was appointed Chief Superintendent of Education for +Upper Canada. He immediately set himself to awaken the country to a +proper estimate of the importance of education, and to improve the +qualifications of teachers. He urged the people to build better schools +and to pay better salaries, so that well-qualified teachers could be +engaged. He visited foreign countries to study their systems and methods +that he might make the schools of Upper Canada more efficient. A +Provincial Normal and Model School was established in 1847, better books +were provided for the pupils, more and better apparatus and maps for all +schools. All this was done in the face of many difficulties inevitable +in a new country--popular ignorance, apathy, lack of means to build +schools and support them, lack of time to attend them. The opposition of +many who did not set the same value on education that he himself did had +also to be faced. With unwearied zeal, steadfast courage, and unfailing +patience, he met these difficulties. For over thirty years, he devoted +his matured manhood and great endowments to the task of developing a +public sentiment in favour of education, and of building on sure +foundations a system of elementary and secondary schools that is the +just pride of our Province and his own best monument. + +In 1876 he resigned his position of Chief Superintendent, and was +succeeded by a Minister of Education. He had nobly fulfilled the promise +he made on accepting office in 1844--"to provide for my native country a +system of education, and facilities for intellectual improvement not +second to those in any country in the world." + +He died in 1882. To honour him in his death as he had served it in his +life the whole country seemed assembled, in its representatives, at his +funeral. Members of the Legislature, judges, University authorities, +ecclesiastical dignitaries, thousands from the schools which he had +founded, and above all, the common people, for whose cause he never +failed to stand, followed to the grave the remains of the great Canadian +who had lived so faithfully and well for his country. + + NOTE.--If the pupils have been told about the Pilgrim + Fathers, and the U.E. Loyalists, a review of those stories will add + interest to this lesson; if not, it will serve as an introduction + to them. + +For a Form IV class, the following should be included in the lesson: + + With the close of the War of 1812 there opened a new era in the + history of Canada. Its people had realized that their country was + worth fighting for, and they had defended it successfully. A new + interest in its political life was awakened, new movements + inaugurated. These were along three lines--one, political with + responsible government as its object; another, religious with equal + rights and privileges for all churches as its aim; a third, + educational with equal and efficient instruction for all without + distinction of class or creed as its purpose. The first movement is + known as the struggle for Responsible Government--the struggle for + equal political rights; the second, as the Secularization of the + Clergy Reserves--the struggle for equal religious rights; the third + as the University Question--the struggle for non-denominational + control of education. In the second and third movements Dr. Ryerson + played a very prominent part and, because these affected the + politics of his day, he took a keen interest in the first. + + NOTE.--For purposes of reference, consult _The Story of My + Life_ by Dr. Ryerson; _The Ryerson Memorial Volume_ by Dr. J.G. + Hodgins; _Egerton Ryerson_ by Nathaniel Burwash in THE MAKERS + OF CANADA; and _Egerton Ryerson_ by J.H. Putnam. + + +THE INTERCOLONIAL RAILWAY + +The lesson may be begun best by referring to the provisions in the +British North America Act for the building of the railway. (If the class +knows nothing yet of this Act, reference may be made to Dominion Day, +and the Act associated with it, by explaining the significance of the +Day. The date of Confederation, 1867, may be written on the board for +reference.) In the B.N.A. Act, it was provided that "the Canadian +Government should build a railway connecting the St. Lawrence with +Halifax, to be commenced within six months after the Union." + + _Teacher._--Did you notice the two places that were to be connected + by the road? + + _Pupil._--They were Halifax and the St. Lawrence River. + + _T._--Why do you think Halifax was chosen as one terminus? + + _P._--Because it is near the sea. + + _T._--Well, Quebec is not far from the sea either. + + _P._--It is the nearest port for ocean-going steamers. + + _T._--Do you know what happens to the St. Lawrence every winter? + + _P._--It freezes up. + + _T._--Yes. It is frozen over for about four months in the winter, + and ocean-going vessels cannot use the river then, so Halifax was + chosen as a good winter port on the Atlantic. Now, what place on + the St. Lawrence would be chosen as the other terminus? + + _P._--Most likely either Quebec or Montreal. + + _T._--We can tell better a little later which one was actually + chosen. Here is a thing that I want you to think about. Why should + they build the railway just to the St. Lawrence? Were there many + people living in Upper Canada fifty years ago? + + _P._--Yes, as many people as there were in Quebec province. + + _T._--Really there were about 250,000 more here than in Quebec. How + would the people here ship their goods in the winter? How do we + send our goods to Europe now in winter? + + (Several suggestions were made. Finally it was stated that we could + ship by water in summer, and by rail in winter.) + + _T._--You know that there are some rapids on the St. Lawrence + before we reach Montreal. How do we manage about them? + + _P._--By using the canals. + + _T._--How can we ship by rail? + + _P._--By using the Grand Trunk or the Canadian Pacific Railway. + + _T._--Now, I shall have to tell you something about the canals and + the first railway from Upper Canada. There were several canals + already built on the St. Lawrence: the Lachine, Welland, and + others. In fact, we had spent about $1,500,000 on canals before + Confederation. The Grand Trunk Railway was running from Sarnia to + Quebec city by 1856, just eleven years before Confederation. (Have + a pupil trace the line from Sarnia to Quebec, so that the class may + see how much of Upper Canada was served by the Grand Trunk.) Can + you tell me now what place on the St. Lawrence would be taken as + the western terminus of the new railway? + + _P._--Yes, Quebec would be the one. + + _T._--Why? + + _P._--Because the people of Upper Canada had ways already for + sending their goods as far as Quebec city. + + _T._--The next point to think about is--How had Canada been + shipping her goods across the sea in winter before this? + + (Several suggestions were made. "We would have to keep everything + till the next summer." "We would have to use ice-boats." Objections + were raised to these methods to show that they were impossible. + Finally one pupil thought that we could send our freight through + the United States.) + + _T._--Well, why did the people not continue doing that, instead of + wanting to build a railway of their own? + + _P._--The United States would likely make them pay for doing it. + + _T._--Let me explain about that. In 1854, a treaty had been made + between Canada and the United States, called the Reciprocity + Treaty, by which the two countries exchanged their goods freely. + This treaty was ended in 1866, and the people of Canada had to + depend more on themselves. Besides, there was a good deal of + trouble between Britain and the United States, arising out of the + Civil War in the latter country, which had just ended. (The pupils + are told here about the "Trent" and "Alabama" affairs, and the + Fenian raids of 1866.) The people at that time were afraid that + there might be war between the two countries and, of course, that + would bring Canada into the trouble. Do you see now why a railway + was needed from Quebec to Halifax? + + _P._--Because there was danger of war, and because the United + States might interfere with Canadian trade. + + _T._--There were both military and commercial reasons. We have + found now why the road was to run from Halifax to Quebec, and why + it had to be built at that time. The next thing to find out + is--Where it was to be built. If you were a railway contractor and + had to build the road without thinking of anything but getting it + done, what route would you be likely to follow? + + _P._--I think I should take the shortest way. + + _T._--Where would the road go then? + + (Have a pupil place a ruler on the map from Quebec to Halifax.) + + Tell where it would run. + + _P._--Through Quebec Province, the State of Maine, New Brunswick, + and Nova Scotia. + + _T._--Would the people build it along that line? Don't forget the + reasons for building it at all. + + _P._--They wouldn't go through the State of Maine, because that is + in the United States. + + _T._--What is the next way they might think of? + + _P._--The next shortest way so as to keep in Canada. + + _T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes up and tells from the map.) + + _P._--From Quebec city through Quebec, along the edge of Maine, + into New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. + + _T._--Would they take that way? + + _P._--No, because it is too near the border of the United States. + + _T._--Why do you say "too near"? + + _P._--If there was war, soldiers from the United States might come + over and wreck the railway. They might dynamite the bridges or tear + up the rails. + + _T._--As a matter of fact, they did not take that way. What route + could be taken to prevent any trouble of that kind? + + _P._--They would stay as far from the border as possible. + + _T._--Where would that be? (Pupil comes to the map to find out.) + + _P._--They would have to follow the St. Lawrence for some distance. + + _T._--How far? + + _P._--Right down to the other side of New Brunswick. Then down to + Halifax. + + _T._--Would that be the cheapest line to build? + + _P._--It would cost more, because it is longer than the others. + + _T._--It is really 138 miles longer than the next shortest. Which + of the reasons we have mentioned would make them want to keep as + far from the border as they could? + + _P._--The military reason. + + _T._--Which country, Canada or Britain, would be the most + interested in the military considerations? + + _P._--Britain, because Canada depended on her for protection. + + _T._--Is there any other reason, one connected with the cost? Where + would the money come from? + + _P._--Britain would likely have to supply a good part of it. + + _T._--Why? + + _P._--Because there were not very many people here then. + + _T._--Yes, we have to borrow a good deal of money for such purposes + even yet. The British Government was to supply the money for the + railway, and would want to have something to say as to where it was + to be built. + +The pupils could now be asked to discover from the map the chief places +on the line of the railway. Have them written on the board. The teacher +would add some information about the length of the line (1,450 miles), +and the total cost ($80,000,000). He might also refer to the fact that +the fear of war that caused that route to be followed was not realized, +that the Intercolonial did good service in bringing the provinces closer +together, and that other railways have since been built on the two +rejected routes, namely, the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Grand +Trunk Pacific. + +The facts of the lesson should then be gone over again, following the +black-board outline that has been made as the lesson proceeds. + + +BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE + + 1. Provision in the British North America Act for the building of + the road + + 2. Reasons for building the road + + (_a_) Military + (_b_) Commercial + + 3. Selection of the route + + (_a_) Routes that were possible + (_b_) Reasons for the final choice + + 4. Facts about the road + + (_a_) Principal places on the road + (_b_) Branches of the road + (_c_) Length and cost + + 5. Value of the road to the new Dominion + +The class may be asked afterwards to draw a map showing the route and +the chief commercial centres served by the railway. + + +INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN ENGLAND, 1760-1800. + + NOTE.