initial commit of ebook 17239HEADmain

9 files changed, 7122 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/17239-8.txt b/17239-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8dbb5c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17239-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2355 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Destiny of Man
+       Viewed in the Light of His Origin
+
+Author: John Fiske
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2005 [EBook #17239]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESTINY OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN
+
+VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF HIS ORIGIN
+
+
+BY
+
+
+JOHN FISKE
+
+
+
+TWENTIETH EDITION.
+
+
+BOSTON
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
+
+1893
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1884,
+
+BY JOHN FISKE.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+MY CHILDREN,
+
+MAUD, HAROLD, CLARENCE, RALPH, ETHEL, AND HERBERT,
+
+This Essay
+
+_IS LOVINGLY DEDICATED._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Having been invited to give an address before the Concord School of
+Philosophy this summer, upon some subject relating to the question of
+immortality there under discussion, it seemed a proper occasion for
+putting together the following thoughts on the origin of Man and his
+place in the universe. In dealing with the unknown, it is well to take
+one's start a long way within the limits of the known. The question of a
+future life is generally regarded as lying outside the range of
+legitimate scientific discussion. Yet while fully admitting this, one
+does not necessarily admit that the subject is one with regard to which
+we are forever debarred from entertaining an opinion. Now our opinions
+on such transcendental questions must necessarily be affected by the
+total mass of our opinions on the questions which lie within the scope
+of scientific inquiry; and from this point of view it becomes of
+surpassing interest to trace the career of Humanity within that segment
+of the universe which is accessible to us. The teachings of the doctrine
+of evolution as to the origin and destiny of Man have, moreover, a very
+great speculative and practical value of their own, quite apart from
+their bearings upon any ultimate questions. The body of this essay is
+accordingly devoted to setting forth these teachings in what I conceive
+to be their true light; while their transcendental implications are
+reserved for the sequel.
+
+As the essay contains an epitome of my own original contributions to the
+doctrine of evolution, I have added at the end a short list of
+references to other works of mine, where the points here briefly
+mentioned are more fully argued and illustrated. The views regarding the
+progress of human society, and the elimination of warfare, are set forth
+at greater length in a little book now in the press, and soon to appear,
+entitled "American Political Ideas."
+
+PETERSHAM, September 6, 1884.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+     I. Man's Place in Nature as affected by the Copernican Theory.
+    II. As affected by Darwinism.
+   III. On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.
+    IV. The Origin of Infancy.
+     V. The Dawning of Consciousness.
+    VI. Lengthening of Infancy and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.
+   VII. Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.
+  VIII. Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.
+    IX. The Origins of Society and of Morality.
+     X. Improvableness of Man.
+    XI. Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.
+   XII. First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilisation.
+  XIII. Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.
+   XIV. End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off
+             the Brute-Inheritance.
+    XV. The Message of Christianity.
+   XVI. The Question as to a Future Life.
+
+
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+Man's Place in Nature, as affected by the Copernican Theory.
+
+
+When we study the Divine Comedy of Dante--that wonderful book wherein
+all the knowledge and speculation, all the sorrows and yearnings, of the
+far-off Middle Ages are enshrined in the glory of imperishable verse--we
+are brought face to face with a theory of the world and with ways of
+reasoning about the facts of nature which seem strange to us to-day, but
+from the influence of which we are not yet, and doubtless never shall
+be, wholly freed. A cosmology grotesque enough in the light of later
+knowledge, yet wrought out no less carefully than the physical theories
+of Lucretius, is employed in the service of a theology cumbrous in its
+obsolete details, but resting upon fundamental truths which mankind can
+never safely lose sight of. In the view of Dante and of that phase of
+human culture which found in him its clearest and sweetest voice, this
+earth, the fair home of man, was placed in the centre of a universe
+wherein all things were ordained for his sole behoof: the sun to give
+him light and warmth, the stars in their courses to preside over his
+strangely checkered destinies, the winds to blow, the floods to rise, or
+the fiend of pestilence to stalk abroad over the land,--all for the
+blessing, or the warning, or the chiding, of the chief among God's
+creatures, Man. Upon some such conception as this, indeed, all theology
+would seem naturally to rest. Once dethrone Humanity, regard it as a
+mere local incident in an endless and aimless series of cosmical
+changes, and you arrive at a doctrine which, under whatever specious
+name it may be veiled, is at bottom neither more nor less than Atheism.
+On its metaphysical side Atheism is the denial of anything psychical in
+the universe outside of human consciousness; and it is almost
+inseparably associated with the materialistic interpretation of human
+consciousness as the ephemeral result of a fleeting collocation of
+particles of matter. Viewed upon this side, it is easy to show that
+Atheism is very bad metaphysics, while the materialism which goes with
+it is utterly condemned by modern science.[1] But our feeling toward
+Atheism goes much deeper than the mere recognition of it as
+philosophically untrue. The mood in which we condemn it is not at all
+like the mood in which we reject the corpuscular theory of light or Sir
+G.C. Lewis's vagaries on the subject of Egyptian hieroglyphics. We are
+wont to look upon Atheism with unspeakable horror and loathing. Our
+moral sense revolts against it no less than our intelligence; and this
+is because, on its practical side, Atheism would remove Humanity from
+its peculiar position in the world, and make it cast in its lot with the
+grass that withers and the beasts that perish; and thus the rich and
+varied life of the universe, in all the ages of its wondrous duration,
+becomes deprived of any such element of purpose as can make it
+intelligible to us or appeal to our moral sympathies and religious
+aspirations.
+
+And yet the first result of some of the grandest and most irrefragable
+truths of modern science, when newly discovered and dimly comprehended,
+has been to make it appear that Humanity must be rudely unseated from
+its throne in the world and made to occupy an utterly subordinate and
+trivial position; and it is because of this mistaken view of their
+import that the Church has so often and so bitterly opposed the teaching
+of such truths. With the advent of the Copernican astronomy the
+funnel-shaped Inferno, the steep mountain of Purgatory crowned with its
+terrestrial paradise, and those concentric spheres of Heaven wherein
+beatified saints held weird and subtle converse, all went their way to
+the limbo prepared for the childlike fancies of untaught minds, whither
+Hades and Valhalla had gone before them. In our day it is hard to
+realize the startling effect of the discovery that Man does not dwell at
+the centre of things, but is the denizen of an obscure and tiny speck of
+cosmical matter quite invisible amid the innumerable throng of flaming
+suns that make up our galaxy. To the contemporaries of Copernicus the
+new theory seemed to strike at the very foundations of Christian
+theology. In a universe where so much had been made without discernible
+reference to Man, what became of that elaborate scheme of salvation
+which seemed to rest upon the assumption that the career of Humanity was
+the sole object of God's creative forethought and fostering care? When
+we bear this in mind, we see how natural and inevitable it was that the
+Church should persecute such men as Galileo and Bruno. At the same time
+it is instructive to observe that, while the Copernican astronomy has
+become firmly established in spite of priestly opposition, the
+foundations of Christian theology have not been shaken thereby. It is
+not that the question which once so sorely puzzled men has ever been
+settled, but that it has been outgrown. The speculative necessity for
+man's occupying the largest and most central spot in the universe is no
+longer felt. It is recognized as a primitive and childish notion. With
+our larger knowledge we see that these vast and fiery suns are after all
+but the Titan like _servants_ of the little planets which they bear with
+them in their flight through the abysses of space. Out from the awful
+gaseous turmoil of the central mass dart those ceaseless waves of gentle
+radiance that, when caught upon the surface of whirling worlds like
+ours, bring forth the endlessly varied forms and the endlessly complex
+movements that make up what we can see of life. And as when God revealed
+himself to his ancient prophet He came not in the earthquake or the
+tempest but in a voice that was still and small, so that divine spark
+the Soul, as it takes up its brief abode in this realm of fleeting
+phenomena, chooses not the central sun where elemental forces forever
+blaze and clash, but selects an outlying terrestrial nook where seeds
+may germinate in silence, and where through slow fruition the mysterious
+forms of organic life may come to take shape and thrive. He who thus
+looks a little deeper into the secrets of nature than his forefathers of
+the sixteenth century may well smile at the quaint conceit that man
+cannot be the object of God's care unless he occupies an immovable
+position in the centre of the stellar universe.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+Man's Place in Nature, as affected by Darwinism.
+
+
+When the Copernican astronomy was finally established through the
+discoveries of Kepler and Newton, it might well have been pronounced the
+greatest scientific achievement of the human mind; but it was still more
+than that. It was the greatest revolution that had ever been effected in
+Man's views of his relations to the universe in which he lives, and of
+which he is--at least during the present life--a part. During the
+nineteenth century, however, a still greater revolution has been
+effected. Not only has Lyell enlarged our mental horizon in time as much
+as Newton enlarged it in space, but it appears that throughout these
+vast stretches of time and space with which we have been made acquainted
+there are sundry well-marked changes going on. Certain definite paths of
+development are being pursued; and around us on every side we behold
+worlds, organisms, and societies in divers stages of progress or
+decline. Still more, as we examine the records of past life upon our
+globe, and study the mutual relations of the living things that still
+remain, it appears that the higher forms of life--including Man
+himself--are the modified descendants of lower forms. Zoölogically
+speaking, Man can no longer be regarded as a creature apart by himself.
+We cannot erect an order on purpose to contain him, as Cuvier tried to
+do; we cannot even make a separate family for him. Man is not only a
+vertebrate, a mammal, and a primate, but he belongs, as a genus, to the
+catarrhine family of apes. And just as lions, leopards, and
+lynxes--different genera of the cat-family--are descended from a common
+stock of carnivora, back to which we may also trace the pedigrees of
+dogs, hyænas, bears, and seals; so the various genera of platyrrhine and
+catarrhine apes, including Man, are doubtless descended from a common
+stock of primates, back to which we may also trace the converging
+pedigrees of monkeys and lemurs, until their ancestry becomes
+indistinguishable from that of rabbits and squirrels. Such is the
+conclusion to which the scientific world has come within a quarter of a
+century from the publication of Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species;" and
+there is no more reason for supposing that this conclusion will ever be
+gainsaid than for supposing that the Copernican astronomy will some time
+be overthrown and the concentric spheres of Dante's heaven reinstated in
+the minds of men.
+
+It is not strange that this theory of man's origin, which we associate
+mainly with the name of Mr. Darwin, should be to many people very
+unwelcome. It is fast bringing about a still greater revolution in
+thought than that which was heralded by Copernicus; and it naturally
+takes some time for the various portions of one's theory of things to
+become adjusted, one after another, to so vast and sweeping a change.
+From many quarters the cry goes up,--If this be true, then Man is at
+length cast down from his high position in the world. "I will not be
+called a mammal, or the son of a mammal!" once exclaimed an acquaintance
+of mine who perhaps had been brought up by hand. Such expressions of
+feeling are crude, but the feeling is not unjustifiable. It is urged
+that if man is physically akin to a baboon, as pigs are akin to horses,
+and cows to deer, then Humanity can in nowise be regarded as occupying a
+peculiar place in the universe; it becomes a mere incident in an endless
+series of changes, and how can we say that the same process of evolution
+that has produced mankind may not by and by produce something far more
+perfect? There was a time when huge bird-like reptiles were the lords of
+creation, and after these had been "sealed within the iron hills" there
+came successive dynasties of mammals; and as the iguanodon gave place to
+the great Eocene marsupials, as the mastodon and the sabre-toothed lion
+have long since vanished from the scene, so may not Man by and by
+disappear to make way for some higher creature, and so on forever? In
+such case, why should we regard Man as in any higher sense the object of
+Divine care than a pig? Still stronger does the case appear when we
+remember that those countless adaptations of means to ends in nature,
+which since the time of Voltaire and Paley we have been accustomed to
+cite as evidences of creative design, have received at the hands of Mr.
+Darwin a very different interpretation. The lobster's powerful claw, the
+butterfly's gorgeous tints, the rose's delicious fragrance, the
+architectural instinct of the bee, the astonishing structure of the
+orchid, are no longer explained as the results of contrivance. That
+simple but wasteful process of survival of the fittest, through which
+such marvellous things have come into being, has little about it that is
+analogous to the ingenuity of human art. The infinite and eternal Power
+which is thus revealed in the physical life of the universe seems in
+nowise akin to the human soul. The idea of beneficent purpose seems for
+the moment to be excluded from nature, and a blind process, known as
+Natural Selection, is the deity that slumbers not nor sleeps. Reckless
+of good and evil, it brings forth at once the mother's tender love for
+her infant and the horrible teeth of the ravening shark, and to its
+creative indifference the one is as good as the other.
+
+In spite of these appalling arguments the man of science, urged by the
+single-hearted purpose to ascertain the truth, be the consequences what
+they may, goes quietly on and finds that the terrible theory must be
+adopted; the fact of man's consanguinity with dumb beasts must be
+admitted. In reaching this conclusion, the man of science reasons upon
+the physical facts within his reach, applying to them the same
+principles of common-sense whereby our everyday lives are successfully
+guided; and he is very apt to smile at the methods of those people who,
+taking hold of the question at the wrong end, begin by arguing about all
+manner of fancied consequences. For his knowledge of the history of
+human thinking assures him that such methods have through all past time
+proved barren of aught save strife, while his own bold yet humble method
+is the only one through which truth has ever been elicited. To pursue
+unflinchingly the methods of science requires dauntless courage and a
+faith that nothing can shake. Such courage and such loyalty to nature
+brings its own reward. For when once the formidable theory is really
+understood, when once its implications are properly unfolded, it is seen
+to have no such logical consequences as were at first ascribed to it. As
+with the Copernican astronomy, so with the Darwinian biology, we rise to
+a higher view of the workings of God and of the nature of Man than was
+ever attainable before. So far from degrading Humanity, or putting it on
+a level with the animal world in general, the Darwinian theory shows us
+distinctly for the first time how the creation and the perfecting of Man
+is the goal toward which Nature's work has all the while been tending.
+It enlarges tenfold the significance of human life, places it upon even
+a loftier eminence than poets or prophets have imagined, and makes it
+seem more than ever the chief object of that creative activity which is
+manifested in the physical universe.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.
+
+
+In elucidating these points, we may fitly begin by considering the
+question as to the possibility of the evolution of any higher creature
+than Man, to whom the dominion over this earth shall pass. The question
+will best be answered by turning back and observing one of the most
+remarkable features connected with the origin of Man and with his
+superiority over other animals. And let it be borne in mind that we are
+not now about to wander through the regions of unconditional
+possibility. We are not dealing with vague general notions of
+development, but with the scientific Darwinian theory, which alleges
+development only as the result of certain rigorously defined agencies.
+The chief among these agencies is Natural Selection. It has again and
+again been illustrated how by the cumulative selection and inheritance
+of slight physical variations generic differences, like those between
+the tiger and the leopard, or the cow and the antelope, at length arise;
+and the guiding principle in the accumulation of slight physical
+differences has been the welfare of the species. The variant forms on
+either side have survived while the constant forms have perished, so
+that the lines of demarcation between allied species have grown more and
+more distinct, and it is usually only by going back to fossil ages that
+we can supply the missing links of continuity. In the desperate struggle
+for existence no peculiarity, physical or psychical, however slight, has
+been too insignificant for natural selection to seize and enhance; and
+the myriad fantastic forms and hues of animal and vegetal life
+illustrate the seeming capriciousness of its workings. Psychical
+variations have never been unimportant since the appearance of the first
+faint pigment-spot which by and by was to translate touch into vision,
+as it developed into the lenses and humours of the eye.[2] Special
+organs of sense and the lower grades of perception and judgment were
+slowly developed through countless ages, in company with purely physical
+variations of shape of foot, or length of neck, or complexity of
+stomach, or thickness of hide. At length there came a wonderful
+moment--silent and unnoticed, as are the beginnings of all great
+revolutions. Silent and unnoticed, even as the day of the Lord which
+cometh like a thief in the night, there arrived that wonderful moment at
+which psychical changes began to be of more use than physical changes to
+the brute ancestor of Man. Through further ages of ceaseless struggle
+the profitable variations in this creature occurred oftener and oftener
+in the brain, and less often in other parts of the organism, until by
+and by the size of his brain had been doubled and its complexity of
+structure increased a thousand-fold, while in other respects his
+appearance was not so very different from that of his brother apes.[3]
+Along with this growth of the brain, the complete assumption of the
+upright posture, enabling the hands to be devoted entirely to prehension
+and thus relieving the jaws of that part of their work, has coöperated
+in producing that peculiar contour of head and face which is the chief
+distinguishing mark of physical Man. These slight anatomical changes
+derive their importance entirely from the prodigious intellectual
+changes in connection with which they have been produced; and these
+intellectual changes have been accumulated until the distance,
+psychically speaking, between civilized man and the ape is so great as
+to dwarf in comparison all that had been achieved in the process of
+evolution down to the time of our half-human ancestor's first
+appearance. No fact in nature is fraught with deeper meaning than this
+two-sided fact of the extreme physical similarity and enormous psychical
+divergence between Man and the group of animals to which he traces his
+pedigree. It shows that when Humanity began to be evolved an entirely
+new chapter in the history of the universe was opened. Henceforth the
+life of the nascent soul came to be first in importance, and the bodily
+life became subordinated to it. Henceforth it appeared that, in this
+direction at least, the process of zoölogical change had come to an end,
+and a process of psychological change was to take its place. Henceforth
+along this supreme line of generation there was to be no further
+evolution of new species through physical variation, but through the
+accumulation of psychical variations one particular species was to be
+indefinitely perfected and raised to a totally different plane from that
+on which all life had hitherto existed. Henceforth, in short, the
+dominant aspect of evolution was to be not the genesis of species, but
+the progress of Civilization.