--This lesson should be preceded by an information + lesson on the making of cotton goods--the material, how and where + the raw material is grown, how it is harvested, the difference + between spinning and weaving, the meaning of warp and woof. + +The aim of this lesson is to show how a remarkable series of inventions +changed completely the processes of manufacturing, made England the +greatest manufacturing nation in the world, and gave her a source of +wealth that enabled her to carry on the costly wars against Napoleon. +The half century of this revolution is one of the most important in +English history, on account of the results in methods of transportation, +in agriculture, in social conditions, etc., and it is almost impossible +to have a satisfactory knowledge of succeeding history without +understanding this period. It is for this reason that it is treated at +such length. + +This may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher wishes. The +dates given are not intended to be memorized by the pupils; they are +introduced simply to emphasize the order of the inventions. To emphasize +further the sequence, the class may be asked at each step what invention +would be needed next. The oral method--both pure narrative, and +development--is supposed to be used. + +1. _Domestic System of Manufacture._--Before 1760 the manufacture of +cotton goods was carried on in the homes of the people. A spinner would +procure a supply of raw cotton from the dealer and carry it home, where, +with the help of his family, he would spin it into threads or yarn and +return it to the dealer. The spinning was all done by hand or foot-power +on a wheel that required one person to run it, and that would make only +one thread at a time. The weaving was also done at home. Because of the +use of Kay's flying shuttle (1732), the demand of the weavers for yarn +was greater than the spinners could supply, because one weaver could use +the product of many spinners, and there was great need of finding some +way of producing yarn more rapidly, to keep the weavers busy. + +2. _Hargreaves' Spinning-jenny._--The first important invention of the +period was the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves (1764). This man was an +ordinary spinner, and the story is told that one day, when he was +returning from the dealer with a fresh supply of cotton, he came home +before his wife expected him. Supper was not ready, and in her haste to +rise to prepare it, she overturned the wheel when it was still in +motion. Hargreaves, entering at that moment, noticed that the spindle, +usually horizontal, was now revolving in an upright position. This gave +him the idea, and a short time afterwards he invented a machine with +which one person could spin several threads at once (at first eight). +From it has been developed the complicated machinery for spinning used +to-day. + +3. _Arkwright's Spinning-frame or Water-frame._ Sir Richard Arkwright +invented, in 1771, a machine that accomplished the whole process of +spinning, the worker merely feeding the machine and tying breaks in the +thread. This machine was run by water-power, thus doing away with +hand-power and allowing the operator to attend entirely to the spinning. + +4. _The Mule._ In 1779, Crompton invented a mule, by which threads of a +finer and stronger quality could be spun, and thus made it possible to +weave any grade of cloth. + +5. _The Power-loom._ The spinners were now able to keep ahead of the +weavers, till Cartwright invented, in 1785, a power-loom that enabled +the weavers to work faster and use all the thread that the spinners +could make. + +6. _The Steam-engine._ These machines were run by hand or water-power. +In 1785, Watts' steam-engine, invented several years before this, was +used in the manufacture of cotton, and manufacturers were now able to +use all the raw material they could get. The use of steam instead of +water-power led to the building of factories in cities, where labour was +plentiful and transportation facilities good. This meant large cities. + +7. _The Cotton-gin._ Cotton had to be cleaned of its seeds before it +could be used in the factory. This had to be done by hand, which greatly +hindered the supply of raw material. A good deal of the raw cotton came +from the United States, and the planters there grew no more than could +be cleaned and sold. In 1792, Eli Whitney, an American, invented the +cotton-gin, by which the cotton could be cleaned of its seed very +quickly. Formerly a workman could clean by hand only five pounds of +cotton a week; by the saw-gin five hundred pounds could be cleaned in an +hour. (If a cotton-boll can be procured, the pupils will soon discover +how difficult it is to separate the seeds from the cotton.) More cotton +was then grown, because it could be sold to the factories, and England +was able to get all she required to keep the factories going. It may be +added here that the increase in cotton growing required more hands for +its cultivation; at that time, this meant more slaves; the cotton-gin +was therefore a large factor in the slave troubles in the Southern +States that led to the Civil War. + +8. _Coal-mining and Smelting._ These machines were made of iron, and +coal was needed to run the engines and to smelt the iron. There was +plenty of coal in England, but very little was mined until the steam +pump was brought into use to keep the mines clear of water. When this +was done, more men went to work in the mines to get out the greater +amount of coal that was now needed. There was also plenty of iron ore in +England, and before this it had been smelted by means of charcoal, which +is made from wood. This slow and wasteful method was followed until +Roebuck invented a process of smelting by coal, and thus made possible a +plentiful supply of iron for the manufacture of the machines. + +9. _The Safety Lamp._ Coal-mining was a dangerous occupation, because of +the fire-damp that is generated in mines. The open lamps used by the +miners often caused this gas to explode and many men lost their lives +thereby. To remedy this, Sir Humphrey Davy invented the safety lamp in +1815, which gave the miners the light they needed and prevented these +explosions. + +10. _Transportation._ Now that there was so much manufacturing carried +on, people turned their attention to ways of transporting the goods to +where they were needed. The roads were generally wretched, and in many +parts of the country goods had to be carried on the backs of horses, as +the roads were not fit for wheels. Macadam, by using broken stone to +form the road-crust or surface, brought about a great improvement in +road-making. (Show pictures of old-time roads and of the roads to-day.) + +Transportation by water was difficult by reasons of the obstructions in +rivers. To overcome these, canals were dug. The first one was made in +1761 between some coal-mines and the town of Manchester. Before 1800 +many more were dug, and transportation became much easier. + +11. _Agriculture._ The number of people engaged in the factories was +increasing and these could not grow their own food. This made it +necessary for the farmers to increase their output. Farms became larger; +better methods of cultivation were used; winter roots were grown, making +it possible to raise better cattle; fertilizers were used in greater +quantities, and the rotation of crops was introduced to prevent the +exhaustion of the soil. + +12. _Social Conditions._ Out of the factory system grew the division of +classes into capital and labour, the struggle between which is the great +problem of to-day. It was then that labour unions came into existence. + +We see, as a result of these inventions, that England was changed from +an agricultural country to a land of large manufacturing cities, and +became the chief manufacturing centre of the world, able to supply money +to defeat Napoleon Bonaparte, who is credited with the statement that it +was not England's armies that defeated him, but her "spindles." + + NOTE.--The teacher may refer to some of the modern social + problems resulting in large part from this industrializing of the + country: overcrowding in cities, bad housing and slums, urban and + suburban transportation, educational problems, intemperance, + decrease in physique, etc. (For the history of this period, see _A + History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack, + Edinburgh.) + + +THE ROAD TO CATHAY + +The aim of this lesson is to show how the desire of certain European +nations to find a western route to the rich countries of the +East--India, Cathay, and Cipango (India, China, and Japan)--led to the +discovery and subsequent exploration of America. It can be used as a +review lesson on the exploration of Canada. It will also give the pupil +practice in collecting information from various sources so as to show +the development of history along a certain line. + +The subject-matter may be divided into as many lessons as the teacher +thinks best, and the oral method should be used. All the dates given are +not intended to be memorized; they are used to show the historical +sequence; only three or four of the most important need be committed to +memory by the class at their present stage. The map should be used +frequently. + + +THE LESSON + +One of the results of the Crusades was to reveal to the European nations +the wealth of the East. Trade between the East and West grew, and Venice +became one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the states of Europe. + +In 1295, a Venetian traveller named Marco Polo returned from Cathay +after an absence of twenty-five years. His stories of the wealth in +silks, spices, pearls, etc., of those eastern countries intensified the +desire of the West to trade with them. A great commerce soon grew up, +carried on principally by the great Italian cities--Venice, Florence, +Genoa, Pisa, Milan--and as these cities controlled the Mediterranean, +the only route to Asia then known, they had a monopoly of the Eastern +trade, and kept for a time the other western nations--Spain, Portugal, +France, and England--from sharing in it. These nations, animated by the +hope of gain and by the spirit of adventure and exploration, could not +long be denied their share. This spirit was stimulated by the +introduction of the mariner's compass, which afforded sailors a safer +guide than landmarks and stars; by the invention of gunpowder and the +use of cannon, which, through lessening the strength of the mediaeval +castle, tended to increase the power of the middle classes; and by the +invention of printing, which aided greatly in the diffusion of +knowledge. + +The problem was to find a route by which to trade with India and China. + + Place the map of the world before the pupils and inquire how men + travel to-day from Great Britain to India. Show that these routes + were not feasible then. The route through the Mediterranean to Asia + Minor and thence overland, or through the Red Sea to India, was + closed by the Turks, who captured Constantinople in 1453. The Suez + Canal was not opened till 1869. The way round the Cape of Good + Hope was not discovered till 1497. The western route across the + Atlantic and the Pacific was unknown. + +Not till the closing years of the fifteenth century were the attempts to +solve this problem successful. The discovery of the route to India by +Vasco de Gama in 1497 first opened the way to the East, though the still +earlier discovery by Columbus was to afford, in later years, a much more +complete solution. + +Christopher Columbus was a native of Genoa in Italy. An eager student of +geography, he became convinced that the earth was a sphere or globe and +not a flat surface. He believed that he could reach India and Cathay by +sailing west, as well as by going east through the Mediterranean--a +route that had been closed since the capture of Constantinople by the +Turks in 1453. "This grand idea, together with his services in carrying +it out, he offered first to his motherland of Genoa. But Genoa did not +want a new route to the East. Then he turned, but in vain, to Portugal. +The hopes of Portugal were set upon a passage around the south of +Africa. To England and to France Columbus held out his wondrous offer; +but these countries were slow and unbelieving. It was to Spain he made +his most persistent appeal; and Spain, to his imperishable glory, gave +ear." Through the self-denial and devotion of Queen Isabella of Castile +he was enabled to put his dream to the test. + + A special lesson should be given on the life of Columbus--his + efforts, perseverance, courage, failures, successes. The teacher + may add at will to the facts given here. Read Joaquin Miller's + Poem, "Columbus," _High School Reader_, pp. 143-145. + +When Columbus landed on the island-fringe of America in 1492, he thought +he had found what he had set out to find--the eastern country of India; +and he believed it all his life. This idea survived for several +generations, partly because of the great wealth of Mexico and Peru. When +Europeans were at last convinced that it was not India, they began again +to seek a way to the East, and looked on the continent of America merely +as an obstacle in their path. To find the road to Cathay was still their +chief ambition. + +In 1497, John Cabot, under a charter from Henry VII of England, set out +to find a way to the East, and landed on North America; in 1498, his +son, Sebastian Cabot, explored the coast from Labrador to South +Carolina, with the same object. + +In 1534, on his first voyage, Cartier thought, when he arrived at Gaspe +and saw the great river coming from the west, that he had discovered the +gateway to the East. + +With the same object in view, Champlain, in 1609, explored the Richelieu +River and Lake Champlain. In 1613, he listened, only to be deceived, to +the story of Vignau about a way to the East up the Ottawa River to a +large lake and into another river that would lead to the Western Sea. + +Henry Hudson made four voyages in search of a way through or round the +continent. On the first, second, and fourth, he tried to go round by a +North-west or a North-east passage. On the third voyage, in 1609, he +sailed up the Hudson River for 150 miles, only to find his way blocked. +A curious fact is that on this voyage he must, at one time, have been +only about twenty leagues from Champlain, when the latter was exploring +Lake Champlain on the same errand. (Show this on the map.) On his fourth +voyage, in 1610, Hudson discovered the bay that now bears his name, and +he must have thought, when he saw that great stretch of water to the +West, that he was at last successful. He wintered there, and when the +ice broke up in the spring, his men mutinied and set him, his young son, +and two companions, adrift in a boat, and they were never heard of +again. (See _The Story of the British People_ pp. 234-235.) + +The Mississippi was long looked upon as a possible way to the Pacific +Ocean. La Salle explored the great lakes and the Ohio, Illinois, and +Mississippi Rivers. This last he found to flow south into the Gulf of +Mexico, instead of west into the Pacific Ocean. His settlement on +Montreal Island was called _La Chine_ (the French word for China), in +allusion to his desire to find the way to that country. + +Later, others were led by the same desire to explore the western part of +what is now Canada. Verendrye, in 1731, travelled from Lake Nepigon by +way of Rainy Lake, the Winnipeg River, and the Red River, to the +junction of the latter with the Assiniboine, where Winnipeg now stands; +also up the Saskatchewan River to the Forks. His son, in 1742, explored +the Missouri River and came within sight of the Rocky Mountains. + +Men of the Hudson's Bay Company and of the North-West +Company--Mackenzie, Fraser, Thompson, Simpson, Hearne--amid great +hardships and through thrilling adventures, continued the work of +exploring the waterways of the West to find an opening to the Pacific. + +It has remained to the people of Canada to conquer the passes of the +Rockies and Selkirks, build great transcontinental railways and +steamship lines, and thus afford a direct short route from Europe to +Cathay. What men had striven for during more than four hundred years it +has been our lot to accomplish. + +Other topics of interest suggested by the lesson may be taken up +afterwards; for example, the opening of the Suez Canal and its effect +on trade--why it did not restore supremacy to the Italian cities; the +opening of the Panama Canal and its probable effect on commerce; the +reasons why merchants prefer water routes to land routes, etc. + + +TOPICAL ANALYSIS OF LESSON ON THE ARMADA + +The purpose of this lesson is to show how to construct a topical outline +of an important event in history. It is assumed that the teacher will +use, in preparing similar lessons, a larger history of Britain than the +Public School text-book, in order that the class may be asked, after the +lesson is taught, to read in their text-books an account somewhat +different in treatment from that of the teacher. The headings should +show the sequence of events and should be concise. The smaller print +indicates the facts that the brief headings should recall to the pupils +after the lesson. The events preceding the coming of the Armada are +suggested here among the causes. These headings may be placed on the +black-board as the lesson proceeds; they may be suggested by either +teacher or pupils. The actual teaching should be by both narrative and +development methods. + +For the teacher's use a very interesting and trustworthy book is _A +History of the British Nation_, by A.D. Innes, T.C. & E.C. Jack, +Edinburgh. + + +I. CAUSES + +1. _Political._--(_a_) Ambition of Philip to rule Europe; chief +obstacles were England, France, The Netherlands. + + (The opposition of France was overcome by a treaty and by the + marriage of Philip and Isabella of France after Elizabeth had + refused Philip's offer of marriage. The Netherlands were in full + revolt and could not be conquered even by the cruelties of Alva and + the destruction of their commerce. England was the chief Protestant + power in Europe and, as such, was the chief opponent of Spain.) + +(_b_) The marriage trouble; Elizabeth's religious policy broke off +negotiations of marriage with Philip. + +(_c_) Philip received as a legacy the rights of Mary Queen, of Scots to +the English throne. + +2. _Commercial_.--Interference of the English in the New World, to which +Spain claimed sole right. + + (This includes the English settlements as well as the capture of + Spanish treasure ships. Recall stories of Drake, Hawkins, etc.) + +3. _Religious._--Philip was the chief supporter of Roman Catholicism in +Europe, and wished to impose his religion on England. + + (This was the period of compulsion in religious matters.) + + +II. EVENTS + +1. Preparations in Spain and England. + + (Spain set about preparing a large fleet, to carry soldiers as well + as sailors. The best Spanish general was in command at first. His + death put an incapable man in command, who was largely responsible + for the defeat. The Duke of Parma was to co-operate from the + Netherlands with a large army. In England, the small battle fleet + was increased by the voluntary contributions of all classes till it + actually outnumbered the Spanish fleet, though the vessels were + very much smaller. A comparison of the fleets as they were on the + eve of battle should be made.) + +2. Difference in the national spirit in the two countries. + + (The Spanish were on an expedition of conquest; the sailors were + ill-trained and many serving against their will. The English were + defending their homes; they forgot their religious and political + differences in their patriotism; the sailors were hardy, fearless, + and most skilful in handling their ships.) + +3. The affair at Cadiz. + + (Retarded the invasion for a year, gave England more time for + preparation, and encouraged hopes of success.) + +4. The battle in the Channel. + + (Armada attacked on the way to Dover, July 28-Aug. 6, 1588; + fireships at Calais, Aug. 6; final engagement, Aug. 8-9; a chance + for a vivid description by the teacher.) + +5. Storm completes the ruin of the Armada. + + (Facts to be given as to the losses of the Armada; recall stories + of wrecked Spanish vessels on the coasts of Scotland, etc., and + recommend class to read some story, such as Kingsley's _Westward + Ho!_) + + +III. RESULTS + +1. Ruin of Spain and of Philip's ambitions. [Connect with I. 1 (_a_)] + +2. Influence on England's patriotism and maritime power. + +3. Greater religious tolerance in England. + +4. Marvellous growth of literature in England partly due to this. + +5. Effect on America. It decided for all time that Spain should not rule +the New World, but that the Anglo-Saxons should, with all their ideals +of political, social, and religious liberty. + +(See _P.S. History of England_, secs. 135-142.) + + +LESSON ON THE FEUDAL SYSTEM + +(As many lesson periods as may be found desirable) + +_Aim._ To give the pupils a knowledge of the manner in which land was +held, (1) by the Saxons at different periods on the continent and in +England; (2) by the French; (3) by the Normans under William the +Conqueror, showing the changes he made in both Saxon and French systems. + + +STEP I + +1. _Introduction._ By questioning, the teacher elicits from one pupil +that his father owns a farm; from another, that his father rents a farm; +from a third, that his father works one "on shares." From this may be +derived the meaning of "freehold," "leasehold," and "on shares," as +applied to ways of holding land. For town and city classes, a parallel +may be made by substituting "house" for "farm." As holding property "on +shares" is not so common in cities, suggest possible cases, such as a +florist's business, a rink, etc. + +2. Let pupils read the sketch of the Saxon or "mark" system given in the +_Ontario Public School History of England_, pp. 22 and 30; and then draw +a plan of a Saxon village from the passages read. + + +STEP II + +(Given to the class by the teacher's oral explanation) + +1. _The Saxon System:_ Further study of the early land tenure of the +Saxons. (See _Ontario High School History of England_, p. 33.) The +following extract from Oman's _England before the Norman Conquest_ may +be of assistance: + + The typical free settlement of an English _maegth_ (or kindred) + consisted first of the large arable fields divided up into narrow + strips, of which each household possessed several, next of the + almost equally prized meadow, which was hedged off into + appropriated lots in summer, but thrown back into common in winter, + and lastly of the undistributed waste, from which the whole + community would draw its wood supply, and on which it would pasture + its swine, or even turn out its cattle for rough grazing at some + seasons. + + The normal method of agriculture was the "three-field system," with + a rotation of wheat, barley, or oats, and in the third year, + fallow--to allow of the exhausted soil regaining some measure of + its fertility. In the last year the field was left unfenced and the + cattle of the community picked up what they could from it, when + they were neither on the waste, nor being fed with the hay that had + been mowed from the meadow. There seem to have been exceptional + cases in which the strips of the arable were not permanently + allotted to different households, but were distributed, by lot or + otherwise, to different holders in different years. But this was an + abnormal arrangement; usually the proprietorship of the strips in + each field was fixed. And the usual arrangement would be that the + fully endowed ceorl's household had just so much arable in its + various strips as a full team of oxen could plough. + +Then explain the origin of the names "Eorl" and "Thegn" (_P.S. Hist. of +Eng._, pp. 34 and 37); the idea of protection (_P.S. Hist. of Eng._, p. +37), and of sharing in the produce of the land, and the payment of +necessary fees to the King. Emphasize the ownership of the land by the +freeman. + +2. _The Courts_: The _Witan_, which could displace the king for certain +reasons, the _Shire_ or _folk-moot_, and the _Tun-moot_; their powers; +the people looked to these courts for justice. + +3. _Change_ brought about by Danish raids--small freeholders sought +protection from the greater lords; the shifting of ownership from small +landowners to "eorls." + + +STEP III + +_The Feudal System in France:_ (Read Scott's _Quentin Durward_.) Barons +too powerful for the king for various reasons: + +1. Their property was large and compact. + +2. They administered justice, issued coinage, etc. + +3. Vassals swore allegiance to their immediate superior. + +By means of problem-questions develop from the pupils what William would +probably do to strengthen his own position. + + +STEP IV + +_The Feudal System under William:_ (Note the innovations of William.) + +1. The land belonged solely to the king; it was not the Normans as a +tribe, but William personally, who conquered England. + +2. The estates of the nobles were divided, either deliberately or +because the land was conquered piecemeal and parcelled out as it was +conquered. (For example, Odo had 473 manors in 17 counties.) + +3. The vassals swore direct allegiance to the king. + +4. The Witan was displaced by the Great Council, the members of which +were the king's vassals; therefore with him, not against him. + +5. The king's use of shire-reeves, personal dependants, who led the +military levy of the counties and collected the king's taxes. + +6. What were the chief taxes? From them came much political trouble in +later times by attempts to rectify abuses in connection with them. + +7. The teacher may describe the ceremony of the feudal oath. + +The important points of each step should be written on the black-board +as they are described or developed. + +(The decay of the Feudal System in England may be the topic of another +lesson.) + + +SEIGNIORIAL TENURE + +The aim of the lesson is to give the pupils a knowledge of the method of +land tenure introduced into Canada by the French; to enable them to +trace the effects of this system upon the progress of the people and the +development of the country; and to increase their interest in the +present system of tenure. + + +METHOD + +In connection with sections 3 and 4 the description of the Feudal System +would show how the land was held in France; first by the king, under him +by the greater nobles, then by the lesser nobles and the gentry, then by +the large farmers who sublet it in small farms or hired men to work it. +Every one who held land had to do something for his lord. When this +description is complete, let the pupils apply it to Canada, the teacher +supplying the names of the corresponding classes in Canada. Then the +pupils may be asked to consider what return each holder would make