+
+As we thoroughly grasp the meaning of all this, we see that upon the
+Darwinian theory it is impossible that any creature zoologically
+distinct from Man and superior to him should ever at any future time
+exist upon the earth. In the regions of unconditional possibility it is
+open to any one to argue, if he chooses, that such a creature may come
+to exist; but the Darwinian theory is utterly opposed to any such
+conclusion. According to Darwinism, the creation of Man is still the
+goal toward which Nature tended from the beginning. Not the production
+of any higher creature, but the perfecting of Humanity, is to be the
+glorious consummation of Nature's long and tedious work. Thus we
+suddenly arrive at the conclusion that Man seems now, much more clearly
+than ever, the chief among God's creatures. On the primitive barbaric
+theory, which Mr. Darwin has swept away, Man was suddenly flung into the
+world by the miraculous act of some unseen and incalculable Power acting
+from without; and whatever theology might suppose, no scientific reason
+could be alleged why the same incalculable Power might not at some
+future moment, by a similar miracle, thrust upon the scene some mightier
+creature in whose presence Man would become like a sorry beast of
+burden. But he who has mastered the Darwinian theory, he who recognizes
+the slow and subtle process of evolution as the way in which God makes
+things come to pass, must take afar higher view. He sees that in the
+deadly struggle for existence which has raged throughout countless aeons
+of time, the whole creation has been groaning and travailing together in
+order to bring forth that last consummate specimen of God's handiwork,
+the Human Soul.
+
+To the creature thus produced through a change in the direction in which
+natural selection has worked, the earth and most of its living things
+have become gradually subordinated. In all the classes of the animal and
+vegetal worlds many ancient species have become extinct, and many modern
+species have come into being, through the unchecked working of natural
+selection, since Man became distinctively human. But in this respect a
+change has long been coming over the face of nature. The destinies of
+all other living things are more and more dependent upon the will of
+Man. It rests with him to determine, to a great degree, what plants and
+animals shall remain upon the earth and what shall be swept from its
+surface. By unconsciously imitating the selective processes of Nature,
+he long ago wrought many wild species into forms subservient to his
+needs. He has created new varieties of fruit and flower and cereal
+grass, and has reared new breeds of animals to aid him in the work of
+civilization; until at length he is beginning to acquire a mastery over
+mechanical and molecular and chemical forces which is doubtless destined
+in the future to achieve marvellous results whereof today we little
+dream. Natural selection itself will by and by occupy a subordinate
+place in comparison with selection by Man, whose appearance on the earth
+is thus seen more clearly than ever to have opened an entirely new
+chapter in the mysterious history of creation.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+The Origin of Infancy.
+
+
+But before we can fully understand the exalted position which the
+Darwinian theory assigns to man, another point demands consideration.
+The natural selection of psychical peculiarities does not alone account
+for the origin of Man, or explain his most signal difference from all
+other animals. That difference is unquestionably a difference in kind,
+but in saying this one must guard against misunderstanding. Not only in
+the world of organic life, but throughout the known universe, the
+doctrine of evolution regards differences in kind as due to the gradual
+accumulation of differences in degree. To cite a very simple case, what
+differences of kind can be more striking than the differences between a
+nebula, a sun, a planet like the earth, and a planet like our moon? Yet
+these things are simply examples of cosmical matter at four different
+stages of cooling. The physical differences between steam, water, and
+ice afford a more familiar example. In the organic world the perpetual
+modification of structures that has been effected through natural
+selection exhibits countless instances of differences in kind which have
+risen from the accumulation of differences in degree. No one would
+hesitate to call a horse's hoof different in kind from a cat's paw; and
+yet the horse's lower leg and hoof are undoubtedly developed from a
+five-toed paw. The most signal differences in kind are wont to arise
+when organs originally developed for a certain purpose come to be
+applied to a very different purpose, as that change of the fish's
+air-bladder into a lung which accompanied the first development of land
+vertebrates. But still greater becomes the revolution when a certain
+process goes on Until it sets going a number of other processes,
+unlocking series after series of causal agencies until a vast and
+complicated result is reached, such as could by no possibility have been
+foreseen. The creation of Man was one of these vast and complicated
+results due to the unlocking of various series of causal agencies; and
+it was the beginning of a deeper and mightier difference in kind than
+any that slowly evolving Nature had yet witnessed.
+
+I have indicated, as the moment at which the creation of mankind began,
+the moment when psychical variations became of so much more use to our
+ancestors than physical variations that they were seized and enhanced by
+natural selection, to the comparative neglect of the latter. Increase of
+intellectual capacity, in connection with the developing brain of a
+single race of creatures, now became the chief work of natural selection
+in originating Man; and this, I say, was the opening of a new chapter,
+the last and most wonderful chapter, in the history of creation. But the
+increasing intelligence and enlarged experience of half-human man now
+set in motion a new series of changes which greatly complicated the
+matter. In order to understand these changes, we must consider for a
+moment one very important characteristic of developing intelligence.
+
+The simplest actions in which the nervous system is concerned are what
+we call reflex actions. All the visceral actions which keep us alive
+from moment to moment, the movements of the heart and lungs, the
+contractions of arteries, the secretions of glands, the digestive
+operations of the stomach and liver, belong to the class of reflex
+actions. Throughout the animal world these acts are repeated, with
+little or no variation, from birth until death, and the tendency to
+perform them is completely organized in the nervous system before birth.
+Every animal breathes and digests as well at the beginning of his life
+as he ever does. Contact with air and food is all that is needed, and
+there is nothing to be learned. These actions, though they are performed
+by the nervous system, we do not class as psychical, because they are
+nearly or quite unattended by consciousness. The psychical life of the
+lowest animals consists of a few simple acts directed toward the
+securing of food and the avoidance of danger, and these acts we are in
+the habit of classing as instinctive. They are so simple, so few, and so
+often repeated, that the tendency to perform them is completely
+organized in the nervous system before birth. The animal takes care of
+himself as soon as he begins to live. He has nothing to learn, and his
+career is a simple repetition of the careers of countless ancestors.
+With him heredity is everything, and his individual experience is next
+to nothing.
+
+As we ascend the animal scale till we come to the higher birds and
+mammals, we find a very interesting and remarkable change beginning. The
+general increase of intelligence involves an increasing variety and
+complication of experiences. The acts which the animal performs in the
+course of its life become far more numerous, far more various, and far
+more complex. They are therefore severally repeated with less frequency
+in the lifetime of each individual. Consequently the tendency to perform
+them is not completely organized in the nervous system of the offspring
+before birth. The short period of ante-natal existence does not afford
+time enough for the organization of so many and such complex habitudes
+and capacities. The process which in the lower animals is completed
+before birth is in the higher animals left to be completed after birth.
+When the creature begins its life it is not completely organized.
+Instead of the power of doing all the things which its parents did, it
+starts with the power of doing only some few of them; for the rest it
+has only latent capacities which need to be brought out by its
+individual experience after birth. In other words, it begins its
+separate life not as a matured creature, but as an infant which needs
+for a time to be watched and helped.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+The Dawning of Consciousness.
+
+
+Here we arrive at one of the most wonderful moments in the history of
+creation,--the moment of the first faint dawning of consciousness, the
+foreshadowing of the true life of the soul. Whence came the soul we no
+more know than we know whence came the universe. The primal origin of
+consciousness is hidden in the depths of the bygone eternity. That it
+cannot possibly be the product of any cunning arrangement of material
+particles is demonstrated beyond peradventure by what we now know of the
+correlation of physical forces.[4] The Platonic view of the soul, as a
+spiritual substance, an effluence from Godhood, which under certain
+conditions becomes incarnated in perishable forms of matter, is
+doubtless the view most consonant with the present state of our
+knowledge. Yet while we know not the primal origin of the soul, we have
+learned something with regard to the conditions under which it has
+become incarnated in material forms. Modern psychology has something to
+say about the dawning of conscious life in the animal world. Reflex
+action is unaccompanied by consciousness. The nervous actions which
+regulate the movements of the viscera go on without our knowledge; we
+learn of their existence only by study, as we learn of facts in outward
+nature. If you tickle the foot of a person asleep, and the foot is
+withdrawn by simple reflex action, the sleeper is unconscious alike of
+the irritation and of the movement, even as the decapitated frog is
+unconscious when a drop of nitric acid falls on his back and he lifts up
+a leg and rubs the place. In like manner the reflex movements which make
+up the life of the lowest animals are doubtless quite unconscious, even
+when in their general character they simulate conscious actions, as they
+often do. In the case of such creatures, the famous hypothesis of
+Descartes, that animals are automata, is doubtless mainly correct. In
+the case of instincts also, where the instinctive actions are completely
+organized before birth, and are repeated without variation during the
+whole lifetime of the individual, there is probably little if any
+consciousness. It is an essential prerequisite of consciousness that
+there should be a period of delay or tension between the receipt of an
+impression and the determination of the consequent movement. Diminish
+this period of delay and you diminish the vividness of consciousness. A
+familiar example will make this clear. When you are learning to play a
+new piece of music on the piano, especially if you do not read music
+rapidly, you are intensely conscious of each group of notes on the page,
+and of each group of keys that you strike, and of the relations of the
+one to the other. But when you have learned the piece by heart, you
+think nothing of either notes or keys, but play automatically while your
+attention is concentrated upon the artistic character of the music. If
+somebody thoughtlessly interrupts you with a question about Egyptian
+politics, you go on playing while you answer him politely. That is,
+where you had at first to make a conscious act of volition for each
+movement, the whole group of movements has now become automatic, and
+volition is only concerned in setting the process going. As the delay
+involved in the perception and the movement disappears, so does the
+consciousness of the perception and the movement tend to disappear.
+Consciousness implies perpetual discrimination, or the recognition of
+likenesses and differences, and this is impossible unless impressions
+persist long enough to be compared with one another. The physical organs
+in connection with whose activity consciousness is manifested are the
+upper and outer parts of the brain,--the cerebrum and cerebellum. These
+organs never receive impressions directly from the outside world, but
+only from lower nerve-centres, such as the spinal cord, the medulla, the
+optic lobes, and other special centres of sensation. The impressions
+received by the cerebrum and cerebellum are waves of molecular
+disturbance sent up along centripetal nerves from the lower centres, and
+presently drafted off along centrifugal nerves back to the lower
+centres, thus causing the myriad movements which make up our active
+life. Now there is no consciousness except when molecular disturbance is
+generated in the cerebrum and cerebellum faster than it can be drafted
+off to the lower centres.[5] It is the surplus of molecular disturbance
+remaining in the cerebrum and cerebellum, and reflected back and forth
+among the cells and fibres of which these highest centres are composed,
+that affords the physical condition for the manifestation of
+consciousness. Memory, emotion, reason, and volition begin with this
+retention of a surplus of molecular motion in the highest centres. As we
+survey the vertebrate sub-kingdom of animals, we find that as this
+surplus increases, the surface of the highest centres increases in area.
+In the lowest vertebrate animal, the amphioxus, the cerebrum and
+cerebellum do not exist at all. In fishes we begin to find them, but
+they are much smaller than the optic lobes. In such a highly organized
+fish as the halibut, which weighs about as much as an average-sized man,
+the cerebrum is smaller than a melon-seed. Continuing to grow by adding
+concentric layers at the surface, the cerebrum and cerebellum become
+much larger in birds and lower mammals, gradually covering up the optic
+lobes. As we pass to higher mammalian forms, the growth of the cerebrum
+becomes most conspicuous, until it extends backwards so far as to cover
+up the cerebellum, whose functions are limited to the conscious
+adjustment of muscular movements. In the higher apes the cerebrum begins
+to extend itself forwards, and this goes on in the human race. The
+cranial capacity of the European exceeds that of the Australian by forty
+cubic inches, or nearly four times as much as that by which the
+Australian exceeds the gorilla; and the expansion is almost entirely in
+the upper and anterior portions. But the increase of the cerebral
+surface is shown not only in the general size of the organ, but to a
+still greater extent in the irregular creasing and furrowing of the
+surface. This creasing and furrowing begins to occur in the higher
+mammals, and in civilized man it is carried to an astonishing extent.
+The amount of intelligence is correlated with the number, the depth, and
+the irregularity of the furrows. A cat's brain has a few symmetrical
+creases. In an ape the creases are deepened into slight furrows, and
+they run irregularly, somewhat like the lines in the palm of your hand.
+With age and experience the furrows grow deeper and more sinuous, and
+new ones appear; and in man these phenomena come to have great
+significance. The cerebral surface of a human infant is like that of an
+ape. In an adult savage, or in a European peasant, the furrowing is
+somewhat marked and complicated. In the brain of a great scholar, the
+furrows are very deep and crooked, and hundreds of creases appear which
+are not found at all in the brains of ordinary men. In other words, the
+cerebral surface of such a man, the seat of conscious mental life, has
+become enormously enlarged in area; and we must further observe that it
+goes on enlarging in some cases into extreme old age.[6]
+
+Putting all these facts together, it becomes plain that in the lowest
+animals, whose lives consist of sundry reflex actions monotonously
+repeated from generation to generation, there can be nothing, or next to
+nothing, of what we know as consciousness. It is only when the life
+becomes more complicated and various, so that reflex action can no
+longer determine all its movements and the higher nerve-centres begin to
+be evolved, that the dawning of consciousness is reached. But with the
+growth of the higher centres the capacities of action become so various
+and indeterminate that definite direction is not given to them until
+after birth. The creature begins life as an infant, with its partially
+developed cerebrum representing capabilities which it is left for its
+individual experience to bring forth and modify.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+Lengthening of Infancy, and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.
+
+
+The first appearance of infancy in the animal world thus heralded the
+new era which was to be crowned by the development of Man. With the
+beginnings of infancy there came the first dawning of a conscious life
+similar in nature to the conscious life of human beings, and there came,
+moreover, on the part of parents, the beginning of feelings and actions
+not purely self-regarding. But still more, the period of infancy was a
+period of plasticity. The career of each individual being no longer
+wholly predetermined by the careers of its ancestors, it began to become
+teachable. Individuality of character also became possible at the same
+time, and for the same reason. All birds and mammals which take care of
+their young are teachable, though in very various degrees, and all in
+like manner show individual peculiarities of disposition, though in most
+cases these are slight and inconspicuous. In dogs, horses, and apes
+there is marked teachableness, and there are also marked differences in
+individual character.
+
+But in the non-human animal world all these phenomena are but slightly
+developed. They are but the dim adumbrations of what was by and by to
+bloom forth in the human race. They can scarcely be said to have served
+as a prophecy of the revolution that was to come. One generation of dumb
+beasts is after all very like another, and from studying the careers of
+the mastodon, the hipparion, the sabre-toothed lion, or even the
+dryopithecus, an observer in the Miocene age could never have foreseen
+the possibility of a creature endowed with such a boundless capacity of
+progress as the modern Man. Nevertheless, however dimly suggestive was
+this group of phenomena, it contained the germ of all that is preëminent
+in humanity. In the direct line of our ancestry it only needed that the
+period of infancy should be sufficiently prolonged, in order that a
+creature should at length appear, endowed with the teachableness, the
+individuality, and the capacity for progress which are the peculiar
+prerogatives of fully-developed Man.[7] In this direct line the manlike
+apes of Africa and the Indian Archipelago have advanced far beyond the
+mammalian world in general. Along with a cerebral surface, and an
+accompanying intelligence, far greater than that of other mammals, these
+tailless apes begin life as helpless babies, and are unable to walk, to
+feed themselves, or to grasp objects with precision until they are two
+or three months old. These apes have thus advanced a little way upon the
+peculiar road which our half-human forefathers began to travel as soon
+as psychical variations came to be of more use to the species than
+variations in bodily structure. The gulf by which the lowest known man
+is separated from the highest known ape consists in the great increase
+of his cerebral surface, with the accompanying intelligence, and in the
+very long duration of his infancy. These two things have gone hand in
+hand. The increase of cerebral surface, due to the working of natural
+selection in this direction alone, has entailed a vast increase in the
+amount of cerebral organization that must be left to be completed after
+birth, and thus has prolonged the period of infancy. And conversely the
+prolonging of the plastic period of infancy, entailing a vast increase
+in teachableness and versatility, has contributed to the further
+enlargement of the cerebral surface. The mutual reaction of these two
+groups of facts must have gone on for an enormous length of time since
+man began thus diverging from his simian brethren. It is not likely that
+less than a million years have elapsed since the first page of this new
+chapter in the history of creation was opened: it is probable that the
+time has been much longer. In comparison with such a period, the whole
+recorded duration of human history shrinks into nothingness. The
+pyramids of Egypt seem like things of yesterday when we think of the
+Cave-Men of western Europe in the glacial period, who scratched pictures
+of mammoths on pieces of reindeer-antler with a bit of pointed flint.
+Yet during an entire geologic æon before these Cave-Men appeared on the
+scene, "a being erect upon two legs," if we may quote from Serjeant
+Buzfuz, "and wearing the outward semblance of a man and not of a
+monster," wandered hither and thither over the face of the earth,
+setting his mark upon it as no other creature yet had done, leaving
+behind him innumerable tell-tale remnants of his fierce and squalid
+existence, yet too scantily endowed with wit to make any written
+disclosure of his thoughts and deeds. If the physiological annals of
+that long and weary time could now be unrolled before us, the principal
+fact which we should discern, dominating all other facts in interest and
+significance, would be that mutual reaction between increase of cerebral
+surface and lengthening of babyhood which I have here described.
+
+Thus through the simple continuance and interaction of processes that
+began far back in the world of warm-blooded animals, we get at last a
+creature essentially different from all others. Through the complication
+of effects the heaping up of minute differences in degree has ended in
+bringing forth a difference in kind. In the human organism physical
+variation has well-nigh stopped, or is confined to insignificant
+features, save in the grey surface of the cerebrum. The work of cerebral
+organization is chiefly completed after birth, as we see by contrasting
+the smooth ape-like brain-surface of the new-born child with the
+deeply-furrowed and myriad-seamed surface of the adult civilized brain.
+The plastic period of adolescence, lengthened in civilized man until it
+has come to cover more than one third of his lifetime, is thus the
+guaranty of his boundless progressiveness. Inherited tendencies and
+aptitudes still form the foundations of character; but individual
+experience has come to count as an enormous factor in modifying the
+career of mankind from generation to generation. It is not too much to
+say that the difference between man and all other living creatures, in
+respect of teachableness, progressiveness, and individuality of
+character, surpasses all other differences of kind that are known to
+exist in the universe.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.
+
+
+In the fresh light which these considerations throw upon the problem of
+man's origin, we can now see more clearly than ever how great a
+revolution was inaugurated when natural selection began to confine its
+operations to the surface of the cerebrum. Among the older incidents in
+the evolution of organic life, the changes were very wonderful which out
+of the pectoral fin of a fish developed the jointed fore-limb of the
+mammal with its five-toed paw, and thence through much slighter
+variation brought forth the human arm with its delicate and crafty hand.
+More wondrous still were the phases of change through which the
+rudimentary pigment-spot of the worm, by the development and
+differentiation of successive layers, gave place to the
+variously-constructed eyes of insects, mollusks, and vertebrates. The
+day for creative work of this sort has probably gone by, as the day for
+the evolution of annulose segments and vertebrate skeletons has gone
+by,--on our planet, at least. In the line of our own development, all
+work of this kind stopped long ago, to be replaced by different methods.
+As an optical instrument, the eye had well-nigh reached extreme
+perfection in many a bird and mammal ages before man's beginnings; and
+the essential features of the human hand existed already in the hands of
+Miocene apes. But different methods came in when human intelligence
+appeared upon the scene. Mr. Spencer has somewhere reminded us that the
+crowbar is but an extra lever added to the levers of which the arm is
+already composed, and the telescope but adds a new set of lenses to
+those which already exist in the eye. This beautiful illustration goes
+to the kernel of the change that was wrought when natural selection
+began to confine itself to the psychical modification of our ancestors.
+In a very deep sense all human science is but the increment of the power
+of the eye, and all human art is the increment of the power of the
+hand.[8] Vision and manipulation,--these, in their countless indirect
+and transfigured forms, are the two coöperating factors in all
+intellectual progress. It is not merely that with the telescope we see
+extinct volcanoes on the moon, or resolve spots of nebulous cloud into
+clusters of blazing suns; it is that in every scientific theory we frame
+by indirect methods visual images of things not present to sense. With
+our mind's eye we see atmospheric convulsions on the surfaces of distant
+worlds, watch the giant ichthyosaurs splashing in Jurassic oceans,
+follow the varied figures of the rhythmic dance of molecules as chemical
+elements unite and separate, or examine, with the aid of long-forgotten
+vocabularies now magically restored, the manners and morals, the laws
+and superstitions, of peoples that have ceased to be.[9] And so in art
+the wonderful printing-press, and the engine that moves it, are the
+lineal descendants through countless stages of complication, of the
+simple levers of primitive man and the rude stylus wherewith he engraved
+strange hieroglyphs on the bark of trees. In such ways, since the human
+phase of evolution began, has the direct action of muscle and sense been
+supplemented and superseded by the indirect work of the inquisitive and
+inventive mind.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.
+
+
+Let us note one further aspect of this mighty revolution. In its lowly
+beginnings the psychical life was merely an appendage to the life of the
+body. The avoidance of enemies, the securing of food, the perpetuation
+of the species, make up the whole of the lives of lower animals, and the
+rudiments of memory, reason, emotion, and volition were at first
+concerned solely with the achievement of these ends in an increasingly
+indirect, complex, and effective way. Though the life of a large portion
+of the human race is still confined to the pursuit of these same ends,
+yet so vast has been the increase of psychical life that the simple
+character of the ends is liable to be lost sight of amid the variety,
+the indirectness, and the complexity of the means. But in civilized
+society other ends, purely immaterial in their nature, have come to add
+themselves to these, and in some instances to take their place. It is
+long since we were told that Man does not live by bread alone. During
+many generations we have seen thousands of men, actuated by the noblest
+impulse of which humanity is capable, though misled by the teachings of
+a crude philosophy, despising and maltreating their bodies as clogs and
+incumbrances to the life of the indwelling soul. Countless martyrs we
+have seen throwing away the physical earthly life as so much worthless
+dross, and all for the sake of purely spiritual truths. As with
+religion, so with the scientific spirit and the artistic spirit,--the
+unquenchable craving to know the secrets of nature, and the yearning to
+create the beautiful in form and colour and sound. In the highest human
+beings such ends as these have come to be uppermost in consciousness,
+and with the progress of material civilization this will be more and
+more the case. If we can imagine a future time when warfare and crime
+shall have been done away with forever, when disease shall have been for
+the most part curbed, and when every human being by moderate labour can
+secure ample food and shelter, we can also see that in such a state of
+things the work of civilization would be by no means completed. In
+ministering to human happiness in countless ways, through the pursuit of
+purely spiritual ends, in enriching and diversifying life to the utmost,
+there would still be almost limitless work to be done. I believe that
+such a time will come for weary and suffering mankind. Such a faith is
+inspiring. It sustains one in the work of life, when one would otherwise
+lose heart. But it is a faith that rests upon induction. The process of
+evolution is excessively slow, and its ends are achieved at the cost of
+enormous waste of life, but for innumerable ages its direction has been
+toward the goal here pointed out; and the case may be fitly summed up in
+the statement that whereas in its rude beginnings the psychical life was
+but an appendage to the body, in fully-developed Humanity the body is
+but the vehicle for the soul.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+The Origins of Society and of Morality.
+
+
+One further point must be considered before this outline sketch of the
+manner of man's origin can be called complete. The psychical development
+of Humanity, since its earlier stages, has been largely clue to the
+reaction of individuals upon one another in those various relations
+which we characterize as social.[10] In considering the origin of Man,
+the origin of human society cannot be passed over. Foreshadowings of
+social relations occur in the animal world, not only in the line of our
+own vertebrate ancestry, but in certain orders of insects which stand
+quite remote from that line. Many of the higher mammals are gregarious,
+and this is especially true of that whole order of primates to which we
+belong. Rudimentary moral sentiments are also clearly discernible in the
+highest members of various mammalian orders, and in all but the lowest
+members of our own order. But in respect of definiteness and permanence
+the relations between individuals in a state of gregariousness fall far
+short of the relations between individuals in the rudest human society.
+The primordial unit of human society is the family, and it was by the
+establishment of definite and permanent family relationships that the
+step was taken which raised Man socially above the level of gregarious
+apehood. This great point was attained through that lengthening of the
+period of helpless childhood which accompanied the gradually increasing
+intelligence of our half-human ancestors. When childhood had come to
+extend over a period of ten or a dozen years--a period which would be
+doubled, or more than doubled, where several children were born in
+succession to the same parents--the relationships between father and
+mother, brethren and sisters, must have become firmly knit; and thus the
+family, the unit of human society, gradually came into existence.[11]
+The rudimentary growth of moral sentiment must now have received a
+definite direction. As already observed, with the beginnings of infancy
+in the animal world there came the genesis in the parents of feelings
+and actions not purely self-regarding. Rudimentary sympathies, with
+rudimentary capacity for self-devotion, are witnessed now and then among
+higher mammals, such as the dog, and not uncommonly among apes. But as
+the human family, with its definite relationships, came into being,
+there must necessarily have grown up between its various members
+reciprocal necessities of behaviour. The conduct of the individual could
+no longer be shaped with sole reference to his own selfish desires, but
+must be to a great extent subordinated to the general welfare of the
+family. And in judging of the character of his own conduct, the
+individual must now begin to refer it to some law of things outside of
+himself; and hence the germs of conscience and of the idea of duty. Such
+were no doubt the crude beginnings of human morality.
+
+With this genesis of the family, the Creation of Man may be said, in a
+certain sense, to have been completed. The great extent of cerebral
+surface, the lengthened period of infancy, the consequent capacity for
+progress, the definite constitution of the family, and the judgment of
+actions as good or bad according to some other standard than that of
+selfish desire,--these are the attributes which essentially distinguish
+Man from other creatures. All these, we see, are direct or indirect
+results of the revolution which began when natural selection came to
+confine itself to psychical variations, to the neglect of physical
+variations. The immediate result was the increase of cerebrum. This
+prolonged the infancy, thus giving rise to the capacity for progress;
+and infancy, in turn, originated the family and thus opened the way for
+the growth of sympathies and of ethical feelings. All these results have
+perpetually reacted upon one another until a creature different in kind
+from all other creatures has been evolved. The creature thus evolved
+long since became dominant over the earth in a sense in which none of
+his predecessors ever became dominant; and henceforth the work of
+evolution, so far as our planet is concerned, is chiefly devoted to the
+perfecting of this last and most wonderful product of creative energy.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+Improvableness of Man.
+
+
+For the creation of Man was by no means the creation of a perfect being.
+The most essential feature of Man is his improvableness, and since his
+first appearance on the earth the changes that have gone on in him have
+been enormous, though they have continued to run along in the lines of
+development that were then marked out. The changes have been so great
+that in many respects the interval between the highest and the lowest
+men far surpasses quantitatively the interval between the lowest men and
+the highest apes. If we take into account the creasing of the cerebral
+surface, the difference between the brain of a Shakespeare and that of
+an Australian savage would doubtless be fifty times greater than the
+difference between the Australian's brain and that of an orang-outang.
+In mathematical capacity the Australian, who cannot tell the number of
+fingers on his two hands, is much nearer to a lion or wolf than to Sir
+Rowan Hamilton, who invented the method of quaternions. In moral
+development this same Australian, whose language contains no words for
+justice and benevolence, is less remote from dogs and baboons than from
+a Howard or a Garrison. In progressiveness, too, the difference between
+the lowest and the highest races of men is no less conspicuous. The
+Australian is more teachable than the ape, but his limit is nevertheless
+very quickly reached. All the distinctive attributes of Man, in short,
+have been developed to an enormous extent through long ages of social
+evolution.
+
+This psychical development of Man is destined to go on in the future as
+it has gone on in the past. The creative energy which has been at work
+through the bygone eternity is not going to become quiescent to-morrow.
+We have learned something of its methods of working, and from the
+careful observation of the past we can foresee the future in some of its
+most general outlines. From what has already gone on during the historic
+period of man's existence, we can safely predict a change that will by
+and by distinguish him from all other creatures even more widely and
+more fundamentally than he is distinguished today. Whenever in the
+course of organic evolution we see any function beginning as incidental
+to the performance of other functions, and continuing for many ages to
+increase in importance until it becomes an indispensable strand in the
+web of life, we may be sure that by a continuance of the same process
+its influence is destined to increase still more in the future. Such has
+been the case with the function of sympathy, and with the ethical
+feelings which have grown up along with sympathy and depend largely upon
+it for their vitality. Like everything else which especially
+distinguishes Man, the altruistic feelings were first called into
+existence through the first beginnings of infancy in the animal world.
+Their rudimentary form was that of the transient affection of a female
+bird or mammal for its young. First given a definite direction through
+the genesis of the primitive human family, the development of altruism
+has formed an important part of the progress of civilization, but as yet
+it has scarcely kept pace with the general development of intelligence.
+There can be little doubt that in respect of justice and kindness the
+advance of civilized man has been less marked than in respect of
+quick-wittedness. Now this is because the advancement of civilized man
+has been largely effected through fighting, through the continuance of
+that deadly struggle and competition which has been going on ever since
+organic life first appeared on the earth. It is through such fierce and
+perpetual struggle that the higher forms of life have been gradually
+evolved by natural selection. But we have already seen how in many
+respects the evolution of Man was the opening of an entirely new chapter
+in the history of the universe. In no respect was it more so than in the
+genesis of the altruistic emotions. For when natural selection, through
+the lengthening of childhood, had secured a determinate development for
+this class of human feelings, it had at last originated a power which
+could thrive only through the elimination of strife. And the later
+history of mankind, during the past thirty centuries, has been
+characterized by the gradual eliminating of strife, though the process
+has gone on with the extreme slowness that marks all the work of
+evolution. It is only at the present clay that, by surveying human
+history from the widest possible outlook, and with the aid of the habits
+of thought which the study of evolution fosters, we are enabled
+distinctly to observe this tendency. As this is the most wonderful of
+all the phases of that stupendous revolution in nature which was
+inaugurated in the Creation of Man, it deserves especial attention here;
+and we shall find it leading us quite directly to our conclusion. From
+the Origin of Man, when thoroughly comprehended in its general outlines,
+we shall at length be able to catch some glimpses of his Destiny.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.
+
+
+In speaking of the higher altruistic feelings as being antagonistic to
+the continuance of warfare, I did not mean to imply that warfare can
+ever be directly put down by our horror of cruelty or our moral
+disapproval of strife. The actual process is much more indirect and
+complex than this. In respect of belligerency the earliest men were
+doubtless no better than brutes. They were simply the most crafty and
+formidable among brutes. To get food was the prime necessity of life,
+and as long as food was obtainable only by hunting and fishing, or
+otherwise seizing upon edible objects already in existence, chronic and
+universal quarrel was inevitable. The conditions of the struggle for
+existence were not yet visibly changed from what they had been from the
+outset in the animal world. That struggle meant everlasting slaughter,
+and the fiercest races of fighters would be just the ones to survive and
+perpetuate their kind. Those most successful primitive men, from whom
+civilized peoples are descended, must have excelled in treachery and
+cruelty, as in quickness of wit and strength of will. That moral sense
+which makes it seem wicked to steal and murder was scarcely more
+developed in them than in tigers or wolves. But to all this there was
+one exception. The family supplied motives for peaceful coöperation.[12]
+Within the family limits fidelity and forbearance had their uses, for
+events could not have been long in showing that the most coherent
+families would prevail over their less coherent rivals. Observation of
+the most savage races agrees with the comparative study of the
+institutions of civilized peoples, in proving that the only bond of
+political union recognized among primitive men, or conceivable by them,
+was the physical fact of blood-relationship. Illustrations of this are
+found in plenty far within the historic period. The very township, which
+under one name or another has formed the unit of political society among
+all civilized peoples, was originally the stockaded dwelling-place of a
+clan which traced its blood to a common ancestor. In such a condition of
+things the nearest approach ever made to peace was a state of armed
+truce; and while the simple rules of morality were recognized, they were
+only regarded as binding within the limits of the clan. There was no
+recognition of the wickedness of robbery and murder in general.
+
+This state of things, as above hinted, could not come to an end as long
+as men obtained food by seizing upon edible objects already in
+existence. The supply of fish, game, or fruit being strictly limited,
+men must ordinarily fight under penalty of starvation. If we could put a
+moral interpretation upon events which antedated morality as we
+understand it, we should say it was their duty to fight; and the
+reverence accorded to the chieftain who murdered most successfully in
+behalf of his clansmen was well deserved. It is worthy of note that, in
+isolated parts of the earth where the natural supply of food is
+abundant, as in sundry tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean, men have
+ceased from warfare and become gentle and docile without rising above
+the intellectual level of savagery. Compared with other savages, they
+are like the chimpanzee as contrasted with the gorilla. Such exceptional
+instances well illustrate the general truth that, so long as the method
+of obtaining food was the same as that employed by brute animals, men
+must continue to fight like dogs over a bone.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilization.
+
+
+But presently man's superior intelligence came into play in such wise
+that other and better methods of getting food were devised. When in
+intervals of peace men learned to rear flocks and herds, and to till the
+ground, and when they had further learned to exchange with one another
+the products of their labour, a new step, of most profound significance,
+was taken. Tribes which had once learned how to do these things were not
+long in overcoming their neighbours, and flourishing at their expense,
+for agriculture allows a vastly greater population to live upon a given
+area, and in many ways it favours social compactness. An immense series
+of social changes was now begun. Whereas the only conceivable bond of
+political combination had heretofore been blood-relationship, a new
+basis was now furnished by territorial contiguity and by community of
+occupation. The supply of food was no longer strictly limited, for it
+could be indefinitely increased by peaceful industry; and moreover, in
+the free exchange of the products of labour, it ceased to be true that
+one man's interest was opposed to another's. Men did not at once
+recognize this fact, and indeed it has not yet become universally
+recognized, so long have men persisted in interpreting the conditions of
+industrial life in accordance with the immemorial traditions of the time
+when the means of subsistence were strictly limited, so that one man's
+success meant another's starvation. Our robber tariffs--miscalled
+"protective"--are survivals of the barbarous mode of thinking which
+fitted the ages before industrial civilization began. But although the
+pacific implications of free exchange were very slowly recognized, it is
+not the less true that the beginnings of agriculture and commerce marked
+the beginnings of the greatest social revolution in the whole career of
+mankind. Henceforth the conditions for the maintenance of physical life
+became different from what they had been throughout the past history of
+the animal world. It was no longer necessary for men to quarrel for
+their food like dogs over a bone; for they could now obtain it far more
+effectively by applying their intelligence to the task of utilizing the
+forces of inanimate nature; and the due execution of such a task was in
+no wise assisted by wrath and contention, but from the outset was rather
+hindered by such things.
+
+Such were the beginnings of industrial civilization. Out of its
+exigencies, continually increasing in complexity, have proceeded,
+directly or indirectly, the arts and sciences which have given to modern
+life so much of its interest and value. But more important still has been
+the work of industrial civilization in the ethical field. By furnishing
+a wider basis for political union than mere blood-relationship, it
+greatly extended the area within which moral obligations were recognized
+as binding. At first confined to the clan, the idea of duty came at
+length to extend throughout a state in which many clans were combined
+and fused, and as it thus increased in generality and abstractness, the
+idea became immeasurably strengthened and ennobled. At last, with the
+rise of empires, in which many states were brought together in pacific
+industrial relations, the recognized sphere of moral obligation became
+enlarged until it comprehended all mankind.
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.
+
+
+This rise of empires, this coalescence of small groups of men into
+larger and larger political aggregates, has been the chief work of
+civilization, when looked at on its political side.[13] Like all the
+work of evolution, this process has gone on irregularly and
+intermittently, and its ultimate tendency has only gradually become
+apparent. This process of coalescence has from the outset been brought
+about by the needs of industrial civilization, and the chief obstacle
+which it has had to encounter has been the universal hostility and
+warfare bequeathed from primeval times. The history of mankind has been
+largely made up of fighting, but in the careers of the most progressive
+races this fighting has been far from meaningless, like the battles of
+kites and crows. In the stream of history which, beginning on the shores
+of the Mediterranean Sea, has widened until in our day it covers both
+sides of the Atlantic and is fast extending over the remotest parts of
+the earth,--in this main stream of history the warfare which has gone on
+has had a clearly discernible purpose and meaning. Broadly considered,
+this warfare has been chiefly the struggle of the higher industrial
+civilization in defending itself against the attacks of neighbours who
+had not advanced beyond that early stage of humanity in which warfare
+was chronic and normal. During the historic period, the wars of Europe
+have been either contests between the industrial and the predatory types
+of society, or contests incident upon the imperfect formation of large
+political aggregates. There have been three ways in which great
+political bodies have arisen. The earliest and lowest method was that of
+_conquest without incorporation_. A single powerful tribe conquered and
+annexed its neighbours without admitting them to a share in the
+government. It appropriated their military strength, robbed them of most
+of the fruits of their labour, and thus virtually enslaved them. Such
+was the origin of the great despotic empires of Oriental type. Such
+states degenerate rapidly in military strength. Their slavish
+populations, accustomed to be starved and beaten or massacred by the
+tax-gatherer, become unable to fight, so that great armies of them will
+flee before a handful of freemen, as in the case of the ancient Persians
+and the modern Egyptians. To strike down the executive head of such an
+assemblage of enslaved tribes is to effect the conquest or the
+dissolution of the whole mass, and hence the history of Eastern peoples
+has been characterized by sudden and gigantic revolutions.