for +his land; this leads to a statement of the conditions of tenure in +Canada. Then the evils connected with this system may be presented as +another problem; for example, how would the actual workers be +discouraged in making improvements that they would get no credit for? In +connection with section 5, the pupils can contrast the method of holding +land that they are familiar with, that is, by complete ownership, and +can imagine what changes the English settlers would want. They are then +ready to hear how and when these changes were brought about, and at what +cost. + +The method is therefore a combination of the narrative and development, +or problem, methods. + + +THE LESSON + +1. Introduce the lesson by a reference to the system of holding land in +Ontario. (See lesson on the Feudal System.) Develop the leading +principles of freehold tenure. What Act gave the people of Ontario this +method of holding land? We are going to learn something about the system +of holding land adopted by the French when they ruled Canada. (See +_Ontario Public School History_, Chapter IX, also _Ontario High School +History of Canada_, Chap. VIII.) + +2. Under the French the lands of Canada were held in feudal tenure, +which means that the King was regarded as the owner, and that rent was +paid to him, not altogether in money, but partly in military service. +Large portions of land were granted in this way to officers and nobles. +An important and imposing ceremony was that at which the lords of manors +annually did homage to the King's representative at Quebec. These +_seigniors_, as they were called, had great powers within their domains. +This method of tenure was similar to the system of holding land in +France, called the Feudal System. + + At this point the teacher might give a short description of the + Feudal System. Picture to the pupils the old Feudal castle and its + surroundings. Show how ill the common people were provided for in + comparison with the lords. + +3. Cardinal Richelieu introduced feudalism into Canada about the year +1527. He had two objects in view: (_a_) to create a Canadian +aristocracy, (_b_) to establish an easy system of dividing land among +settlers. This system of holding land came to be known as Seigniorial +Tenure. The seignior received vast tracts of land from the King, became +his vassal, and in turn made grants to the _censitaires_, those who held +their land on the payment of an annual rental. The censitaires secured +_habitants_ to cultivate the soil. + +4. The seignior was compelled to clear his estate of forest within a +certain time. In order to do this he rented it, at from half a cent to +two cents an acre, and received his rent in produce. If the censitaire +sold the land which was cleared, he had to pay his seignior one twelfth +of the price. If the seignior parted with his estate, he had to pay the +King one fifth of the selling price. The forests of Canada were not very +attractive to the nobles of France; hence, but few of them settled in +this country. Some of the prominent colonists, however, were granted +patents of nobility and became seigniors. Prevented by their rank from +cultivating the soil, they soon became bankrupt. Then they turned their +attention to the fur-trade, and later many of them became explorers and +the most gallant defenders of New France. + +5. In the year 1760, Canada became a British possession, and English +settlers commenced to make homes for themselves in Upper Canada. Their +number was greatly increased by the United Empire Loyalists who came +over after the American Revolution. The English disliked the French +method of holding land. Under Seigniorial Tenure, the seller of land in +a seigniory was compelled to pay the seignior an amount equal to one +twelfth of the purchase money. As this was chargeable not only on the +value of the land, but also on the value of all buildings and +improvements, which, costing the seigniors nothing, were often more +valuable than the land itself, it was considered by the English settlers +an intolerable handicap. (Centuries before this the Feudal System had +been abolished in England.) + +6. In 1791 the British Parliament passed the Constitutional Act which +gave the people of Upper Canada the privilege of holding lands in their +own name. In Lower Canada, too, those who wished were allowed to avail +themselves of the freehold system, but the French did not take advantage +of their opportunity. In the year 1854 Seigniorial Tenure was abolished, +the Government recompensing the seigniors for the surrender of their +ancient rights and privileges, and freehold tenure, as in Ontario, was +introduced. + +7. Reasons why the Seigniorial Tenure failed: + + (_a_) It was not adapted to conditions in Canada. + + (_b_) It did not provide sufficient incentive to settlers to + improve their lands. + + (_c_) It gave the habitant no chance to rise. + + (_d_) It tended to divide the population into three classes. + + (_e_) It failed to develop a civic spirit. This fact alone made + progress practically impossible. Each seignior was the master of + his own domain. Thus the people had no opportunity of working + together, and under such circumstances no great national spirit + could be developed. + +8. Note the effect of the conquest of Canada and of the American +Revolution, upon Seigniorial Tenure. + + +CONFEDERATION OF CANADIAN PROVINCES + +TOPICAL ANALYSIS + +_Causes:_ + +1. The idea of union an old one in Canada and the Maritime Provinces; +foreshadowed in Durham's Report. + +2. Immediate cause in Canada was the question of representation by +population; deadlock in Parliament. + +3. Immediate cause in Maritime Provinces was the feeling between Britain +and the Colonies and the United States over the _Trent_ affair, the +_Alabama_ trouble, and the idea in the Northern States that the British +Colonies favoured the cause of the South in the Civil War. + + +_Steps toward Confederation:_ + +1. Meeting of delegates from the Maritime Provinces in Charlottetown in +1864. + +2. Meeting in Quebec, 1864, of delegates from all the provinces favours +Confederation. + +3. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island reject the proposal, and +delegates from Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), Nova +Scotia, and New Brunswick proceed to London to secure an Act of Union +from the Imperial Government. + +4. Movement in favour of union hastened by United States giving notice +in 1865 of the termination of the Reciprocity Treaty in a year, and by +the Fenian Raid, 1866. + +5. Union accomplished by means of the British North America Act passed +by the British Parliament in 1867, and brought into force on July 1st, +1867. The provinces confederated as the Dominion of Canada; a Federal +Union. + + +_Outline of Terms:_ + +See _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, p. 215. Provision made +for admission of new provinces. + + +_Expansion of Confederation:_ + +Admission of other provinces--Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871; +Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Yukon +territory also represented in the Dominion Parliament. + + +NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS ON THE +HISTORY OF A COUNTRY + +CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY + + +GENERAL + +The history of a nation is influenced very largely by geographical +facts. Its internal relations, whether friendly or hostile, are affected +by these. Natural barriers, such as mountains, seas, or great lakes and +rivers, are often political frontiers exerting protecting or isolating +influence. + +Its industrial progress depends primarily upon its natural +products--minerals, grains, woods, fish, etc., and the facilities which +its structure affords for trade, both domestic and foreign. A sea-coast, +with satisfactory harbours, tends to produce a sea-faring people, and +therefore a trading people. + +The character of its people is conditioned by the zone in which the +nation is situated. In the north temperate zone is the climate best +suited for the growth of peoples vigorous in mind and body, and lovers +of freedom. + + +ENGLAND + +_Position:_ The forming of the Straits of Dover cut off a corner of +Europe, made Great Britain an island, and later a single political unit. +Situated between Europe and America with ports opening toward each, her +position gives her the opportunity for naval and commercial greatness. +The narrow sea separating her from the continent is a defence in war and +a means of intercourse in peace. + +_Structure:_ Two regions--one of plain, the other of hills; a line drawn +from the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn and continued to +the south coast roughly divides these regions. The part lying east of +this line is, roughly speaking, level and fertile, tempting emigration +from the continent, and easily explored inward. The Angles, the Saxons, +and the Jutes found their way into this plain through the rivers that +flowed east and south. The Pennines, the Welsh Peninsula, and the +southwest of England from Bristol are in the hilly part, which, because +of its mineral wealth, has become the great industrial district. + +_Climate:_ Though England lies north of the fiftieth parallel, the moist +southwest winds from the ocean temper the climate, making the winters +mild and the summers cool, a climate favourable to the growth of a +vigorous race. There is an abundant rainfall. + +_Products:_ On the plains a fertile soil supported a large agricultural, +and therefore self-contained, population in the earlier days, and the +slopes furnished pasturage for cattle and sheep. Proximity to coal is an +almost indispensable condition for industries, though other +considerations come in. In the hill country coal and iron, essential +materials for a manufacturing nation, lie near to the deposits of +limestone necessary for smelting the iron ore. The coal-fields on or +near the coast are centres of shipbuilding; and the interior coal-fields +the centres of the great textile industries. Because of her insular +position and fleets of ships the raw products from other countries can +be brought to England easily and cheaply, and then shipped out as +manufactured goods. + +Consult: _A Historical Geography of the British Empire_. Hereford B. +George, Methuen & Co., London. _The Relations of Geography and History_. +Hereford B. George, Clarendon Press, Oxford. + + +ANOTHER FORM OF THE LESSON + +The teacher will announce the topic for discussion, namely, how the +history of Great Britain has been affected by her insular position. + + _T._--Trace on the map the coast line of Great Britain. (Pupil does + so.) What do you notice about the coast line in comparison to the + size of the Island? + + _P._--It is very irregular and has a good many bays and inlets. + + _T._--Would this have any effect on the life and occupations of the + people? + + _P._--They would almost have to be sailors. + + _T._--In other words, a maritime people. Do you think that is + usual? Look at the coast line of Japan. (Class sees that it is much + the same as that of Britain: the Japanese are also a maritime + race.) What is one occupation the people would follow? + + _P._--They would probably be fishermen. (The teacher may give some + idea of the extent of the fishing. The same may be done with each + new point, as it comes up.) + + _T._--What else would they do? + + _P._--They would probably engage in trade or commerce. + + _T._--With which countries? Study the map for a moment. + + _P._--With those on the west of Europe, and with America. + + _T._--Yes. You must notice that Great Britain is situated very + favourably for trade with the whole world. Is there anything on the + map to show this? + + _P._--There are a great many lines on the map that show the water + routes from Britain to almost every country in the world. + + _T._--Suppose Britain had trouble with any other country that might + be a cause of war, would her position make any difference to her? + + _P._--No country could attack her except by water. + + _T._--How would she defend herself? + + _P._--She would have to depend on her ships. (A good opening for a + brief outline of the growth of the navy.) + + _T._--Where would she get her ships? + + _P._--She builds them herself. + + _T._--Isn't she dependent on any other nation at all? + + _P._--No, she has always had the material in her own country for + that. + + _T._--What are they built of? + + _P._--The old ships were wooden, and she had plenty of the best + timber,--oak. + + _T._--What are they built of to-day? + + _P._--Most of them are of iron. + + _T._--Where does she get that? + + _P._--From her own mines. + + _T._--Now, look at the latitude of Britain. What part of our + country has the same latitude? + + _P._--Labrador. + + _T._--What is the climate of Labrador? + + _P._--Very cold. + + _T._--Then the climate of Britain ought to be the same? + + _P._--The water around it would make it not so cold. + + _T._--Yes. The ocean currents from the south help to make the + climate milder, too. There would be plenty of rain, besides. Now, + how would a moist, mild climate