+
+The second method of forming great political bodies was that of
+_conquest with incorporation_. The conquering tribe, while annexing its
+neighbours, gradually admitted them to a share in the government. In
+this way arose the Roman empire, the largest, the most stable, and in
+its best days the most pacific political aggregate the world had as yet
+seen. Throughout the best part of Europe, its conquests succeeded in
+transforming the ancient predatory type of society into the modern
+industrial type. It effectually broke up the primeval clan-system, with
+its narrow ethical ideas, and arrived at the broad conception of rights
+and duties coextensive with Humanity. But in the method upon which Rome
+proceeded there was an essential element of weakness. The simple device
+of representation, by which political power is equally retained in all
+parts of the community while its exercise is delegated to a central
+body, was entirely unknown to the Romans. Partly for this reason, and
+partly because of the terrible military pressure to which the frontier
+was perpetually exposed, the Roman government became a despotism which
+gradually took on many of the vices of the Oriental type. The political
+weakness which resulted from this allowed Europe to be overrun by
+peoples organized in clans and tribes, and for some time there was a
+partial retrogression toward the disorder characteristic of primitive
+ages. The retrogression was but partial and temporary, however; the
+exposed frontier has been steadily pushed eastward into the heart of
+Asia; the industrial type of society is no longer menaced by the
+predatory type; the primeval clan-system has entirely disappeared as a
+social force; and warfare, once ubiquitous and chronic, has become local
+and occasional.
+
+The third and highest method of forming great political bodies is that
+of _federation_. The element of fighting was essential in the two lower
+methods, but in this it is not essential. Here there is no conquest, but
+a voluntary union of small political groups into a great political
+group. Each little group preserves its local independence intact, while
+forming part of an indissoluble whole. Obviously this method of
+political union requires both high intelligence and high ethical
+development In early times it was impracticable. It was first attempted,
+with brilliant though ephemeral success, by the Greeks, but it failed
+for want of the device of representation. In later times it was put into
+operation, with permanent success, on a small scale by the Swiss, and on
+a great scale by our forefathers in England. The coalescence of shires
+into the kingdom of England, effected as it was by means of a
+representative assembly, and accompanied by the general retention of
+local self-government, afforded a distinct precedent for such a gigantic
+federal union as men of English race have since constructed in America.
+The principle of federation was there, though not the name. And here we
+hit upon the fundamental contrast between the history of England and
+that of France. The method by which the modern French nation has been
+built up has been the Roman method of conquest with incorporation. As
+the ruler of Paris gradually overcame his vassals, one after another, by
+warfare or diplomacy, he annexed their counties to his royal domain, and
+governed them by lieutenants sent from Paris. Self-government was thus
+crushed out in France, while it was preserved in England. And just as
+Rome achieved its unprecedented dominion by adopting a political method
+more effective than any that had been hitherto employed, so England,
+employing for the first time a still higher and more effective method,
+has come to play a part in the world compared with which even the part
+played by Rome seems insignificant. The test of the relative strength of
+the English and Roman methods came when England and France contended for
+the possession of North America. The people which preserved its
+self-government could send forth self-supporting colonies; the people
+which had lost the very tradition of self-government could not. Hence
+the dominion of the sea, with that of all the outlying parts of the
+earth, fell into the hands of men of English race; and hence the
+federative method of political union--the method which contains every
+element of permanence, and which is pacific in its very conception--is
+already assuming a sway which is unquestionably destined to become
+universal.
+
+Bearing all this in mind, we cannot fail to recognize the truth of the
+statement that the great wars of the historic period have been either
+contests between the industrial and the predatory types of society or
+contests incident upon the imperfect formation of great political
+aggregates. Throughout the turmoil of the historic period--which on a
+superficial view seems such a chaos--we see certain definite tendencies
+at work; the tendency toward the formation of larger and larger
+political aggregates, and toward the more perfect maintenance of local
+self-government and individual freedom among the parts of the aggregate.
+This two-sided process began with the beginnings of industrial
+civilization; it has aided the progress of industry and been aided by
+it; and the result has been to diminish the quantity of warfare, and to
+lessen the number of points at which it touches the ordinary course of
+civilized life. With the further continuance of this process, but one
+ultimate result is possible. It must go on until warfare becomes
+obsolete. The nineteenth century, which has witnessed an unprecedented
+development of industrial civilization, with its attendant arts and
+sciences, has also witnessed an unprecedented diminution in the strength
+of the primeval spirit of militancy. It is not that we have got rid of
+great wars, but that the relative proportion of human strength which has
+been employed in warfare has been remarkably less than in any previous
+age. In our own history, of the two really great wars which have
+permeated our whole social existence,--the Revolutionary War and the War
+of Secession,--the first was fought in behalf of the pacific principle
+of equal representation; the second was fought in behalf of the pacific
+principle of federalism. In each case, the victory helped to hasten the
+day when warfare shall become unnecessary. In the few great wars of
+Europe since the overthrow of Napoleon, we may see the same principle at
+work. In almost every case the result has been to strengthen the pacific
+tendencies of modern society. Whereas warfare was once dominant over the
+face of the earth, and came home in all its horrid details to
+everybody's door, and threatened the very existence of industrial
+civilization; it has now become narrowly confined in time and space, it
+no longer comes home to everybody's door, and, in so far as it is still
+tolerated, for want of a better method of settling grave international
+questions, it has become quite ancillary to the paramount needs, of
+industrial civilization. When we can see so much as this lying before us
+on the pages of history, we cannot fail to see that the final extinction
+of warfare is only a question of time. Sooner or later it must come to
+an end, and the pacific principle of federalism, whereby questions
+between states are settled, like questions between individuals by due
+process of law, must reign supreme over all the earth.
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off the
+Brute-Inheritance.
+
+
+As regards the significance of Man's position in the universe, this
+gradual elimination of strife is a fact of utterly unparalleled
+grandeur. Words cannot do justice to such a fact. It means that the
+wholesale destruction of life, which has heretofore characterized
+evolution ever since life began, and through which the higher forms of
+organic existence have been produced, must presently come to an end in
+the case of the chief of God's creatures. It means that the universal
+struggle for existence, having succeeded in bringing forth that
+consummate product of creative energy, the Human Soul, has done its work
+and will presently cease. In the lower regions of organic life it must
+go on, but as a determining factor in the highest work of evolution it
+will disappear.
+
+The action of natural selection upon Man has long since been essentially
+diminished through the operation of social conditions. For in all grades
+of civilization above the lowest, "there are so many kinds of
+superiorities which severally enable men to survive, notwithstanding
+accompanying inferiorities, that natural selection cannot by itself
+rectify any particular unfitness." In a race of inferior animals any
+maladjustment is quickly removed by natural selection, because, owing to
+the universal slaughter, the highest completeness of life possible to a
+given grade of organization is required for the mere maintenance of
+life. But under the conditions surrounding human development it is
+otherwise.[14] There is a wide interval between the highest and lowest
+degrees of completeness of living that are compatible with maintenance
+of life.
+
+Hence the wicked flourish. Vice is but slowly eliminated, because
+mankind has so many other qualities, beside the bad ones, which enable
+it to subsist and achieve progress in spite of them, that natural
+selection--which always works through death--cannot come into play. The
+improvement of civilized man goes on mainly through processes of direct
+adaptation. The principle in accordance with which the gloved hand of
+the dandy becomes white and soft while the hand of the labouring man
+grows brown and tough is the main principle at work in the improvement
+of Humanity. Our intellectual faculties, our passions and prejudices,
+our tastes and habits, become strengthened by use and weakened by
+disuse, just as the blacksmith's arm grows strong and the horse turned
+out to pasture becomes unfit for work. This law of use and disuse has
+been of immense importance throughout the whole evolution of organic
+life. With Man it has come to be paramount.
+
+If now we contrast the civilized man intellectually and morally with the
+savage, we find that, along with his vast increase of cerebral surface,
+he has an immensely greater power of representing in imagination objects
+and relations not present to the senses. This is the fundamental
+intellectual difference between civilized men and savages.[15] The power
+of imagination, or ideal representation, underlies the whole of science
+and art, and it is closely connected with the ability to work hard and
+submit to present discomfort for the sake of a distant reward. It is
+also closely connected with the development of the sympathetic feelings.
+The better we can imagine objects and relations not present to sense,
+the more readily we can sympathize with other people. Half the cruelty
+in the world is the direct result of stupid incapacity to put one's self
+in the other man's place. So closely inter-related are our intellectual
+and moral natures that the development of sympathy is very considerably
+determined by increasing width and variety of experience. From the
+simplest form of sympathy, such as the painful thrill felt on seeing
+some one in a dangerous position, up to the elaborate complication of
+altruistic feelings involved in the notion of abstract justice, the
+development is very largely a development of the representative faculty.
+The very same causes, therefore, deeply grounded in the nature of
+industrial civilization, which have developed science and art, have also
+had a distinct tendency to encourage the growth of the sympathetic
+emotions.
+
+But, as already observed, these emotions are still too feebly developed,
+even in the highest races of men. We have made more progress in
+intelligence than in kindness. For thousands of generations, and until
+very recent times, one of the chief occupations of men has been to
+plunder, bruise, and kill one another. The selfish and ugly passions
+which are primordial--which have the incalculable strength of
+inheritance from the time when animal consciousness began--have had but
+little opportunity to grow weak from disuse. The tender and unselfish
+feelings, which are a later product of evolution, have too seldom been
+allowed to grow strong from exercise. And the whims and prejudices of
+the primeval militant barbarism are slow in dying out from the midst of
+peaceful industrial civilization. The coarser forms of cruelty are
+disappearing, and the butchery of men has greatly diminished. But most
+people apply to industrial pursuits a notion of antagonism derived from
+ages of warfare, and seek in all manner of ways to cheat or overreach
+one another. And as in more barbarous times the hero was he who had
+slain his tens of thousands, so now the man who has made wealth by
+overreaching his neighbours is not uncommonly spoken of in terms which
+imply approval. Though gentlemen, moreover, no longer assail one another
+with knives and clubs, they still inflict wounds with cruel words and
+sneers. Though the free--thinker is no longer chained to a stake and
+burned, people still tell lies about him, and do their best to starve
+him by hurting his reputation. The virtues of forbearance and
+self-control are still in a very rudimentary state, and of mutual
+helpfulness there is far too little among men.
+
+Nevertheless in all these respects some improvement has been made, along
+with the diminution of warfare, and by the time warfare has not merely
+ceased from the earth but has come to be the dimly remembered phantom of
+a remote past, the development of the sympathetic side of human nature
+will doubtless become prodigious. The manifestation of selfish and
+hateful feelings will be more and more sternly repressed by public
+opinion, and such feelings will become weakened by disuse, while the
+sympathetic feelings will increase in strength as the sphere for their
+exercise is enlarged. And thus at length we see what human progress
+means. It means throwing off the brute-inheritance,--gradually throwing
+it off through ages of struggle that are by and by to make struggle
+needless. Man is slowly passing from a primitive social state in which
+he was little better than a brute, toward an ultimate social state in
+which his character shall have become so transformed that nothing of the
+brute can be detected in it. The ape and the tiger in human nature will
+become extinct. Theology has had much to say about original sin. This
+original sin is neither more nor less than the brute-inheritance which
+every man carries with him, and the process of evolution is an advance
+toward true salvation. Fresh value is thus added to human life. The
+modern prophet, employing the methods of science, may again proclaim
+that the kingdom of heaven is at hand. Work ye, therefore, early and
+late, to prepare its coming.
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+The Message of Christianity.
+
+
+Now what is this message of the modern prophet but pure
+Christianity?--not the mass of theological doctrine ingeniously piled up
+by Justin Martyr and Tertullian and Clement and Athanasius and
+Augustine, but the real and essential Christianity which came, fraught
+with good tidings to men, from the very lips of Jesus and Paul! When did
+St. Paul's conception of the two men within him that warred against each
+other, the appetites of our brute nature and the God-given yearning for
+a higher life,--when did this grand conception ever have so much
+significance as now? When have we ever before held such a clew to the
+meaning of Christ in the Sermon on the Mount? "Blessed are the meek, for
+they shall inherit the earth." In the cruel strife of centuries has it
+not often seemed as if the earth were to be rather the prize of the
+hardest heart and the strongest fist? To many men these words of Christ
+have been as foolishness and as a stumbling-block, and the ethics of the
+Sermon on the Mount have been openly derided as too good for this world.
+In that wonderful picture of modern life which is the greatest work of
+one of the great seers of our time, Victor Hugo gives a concrete
+illustration of the working of Christ's methods. In the saintlike career
+of Bishop Myriel, and in the transformation which his example works in
+the character of the hardened outlaw Jean Valjean, we have a most
+powerful commentary on the Sermon on the Mount. By some critics who
+could express their views freely about "Les Misérables" while hesitating
+to impugn directly the authority of the New Testament, Monseigneur
+Bienvenu was unsparingly ridiculed as a man of impossible goodness, and
+as a milksop and fool withal. But I think Victor Hugo understood the
+capabilities of human nature, and its real dignity, much better than
+these scoffers. In a low stage of civilization Monseigneur Bienvenu
+would have had small chance of reaching middle life. Christ himself, we
+remember, was crucified between two thieves. It is none the less true
+that when once the degree of civilization is such as to allow this
+highest type of character, distinguished by its meekness and kindness,
+to take root and thrive, its methods are incomparable in their potency.
+The Master knew full well that the time was not yet ripe,--that he
+brought not peace, but a sword. But he preached nevertheless that gospel
+of great joy which is by and by to be realized by toiling Humanity, and
+he announced ethical principles fit for the time that is coming. The
+great originality of his teaching, and the feature that has chiefly
+given it power in the world, lay in the distinctness with which he
+conceived a state of society from which every vestige of strife, and the
+modes of behaviour adapted to ages of strife, shall be utterly and
+forever swept away. Through misery that has seemed unendurable and
+turmoil that has seemed endless, men have thought on that gracious life
+and its sublime ideal, and have taken comfort in the sweetly solemn
+message of peace on earth and good will to men.
+
+I believe that the promise with which I started has now been amply
+redeemed. I believe it has been fully shown that so far from degrading
+Humanity, or putting it on a level with the animal world in general, the
+doctrine of evolution shows us distinctly for the first time how the
+creation and the perfecting of Man is the goal toward which Nature's
+work has been tending from the first. We can now see clearly that our
+new knowledge enlarges tenfold the significance of human life, and makes
+it seem more than ever the chief object of Divine care, the consummate
+fruition of that creative energy which is manifested throughout the
+knowable universe.
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+The Question as to a Future Life.
+
+
+Upon the question whether Humanity is, after all, to cast in its lot
+with the grass that withers and the beasts that perish, the whole
+foregoing argument has a bearing that is by no means remote or
+far-fetched. It is not likely that we shall ever succeed in making the
+immortality of the soul a matter of scientific demonstration, for we
+lack the requisite data. It must ever remain an affair of religion
+rather than of science. In other words, it must remain one of that class
+of questions upon which I may not expect to convince my neighbour, while
+at the same time I may entertain a reasonable conviction of my own upon
+the subject.[16] In the domain of cerebral physiology the question might
+be debated forever without a result. The only thing which cerebral
+physiology tells us, when studied with the aid of molecular physics, is
+against the materialist, so far as it goes. It tells us that, during the
+present life, although thought and feeling are always manifested in
+connection with a peculiar form of matter, yet by no possibility can
+thought and feeling be in any sense the products of matter. Nothing
+could be more grossly unscientific than the famous remark of Cabanis,
+that the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile. It is not
+even correct to say that thought goes on in the brain. What goes on in
+the brain is an amazingly complex series of molecular movements, with
+which thought and feeling are in some unknown way correlated, not as
+effects or as causes, but as concomitants. So much is clear, but
+cerebral physiology says nothing about another life. Indeed, why should
+it? The last place in the world to which I should go for information
+about a state of things in which thought and feeling can exist in the
+absence of a cerebrum would be cerebral physiology!
+
+The materialistic assumption that there is no such state of things, and
+that the life of the soul accordingly ends with the life of the body, is
+perhaps the most colossal instance of baseless assumption that is known
+to the history of philosophy. No evidence for it can be alleged beyond
+the familiar fact that during the present life we know Soul only in its
+association with Body, and therefore cannot discover disembodied soul
+without dying ourselves. This fact must always prevent us from obtaining
+direct evidence for the belief in the soul's survival. But a negative
+presumption is not created by the absence of proof in cases where, in
+the nature of things, proof is inaccessible.[17] With his illegitimate
+hypothesis of annihilation, the materialist transgresses the bounds of
+experience quite as widely as the poet who sings of the New Jerusalem
+with its river of life and its streets of gold. Scientifically speaking,
+there is not a particle of evidence for either view.
+
+But when we desist from the futile attempt to introduce scientific
+demonstration into a region which confessedly transcends human
+experience, and when we consider the question upon broad grounds of
+moral probability, I have no doubt that men will continue in the future,
+as in the past, to cherish the faith in a life beyond the grave. In past
+times the disbelief in the soul's immortality has always accompanied
+that kind of philosophy which, under whatever name, has regarded
+Humanity as merely a local incident in an endless and aimless series of
+cosmical changes. As a general rule, people who have come to take such a
+view of the position of Man in the universe have ceased to believe in a
+future life. On the other hand, he who regards Man as the consummate
+fruition of creative energy, and the chief object of Divine care, is
+almost irresistibly driven to the belief that the soul's career is not
+completed with the present life upon the earth. Difficulties on theory
+he will naturally expect to meet in many quarters; but these will not
+weaken his faith, especially when he remembers that upon the alternative
+view the difficulties are at least as great. We live in a world of
+mystery, at all events, and there is not a problem in the simplest and
+most exact departments of science which does not speedily lead us to a
+transcendental problem that we can neither solve nor elude. A broad
+common-sense argument has often to be called in, where keen-edged
+metaphysical analysis has confessed itself baffled.