affect agriculture in England? + + _P._--They ought to be able to grow almost everything that we can. + +(Similarly, many other points may be taken up and developed with the +class.) + + +ST. LAWRENCE RIVER + +INCIDENTAL TEACHING OF HISTORY WITH GEOGRAPHY + + +_Aim._--To show general connection between history and geography. + +_Material Required._--A black-board sketch of that part of Canada +adjacent to the St. Lawrence and a set of pictures (or picture +post-cards) showing the important historical sites along the banks of +the river. + +_Introduction._--The teacher asks a few questions to make clear the +purpose of the map and to fix the location of the principal towns and +cities--Kingston, Brockville, Prescott, Ogdensburg, Morrisburg, +Cornwall, Lachine, Montreal, Three Rivers, Levis, Quebec, Tadoussac, and +Gaspe. + +_Presentation._--The lesson is assumed to be a pleasure trip by boat +from Port Hope to the Atlantic. The teacher will tell of the departure +from Port Hope and the arrival at Kingston, the first port. While there, +he will ask why the place was given the name of Kingston. (It was named +in honour of George III; as Queenston, at the upper end of the lake, was +in honour of Queen Charlotte.) Leaving Kingston the teacher will +describe (showing pictures) the appearance of the fort on the point and, +with the pupils, will recall its establishment by Frontenac in 1673, and +its use as a check on the Indians, and will note its use now as a +storehouse, barracks, and training camp for soldiers. (_Ontario Public +School History_, pp. 51, 114.) + +As the trip is continued down the river, they notice, in passing, the +beautiful Thousand Islands, and the town of Brockville--its name +commemorating the hero of Queenston Heights. Immediately below Prescott +is seen on the bank of the river an old wind-mill, the scene of the +Patriot invasion under Von Schultz, a Polish adventurer. (See _Ontario +Public School History_, p. 178, and picture in Weaver's _Canadian +History for Boys and Girls_, p. 227.) + +Across the river lies Ogdensburg, the scene of a raid in 1813. Colonel +Macdonell, the British leader, who was drilling his small force on the +ice, made a sudden attack upon the town, defeated the Americans, +captured a large amount of stores and ammunition, and burned four armed +vessels which lay in the harbour. (See _Ontario Public School History_, +p. 155.) + +From this point the boat passes rapidly through the narrow part of the +river at Iroquois (recall the Indians of that name), past the +flourishing town of Morrisburg, until, on the north bank, appears a +monument of gray granite, erected as a memorial of the battle of +Crysler's Farm, fought in this vicinity in 1813. (See _Ontario Public +School History_, p. 159.) + +After passing through the Long Sault Rapids, Cornwall, noted as the seat +of the first Grammar School in Ontario, is reached. The river now widens +into a lake and does not narrow until it passes Coteau, after which it +passes through a chain of rapids and nears Lachine, the "La Chine" of La +Salle, and the scene of numerous Indian fights and massacres. (See +_Ontario School Geography_, p. 116, and _Ontario Public School History +of Canada_, p. 60.) Ten miles to the east is Montreal, the most populous +city in Canada, with its Royal Mount, and its many memories of early +settlement in Canada. (See _Ontario School Geography_, p. 121.) + +Just above Quebec the river, now two miles wide, passes the bold cliffs +up which Wolfe's men climbed to the Plains of Abraham, and sweeps around +the Citadel and Lower Town. On the heights may be seen the monuments +erected in honour of Champlain, and Wolfe and Montcalm. In imagination, +pictures may be formed of the scenes that marked the close of French +Rule in Canada. The river flows on past Tadoussac, long the centre of +the Canadian fur-trade, past Gaspe where Cartier landed and laid claim +to the surrounding country in the name of the king of France, till its +banks fade from sight and its waters mingle with those of the Atlantic. + +In teaching such lessons as this, the oral narrative and question method +is used. It is a review lesson, and reproduction may follow in a written +exercise. + + +THE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND FROM 1066 TO 1603 + +The purpose of this analysis is to explain by what show of right the +kings of England interfered so much in Scottish affairs. The analysis +also aims to show how correct and definite views on certain topics may +be had only by following out those topics through history, neglecting +all facts but those bearing on the topic studied. + +1. In the tenth century, Malcolm I obtained Strathclyde (see map, +_Ontario Public School History of England_, p. 27) as a fief from Edmund +of England. His grandson, Malcolm II, was invested with Lothian, before +this a part of the English earldom of Northumbria. These fiefs are the +basis of all claims afterwards made by English kings as overlords of +Scotland. + +2. Malcolm III (1057-1093) married Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling. +The Norman conquest drove many Saxons north, and the Saxon element in +Scotland was strengthened by this. + +3. William the Conqueror compelled Malcolm's submission, 1072. This kept +alive the English claims. + +4. Henry I married Matilda of Scotland. Many Normans went to Scotland in +the reign of David (1124-1153). The Feudal System was introduced and +firmly established under Norman influence. Ecclesiastical foundation +begun. Friendly relations strengthened. + +5. As the price of his liberty, William the Lyon agreed, by the +Convention of Falaise, 1174, to hold Scotland as a fief of England. + +6. To raise money for his Crusade, Richard I of England renounced, in +1189, his feudal rights over Scotland for 10,000 marks, and for the +first time acknowledged her independence. + +7. The border line was fixed for the first time in 1222. + +8. The death of Margaret, daughter of Alexander III, 1286, left the +crown a bone of contention; Balliol finally secured it by favour of +Edward I of England, the overlord of Scotland. Then followed the War of +Independence under Wallace and Bruce and the Battle of Bannockburn, +1314. This long and destructive war caused the Scots to have a deadly +hatred of the English, and drove Scotland into alliance with France, the +great enemy of England, and consolidated the different races in +Scotland. + +9. Scotland thus became involved in the many wars between England and +France and attacked England whenever she and France were at war. + +10. In 1327, the independence of Scotland was acknowledged. + +11. Friendship with France and distrust of England continued well into +the Reformation period, and in the main determined Scotland's foreign +policy. + +12. With the change of religion in Scotland at the Reformation, French +influence came to an end. Religious sympathy overcame the political +hatred of England. + +13. The trouble in connection with Mary Queen of Scots and her +imprisonment made for peace between the two countries, as Scotland did +not want to have Mary released for fear of further civil war. + +14. The accession of James VI, a Scottish king, to the throne of +England, ended almost entirely the differences between the two +countries, and led finally to the Legislative Union a century later +(1707). + + +ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS 160-170, ONTARIO PUBLIC SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND + +The Parliament had already established its sole right to levy taxation. +(See Green's _Short History of the English People_, p. 478.) Under +Charles I the struggle was mainly about the manner in which the taxes +should be spent; in other words, the Parliament was trying to secure +control of the executive, the other important element in Responsible +Government. + +Charles I held very strongly the belief in the "divine right" of kings +and, naturally, this belief did not harmonize with the aim of +Parliament. Disputes were constant: + +1. Differences concerning Charles' marriage. + +2. First Parliament, 1626, would grant "tonnage and poundage" for only +one year. + +3. Second Parliament, 1626, refused money unless the conduct of the +Spanish war by Buckingham was inquired into by Parliament. + +4. Third Parliament, 1628-9. Charles raised some money by "forced +loans," but far too little, for a new war with France was begun. +Parliament refused to grant money till the king signed the Petition of +Right, which embodied all the points in dispute between them. + +5. Charles did not long observe the Petition of Right which he had +signed; Laud, Bishop of London, was making changes in the church +ceremonies that seemed to bring back the old religion. Parliament +solemnly protested against both these things, then quietly adjourned. +Some members were arrested--Sir John Eliot died in the Tower--others +were kept in prison for eleven years. + +6. No Parliament for eleven years. Charles aimed during this period to +raise money without Parliament, and to establish the English Church in +the whole country. + +His methods of raising money were: + +(_a_) By granting monopolies (L200,000). + +(_b_) By Star Chamber fines--large fines for slight offences. + +(_c_) By illegal duties. + +(_d_) By "ship-money" (Trial of Hampden). + +His methods of establishing the English Church were: + +(_a_) Religious oppression--chief agent, Laud; chief sufferers, the +Puritans. + +(_b_) Attempt to force the English Church prayer-book on Scotland led to +rebellion. + +This rebellion forced Charles to summon Parliament in order to raise +money. Parliament refused to give money till their grievances were +redressed. It was dissolved in three weeks. Urgent need of troops to +keep back the Scottish rebels made Charles summon Parliament again in +six months (1640). This is known as the "Long Parliament." + +7. (_a_) Parliament first accused Laud and Strafford. + +(_b_) The "Grand Remonstrance" named the illegal acts of Charles. + +(_c_) This led to Charles' final blunder--the attempt to arrest the five +members. + +8. Open war, now the only way out, went on till Charles was captured and +beheaded, and Parliament held, for a time, entire control. + + +SUGGESTIVE OUTLINES FOR REVIEWS + +FORM IV + + I. _The Era of Reform in Britain_: + + 1. The Methodist Revival, which stirred the hearts of the people, + and gave them higher ideals + + 2. Social Reforms: (_a_) Canning, the friend of the oppressed + (_b_) Wilberforce and the abolition of slavery + (_c_) Elizabeth Fry and prison reform + (_d_) Revision of the criminal code + + 3. Political Reforms: (_a_) The Reform Bill + (_b_) The Chartist Agitation + (_c_) The repeal of the Corn Laws + + II. _The Puritan Movement_: + + 1. Its beginning under Elizabeth + + 2. Its growth under James I + + 3. The struggle and victory under Charles I + + 4. Triumph and decay under the Commonwealth + + 5. Its dissolution under Charles II + + 6. It was the root of the resistance offered to the + misrule of James II. + + + + +FOR TEACHERS' REFERENCE + +THE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CIVILIZATION + +CORRELATION OF HISTORY AND SCIENCE + + +The purpose of these notes, which are condensed from the article on +"Civilization" in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (latest edition), is to +provide the teacher with some interesting material, by the use of which +he may impress on the pupils the far-reaching effects of certain +inventions and discoveries, which are in such common use to-day that +they are very likely to be underestimated. The number of lessons must be +left entirely to the discretion of the teacher. + + +NOTES + +The close relation between the progress of civilization, as told in +history, and scientific inventions and discoveries is shown by Lewis H. +Morgan, who has indicated nine stages in the upward march of mankind +from the earliest times to the present. There are three stages of +savagery, three of barbarism, and three of civilization, the close of +each stage being marked by an important discovery or invention. The +problem method may be used, by asking what each invention or discovery +would enable the people to do that they could not do before. + +1. The savages in the first stage were developing speech, lived on raw +nuts and fruits, and were restricted to places where they could have +warmth and food. This stage was ended by the discovery of _fire_. + +2. With the use of fire, their food now included fish and perhaps flesh; +they could migrate to colder climates. This stage ended with the +invention of the _bow and arrow_. + +3. With the bow and arrow, the savage was safer from fierce animals; he +could kill also to get food, and skins for clothing and tents; with +stronger food and better protection he could and did migrate into more +distant, colder countries. This stage ended with the invention of +_pottery_. + +4. Hitherto man had had no cooking utensils that could withstand fire. +Now he could boil his food, and his diet was extended to include boiled +meat and vegetables. The next stage was reached by the _domestication of +animals_. + +5. The dog, the