+
+Now we have here seen that the doctrine of evolution does not allow us
+to take the atheistic view of the position of Man. It is true that
+modern astronomy shows us giant balls of vapour condensing into fiery
+suns, cooling down into planets fit for the support of life, and at last
+growing cold and rigid in death, like the moon. And there are
+indications of a time when systems of dead planets shall fall in upon
+their central ember that was once a sun, and the whole lifeless mass,
+thus regaining heat, shall expand into a nebulous cloud like that with
+which we started, that the work of condensation and evolution may begin
+over again. These Titanic events must doubtless seem to our limited
+vision like an endless and aimless series of cosmical changes. They
+disclose no signs of purpose, or even of dramatic tendency;[18] they
+seem like the weary work of Sisyphos. But on the face of our own planet,
+where alone we are able to survey the process of evolution in its higher
+and more complex details, we do find distinct indications of a dramatic
+tendency, though doubtless not of purpose in the limited human sense.
+The Darwinian theory, properly understood, replaces as much
+teleology[19] as it destroys. From the first dawning of life we see all
+things working together toward one mighty goal, the evolution of the
+most exalted spiritual qualities which characterize Humanity. The body
+is cast aside and returns to the dust of which it was made. The earth,
+so marvellously wrought to man's uses, will also be cast aside. The day
+is to come, no doubt, when the heavens shall vanish as a scroll, and the
+elements be melted with fervent heat. So small is the value which Nature
+sets upon the perishable forms of matter! The question, then, is reduced
+to this: are Man's highest spiritual qualities, into the production of
+which all this creative energy has gone, to disappear with the rest? Has
+all this work been done for nothing? Is it all ephemeral, all a bubble
+that bursts, a vision that fades? Are we to regard the Creator's work as
+like that of a child, who builds houses out of blocks, just for the
+pleasure of knocking them down? For aught that science can tell us, it
+may be so, but I can see no good reason for believing any such thing. On
+such a view the riddle of the universe becomes a riddle without a
+meaning. Why, then, are we any more called upon to throw away our belief
+in the permanence of the spiritual element in Man than we are called
+upon to throw away our belief in the constancy of Nature? When
+questioned as to the ground of our irresistible belief that like causes
+must always be followed by like effects, Mr. Mill's answer was that it
+is the result of an induction coextensive with the whole of our
+experience; Mr. Spencer's answer was that it is a postulate which we
+make in every act of experience;[20] but the authors of the "Unseen
+Universe," slightly varying the form of statement, called it a supreme
+act of faith,--the expression of a trust in God, that He will not "put
+us to permanent intellectual confusion." Now the more thoroughly we
+comprehend that process of evolution by which things have come to be
+what they are, the more we are likely to feel that to deny the
+everlasting persistence of the spiritual element in Man is to rob the
+whole process of its meaning. It goes far toward putting us to permanent
+intellectual confusion, and I do not see that any one has as yet
+alleged, or is ever likely to allege, a sufficient reason for our
+accepting so dire an alternative.
+
+For my own part, therefore, I believe in the immortality of the soul,
+not in the sense in which I accept the demonstrable truths of science,
+but as a supreme act of faith in the reasonableness of God's work. Such
+a belief, relating to regions quite inaccessible to experience, cannot
+of course be clothed in terms of definite and tangible meaning. For the
+experience which alone can give us such terms we must await that solemn
+day which is to overtake us all. The belief can be most quickly defined
+by its negation, as the refusal to believe that this world is all. The
+materialist holds that when you have described the whole universe of
+phenomena of which we can become cognizant under the conditions of the
+present life, then the whole story is told. It seems to me, on the
+contrary, that the whole story is not thus told. I feel the omnipresence
+of mystery in such wise as to make it far easier for me to adopt the
+view of Euripides, that what we call death may be but the dawning of
+true knowledge and of true life. The greatest philosopher of modern
+times, the master and teacher of all who shall study the process of
+evolution for many a day to come, holds that the conscious soul is not
+the product of a collocation of material particles, but is in the
+deepest sense a divine effluence. According to Mr. Spencer, the divine
+energy which is manifested throughout the knowable universe is the same
+energy that wells up in us as consciousness. Speaking for myself, I can
+see no insuperable difficulty in the notion that at some period in the
+evolution of Humanity this divine spark may have acquired sufficient
+concentration and steadiness to survive the wreck of material forms and
+endure forever. Such a crowning wonder seems to me no more than the fit
+climax to a creative work that has been ineffably beautiful and
+marvellous in all its myriad stages.
+
+Only on some such view can the reasonableness of the universe, which
+still remains far above our finite power of comprehension, maintain its
+ground. There are some minds inaccessible to the class of considerations
+here alleged, and perhaps there always will be. But on such grounds, if
+on no other, the faith in immortality is likely to be shared by all who
+look upon the genesis of the highest spiritual qualities in Man as the
+goal of Nature's creative work. This view has survived the Copernican
+revolution in science, and it has survived the Darwinian revolution.
+Nay, if the foregoing exposition be sound, it is Darwinism which has
+placed Humanity upon a higher pinnacle than ever. The future is lighted
+for us with the radiant colours of hope. Strife and sorrow shall
+disappear. Peace and love shall reign supreme. The dream of poets, the
+lesson of priest and prophet, the inspiration of the great musician, is
+confirmed in the light of modern knowledge; and as we gird ourselves up
+for the work of life, we may look forward to the time when in the truest
+sense the kingdoms of this world shall become the kingdom of Christ, and
+he shall reign for ever and ever, king of kings and lord of lords.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES.
+
+
+    C.P., Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 1874;
+    U.W., The Unseen World, 1876;
+    D., Darwinism and Other Essays, 1879;
+    E.E., Excursions of an Evolutionist, 1884.
+
+    1: C.P. ii. 432-451.
+    2: C.P. ii. 89-91.
+    3: C.P. ii. 318-321; D. 45.
+    4: U.W. 40-42; D. 65-74; E.E. 278-282, 327, 336.
+    5: C.P. ii. 154-159.
+    6: C.P. ii. 133-135.
+    7: D. 45-48; E.E. 306-319.
+    8: C.P. ii. 310.
+    9: E.E. 109-146.
+    10: C.P. ii. 284-323.
+    11: C.P. ii. 342-346, 358-363.
+    12: C.P. ii. 202-208.
+    13: C.P. ii. 213-224.
+    14: C.P. ii. 334.
+    15: C.P. ii. 312-315.
+    16: U.W. 54; E.E. 289-291.
+    17: U.W. 47-50; D. 75.
+    18: D. 96-102.
+    19: C.P. ii. 406.
+    20: C.P. i. 45-71, 286; ii. 162; U.W. 6; D. 87-95.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+John Fiske's Writings.
+
+
+MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS: Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by
+Comparative Mythology, _17th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY. Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with
+Criticisms on the Positive Philosophy. _14th Edition_. 2 vols.,
+8vo, $6.00
+
+THE UNSEEN WORLD, and other Essays, _12th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST. _15th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+DARWINISM, and other Essays. _8th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN, viewed in the Light of His Origin. _20th
+Edition_. 16mo, $1.00.
+
+THE IDEA OF GOD, as affected by Modern Knowledge. A Sequel to "The
+Destiny of Man." _14th Thousand_. 16mo, $1.00.
+
+THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789. _12th Edition_.
+Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND or the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations
+to Civil and Religious Liberty. _10th Thousand_. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. In Riverside Library for Young People. 16mo, 75
+cents.
+
+THE DISCOVERY AND SPANISH CONQUEST OF AMERICA. With Maps, _11th
+Thousand_. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. _8th Thousand_. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.
+
+CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. CONSIDERED WITH SOME REFERENCE TO
+ITS ORIGINS. _56th Thousand._ Crown 8vo, $1.00, _net_.
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+BOSTON AND NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AMERICAN POLITICAL IDEAS, viewed from the Stand-point of Universal
+History. _Seventh Edition_. 12mo, $1.00. HARPER & BROTHERS, New York.
+
+
+
+
+THE WRITINGS OF JOHN FISKE.
+
+
+THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.
+
+_With some Account of Ancient America and the Spanish Conquest. With a
+steel portrait of Mr. Fiske, reproductions of many old maps, several
+modern maps, facsimiles, and other illustrations. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+$4.00._
+
+_LARGE-PAPER EDITION. Limited to 250 copies. 4 vols. 8vo, $16.00, net._
+
+This work forms the beginning of Mr. Fiske's history of America. It is,
+perhaps, the most important single portion yet completed by him, and
+gives the results of vast research.
+
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
+
+_With Plans of Battles, and a new Steel Portrait of Washington, engraved
+by Willcox from a miniature never before reproduced. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+gilt top, $4.00._
+
+The reader may turn to these volumes with full assurance of faith for a
+fresh rehearsal of the old facts, which no time can stale, and for new
+views of those old facts, according to the larger framework of ideas in
+which they can now be set by the master of a captivating style and an
+expert in historical philosophy.--_New York Evening Post_.
+
+The freshness and vivid interest of the narrative and the comprehensive
+generalization which springs naturally from the author's plan of a large
+work on American history, of which the two volumes now published are no
+more than a third or a fourth part, make it a book of new and permanent
+interest.--_Springfield Republican_.
+
+
+CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+_Considered with some Reference to its Origins. With Questions on the
+Text by Frank A. Hill, and Bibliographical Notes by Mr. Fiske. 12mo,
+$1.00, net._
+
+If this admirable volume (Fiske's "Civil Government") can be fairly
+taught to our rising generation, the future, we believe, will show that
+Mr. Fiske has never done more useful work than in its preparation.--_The
+Congregationalist_ (Boston).
+
+
+THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789.
+
+_With Map, Notes, etc. Crown 8vo, $2.00._
+
+The author combines in an unusual degree the impartiality of the trained
+scholar with the fervor of the interested narrator.... The volume should
+be in every library in the land.--_The Congregationalist_ (Boston).
+
+An admirable book.... Mr. Fiske has a great talent for making history
+interesting to the general reader.--_New York Times_.
+
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND;
+
+_Or, the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to Civil and Religious
+Liberty. Crown 8vo, $2.00._
+
+It deals with the early colonial history of New England in the
+entertaining and vivid style which has marked all of Mr. Fiske's
+writings on American history, and it is distinguished, like them, by its
+aggressive patriotism and its justice to all parties in controversy....
+The whole book is novel and fresh in treatment, philosophical and wise,
+and will not be laid down till one has read the last page, and remains
+impatient for what is still to come.--_Boston Post_.
+
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+_In Riverside Library for Young People. With Maps. 16mo, 75 cents._
+
+John Fiske's "War of Independence" is a miracle.... A book brilliant and
+effective beyond measure.... It is a statement that every child can
+comprehend, but that only a man of consummate genius could have
+written.--Mrs. CAROLINE H. DALL, _in the Springfield Republican_.
+
+The story of the Revolution, as Mr. Fiske tells it, is one of surpassing
+interest. His treatment is a marvel of clearness and comprehensiveness;
+discarding non-essential details, he selects with a fine historic
+instinct the main currents of history, traces them with the utmost
+precision, and tells the whole story in a masterly fashion. His little
+volume will be a text-book for older quite as much as for young
+readers.--_Christian Union_ (New York).
+
+
+OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY
+
+_Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with Criticisms on the Positive
+Philosophy. In two volumes. 8vo, $6.00._
+
+"You must allow me to thank you for the very great interest with which I
+have at last slowly read the whole of your work.... I never in my life
+read so lucid an expositor (and therefore thinker) as you are; and I
+think that I understand nearly the whole, though perhaps less clearly
+about cosmic theism and causation than other parts. It is hopeless to
+attempt out of so much to specify what has interested me most, and
+probably you would not care to hear. It pleased me to find that here and
+there I had arrived, from my own crude thoughts, at some of the same
+conclusions with you, though I could seldom or never have given my
+reasons for such conclusions."--CHARLES DARWIN.
+
+This work of Mr. Fiske's may be not unfairly designated the most
+important contribution yet made by America to philosophical
+literature.--_The Academy_ (London).
+
+
+DARWINISM, AND OTHER ESSAYS.
+
+If ever there was a spirit thoroughly invigorated by the "joy of right
+understanding" it is that of the author of these pieces. Even the reader
+catches something of his intellectual buoyancy, and is thus carried
+almost lightly through discussions which would be hard and dry in the
+hands of a less animated writer.... No less confident and serene than
+his acceptance of the utmost logical results of recent scientific
+discovery is Mr. Fiske's assurance that the foundations of spiritual
+truths, so called, cannot possibly be shaken thereby.--_The Atlantic
+Monthly_ (Boston).
+
+
+THE UNSEEN WORLD,
+
+_And Other Essays. 12mo, $2.00._
+
+To each study the writer seems to have brought, besides an excellent
+quality of discriminating judgment, full and fresh special knowledge,
+that enables him to supply much information on the subject, whatever it
+may be, that is not to be found in the volume he is noticing. To the
+knowledge, analytical power, and faculty of clear statement, that appear
+in all these papers, Mr. Fiske adds a just independence of thought that
+conciliates respectful consideration of his views, even when they are
+most at variance with the commonly accepted ones.--_Boston Advertiser_.
+
+
+EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST.
+
+_12mo, $2.00._
+
+Among our thoughtful essayists there are none more brilliant than Mr.
+John Fiske. His pure style suits his clear thought. He does not write
+unless he has something to say; and when he does write he shows not only
+that he has thoroughly acquainted himself with the subject but that he
+has to a rare degree the art of so massing his matter as to bring out
+the true value of the leading points in artistic relief. It is this
+perspective which makes his work such agreeable reading even on abstruse
+subjects, and has enabled him to play the same part in popularizing
+Spencer in this country that Littré performed for Comte in France, and
+Dumont for Bentham in England. The same qualities appear to good
+advantage in his new volume, which contains his later essays on his
+favorite subject of evolution.... They are well worth reperusal.--_The
+Nation_ (New York).
+
+
+MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.
+
+_Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by Comparative Mythology. 12mo,
+$2.00._
+
+Mr. Fiske has given us a book which is at once sensible and attractive,
+on a subject about which much is written that is crotchety or
+tedious.--W.R.S. RALSTON, in _Athenæum_ (London).
+
+A perusal of this thorough work cannot be too strongly recommended to
+all who are interested in comparative mythology.--_Revue Critique_
+(Paris).
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN,
+
+_Viewed in the Light of his Origin. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00._
+
+Mr. Fiske has given us in his "Destiny of Man" a most attractive
+condensation of his views as expressed in his various other works. One
+is charmed by the directness and clearness of his style, his simple and
+pure English, and his evident knowledge of his subject.... Of one thing
+we may be sure, that none are leading us more surely or rapidly to the
+full truth than men like the author of this little book, who reverently
+study the works of God for the lessons which he would teach his
+children.--_Christian Union_ (New York).
+
+
+THE IDEA OF GOD,
+
+_As Affected by Modern Knowledge. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00._
+
+The charms of John Fiske's style are patent. The secrets of its fluency,
+clearness, and beauty are secrets which many a maker of literary stuffs
+has attempted to unravel, in order to weave like cloth-of-gold.... A
+model for authors and a delight to readers.--_The Critic_ (New York).
+
+*** _For sale by all Booksellers. Sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of
+price by the Publishers,_
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+
+_4 Park Street, Boston; 11 East 17th Street, New York._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESTINY OF MAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 17239-8.txt or 17239-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/3/17239/
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/17239-8.zip b/17239-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6f068f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17239-8.zip
diff --git a/17239-h.zip b/17239-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fcff648
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17239-h.zip
diff --git a/17239-h/17239-h.htm b/17239-h/17239-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..777157c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17239-h/17239-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,2396 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=us-ascii" />
+<title>The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske.</title>
+
+<style type="text/css">
+      <!--
+      body                    {font-family:Georgia,serif;margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;}
+      p                       {text-align: justify;}
+      h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6       {text-align: center;font-variant:small-caps;padding-top:1.5em;}
+      pre                     {font-family:Courier,monospace;font-size: 0.8em;}
+      hr                      {width: 50%;}
+      hr.full                 {width: 100%;}
+      hr.short                {width:25%;}
+      h2.ChapterHead          {padding-top:4em;}
+
+      .list_of_contents ol {list-style-type:upper-roman;margin-left:10%;}
+      .refs ol {margin-left:10%;line-height:1.5em;}
+      .refs ul {list-style-type:none;margin-left:10%;}
+      .returnTOC {text-align:right;font-size:.7em;}
+      .pagenum {position:absolute;left:1%;right:92%;font-size:0.7em;text-align:left;text-indent:0em;color:gray;background-color:white;}
+      .cen {text-align:center;}
+      .small {font-size:0.8em;}
+      .dedication {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 2em;margin-top:2em;}
+      .dedication p {text-align:center;line-height:1.5em;}
+      .ch_desc {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align:center; font-style:italic;padding-bottom:1.2em;}
+      .fnm { vertical-align: super; font-size: 0.8em; }
+      .returnFN {position:absolute;left:85%;right:95%;font-size:0.7em;text-align:left;}
+      a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none;background-color:white;}
+      a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none;background-color:white;}
+      a:hover {color:red;background-color:white;}
+      -->
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Destiny of Man
+       Viewed in the Light of His Origin
+
+Author: John Fiske
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2005 [EBook #17239]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESTINY OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<hr class="full" /><h1>THE DESTINY OF MAN<br />VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF HIS ORIGIN</h1>
+
+<p class="cen small">BY</p>
+
+<h2>JOHN FISKE</h2>
+
+<p class="cen">TWENTIETH EDITION.</p>
+
+<p class="cen">BOSTON<br />
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY<br />
+1893</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Copyright, 1884,<br />
+BY JOHN FISKE.</p>
+<hr />
+<div class="dedication">
+<p>TO</p>
+
+<p>MY CHILDREN,</p>
+
+<p>MAUD, HAROLD, CLARENCE, RALPH, ETHEL, AND HERBERT,</p>
+
+<p>This Essay</p>
+
+<p><em>IS LOVINGLY DEDICATED.</em></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead">PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>Having been invited to give an address before the Concord School of
+Philosophy this summer, upon some subject relating to the question of
+immortality there under discussion, it seemed a proper occasion for
+putting together the following thoughts on the origin of Man and his
+place in the universe. In dealing with the unknown, it is well to take
+one&#8217;s start a long way within the limits of the known. The question of
+a future life is generally regarded as lying outside the range of
+legitimate scientific discussion. Yet while fully admitting this, one
+does not necessarily admit that the subject is one with regard to
+which we are forever debarred from entertaining an opinion. Now our
+opinions on such transcendental <span class="pagenum"><a id="page6" name="page6"></a>6</span>questions must necessarily be
+affected by the total mass of our opinions on the questions which lie
+within the scope of scientific inquiry; and from this point of view it
+becomes of surpassing interest to trace the career of Humanity within
+that segment of the universe which is accessible to us. The teachings
+of the doctrine of evolution as to the origin and destiny of Man have,
+moreover, a very great speculative and practical value of their own,
+quite apart from their bearings upon any ultimate questions. The body
+of this essay is accordingly devoted to setting forth these teachings
+in what I conceive to be their true light; while their transcendental
+implications are reserved for the sequel.</p>
+
+<p>As the essay contains an epitome of my own original contributions to
+the doctrine of evolution, I have added at the end a short list of
+<a href="#references" id="refmark" name="refmark">references</a> to other works of mine, where the points here briefly
+mentioned are more fully argued and illustrated. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page7" name="page7"></a>7</span>The views
+regarding the progress of human society, and the elimination of
+warfare, are set forth at greater length in a little book now in the
+press, and soon to appear, entitled &#8220;American Political Ideas.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>PETERSHAM, <em>September</em> 6, 1884.</p>
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page9" name="page9"></a>9</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Contents" name="Contents"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="list_of_contents">
+<ol>
+<li><a href="#Ch_1">Man&#8217;s Place in Nature as affected by the Copernican Theory.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_2">As affected by Darwinism.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_3">On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_4">The Origin of Infancy.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_5">The Dawning of Consciousness.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_6">Lengthening of Infancy and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_7">Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_8">Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_9">The Origins of Society and of Morality.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_10">Improvableness of Man.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_11">Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_12">First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilisation.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_13">Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_14">End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off the Brute-Inheritance.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_15">The Message of Christianity.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#Ch_16">The Question as to a Future Life.</a></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page11" name="page11"></a>11</span></p>
+
+<h2>THE DESTINY OF MAN.</h2>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_1" name="Ch_1"></a>I.</h2>
+<p class="ch_desc">Man&#8217;s Place in Nature, as affected by the Copernican Theory.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+<p>When we study the Divine Comedy of Dante&#8212;that wonderful book wherein
+all the knowledge and speculation, all the sorrows and yearnings, of
+the far-off Middle Ages are enshrined in the glory of imperishable
+verse&#8212;we are brought face to face with a theory of the world and with
+ways of reasoning about the facts of nature which seem strange to us
+to-day, but from the influence of which we are not yet, and doubtless
+never shall be, wholly freed. A cosmology grotesque enough in the
+light of later knowledge, yet wrought out no less carefully than the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page12" name="page12"></a>12</span>physical theories of Lucretius, is employed in the service of a
+theology cumbrous in its obsolete details, but resting upon
+fundamental truths which mankind can never safely lose sight of. In
+the view of Dante and of that phase of human culture which found in
+him its clearest and sweetest voice, this earth, the fair home of man,
+was placed in the centre of a universe wherein all things were
+ordained for his sole behoof: the sun to give him light and warmth,
+the stars in their courses to preside over his strangely checkered
+destinies, the winds to blow, the floods to rise, or the fiend of
+pestilence to stalk abroad over the land,&#8212;all for the blessing, or
+the warning, or the chiding, of the chief among God&#8217;s creatures, Man.
+Upon some such conception as this, indeed, all theology would seem
+naturally to rest. Once dethrone Humanity, regard it as a mere local
+incident in an endless and aimless series of cosmical changes, and you
+arrive at a doctrine which, under whatever specious <span class="pagenum"><a id="page13" name="page13"></a>13</span>name it may
+be veiled, is at bottom neither more nor less than Atheism. On its
+metaphysical side Atheism is the denial of anything psychical in the
+universe outside of human consciousness; and it is almost inseparably
+associated with the materialistic interpretation of human
+consciousness as the ephemeral result of a fleeting collocation of
+particles of matter. Viewed upon this side, it is easy to show that
+Atheism is very bad metaphysics, while the materialism which goes with
+it is utterly condemned by modern science.<a href="#fn1" name="fnm1" id="fnm1"><span class="fnm">1</span></a> But our feeling toward
+Atheism goes much deeper than the mere recognition of it as
+philosophically untrue. The mood in which we condemn it is not at all
+like the mood in which we reject the corpuscular theory of light or
+Sir G.C. Lewis&#8217;s vagaries on the subject of Egyptian hieroglyphics. We
+are wont to look upon Atheism with unspeakable horror and loathing.
+Our moral sense revolts against it no less than our intelligence; and
+this is because, on its <span class="pagenum"><a id="page14" name="page14"></a>14</span>practical side, Atheism would remove
+Humanity from its peculiar position in the world, and make it cast in
+its lot with the grass that withers and the beasts that perish; and
+thus the rich and varied life of the universe, in all the ages of its
+wondrous duration, becomes deprived of any such element of purpose as
+can make it intelligible to us or appeal to our moral sympathies and
+religious aspirations.</p>
+
+<p>And yet the first result of some of the grandest and most irrefragable
+truths of modern science, when newly discovered and dimly
+comprehended, has been to make it appear that Humanity must be rudely
+unseated from its throne in the world and made to occupy an utterly
+subordinate and trivial position; and it is because of this mistaken
+view of their import that the Church has so often and so bitterly
+opposed the teaching of such truths. With the advent of the Copernican
+astronomy the funnel-shaped Inferno, the steep mountain of Purgatory
+crowned <span class="pagenum"><a id="page15" name="page15"></a>15</span>with its terrestrial paradise, and those concentric
+spheres of Heaven wherein beatified saints held weird and subtle
+converse, all went their way to the limbo prepared for the childlike
+fancies of untaught minds, whither Hades and Valhalla had gone before
+them. In our day it is hard to realize the startling effect of the
+discovery that Man does not dwell at the centre of things, but is the
+denizen of an obscure and tiny speck of cosmical matter quite
+invisible amid the innumerable throng of flaming suns that make up our
+galaxy. To the contemporaries of Copernicus the new theory seemed to
+strike at the very foundations of Christian theology. In a universe
+where so much had been made without discernible reference to Man, what
+became of that elaborate scheme of salvation which seemed to rest upon
+the assumption that the career of Humanity was the sole object of
+God&#8217;s creative forethought and fostering care? When we bear this in
+mind, we see how natural and inevitable it was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page16" name="page16"></a>16</span>that the Church
+should persecute such men as Galileo and Bruno. At the same time it is
+instructive to observe that, while the Copernican astronomy has become
+firmly established in spite of priestly opposition, the foundations of
+Christian theology have not been shaken thereby. It is not that the
+question which once so sorely puzzled men has ever been settled, but
+that it has been outgrown. The speculative necessity for man&#8217;s
+occupying the largest and most central spot in the universe is no
+longer felt. It is recognized as a primitive and childish notion. With
+our larger knowledge we see that these vast and fiery suns are after
+all but the Titan like <em>servants</em> of the little planets which they
+bear with them in their flight through the abysses of space. Out from
+the awful gaseous turmoil of the central mass dart those ceaseless
+waves of gentle radiance that, when caught upon the surface of
+whirling worlds like ours, bring forth the endlessly varied forms and
+the endlessly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page17" name="page17"></a>17</span>complex movements that make up what we can see of
+life. And as when God revealed himself to his ancient prophet He came
+not in the earthquake or the tempest but in a voice that was still and
+small, so that divine spark the Soul, as it takes up its brief abode
+in this realm of fleeting phenomena, chooses not the central sun where
+elemental forces forever blaze and clash, but selects an outlying
+terrestrial nook where seeds may germinate in silence, and where
+through slow fruition the mysterious forms of organic life may come to
+take shape and thrive. He who thus looks a little deeper into the
+secrets of nature than his forefathers of the sixteenth century may
+well smile at the quaint conceit that man cannot be the object of
+God&#8217;s care unless he occupies an immovable position in the centre of
+the stellar universe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page18" name="page18"></a>18</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_2" name="Ch_2"></a>II.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">Man&#8217;s Place in Nature, as affected by Darwinism.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>When the Copernican astronomy was finally established through the
+discoveries of Kepler and Newton, it might well have been pronounced
+the greatest scientific achievement of the human mind; but it was
+still more than that. It was the greatest revolution that had ever
+been effected in Man&#8217;s views of his relations to the universe in which
+he lives, and of which he is&#8212;at least during the present life&#8212;a
+part. During the nineteenth century, however, a still greater
+revolution has been effected. Not only has Lyell enlarged our mental
+horizon in time as much as Newton enlarged it in space, but it appears
+that throughout these vast stretches of time and space with which <span class="pagenum"><a id="page19" name="page19"></a>19</span>we have been made acquainted there are sundry well-marked changes
+going on. Certain definite paths of development are being pursued; and
+around us on every side we behold worlds, organisms, and societies in
+divers stages of progress or decline. Still more, as we examine the
+records of past life upon our globe, and study the mutual relations of
+the living things that still remain, it appears that the higher forms
+of life&#8212;including Man himself&#8212;are the modified descendants of lower
+forms. Zo&ouml;logically speaking, Man can no longer be regarded as a
+creature apart by himself. We cannot erect an order on purpose to
+contain him, as Cuvier tried to do; we cannot even make a separate
+family for him. Man is not only a vertebrate, a mammal, and a primate,
+but he belongs, as a genus, to the catarrhine family of apes. And just
+as lions, leopards, and lynxes&#8212;different genera of the
+cat-family&#8212;are descended from a common stock of carnivora, back to
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page20" name="page20"></a>20</span>which we may also trace the pedigrees of dogs, hy&aelig;nas, bears,
+and seals; so the various genera of platyrrhine and catarrhine apes,
+including Man, are doubtless descended from a common stock of
+primates, back to which we may also trace the converging pedigrees of
+monkeys and lemurs, until their ancestry becomes indistinguishable
+from that of rabbits and squirrels. Such is the conclusion to which
+the scientific world has come within a quarter of a century from the
+publication of Mr. Darwin&#8217;s &#8220;Origin of Species;&#8221; and there is no more
+reason for supposing that this conclusion will ever be gainsaid than
+for supposing that the Copernican astronomy will some time be
+overthrown and the concentric spheres of Dante&#8217;s heaven reinstated in
+the minds of men.</p>
+
+<p>It is not strange that this theory of man&#8217;s origin, which we associate
+mainly with the name of Mr. Darwin, should be to many people very
+unwelcome. It is fast bringing about a still greater revolution <span class="pagenum"><a id="page21" name="page21"></a>21</span>in thought than that which was heralded by Copernicus; and it
+naturally takes some time for the various portions of one&#8217;s theory of
+things to become adjusted, one after another, to so vast and sweeping
+a change. From many quarters the cry goes up,&#8212;If this be true, then
+Man is at length cast down from his high position in the world. &#8220;I
+will not be called a mammal, or the son of a mammal!&#8221; once exclaimed
+an acquaintance of mine who perhaps had been brought up by hand. Such
+expressions of feeling are crude, but the feeling is not
+unjustifiable. It is urged that if man is physically akin to a baboon,
+as pigs are akin to horses, and cows to deer, then Humanity can in
+nowise be regarded as occupying a peculiar place in the universe; it
+becomes a mere incident in an endless series of changes, and how can
+we say that the same process of evolution that has produced mankind
+may not by and by produce something far more perfect? There was a time
+when huge bird-like reptiles were the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page22" name="page22"></a>22</span>lords of creation, and
+after these had been &#8220;sealed within the iron hills&#8221; there came
+successive dynasties of mammals; and as the iguanodon gave place to
+the great Eocene marsupials, as the mastodon and the sabre-toothed
+lion have long since vanished from the scene, so may not Man by and by
+disappear to make way for some higher creature, and so on forever? In
+such case, why should we regard Man as in any higher sense the object
+of Divine care than a pig? Still stronger does the case appear when we
+remember that those countless adaptations of means to ends in nature,
+which since the time of Voltaire and Paley we have been accustomed to
+cite as evidences of creative design, have received at the hands of
+Mr. Darwin a very different interpretation. The lobster&#8217;s powerful
+claw, the butterfly&#8217;s gorgeous tints, the rose&#8217;s delicious fragrance,
+the architectural instinct of the bee, the astonishing structure of
+the orchid, are no longer explained as the results of contrivance. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page23" name="page23"></a>23</span>That simple but wasteful process of survival of the fittest,
+through which such marvellous things have come into being, has little
+about it that is analogous to the ingenuity of human art. The infinite
+and eternal Power which is thus revealed in the physical life of the
+universe seems in nowise akin to the human soul. The idea of
+beneficent purpose seems for the moment to be excluded from nature,
+and a blind process, known as Natural Selection, is the deity that
+slumbers not nor sleeps. Reckless of good and evil, it brings forth at
+once the mother&#8217;s tender love for her infant and the horrible teeth of
+the ravening shark, and to its creative indifference the one is as
+good as the other.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of these appalling arguments the man of science, urged by the
+single-hearted purpose to ascertain the truth, be the consequences
+what they may, goes quietly on and finds that the terrible theory must
+be adopted; the fact of man&#8217;s consanguinity with dumb beasts must be
+admitted. In <span class="pagenum"><a id="page24" name="page24"></a>24</span>reaching this conclusion, the man of science
+reasons upon the physical facts within his reach, applying to them the
+same principles of common-sense whereby our everyday lives are
+successfully guided; and he is very apt to smile at the methods of
+those people who, taking hold of the question at the wrong end, begin
+by arguing about all manner of fancied consequences. For his knowledge
+of the history of human thinking assures him that such methods have
+through all past time proved barren of aught save strife, while his
+own bold yet humble method is the only one through which truth has
+ever been elicited. To pursue unflinchingly the methods of science
+requires dauntless courage and a faith that nothing can shake. Such
+courage and such loyalty to nature brings its own reward. For when
+once the formidable theory is really understood, when once its
+implications are properly unfolded, it is seen to have no such logical
+consequences as were at first ascribed to it. As with <span class="pagenum"><a id="page25" name="page25"></a>25</span>the
+Copernican astronomy, so with the Darwinian biology, we rise to a
+higher view of the workings of God and of the nature of Man than was
+ever attainable before. So far from degrading Humanity, or putting it
+on a level with the animal world in general, the Darwinian theory
+shows us distinctly for the first time how the creation and the
+perfecting of Man is the goal toward which Nature&#8217;s work has all the
+while been tending. It enlarges tenfold the significance of human
+life, places it upon even a loftier eminence than poets or prophets
+have imagined, and makes it seem more than ever the chief object of
+that creative activity which is manifested in the physical universe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page26" name="page26"></a>26</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_3" name="Ch_3"></a>III.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>In elucidating these points, we may fitly begin by considering the
+question as to the possibility of the evolution of any higher creature
+than Man, to whom the dominion over this earth shall pass. The
+question will best be answered by turning back and observing one of
+the most remarkable features connected with the origin of Man and with
+his superiority over other animals. And let it be borne in mind that
+we are not now about to wander through the regions of unconditional
+possibility. We are not dealing with vague general notions of
+development, but with the scientific Darwinian theory, which alleges
+development only as the result of certain rigorously defined agencies.