sheep, the ox, the camel, the horse were rapidly +domesticated; some of these provided man with food independent of the +chase; others gave him better, swifter means of travel and +transportation. Distant peoples were thus brought into contact and +commerce began. New ideas were gained from each other. Larger +communities were formed, and towns and cities began. Property became +individual, instead of being communal. + +6. This stage began with the invention of _iron-smelting_. Immense +progress was now possible in the various arts of peace: house-building, +road-making, construction of vehicles, the making of all sorts of tools. +By these tools man was now able to express his aesthetic nature as never +before. Implements of war also became more numerous and more deadly. + +7. The human race was now lifted from the highest stage of barbarism to +the lowest stage of civilization by one of the most important inventions +that man has ever made--_writing_. This made possible the recording of +man's deeds and thoughts for posterity, thus securing the gains of each +generation for all succeeding generations, and making history possible. + +8. The next stage of progress is marked by a group of +inventions,--_gunpowder_, _the mariner's compass_, and _paper_ and the +_printing press_. The Middle Ages, as we call them, were now ended, and +the human race found itself on a stage as wide as the world. + +9. The next invention, which came quickly after the preceding ones, and +placed mankind in the present stage of civilization, was the +_steam-engine_. The revolution which this brought about is so recent as +to need no details here. (See lesson on the Industrial Revolution, p. +87.) What is to be the invention that will mark the entrance of the race +on a higher stage still, when Tennyson's dream of a "Federation of the +World the Parliament of Man" may be realized? Is it the airship, giving +man the conquest of the last element still unmastered? + + +THE NEW LEARNING + +1. The aim of this lesson is to make the pupils familiar with one of the +most important movements in English history, by having them study the +meaning, causes, tendencies, and effects of the New Learning. + +2. As an introduction, a lesson or two should be given on the conditions +prevailing in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Ages, because +a knowledge of these conditions is essential to a right understanding of +many of the causes of the New Learning. + +The New Learning was a phase of a greater movement called the +Renaissance, which arose in Italy during the fourteenth century. The +Renaissance marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of +modern history. It meant re-birth, a new life. People took a new +interest in living. The influence of the monk and of the knight was +passing, and the man of affairs, with his broader sympathies, his +keener vision, his more varied interests, and his love of liberty, was +coming into prominence. + +How to enjoy life, how to get the greatest value out of it, became the +great problem. In their attempt to solve this problem people turned +their attention to the ancient literature of Greece and Rome; for it was +believed that the ancient Greeks and Romans had a fine appreciation of +the meaning and beauty of life. They began to seek out the old +literature and to study it. This new study has been called the Revival +of Learning or the New Learning. The influence of these two great +literatures soon made itself felt. Every province of knowledge was +investigated, and people everywhere were influenced by this great +intellectual awakening. + +3. The following were the chief causes of the movement: + +(_a_) The Crusades + +(_b_) The Fall of Constantinople, 1453 + +(_c_) The introduction of the mariner's compass + +(_d_) The invention of gunpowder + +(_e_) The invention of the printing press + +(_f_) The overthrow of the feudal system + +(_g_) The desire for knowledge stimulated by the universities + +(_h_) The failure of the schools of the Middle Ages to meet the demands +and needs of the times + +4. The relation of each of these causes to the New Learning must be +shown. In dealing with the Crusade movement as a cause, it will be +necessary to help the children to see the effect produced on the people +of northern Europe by their coming into contact with the more highly +cultivated people in southern Europe; and the effect produced on the +people of Europe by their mingling with the nations of the luxurious +East--the Greeks of Constantinople and the brilliant Mohammedan scholars +of Palestine. The Crusades made the people dissatisfied with the +conditions that had prevailed so long in Europe, and this fact alone +gave an impetus to the New Learning. + +The relation of printing to the spread of the movement is evident. The +introduction of printing meant the cheapening of books, their more +general use, and the spread of education. This was followed by a growing +independence of thought, and a desire for greater political and +religious freedom. + +The other causes may be similarly treated. + +5. The New Learning was represented in England by a group of scholars of +whom Erasmus, Colet, and More were the chief. The great churchmen, too, +were its patrons. Men of every rank were interested, and the movement +affected the whole life of the people. A new interest was taken in +education, in art, in religion, and in social reform. Old methods of +instruction were superseded by more rational ones. Hundreds of new +schools were established for the benefit of the middle classes. The +whole tendency of the New Learning was toward a higher intellectual and +more moral life. + +6. Its effects: + +(_a_) It awakened a desire for an intellectual life and for social +reform; + +(_b_) It made possible the Reformation; + +(_c_) It led to the establishment of schools and libraries and to the +extension of the usefulness of the universities; + +(_d_) It aroused the desire for liberty and the spirit of enterprise, +and encouraged commercial activity; + +(_e_) It inspired some of the world's greatest artists in painting, +sculpture, architecture, literature, and music. + +(_f_) It implanted the seeds of freedom of thought and fostered the +spirit of scientific research; + +(_g_) It supplied higher ideals of life and conduct, a fact which became +responsible to a large extent for the great improvement made in the +condition of the people, and in the development of Europe since that +time. + + NOTE: References to the discoveries made by Copernicus, + Columbus, and the Cabots should be made. Pupils should read or hear + short accounts of Erasmus, More, and Colet. A careful development + of the causes and meaning of the movement should aid the pupils to + anticipate its chief results. + + It is assumed, of course, that the study of this topic will occupy + several lesson periods. + + +THE FIGHT FOR CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY IN CANADA, 1759-1867. + +In the struggle for constitutional liberty in British Canada, there are +several distinct stages: + +I. 1760 to 1763--Military Rule: + + 1. Amherst the nominal governor; Canada divided into three + districts + + 2. Little disturbance of French customs; the _habitants_ content + + 3. Influx of "old" subjects--their character. (See _Ontario Public + School History of Canada_, p. 109; _History of Canada_, Lucas and + Egerton, Part II, pp. 4 and 7.) + +II. 1763 to 1774 (Quebec Act): + + 1. Period of Civil Government under General Murray + + 2. Unrest owing to demands of the "old" subjects + + 3. Conditions of government: + + (_a_) Governor and Advisory Council of twelve all + appointed by Crown + + (_b_) Assembly permitted but not feasible; depended + on will of Governor + + (_c_) British law, both civil and criminal, prevailed + + (_d_) All money matters in hands of Council. + + 4. At this time the French greatly outnumbered the British, and the + fear of the Revolution of the American Colonies led to the French + being favoured in the Quebec Act, 1774. + +III. 1774 to 1791--Quebec Act to Constitutional Act: + + 1. Both "old" and "new" subjects dissatisfied--the French with + British Court procedure, the British with French feudal customs. + + 2. Provisions of the Quebec Act: + + (_a_) Change of boundaries (See text-book.) + + (_b_) Governor and Legislative Council appointed; no + assembly called. + + (_c_) French Civil Law; British Criminal Law + + (_d_) No oath required, as before, hostile to the Roman + Catholic Church--beginning of religious liberty + + (_e_) Legislative Council had no control of taxation + +IV. 1791 to 1841--Constitutional Act to Act of Union Provisions of +Constitutional Act: + + 1. Upper and Lower Canada divided, because French and British could + not agree on many points. + + 2. Each Province had a Governor, a Legislative Council, a + Legislative Assembly, and an Executive Council. The Legislative + Council was composed of the highest officials, appointed + practically for life, and responsible to no one. Many of these were + also members of the Executive Council. The Legislative Assembly was + elected and was yet without control of the whole revenue, as the + Home Government still collected "all duties regulating colonial + navigation and commerce." + + 3. The Clergy Reserves were established; later to become a bone of + contention. + +V. 1841 to 1867--Act of Union to British North America Act. + +The demands of the people for responsible government, that is, for +control of the Executive and of taxation, became so insistent that the +Act of Union was passed, following Lord Durham's report on the Rebellion +of 1837. + + Provisions of the Act of Union: + + 1. Legislative Council appointed (20 members) + + 2. Legislative Assembly elected (42 from each Province, later 65 + from each) + + 3. Executive Council selected from both Houses + + 4. A permanent Civil List of L75,000 was granted + + 5. The Legislative Assembly controlled the rest of the revenue. + Money bills were to originate with the Government. This was really + Responsible Government, as it was developed under Elgin. + +VI. 1867 to the present: + +The British North America Act was the statement of a complete victory of +the people for Responsible Government. The Executive Council (Cabinet) +is wholly responsible to Parliament, in which the members of the +Executive must have seats; the raising and the spending of revenue is +wholly in the hands of the people's representatives. For a clear summary +of the concessions won by Canadians, see Bourinot, _How Canada is +Governed_, page 34; see also _Ontario Public School History of Canada_, +pp. 267 et seq. + + + + +DEVICES + + +MAPS + +1. Wall maps for general study, especially of modern history. + +2. Outline or sketch maps drawn on the black-board by the teacher or the +pupils for use in the study of earlier history, or explorations, etc. +For these purposes the details of a wall map are not only not needed, +but are rather a hindrance. + +3. Relief maps of plasticine, clay, or salt and flour, to be made by the +pupils to illustrate the influence of geographical facts in history, and +to make events in history more real to the pupils. + + +PICTURES + +1. Many good historical pictures of persons, buildings, monuments, and +events may be collected by the pupils and the teacher from magazines and +newspapers, and pasted in a scrap-book. (See Educational Pamphlet, No. +4, _Visual Aids in the Teaching of History_.) + +2. The Perry Picture Co., Malden, Mass., publishes pictures in different +sizes, costing from one cent upward. Many of these are useful in +teaching history. Similar pictures may be obtained from the Cosmos +Picture Co., New York. + +3. Good picture post-cards can be easily obtained. + +4. Lantern slides and stereopticon views may be used. (For lists of +dealers and publishers of 3 and 4, see also _Visual Aids in the Teaching +of History_.) + + +MUSEUMS + +These often contain relics of earlier times in the form of implements, +utensils, weapons, dress. A visit to one will interest pupils. + + +SOURCE BOOKS + +Some source books for illustrating earlier conditions in Ontario are: + +1. _The Talbot Regime._ By Charles Oakes Ermatinger, St. Thomas. + +2. _Pioneer Days._ By David Kennedy, Port Elgin. Sold by author, 50c. + +3. _United Empire Loyalists._ By Egerton Ryerson. William Briggs. + +4. _Canadian Constitutional Development._ Selected speeches and +dispatches, 1766-1867. By Egerton and Grant Murray. $3.00. + +5. _Pen Pictures of Early Pioneer Life in Upper Canada._ William Briggs, +Toronto, $2.00. + + +GENEALOGICAL TABLES + +Those needed to illustrate special periods may be found in the larger +histories. Pupils should be instructed how to interpret them. + + +CHRONOLOGICAL CHART + +This may be made by the class, on the black-board or on a slated cloth +as the work advances. On the left hand of a vertical line are set down +the dates, allowing the same space for each ten years, the close of each +decade being shown in larger figures. On the right side are set down the +events in their proper place. For example, in studying the career of +Champlain, the Chart will be begun as follows: + + +CHAMPLAIN + +=1600= + +1603 First visit, when 36 years old, with Pontgrave. + +1604 With De Monts and Poutrincourt he undertakes to colonize Acadia; +forms a settlement at Port Royal. + +1608 Founds Quebec. + +1609 Explores Richelieu River and Lake Champlain; forms an alliance with +the Hurons and Algonquins against the Iroquois. + +1610 Marriage. + +1611 Establishes a trading station at what is now Montreal. + +1613 Ascends the Ottawa River, expecting to find the way to China; +deceived, returns to France. + +1615 Brings out the Recollet Fathers to Christianize the Indians; +explores the country of the Hurons. + +=1620= + +A useful chart which shows the growth of Canada is to be found in +Taylor's _Cardinal Facts of Canadian History_, reproduced in Duncan's +_The Canadian People_. An Illustrated Chart of Canadian History is +published by the United Editors Company, of Toronto. + + +NOTE-BOOKS AND CLASS EXERCISES + +In the Fourth Form, pupils should copy into a notebook the black-board +work--topical outlines, time chart, etc., as a basis for review and for +class exercises in composition. Such a topical summary, the joint work +of teacher and class, is the best means of review for examination +purposes, when one is held. + +Pupils may occasionally be asked to make from the text-book, without +preceding class work, a topical analysis either of a subject which is +treated consecutively in the book, such as the War of 1812-14, or of a +subject that requires the pupil to collect his material from various +parts of the book, or even from several books. In the latter case the +teacher should direct the pupil to the proper sources. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + +A. FOR TEACHERS + +I. _Histories_: + +(_a_) English: + + 1. A Short History of the English People. Green. $1.50. The + Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + + 2. Ontario High School History of England. 65c. The Macmillan + Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + + 3. A History of the British Nation. A.D. Innes. $1.25. E.C. & T.C. + Jack, Edinburgh. + +(_b_) Canadian: + + 1. A History of Canada. Roberts. $1.00. The Macmillan Company of + Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + + 2. Story of Canada (Story of the Nations Series). Bourinot. $1.50. + G.P. Putnam's, New York. + + 3. A Historical Geography of the British Colonies, 10 vols. Canada: + Part I, $1.60; Part II, $1.10. Lucas and Egerton, Clarendon Press, + Oxford. + + One of the best histories of Canada; on a geographical basis. + + 4. Ontario High School History of Canada. Grant. 19c. The T. Eaton + Company, Ltd., Toronto. + + 5. A Short History of the Canadian People. Bryce. $2.00. William + Briggs, Toronto. + +(_c_) Civics: + + 1. Canadian Civics. Jenkins. 35c. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd., Toronto. + + 2. How Canada is Governed. Bourinot. $1.00. Copp, Clark Co., Ltd., + Toronto. + +(_d_) General History: + + 1. General Sketch of European History. Freeman. $1.00. The + Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + + 2. History of Our Own Times. McCarthy. $1.25. Crowell and Company, + New York. + + 3. The Nineteenth Century--A History. MacKenzie. $1.00. T. Nelson + and Sons, Toronto. + +For help in preparing lessons every teacher should possess one book of +each of the above classes, in addition to the Ontario Public School +Histories. + + +II. _On Methods_: + +1. Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary +Schools. Bourne. $1.50. Longmans Green and Company, London, England. + + The best book on general method. + +2. Methods in History. Mace. $1.00. Ginn and Company, New York. + +3. Special Method in History. McMurry. 75c. The Macmillan Company of +Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + + +B. MATERIAL FOR CLASS WORK + +ESPECIALLY IN CORRELATED SUBJECTS + +1. Reader's Guide to English History. Allen. 25c. Ginn and Company, New +York. + + (Contains a list of historical authorities for the various periods; + and lists of historical poems and fiction to illustrate these + periods.) + +2. School Atlas of English History. S.R. Gardiner. $1.50. Longmans, +Green and Company, London, England. + +3. Atlas of Canada. Published by Department of the Interior, Ottawa. + + (The Department of the Interior also publishes maps giving the + latest information concerning railways, distribution of minerals, + etc., which can be had by asking for them.) + +4. Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography. Everyman's Library. 25c. +Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto. + +5. Literary and Historical Atlas of Europe. Everyman's Library. 25c. +Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto. + +6. Literary and Historical Atlas of America. Everyman's Library. 25c. +Dent & Co., Ltd., Toronto. + + +C. HISTORICAL READERS AND SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS + +Group I. + +1. Highroads of History. 13 Vols. T. Nelson and Sons, Toronto. + + Well illustrated; a great favourite with children. + +2. Gateways to History. 7 Vols. 9s. 1d. Edward Arnold, London, England. + +3. Longmans' Ship Historical Readers. 7 Vols. 9s. Longmans, Green and +Company, London, England. + +4. The Little Cousin Series. 25 Vols. 60c. each. The Page Co., Boston, +Mass. + + Get list of titles and select. + +5. Peeps at many Lands and Cities. 50 Vols. 50c. each. The Macmillan +Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + + Get list of titles and select. + +Group II. + +1. Stories from Canadian History. Marquis. 50c. Copp Clark Company, +Ltd., Toronto. + +2. Brief Biographies. Supplementing Canadian History. J.O. Miller. 35c. +Copp Clark Company, Ltd., Toronto. + +3. Stories of the Maple Land. C.A. Young. 25c. Copp Clark Company, Ltd., +Toronto. + +4. Heroines of Canadian History. W.S. Herrington. Cloth 30c., paper 18c. +Wm. Briggs, Toronto. + +5. Ryerson Memorial Volume. J.G. Hodgins. + + A graphic sketch of the old log school-house and its belongings, + and the life of a pioneer teacher. + +6. Stories of New France. Machar and Marquis. $1.50. Briggs, Toronto. + +7. Martyrs of New France. Herrington. 60c. Briggs, Toronto. + + +Group III. + +1. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. Baldwin. 35c. The American Book Company, +New York. + +2. Thirty More Famous Stories. Baldwin. 50c. The American Book Company, +New York. + +3. Book of Legends. Scudder. Riverside Literature Series 15c. Copp Clark +Company, Ltd., Toronto. + +4. Legends Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 90c. Doubleday, Page +and Co., New York. + + +Group IV.--Miscellaneous: + +1. Heroes Every Child Should Know. Ed. H.W. Mabie. 60c. Doubleday, New +York. + +2. Famous Men of Greece. 50c. The American Book Company, New York. + +3. Famous Men of Rome. The American Book Company, New York. + +4. Famous Men of the Middle Ages. 50c. The American Book Company, New +York. + +5. Famous Men of Modern Times. 50c. The American Book Co., New York. + +6. Stories of Great Inventors. Macombe. 40c. Wm. Briggs, Toronto. + +7. Calendar Stories. M.P. Boyle. 30c. McClelland, Goodchild, & Stewart, +Toronto. + +8. Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road From Long Ago to Now. Jane Andrews. +75c. Sch. ed. 60c. Ginn and Company, New York. + +9. Seven Little Sisters. Jane Andrews. 75c. Sch. ed. 50c. Ginn and +Company, New York. + +10. The Romance of Canadian History. Selections from Parkman; edited by +Pelham Edgar. 75c. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd., Toronto. + +11. English Life 300 Years Ago. Trevelyan. 1s. Methuen and Company, +London. + +12. Little Journeys to the Homes of Great Reformers, Great Orators, +Great Teachers, English Authors, Good men and Great. Hubbard. 10c each. +The Roycrofters, East Aurora, N.Y. + +In Group I the first, and any of the others may be read. The first are +very interesting and great favourites with children. + +In Groups II and III one of each may be taken as they, to some extent, +cover the same ground. + +All of those in Group IV are useful, and may be added as opportunity +permits. + + + + +APPENDIX + + +THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE + +Did you ever hear the story of the first Christmas tree? This is the way +it was told to me: Martin Luther was a good man who lived in Germany +long ago. One Christmas Eve he was walking to his home. The night was +cold and frosty with many stars in the sky. He thought he had never seen +stars look so bright. When he got home he tried to tell his wife and +children how pretty the stars were, but they didn't seem to understand. +So Luther went out into his garden and cut a little evergreen tree. This +he set up in the room and fastened tiny candles all over it, and when he +had lighted them they shone like stars. + +One of Luther's neighbours came in that night, and when she saw the tree +she thought how one would please her children. Soon she had one in her +house, too. And the idea spread from one house to another until there +were Christmas trees all over Germany. + +Queen Victoria of England was married to a German prince, and the German +custom of a Christmas tree for the children was followed in the royal +palace. Of course after the Queen had a tree other people must have one, +too. So the Christmas tree came to England. + +The little French boys and girls have not had them so long. Not very +many years ago there was a war between France and Germany. At Christmas +time the German soldiers were in Paris. They felt sorry to be so far +from their own little boys and girls on Christmas eve. But they knew how +to have something to remind them of home. Every soldier who could got a +little evergreen tree and put candles on it. The French saw them, and +were so pleased that now, every year, they too have Christmas trees. + +So many people from England, and from Germany, and from France have come +to our country to live, of course, we too have learned about Christmas +trees. And that is why you and so many other little girls and boys have +such pretty trees on Christmas eve. + + +THE ORIGIN OF THE EASTER BUNNY + +Childish voices are asking why the rabbit is seen with the eggs +and the chickens that fill the shop windows and show-cases at Easter. +The legend that established the hare as a symbol of the Eastertide is +not generally known. It is of German origin and runs as follows: + +Many years ago, during a cruel war, the Duchess of Lindenburg with her +two children and an old servant fled for safety to a little obscure +village in the mountains. She found the people very poor, and one thing +that surprised her much was that they used no eggs. She learned that +they had never seen or heard of hens, and so when the old servant went +to get tidings of his master and of the war he brought back with him +some of these birds. + +The simple village folk were greatly interested in the strange fowl, and +when they saw the tiny yellow chickens breaking their way out of the +eggs they were full of delight. But the Duchess was saddened by the +thought that Easter was drawing near and that she had no gifts for the +little mountain children. Then an idea came to her. The spring was +beginning to colour the earth with leaves and flowers, and she made +bright dyes out of herbs and roots and coloured the eggs. Then the +children were invited to visit the Duchess, and she told them stories +of the glad Easter day, and afterwards bade each make a nest of moss +among the bushes. When they had all enjoyed the little feast provided in +their honour, they went back to the woods to look at their nests. Lo! in +each were five coloured eggs. + +"What a good hen it must have been to lay such beautiful eggs," said one +child. + +"It could not have been a hen," said another. "The eggs that the hens +lay are white. It must have been the rabbit that jumped out of the tree +when I made my nest." + +And all the children agreed that it was the rabbit, and to this day the +mystic Bunny is supposed to bring eggs and gifts at Easter to the little +children of the "fatherland" who have been loving and kind during the +year. + + +THE STORY OF ST. VALENTINE + +Once upon a time, there lived in a monastery across the sea a +humble monk called Valentine. Every brother save himself seemed to have +some special gift. + +Now there was Brother Angelo, who was an artist, and painted such +wonderful Madonnas that it seemed as if the holy mother must step down +from the frame and bless her children. + +Brother Vittorio had a wonderful voice, and on saints' days the +monastery chapel would be crowded with visitors, who came from far and +near just to listen to that wonderful voice as it soared up among the +dim old arches. + +Brother Anselmo was a doctor, and knew the virtues of all roots, herbs, +and drugs, and was kept very busy going about among the sick, followed +by their tearful, grateful blessing. + +Brother Johannes was skilled in illuminating, and Valentine often +watched the page grow under his clever hand. How beautiful would then be +the gospel story in brightly-coloured letters, with dainty flowers, +bright-winged butterflies, and downy, nestling birds about the borders! + +Brother Paul was a great