+The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page27" name="page27"></a>27</span>chief among these agencies is Natural Selection. It has
+again and again been illustrated how by the cumulative selection and
+inheritance of slight physical variations generic differences, like
+those between the tiger and the leopard, or the cow and the antelope,
+at length arise; and the guiding principle in the accumulation of
+slight physical differences has been the welfare of the species. The
+variant forms on either side have survived while the constant forms
+have perished, so that the lines of demarcation between allied species
+have grown more and more distinct, and it is usually only by going
+back to fossil ages that we can supply the missing links of
+continuity. In the desperate struggle for existence no peculiarity,
+physical or psychical, however slight, has been too insignificant for
+natural selection to seize and enhance; and the myriad fantastic forms
+and hues of animal and vegetal life illustrate the seeming
+capriciousness of its workings. Psychical variations have never been
+unimportant <span class="pagenum"><a id="page28" name="page28"></a>28</span>since the appearance of the first faint
+pigment-spot which by and by was to translate touch into vision, as it
+developed into the lenses and humours of the eye.<a href="#fn2" name="fnm2" id="fnm2"><span class="fnm">2</span></a> Special organs of
+sense and the lower grades of perception and judgment were slowly
+developed through countless ages, in company with purely physical
+variations of shape of foot, or length of neck, or complexity of
+stomach, or thickness of hide. At length there came a wonderful
+moment&#8212;silent and unnoticed, as are the beginnings of all great
+revolutions. Silent and unnoticed, even as the day of the Lord which
+cometh like a thief in the night, there arrived that wonderful moment
+at which psychical changes began to be of more use than physical
+changes to the brute ancestor of Man. Through further ages of
+ceaseless struggle the profitable variations in this creature occurred
+oftener and oftener in the brain, and less often in other parts of the
+organism, until by and by the size of his brain had been doubled <span class="pagenum"><a id="page29" name="page29"></a>29</span>and its complexity of structure increased a thousand-fold, while in
+other respects his appearance was not so very different from that of
+his brother apes.<a href="#fn3" name="fnm3" id="fnm3"><span class="fnm">3</span></a> Along with this growth of the brain, the complete
+assumption of the upright posture, enabling the hands to be devoted
+entirely to prehension and thus relieving the jaws of that part of
+their work, has co&ouml;perated in producing that peculiar contour of head
+and face which is the chief distinguishing mark of physical Man. These
+slight anatomical changes derive their importance entirely from the
+prodigious intellectual changes in connection with which they have
+been produced; and these intellectual changes have been accumulated
+until the distance, psychically speaking, between civilized man and
+the ape is so great as to dwarf in comparison all that had been
+achieved in the process of evolution down to the time of our
+half-human ancestor&#8217;s first appearance. No fact in nature is fraught
+with deeper meaning than this two-sided fact of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page30" name="page30"></a>30</span>extreme
+physical similarity and enormous psychical divergence between Man and
+the group of animals to which he traces his pedigree. It shows that
+when Humanity began to be evolved an entirely new chapter in the
+history of the universe was opened. Henceforth the life of the nascent
+soul came to be first in importance, and the bodily life became
+subordinated to it. Henceforth it appeared that, in this direction at
+least, the process of zo&ouml;logical change had come to an end, and a
+process of psychological change was to take its place. Henceforth
+along this supreme line of generation there was to be no further
+evolution of new species through physical variation, but through the
+accumulation of psychical variations one particular species was to be
+indefinitely perfected and raised to a totally different plane from
+that on which all life had hitherto existed. Henceforth, in short, the
+dominant aspect of evolution was to be not the genesis of species, but
+the progress of Civilization.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page31" name="page31"></a>31</span>As we thoroughly grasp the meaning of all this, we see that
+upon the Darwinian theory it is impossible that any creature
+zoologically distinct from Man and superior to him should ever at any
+future time exist upon the earth. In the regions of unconditional
+possibility it is open to any one to argue, if he chooses, that such a
+creature may come to exist; but the Darwinian theory is utterly
+opposed to any such conclusion. According to Darwinism, the creation
+of Man is still the goal toward which Nature tended from the
+beginning. Not the production of any higher creature, but the
+perfecting of Humanity, is to be the glorious consummation of Nature&#8217;s
+long and tedious work. Thus we suddenly arrive at the conclusion that
+Man seems now, much more clearly than ever, the chief among God&#8217;s
+creatures. On the primitive barbaric theory, which Mr. Darwin has
+swept away, Man was suddenly flung into the world by the miraculous
+act of some unseen and incalculable Power acting <span class="pagenum"><a id="page32" name="page32"></a>32</span>from without;
+and whatever theology might suppose, no scientific reason could be
+alleged why the same incalculable Power might not at some future
+moment, by a similar miracle, thrust upon the scene some mightier
+creature in whose presence Man would become like a sorry beast of
+burden. But he who has mastered the Darwinian theory, he who
+recognizes the slow and subtle process of evolution as the way in
+which God makes things come to pass, must take afar higher view. He
+sees that in the deadly struggle for existence which has raged
+throughout countless aeons of time, the whole creation has been
+groaning and travailing together in order to bring forth that last
+consummate specimen of God&#8217;s handiwork, the Human Soul.</p>
+
+<p>To the creature thus produced through a change in the direction in
+which natural selection has worked, the earth and most of its living
+things have become gradually subordinated. In all the classes of the
+animal and vegetal worlds many ancient <span class="pagenum"><a id="page33" name="page33"></a>33</span>species have become
+extinct, and many modern species have come into being, through the
+unchecked working of natural selection, since Man became distinctively
+human. But in this respect a change has long been coming over the face
+of nature. The destinies of all other living things are more and more
+dependent upon the will of Man. It rests with him to determine, to a
+great degree, what plants and animals shall remain upon the earth and
+what shall be swept from its surface. By unconsciously imitating the
+selective processes of Nature, he long ago wrought many wild species
+into forms subservient to his needs. He has created new varieties of
+fruit and flower and cereal grass, and has reared new breeds of
+animals to aid him in the work of civilization; until at length he is
+beginning to acquire a mastery over mechanical and molecular and
+chemical forces which is doubtless destined in the future to achieve
+marvellous results whereof today we little dream. Natural selection
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page34" name="page34"></a>34</span>itself will by and by occupy a subordinate place in comparison
+with selection by Man, whose appearance on the earth is thus seen more
+clearly than ever to have opened an entirely new chapter in the
+mysterious history of creation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page35" name="page35"></a>35</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_4" name="Ch_4"></a>IV.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">The Origin of Infancy.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>But before we can fully understand the exalted position which the
+Darwinian theory assigns to man, another point demands consideration.
+The natural selection of psychical peculiarities does not alone
+account for the origin of Man, or explain his most signal difference
+from all other animals. That difference is unquestionably a difference
+in kind, but in saying this one must guard against misunderstanding.
+Not only in the world of organic life, but throughout the known
+universe, the doctrine of evolution regards differences in kind as due
+to the gradual accumulation of differences in degree. To cite a very
+simple case, what differences of kind can be more striking than the
+differences between a nebula, a sun, a planet <span class="pagenum"><a id="page36" name="page36"></a>36</span>like the earth,
+and a planet like our moon? Yet these things are simply examples of
+cosmical matter at four different stages of cooling. The physical
+differences between steam, water, and ice afford a more familiar
+example. In the organic world the perpetual modification of structures
+that has been effected through natural selection exhibits countless
+instances of differences in kind which have risen from the
+accumulation of differences in degree. No one would hesitate to call a
+horse&#8217;s hoof different in kind from a cat&#8217;s paw; and yet the horse&#8217;s
+lower leg and hoof are undoubtedly developed from a five-toed paw. The
+most signal differences in kind are wont to arise when organs
+originally developed for a certain purpose come to be applied to a
+very different purpose, as that change of the fish&#8217;s air-bladder into
+a lung which accompanied the first development of land vertebrates.
+But still greater becomes the revolution when a certain process goes
+on Until it sets going a number of other processes, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page37" name="page37"></a>37</span>unlocking
+series after series of causal agencies until a vast and complicated
+result is reached, such as could by no possibility have been foreseen.
+The creation of Man was one of these vast and complicated results due
+to the unlocking of various series of causal agencies; and it was the
+beginning of a deeper and mightier difference in kind than any that
+slowly evolving Nature had yet witnessed.</p>
+
+<p>I have indicated, as the moment at which the creation of mankind
+began, the moment when psychical variations became of so much more use
+to our ancestors than physical variations that they were seized and
+enhanced by natural selection, to the comparative neglect of the
+latter. Increase of intellectual capacity, in connection with the
+developing brain of a single race of creatures, now became the chief
+work of natural selection in originating Man; and this, I say, was the
+opening of a new chapter, the last and most wonderful chapter, in the
+history of creation. But <span class="pagenum"><a id="page38" name="page38"></a>38</span>the increasing intelligence and
+enlarged experience of half-human man now set in motion a new series
+of changes which greatly complicated the matter. In order to
+understand these changes, we must consider for a moment one very
+important characteristic of developing intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest actions in which the nervous system is concerned are what
+we call reflex actions. All the visceral actions which keep us alive
+from moment to moment, the movements of the heart and lungs, the
+contractions of arteries, the secretions of glands, the digestive
+operations of the stomach and liver, belong to the class of reflex
+actions. Throughout the animal world these acts are repeated, with
+little or no variation, from birth until death, and the tendency to
+perform them is completely organized in the nervous system before
+birth. Every animal breathes and digests as well at the beginning of
+his life as he ever does. Contact with air and food is all that is
+needed, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page39" name="page39"></a>39</span>there is nothing to be learned. These actions,
+though they are performed by the nervous system, we do not class as
+psychical, because they are nearly or quite unattended by
+consciousness. The psychical life of the lowest animals consists of a
+few simple acts directed toward the securing of food and the avoidance
+of danger, and these acts we are in the habit of classing as
+instinctive. They are so simple, so few, and so often repeated, that
+the tendency to perform them is completely organized in the nervous
+system before birth. The animal takes care of himself as soon as he
+begins to live. He has nothing to learn, and his career is a simple
+repetition of the careers of countless ancestors. With him heredity is
+everything, and his individual experience is next to nothing.</p>
+
+<p>As we ascend the animal scale till we come to the higher birds and
+mammals, we find a very interesting and remarkable change beginning.
+The general increase <span class="pagenum"><a id="page40" name="page40"></a>40</span>of intelligence involves an increasing
+variety and complication of experiences. The acts which the animal
+performs in the course of its life become far more numerous, far more
+various, and far more complex. They are therefore severally repeated
+with less frequency in the lifetime of each individual. Consequently
+the tendency to perform them is not completely organized in the
+nervous system of the offspring before birth. The short period of
+ante-natal existence does not afford time enough for the organization
+of so many and such complex habitudes and capacities. The process
+which in the lower animals is completed before birth is in the higher
+animals left to be completed after birth. When the creature begins its
+life it is not completely organized. Instead of the power of doing all
+the things which its parents did, it starts with the power of doing
+only some few of them; for the rest it has only latent capacities
+which need to be brought out by its individual <span class="pagenum"><a id="page41" name="page41"></a>41</span>experience after
+birth. In other words, it begins its separate life not as a matured
+creature, but as an infant which needs for a time to be watched and
+helped.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page42" name="page42"></a>42</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_5" name="Ch_5"></a>V.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">The Dawning of Consciousness.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>Here we arrive at one of the most wonderful moments in the history of
+creation,&#8212;the moment of the first faint dawning of consciousness, the
+foreshadowing of the true life of the soul. Whence came the soul we no
+more know than we know whence came the universe. The primal origin of
+consciousness is hidden in the depths of the bygone eternity. That it
+cannot possibly be the product of any cunning arrangement of material
+particles is demonstrated beyond peradventure by what we now know of
+the correlation of physical forces.<a href="#fn4" name="fnm4" id="fnm4"><span class="fnm">4</span></a> The Platonic view of the soul,
+as a spiritual substance, an effluence from Godhood, which under
+certain conditions becomes incarnated in perishable forms of matter,
+is doubtless the view <span class="pagenum"><a id="page43" name="page43"></a>43</span>most consonant with the present state of
+our knowledge. Yet while we know not the primal origin of the soul, we
+have learned something with regard to the conditions under which it
+has become incarnated in material forms. Modern psychology has
+something to say about the dawning of conscious life in the animal
+world. Reflex action is unaccompanied by consciousness. The nervous
+actions which regulate the movements of the viscera go on without our
+knowledge; we learn of their existence only by study, as we learn of
+facts in outward nature. If you tickle the foot of a person asleep,
+and the foot is withdrawn by simple reflex action, the sleeper is
+unconscious alike of the irritation and of the movement, even as the
+decapitated frog is unconscious when a drop of nitric acid falls on
+his back and he lifts up a leg and rubs the place. In like manner the
+reflex movements which make up the life of the lowest animals are
+doubtless quite unconscious, even when in their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page44" name="page44"></a>44</span>general
+character they simulate conscious actions, as they often do. In the
+case of such creatures, the famous hypothesis of Descartes, that
+animals are automata, is doubtless mainly correct. In the case of
+instincts also, where the instinctive actions are completely organized
+before birth, and are repeated without variation during the whole
+lifetime of the individual, there is probably little if any
+consciousness. It is an essential prerequisite of consciousness that
+there should be a period of delay or tension between the receipt of an
+impression and the determination of the consequent movement. Diminish
+this period of delay and you diminish the vividness of consciousness.
+A familiar example will make this clear. When you are learning to play
+a new piece of music on the piano, especially if you do not read music
+rapidly, you are intensely conscious of each group of notes on the
+page, and of each group of keys that you strike, and of the relations
+of the one to the other. But when you <span class="pagenum"><a id="page45" name="page45"></a>45</span>have learned the piece by
+heart, you think nothing of either notes or keys, but play
+automatically while your attention is concentrated upon the artistic
+character of the music. If somebody thoughtlessly interrupts you with
+a question about Egyptian politics, you go on playing while you answer
+him politely. That is, where you had at first to make a conscious act
+of volition for each movement, the whole group of movements has now
+become automatic, and volition is only concerned in setting the
+process going. As the delay involved in the perception and the
+movement disappears, so does the consciousness of the perception and
+the movement tend to disappear. Consciousness implies perpetual
+discrimination, or the recognition of likenesses and differences, and
+this is impossible unless impressions persist long enough to be
+compared with one another. The physical organs in connection with
+whose activity consciousness is manifested are the upper and outer
+parts of the brain,&#8212;the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page46" name="page46"></a>46</span>cerebrum and cerebellum. These organs
+never receive impressions directly from the outside world, but only
+from lower nerve-centres, such as the spinal cord, the medulla, the
+optic lobes, and other special centres of sensation. The impressions
+received by the cerebrum and cerebellum are waves of molecular
+disturbance sent up along centripetal nerves from the lower centres,
+and presently drafted off along centrifugal nerves back to the lower
+centres, thus causing the myriad movements which make up our active
+life. Now there is no consciousness except when molecular disturbance
+is generated in the cerebrum and cerebellum faster than it can be
+drafted off to the lower centres.<a href="#fn5" name="fnm5" id="fnm5"><span class="fnm">5</span></a> It is the surplus of molecular
+disturbance remaining in the cerebrum and cerebellum, and reflected
+back and forth among the cells and fibres of which these highest
+centres are composed, that affords the physical condition for the
+manifestation of consciousness. Memory, emotion, reason, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page47" name="page47"></a>47</span>volition begin with this retention of a surplus of molecular motion
+in the highest centres. As we survey the vertebrate sub-kingdom of
+animals, we find that as this surplus increases, the surface of the
+highest centres increases in area. In the lowest vertebrate animal,
+the amphioxus, the cerebrum and cerebellum do not exist at all. In
+fishes we begin to find them, but they are much smaller than the optic
+lobes. In such a highly organized fish as the halibut, which weighs
+about as much as an average-sized man, the cerebrum is smaller than a
+melon-seed. Continuing to grow by adding concentric layers at the
+surface, the cerebrum and cerebellum become much larger in birds and
+lower mammals, gradually covering up the optic lobes. As we pass to
+higher mammalian forms, the growth of the cerebrum becomes most
+conspicuous, until it extends backwards so far as to cover up the
+cerebellum, whose functions are limited to the conscious adjustment of
+muscular movements. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page48" name="page48"></a>48</span>In the higher apes the cerebrum begins to
+extend itself forwards, and this goes on in the human race. The
+cranial capacity of the European exceeds that of the Australian by
+forty cubic inches, or nearly four times as much as that by which the
+Australian exceeds the gorilla; and the expansion is almost entirely
+in the upper and anterior portions. But the increase of the cerebral
+surface is shown not only in the general size of the organ, but to a
+still greater extent in the irregular creasing and furrowing of the
+surface. This creasing and furrowing begins to occur in the higher
+mammals, and in civilized man it is carried to an astonishing extent.
+The amount of intelligence is correlated with the number, the depth,
+and the irregularity of the furrows. A cat&#8217;s brain has a few
+symmetrical creases. In an ape the creases are deepened into slight
+furrows, and they run irregularly, somewhat like the lines in the palm
+of your hand. With age and experience the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page49" name="page49"></a>49</span>furrows grow deeper
+and more sinuous, and new ones appear; and in man these phenomena come
+to have great significance. The cerebral surface of a human infant is
+like that of an ape. In an adult savage, or in a European peasant, the
+furrowing is somewhat marked and complicated. In the brain of a great
+scholar, the furrows are very deep and crooked, and hundreds of
+creases appear which are not found at all in the brains of ordinary
+men. In other words, the cerebral surface of such a man, the seat of
+conscious mental life, has become enormously enlarged in area; and we
+must further observe that it goes on enlarging in some cases into
+extreme old age.<a href="#fn6" name="fnm6" id="fnm6"><span class="fnm">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Putting all these facts together, it becomes plain that in the lowest
+animals, whose lives consist of sundry reflex actions monotonously
+repeated from generation to generation, there can be nothing, or next
+to nothing, of what we know as consciousness. It is only when the life
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page50" name="page50"></a>50</span>becomes more complicated and various, so that reflex action can
+no longer determine all its movements and the higher nerve-centres
+begin to be evolved, that the dawning of consciousness is reached. But
+with the growth of the higher centres the capacities of action become
+so various and indeterminate that definite direction is not given to
+them until after birth. The creature begins life as an infant, with
+its partially developed cerebrum representing capabilities which it is
+left for its individual experience to bring forth and modify.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page51" name="page51"></a>51</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_6" name="Ch_6"></a>VI.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">Lengthening of Infancy, and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>The first appearance of infancy in the animal world thus heralded the
+new era which was to be crowned by the development of Man. With the
+beginnings of infancy there came the first dawning of a conscious life
+similar in nature to the conscious life of human beings, and there
+came, moreover, on the part of parents, the beginning of feelings and
+actions not purely self-regarding. But still more, the period of
+infancy was a period of plasticity. The career of each individual
+being no longer wholly predetermined by the careers of its ancestors,
+it began to become teachable. Individuality of character also became
+possible at the same time, and for the same reason. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page52" name="page52"></a>52</span>All birds
+and mammals which take care of their young are teachable, though in
+very various degrees, and all in like manner show individual
+peculiarities of disposition, though in most cases these are slight
+and inconspicuous. In dogs, horses, and apes there is marked
+teachableness, and there are also marked differences in individual
+character.</p>
+
+<p>But in the non-human animal world all these phenomena are but slightly
+developed. They are but the dim adumbrations of what was by and by to
+bloom forth in the human race. They can scarcely be said to have
+served as a prophecy of the revolution that was to come. One
+generation of dumb beasts is after all very like another, and from
+studying the careers of the mastodon, the hipparion, the sabre-toothed
+lion, or even the dryopithecus, an observer in the Miocene age could
+never have foreseen the possibility of a creature endowed with such a
+boundless capacity of progress as the modern Man. Nevertheless, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page53" name="page53"></a>53</span>however dimly suggestive was this group of phenomena, it contained
+the germ of all that is pre&euml;minent in humanity. In the direct line of
+our ancestry it only needed that the period of infancy should be
+sufficiently prolonged, in order that a creature should at length
+appear, endowed with the teachableness, the individuality, and the
+capacity for progress which are the peculiar prerogatives of
+fully-developed Man.<a href="#fn7" name="fnm7" id="fnm7"><span class="fnm">7</span></a> In this direct line the manlike apes of Africa
+and the Indian Archipelago have advanced far beyond the mammalian
+world in general. Along with a cerebral surface, and an accompanying
+intelligence, far greater than that of other mammals, these tailless
+apes begin life as helpless babies, and are unable to walk, to feed
+themselves, or to grasp objects with precision until they are two or
+three months old. These apes have thus advanced a little way upon the
+peculiar road which our half-human forefathers began to travel as soon
+as psychical <span class="pagenum"><a id="page54" name="page54"></a>54</span>variations came to be of more use to the species
+than variations in bodily structure. The gulf by which the lowest
+known man is separated from the highest known ape consists in the
+great increase of his cerebral surface, with the accompanying
+intelligence, and in the very long duration of his infancy. These two
+things have gone hand in hand. The increase of cerebral surface, due
+to the working of natural selection in this direction alone, has
+entailed a vast increase in the amount of cerebral organization that
+must be left to be completed after birth, and thus has prolonged the
+period of infancy. And conversely the prolonging of the plastic period
+of infancy, entailing a vast increase in teachableness and
+versatility, has contributed to the further enlargement of the
+cerebral surface. The mutual reaction of these two groups of facts
+must have gone on for an enormous length of time since man began thus
+diverging from his simian brethren. It is not likely that less than a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page55" name="page55"></a>55</span>million years have elapsed since the first page of this new
+chapter in the history of creation was opened: it is probable that the
+time has been much longer. In comparison with such a period, the whole
+recorded duration of human history shrinks into nothingness. The
+pyramids of Egypt seem like things of yesterday when we think of the
+Cave-Men of western Europe in the glacial period, who scratched
+pictures of mammoths on pieces of reindeer-antler with a bit of
+pointed flint. Yet during an entire geologic &aelig;on before these Cave-Men
+appeared on the scene, &#8220;a being erect upon two legs,&#8221; if we may quote
+from Serjeant Buzfuz, &#8220;and wearing the outward semblance of a man and
+not of a monster,&#8221; wandered hither and thither over the face of the
+earth, setting his mark upon it as no other creature yet had done,
+leaving behind him innumerable tell-tale remnants of his fierce and
+squalid existence, yet too scantily endowed with wit to make any
+written disclosure of his <span class="pagenum"><a id="page56" name="page56"></a>56</span>thoughts and deeds. If the
+physiological annals of that long and weary time could now be unrolled
+before us, the principal fact which we should discern, dominating all
+other facts in interest and significance, would be that mutual
+reaction between increase of cerebral surface and lengthening of
+babyhood which I have here described.</p>
+
+<p>Thus through the simple continuance and interaction of processes that
+began far back in the world of warm-blooded animals, we get at last a
+creature essentially different from all others. Through the
+complication of effects the heaping up of minute differences in degree
+has ended in bringing forth a difference in kind. In the human
+organism physical variation has well-nigh stopped, or is confined to
+insignificant features, save in the grey surface of the cerebrum. The
+work of cerebral organization is chiefly completed after birth, as we
+see by contrasting the smooth ape-like brain-surface of the new-born
+child with the deeply-furrowed and myriad-seamed
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page57" name="page57"></a>57</span>surface of the adult civilized brain. The plastic period of
+adolescence, lengthened in civilized man until it has come to cover
+more than one third of his lifetime, is thus the guaranty of his
+boundless progressiveness. Inherited tendencies and aptitudes still
+form the foundations of character; but individual experience has come
+to count as an enormous factor in modifying the career of mankind from
+generation to generation. It is not too much to say that the
+difference between man and all other living creatures, in respect of
+teachableness, progressiveness, and individuality of character,
+surpasses all other differences of kind that are known to exist in the
+universe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page58" name="page58"></a>58</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_7" name="Ch_7"></a>VII.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>In the fresh light which these considerations throw upon the problem
+of man&#8217;s origin, we can now see more clearly than ever how great a
+revolution was inaugurated when natural selection began to confine its
+operations to the surface of the cerebrum. Among the older incidents
+in the evolution of organic life, the changes were very wonderful
+which out of the pectoral fin of a fish developed the jointed
+fore-limb of the mammal with its five-toed paw, and thence through
+much slighter variation brought forth the human arm with its delicate
+and crafty hand. More wondrous still were the phases of change through
+which the rudimentary pigment-spot of the worm, by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page59" name="page59"></a>59</span>the
+development and differentiation of successive layers, gave place to
+the variously-constructed eyes of insects, mollusks, and vertebrates.