teacher in the monastery school, and even +learned scholars came to consult him. Friar John ruled the affairs of +the little monastery world with wisdom and prudence. Indeed, out of the +whole number only Valentine seemed without special talent. + +The poor man felt it keenly. He longed to do some great thing. "Why did +not the good God give me a voice like Vittorio or a skilled hand like +Angelo?" he would often inquire of himself bitterly. One day as he sat +sadly musing on these things, a voice within him said clearly and +earnestly: "Do the little things, Valentine; there the blessing lies." +"What are the little things?" asked Valentine, much perplexed. But no +answer came to this question. Like every one else, Valentine had to find +his work himself. + +He had a little plot where he loved to work, and the other monks said +that Valentine's pinks, lilies, and violets were larger and brighter +than any raised in the whole monastery garden. + +He used to gather bunches of his flowers and drop them into the chubby +hands of children as they trotted to school under the gray monastery +walls. Many a happy village bride wore his roses on her way to the +altar. Scarcely a coffin was taken to the cemetery but Valentine's +lilies or violets filled the silent hands. + +He got to know the birthday of every child in the village, and was fond +of hanging on the cottage door some little gift his loving hands had +made. He could mend a child's broken windmill and carve quaint faces +from walnut shells. He made beautiful crosses of silvery gray lichens, +and pressed mosses and rosy weeds from the seashore. The same tender +hands were ready to pick up a fallen baby, or carry the water bucket for +some weary mother. + +Everybody learned to love the good Brother Valentine. The children clung +to his long, gray skirts, and the babies crept out on the streets to +receive his pat on their shining hair. Even the cats and dogs rubbed +against him, and the little birds fluttered near him unafraid. + +St. Valentine grew old, loving and beloved, never dreaming that he had +found his great thing. When the simple monk died the whole countryside +mourned, and hundreds came to look for the last time on the quiet face +in the rude coffin. + +A great duke walked bare-headed after that coffin, and one of the most +noted brothers of the church spoke the last words of blessing to the +weeping people. + +After his death, it was remembered how sweet had been his little gifts, +and the villagers said: "Let us, too, give gifts to our friends on the +good Valentine's birthday." So ever since has the pretty custom been +carried out, and on St. Valentine's day we send our friends little +tokens of remembrance to say we love them. + + +THE FIRST THANKSGIVING + +It is nearly three hundred years since the first Thanksgiving +Day. Though we have even more to be grateful for, I think that there are +not many of us who feel quite so thankful as the little handful of +people who set apart the first Thanksgiving Day. + +There were not very many of them, just one little village in a big +forest land, and by the edge of a great ocean. Here, on the map, is +where they lived. It is on the north-eastern shores of the United States +and is called Plymouth. The people I am telling you about gave it that +name when they came to it, nearly two years before they had their first +Thanksgiving Day. It was the name of the last town they had seen in +England. Here, on the map, is the English Plymouth, and you see what a +long trip they had in their little vessel, called the _Mayflower_, to +their new home. + +You still wonder why they travelled so far to make new homes for +themselves. It was because they wanted to worship God in their own way +that they left England. They were not afraid of the long voyage and all +its hardships; for they felt sure they were doing as God wished them to +do. They arrived safely, too, and built their little village by the +sea--the new Plymouth. One of the first buildings they put up was a +little log church. + +The first year was very hard for everybody. The winter was colder than +any they had ever known in England, and their houses were small and +poorly built. They could not get any letters or news from their friends +in England for many months. Food was not scarce, for there was always +plenty of game and fish. But it was such a change from their old way of +living that many people became ill, and in the spring there were many +graves. But the worst thing about the new land was the Indians. These +English people were afraid of them--and with good reason, too, for they +were very fierce and sometimes very cruel. They tried not to let the +Indians know how few they were, and even planted grain about the graves +in the churchyard so that the Indians could not count how many had +died. + +But one of the Indian Chiefs was friendly to the English and kept the +other tribes from making war on them, and the second summer they had a +great harvest and everything was more comfortable. It was in that +autumn, just after the grain was gathered, that the minister spoke to +them one Sunday about having a Thanksgiving day. "It seemeth right," he +said, "God hath granted us peace and plenty. He has blessed us with a +dwelling-place of peace. He has held back the savage red man from +bringing harm to us. Therefore let us appoint a day of Thanksgiving." + +After that all the people, even the boys and girls, were busy getting +ready. The men took their guns and fishing-rods and went into the +forest, and brought home fowl, fish, and deer, and perhaps bear meat as +well. The boys and girls gathered wild plums, and grapes, and corn, and +brought in pumpkins from the gardens; and the women made pies, puddings, +cakes, and bread, and baked the meat and corn. They had great piles of +cakes, and rows and rows of pies, and loaves of bread and platters of +meat, for they all expected company. You could not guess, I am sure, who +was coming! They had sent word to the Indians near to come and spend +Thanksgiving Day with them. + +Do you suppose they came? Indeed they did. They came before breakfast +and stayed until long after supper, and had a good time, and tasted +everything the white women had cooked, and nodded their heads and said, +"How" a great many times, to say it was good. Some of the little girls +and boys were half afraid of them, but they need not have been; for that +day the Indians felt very kindly toward the English. + + Ask pupils to mention things for which they are thankful. + + +LETTER FROM MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS, TO QUEEN ELIZABETH + +Believe, Madame (and the doctors whom you sent to me this last +summer can have formed an opinion), that I am not likely long to be in a +condition which can justify jealousy or distrust. And this +notwithstanding, exact from me such assurances, and just and reasonable +conditions as you wish. Superior force is always on your side to make me +keep them, even though for any reason whatever I should wish to break +them. You have had from observation enough experience of my bare +promises, sometimes even to my own damage, as I showed you on this +subject two years ago. Remember, if you please, what I then wrote you, +and that in no way could you so much win over my heart to yourself as by +kindness, although you have confined forever my poor body to languish +between four walls; those of my rank and disposition not permitting +themselves to be gained over or forced by any amount of harshness. + + * * * * * + +In conclusion, I have to request two things especially; the one that as +I am about to leave this world I may have by me for my consolation some +honourable churchman, in order that I may daily examine the road that I +have to traverse and be instructed how to complete it according to my +religion, in which I am firmly resolved to live and die. This is a last +duty which cannot be denied to the most wretched and miserable person +alive; it is a liberty which you give to all foreign ambassadors, just +as all other Catholic kings allow yours the practice of their religion. +And as for myself, have I ever forced my own subjects to do anything +against their religion even when I had all power and authority over +them? And you cannot justly bring it to pass that I should be in this +extremity deprived of such a privilege. What advantage can accrue to you +from denying me this? I hope that God will forgive me if, oppressed by +you in this wise, I do not cease from paying Him that duty which in my +heart will be permitted. But you will give a very ill example to other +princes of Christendom of employing towards their subjects and +relatives, the same harshness which you mete out to me, a sovereign +queen and your nearest relative, as I am and shall be in spite of my +enemies so long as I live. + + + + +INDEX + + + Aims of Study, 13 + + Amount of Material, 18 + + Appendix, 136 + First Christmas Tree, The, 136 + First Thanksgiving, The, 140 + Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143 + Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137 + Story of St. Valentine, 138 + + Bibliography, 130 + + Black-board Work in Teaching History, 27, 31, 40, 47, 50 + + Capture of Quebec, The, 66 + + Characteristics of a Good Text-book, 24 + + Chronological Chart, 128 + + Chronological Method, 21 + + Civics, 20, 51, 52 + + Civilization and Inventions, 119 + + Clergy Reserves, The, 36 + + Colours of the Flag, The, 73 + + Combination of Methods, 25 + + Comparative Method, 22 + + Concentric Method, 22 + + Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107 + + Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124 + + Correlation of Subjects, 39, 40, 50 + + Course of Study, 1 + + Current Events, 49 + + Dates, 47 + + Devices for Teaching, 127 + + Dramatization of History, 46 + + Drill and Review, 31 + + Empire Day, 75 + + Feudal System, 100 + + First Christmas Tree, The, 136 + + First Thanksgiving, The, 140 + + Flag, The, 68 + + Flag Days, 72 + + Florence Nightingale, 62 + + Genealogical Tables, 37, 128 + + Historical Sense, The, 17 + + History and Art, 45 + " " Chronology, 47 + " " Composition, 26, 46 + " " Constructive Work, 44, 67 + " " Geography, 40, 108 + " " Literature, 41 + " " Oral Reading, 26 + " " Science, 43, 119 + + How to Make History Real, 34 + + Illustrative Lessons, 60 + Type Lesson in the Story Stage, 60 + First Thanksgiving, The, 61 + Florence Nightingale, 62 + Postmaster, 65 + Capture of Quebec, The, 66 + Coming of the United Empire Loyalists, The, 67 + Flag, The, 68 + Suggestions for Empire Day, 75 + Egerton Ryerson, 78 + The Intercolonial Railway, 82 + The Industrial Revolution, 87 + The Road to Cathay, 92 + The Armada, 97 + The Feudal System, 100 + Seigniorial Tenure, 103 + Confederation of the Canadian Provinces, 107 + Influence of Geographical Conditions on History, 108 + The St. Lawrence River, 112 + Relations Between England and Scotland, 114 + Analysis of Secs. 160-170 in Ontario P.S. History of England, 116 + Outlines for Reviews, 118 + The Development of Civilization, 119 + The New Learning, 121 + The Fight for Constitutional Liberty in Canada, 124 + + Importance of Facts in History, 19 + + Industrial Revolution, The, 87 + + Influence of Geography on History, 108, 110 + + Information Stage, The, 18 + + Interest, 16, 19, 34, 38, 44, 58, 78 + + Intercolonial Railway, The, 82 + + Inventions and History, 43, 87, 119 + + Letter of Mary Queen of Scots, 143 + + Local Material, 51 + + Maps, 35, 40, 68, 127 + + Memorizing History, 38 + + Methods for Forms I and II, 25 + + " " Form III, 26 + + " " Form IV, 28, 78 + + Moral Value of History, 14, 28, 53 + + Museums, 128 + + New Learning, The, 121 + + Newspapers, 49 + + Note-books, 31, 129 + + Oral Method, The, 23, 25, 27, 28, 34, 58, 60, 62, 64 + + Origin of the Easter Bunny, 137 + + Patriotism, 13 + + Pictures, 35, 45, 127 + + Postmaster, 65 + + Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68, 76, 78, 83, 119 + + Reflective Stage, 18 + + Regressive Method, 22 + + Relations of England and Scotland, 114 + + Reviews, 23, 31, 39, 92, 112, 118 + + Road to Cathay, 92 + + Ryerson, Egerton, 78 + + Scope of Study, 15 + + Seigniorial Tenure, 103 + + Source Books, 37, 128, 143 + + Spanish Armada, 97 + + St. Lawrence River, 112 + + St. Valentine, 138 + + Stages of Study, 15 + + Story Stage, 15 + + Story Telling, 1, 15, 17 + + Taxation, 11, 55, 56, 57 + + Teacher of History, 57 + + Text-book Method, 24 + + Topical Analysis, 21, 78, 87, 97, 107, 114, 116, 124 + + Topical Method, 21 + + Training in the Use of the Text-book, 29 + + United Empire Loyalists, 67 + + Union Jack, 68, 74 + + Use of Problems in History, 14, 33, 36, 41, 66, 67, 68, + 76, 78, 83, 119 + + Where to Begin the Study of History, 19 + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Teachers' Manuals: History +by Ontario Ministry of Education + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO TEACHERS' MANUALS: HISTORY *** + +***** This file should be named 17268.txt or 17268.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/6/17268/ + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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