+The day for creative work of this sort has probably gone by, as the
+day for the evolution of annulose segments and vertebrate skeletons
+has gone by,&#8212;on our planet, at least. In the line of our own
+development, all work of this kind stopped long ago, to be replaced by
+different methods. As an optical instrument, the eye had well-nigh
+reached extreme perfection in many a bird and mammal ages before man&#8217;s
+beginnings; and the essential features of the human hand existed
+already in the hands of Miocene apes. But different methods came in
+when human intelligence appeared upon the scene. Mr. Spencer has
+somewhere reminded us that the crowbar is but an extra lever added to
+the levers of which the arm is already composed, and the telescope but
+adds a new set of lenses to those which already exist in the eye. This
+beautiful illustration goes to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page60" name="page60"></a>60</span>the kernel of the change that
+was wrought when natural selection began to confine itself to the
+psychical modification of our ancestors. In a very deep sense all
+human science is but the increment of the power of the eye, and all
+human art is the increment of the power of the hand.<a href="#fn8" name="fnm8" id="fnm8"><span class="fnm">8</span></a> Vision and
+manipulation,&#8212;these, in their countless indirect and transfigured
+forms, are the two co&ouml;perating factors in all intellectual progress.
+It is not merely that with the telescope we see extinct volcanoes on
+the moon, or resolve spots of nebulous cloud into clusters of blazing
+suns; it is that in every scientific theory we frame by indirect
+methods visual images of things not present to sense. With our mind&#8217;s
+eye we see atmospheric convulsions on the surfaces of distant worlds,
+watch the giant ichthyosaurs splashing in Jurassic oceans, follow the
+varied figures of the rhythmic dance of molecules as chemical elements
+unite and separate, or examine, with the aid of long-forgotten
+vocabularies now <span class="pagenum"><a id="page61" name="page61"></a>61</span>magically restored, the manners and morals,
+the laws and superstitions, of peoples that have ceased to be.<a href="#fn9" name="fnm9" id="fnm9"><span class="fnm">9</span></a> And
+so in art the wonderful printing-press, and the engine that moves it,
+are the lineal descendants through countless stages of complication,
+of the simple levers of primitive man and the rude stylus wherewith he
+engraved strange hieroglyphs on the bark of trees. In such ways, since
+the human phase of evolution began, has the direct action of muscle
+and sense been supplemented and superseded by the indirect work of the
+inquisitive and inventive mind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page62" name="page62"></a>62</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_8" name="Ch_8"></a>VIII.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>Let us note one further aspect of this mighty revolution. In its lowly
+beginnings the psychical life was merely an appendage to the life of
+the body. The avoidance of enemies, the securing of food, the
+perpetuation of the species, make up the whole of the lives of lower
+animals, and the rudiments of memory, reason, emotion, and volition
+were at first concerned solely with the achievement of these ends in
+an increasingly indirect, complex, and effective way. Though the life
+of a large portion of the human race is still confined to the pursuit
+of these same ends, yet so vast has been the increase of psychical
+life that the simple character of the ends is liable to be lost sight
+of amid the variety, the indirectness, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page63" name="page63"></a>63</span>and the complexity of
+the means. But in civilized society other ends, purely immaterial in
+their nature, have come to add themselves to these, and in some
+instances to take their place. It is long since we were told that Man
+does not live by bread alone. During many generations we have seen
+thousands of men, actuated by the noblest impulse of which humanity is
+capable, though misled by the teachings of a crude philosophy,
+despising and maltreating their bodies as clogs and incumbrances to
+the life of the indwelling soul. Countless martyrs we have seen
+throwing away the physical earthly life as so much worthless dross,
+and all for the sake of purely spiritual truths. As with religion, so
+with the scientific spirit and the artistic spirit,&#8212;the unquenchable
+craving to know the secrets of nature, and the yearning to create the
+beautiful in form and colour and sound. In the highest human beings
+such ends as these have come to be uppermost in consciousness, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page64" name="page64"></a>64</span>and with the progress of material civilization this will be more
+and more the case. If we can imagine a future time when warfare and
+crime shall have been done away with forever, when disease shall have
+been for the most part curbed, and when every human being by moderate
+labour can secure ample food and shelter, we can also see that in such
+a state of things the work of civilization would be by no means
+completed. In ministering to human happiness in countless ways,
+through the pursuit of purely spiritual ends, in enriching and
+diversifying life to the utmost, there would still be almost limitless
+work to be done. I believe that such a time will come for weary and
+suffering mankind. Such a faith is inspiring. It sustains one in the
+work of life, when one would otherwise lose heart. But it is a faith
+that rests upon induction. The process of evolution is excessively
+slow, and its ends are achieved at the cost of enormous waste of life,
+but for innumerable ages its direction <span class="pagenum"><a id="page65" name="page65"></a>65</span>has been toward the goal
+here pointed out; and the case may be fitly summed up in the statement
+that whereas in its rude beginnings the psychical life was but an
+appendage to the body, in fully-developed Humanity the body is but the
+vehicle for the soul.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page66" name="page66"></a>66</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_9" name="Ch_9"></a>IX.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">The Origins of Society and of Morality.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>One further point must be considered before this outline sketch of the
+manner of man&#8217;s origin can be called complete. The psychical
+development of Humanity, since its earlier stages, has been largely
+clue to the reaction of individuals upon one another in those various
+relations which we characterize as social.<a href="#fn10" name="fnm10" id="fnm10"><span class="fnm">10</span></a> In considering the
+origin of Man, the origin of human society cannot be passed over.
+Foreshadowings of social relations occur in the animal world, not only
+in the line of our own vertebrate ancestry, but in certain orders of
+insects which stand quite remote from that line. Many of the higher
+mammals are gregarious, and this is especially true of that whole
+order of primates to which <span class="pagenum"><a id="page67" name="page67"></a>67</span>we belong. Rudimentary moral
+sentiments are also clearly discernible in the highest members of
+various mammalian orders, and in all but the lowest members of our own
+order. But in respect of definiteness and permanence the relations
+between individuals in a state of gregariousness fall far short of the
+relations between individuals in the rudest human society. The
+primordial unit of human society is the family, and it was by the
+establishment of definite and permanent family relationships that the
+step was taken which raised Man socially above the level of gregarious
+apehood. This great point was attained through that lengthening of the
+period of helpless childhood which accompanied the gradually
+increasing intelligence of our half-human ancestors. When childhood
+had come to extend over a period of ten or a dozen years&#8212;a period
+which would be doubled, or more than doubled, where several children
+were born in succession to the same parents&#8212;the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page68" name="page68"></a>68</span>relationships
+between father and mother, brethren and sisters, must have become
+firmly knit; and thus the family, the unit of human society, gradually
+came into existence.<a href="#fn11" name="fnm11" id="fnm11"><span class="fnm">11</span></a> The rudimentary growth of moral sentiment
+must now have received a definite direction. As already observed, with
+the beginnings of infancy in the animal world there came the genesis
+in the parents of feelings and actions not purely self-regarding.
+Rudimentary sympathies, with rudimentary capacity for self-devotion,
+are witnessed now and then among higher mammals, such as the dog, and
+not uncommonly among apes. But as the human family, with its definite
+relationships, came into being, there must necessarily have grown up
+between its various members reciprocal necessities of behaviour. The
+conduct of the individual could no longer be shaped with sole
+reference to his own selfish desires, but must be to a great extent
+subordinated to the general welfare of the family. And in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page69" name="page69"></a>69</span>judging of the character of his own conduct, the individual must
+now begin to refer it to some law of things outside of himself; and
+hence the germs of conscience and of the idea of duty. Such were no
+doubt the crude beginnings of human morality.</p>
+
+<p>With this genesis of the family, the Creation of Man may be said, in a
+certain sense, to have been completed. The great extent of cerebral
+surface, the lengthened period of infancy, the consequent capacity for
+progress, the definite constitution of the family, and the judgment of
+actions as good or bad according to some other standard than that of
+selfish desire,&#8212;these are the attributes which essentially
+distinguish Man from other creatures. All these, we see, are direct or
+indirect results of the revolution which began when natural selection
+came to confine itself to psychical variations, to the neglect of
+physical variations. The immediate result was the increase of
+cerebrum. This prolonged <span class="pagenum"><a id="page70" name="page70"></a>70</span>the infancy, thus giving rise to the
+capacity for progress; and infancy, in turn, originated the family and
+thus opened the way for the growth of sympathies and of ethical
+feelings. All these results have perpetually reacted upon one another
+until a creature different in kind from all other creatures has been
+evolved. The creature thus evolved long since became dominant over the
+earth in a sense in which none of his predecessors ever became
+dominant; and henceforth the work of evolution, so far as our planet
+is concerned, is chiefly devoted to the perfecting of this last and
+most wonderful product of creative energy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page71" name="page71"></a>71</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_10" name="Ch_10"></a>X.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">Improvableness of Man.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>For the creation of Man was by no means the creation of a perfect
+being. The most essential feature of Man is his improvableness, and
+since his first appearance on the earth the changes that have gone on
+in him have been enormous, though they have continued to run along in
+the lines of development that were then marked out. The changes have
+been so great that in many respects the interval between the highest
+and the lowest men far surpasses quantitatively the interval between
+the lowest men and the highest apes. If we take into account the
+creasing of the cerebral surface, the difference between the brain of
+a Shakespeare and that of an Australian savage would doubtless be
+fifty times <span class="pagenum"><a id="page72" name="page72"></a>72</span>greater than the difference between the
+Australian&#8217;s brain and that of an orang-outang. In mathematical
+capacity the Australian, who cannot tell the number of fingers on his
+two hands, is much nearer to a lion or wolf than to Sir Rowan
+Hamilton, who invented the method of quaternions. In moral development
+this same Australian, whose language contains no words for justice and
+benevolence, is less remote from dogs and baboons than from a Howard
+or a Garrison. In progressiveness, too, the difference between the
+lowest and the highest races of men is no less conspicuous. The
+Australian is more teachable than the ape, but his limit is
+nevertheless very quickly reached. All the distinctive attributes of
+Man, in short, have been developed to an enormous extent through long
+ages of social evolution.</p>
+
+<p>This psychical development of Man is destined to go on in the future
+as it has gone on in the past. The creative energy which has been at
+work through the bygone <span class="pagenum"><a id="page73" name="page73"></a>73</span>eternity is not going to become
+quiescent to-morrow. We have learned something of its methods of
+working, and from the careful observation of the past we can foresee
+the future in some of its most general outlines. From what has already
+gone on during the historic period of man&#8217;s existence, we can safely
+predict a change that will by and by distinguish him from all other
+creatures even more widely and more fundamentally than he is
+distinguished today. Whenever in the course of organic evolution we
+see any function beginning as incidental to the performance of other
+functions, and continuing for many ages to increase in importance
+until it becomes an indispensable strand in the web of life, we may be
+sure that by a continuance of the same process its influence is
+destined to increase still more in the future. Such has been the case
+with the function of sympathy, and with the ethical feelings which
+have grown up along with sympathy and depend largely upon it for their
+vitality. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page74" name="page74"></a>74</span>Like everything else which especially distinguishes
+Man, the altruistic feelings were first called into existence through
+the first beginnings of infancy in the animal world. Their rudimentary
+form was that of the transient affection of a female bird or mammal
+for its young. First given a definite direction through the genesis of
+the primitive human family, the development of altruism has formed an
+important part of the progress of civilization, but as yet it has
+scarcely kept pace with the general development of intelligence. There
+can be little doubt that in respect of justice and kindness the
+advance of civilized man has been less marked than in respect of
+quick-wittedness. Now this is because the advancement of civilized man
+has been largely effected through fighting, through the continuance of
+that deadly struggle and competition which has been going on ever
+since organic life first appeared on the earth. It is through such
+fierce and perpetual struggle that the higher forms of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page75" name="page75"></a>75</span>life
+have been gradually evolved by natural selection. But we have already
+seen how in many respects the evolution of Man was the opening of an
+entirely new chapter in the history of the universe. In no respect was
+it more so than in the genesis of the altruistic emotions. For when
+natural selection, through the lengthening of childhood, had secured a
+determinate development for this class of human feelings, it had at
+last originated a power which could thrive only through the
+elimination of strife. And the later history of mankind, during the
+past thirty centuries, has been characterized by the gradual
+eliminating of strife, though the process has gone on with the extreme
+slowness that marks all the work of evolution. It is only at the
+present clay that, by surveying human history from the widest possible
+outlook, and with the aid of the habits of thought which the study of
+evolution fosters, we are enabled distinctly to observe this tendency.
+As this is the most wonderful of all the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page76" name="page76"></a>76</span>phases of that
+stupendous revolution in nature which was inaugurated in the Creation
+of Man, it deserves especial attention here; and we shall find it
+leading us quite directly to our conclusion. From the Origin of Man,
+when thoroughly comprehended in its general outlines, we shall at
+length be able to catch some glimpses of his Destiny.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page77" name="page77"></a>77</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_11" name="Ch_11"></a>XI.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the higher altruistic feelings as being antagonistic to
+the continuance of warfare, I did not mean to imply that warfare can
+ever be directly put down by our horror of cruelty or our moral
+disapproval of strife. The actual process is much more indirect and
+complex than this. In respect of belligerency the earliest men were
+doubtless no better than brutes. They were simply the most crafty and
+formidable among brutes. To get food was the prime necessity of life,
+and as long as food was obtainable only by hunting and fishing, or
+otherwise seizing upon edible objects already in existence, chronic
+and universal quarrel was inevitable. The conditions of the struggle
+for existence were not yet <span class="pagenum"><a id="page78" name="page78"></a>78</span>visibly changed from what they had
+been from the outset in the animal world. That struggle meant
+everlasting slaughter, and the fiercest races of fighters would be
+just the ones to survive and perpetuate their kind. Those most
+successful primitive men, from whom civilized peoples are descended,
+must have excelled in treachery and cruelty, as in quickness of wit
+and strength of will. That moral sense which makes it seem wicked to
+steal and murder was scarcely more developed in them than in tigers or
+wolves. But to all this there was one exception. The family supplied
+motives for peaceful co&ouml;peration.<a href="#fn12" name="fnm12" id="fnm12"><span class="fnm">12</span></a> Within the family limits
+fidelity and forbearance had their uses, for events could not have
+been long in showing that the most coherent families would prevail
+over their less coherent rivals. Observation of the most savage races
+agrees with the comparative study of the institutions of civilized
+peoples, in proving that the only bond of political union recognized
+among primitive <span class="pagenum"><a id="page79" name="page79"></a>79</span>men, or conceivable by them, was the physical
+fact of blood-relationship. Illustrations of this are found in plenty
+far within the historic period. The very township, which under one
+name or another has formed the unit of political society among all
+civilized peoples, was originally the stockaded dwelling-place of a
+clan which traced its blood to a common ancestor. In such a condition
+of things the nearest approach ever made to peace was a state of armed
+truce; and while the simple rules of morality were recognized, they
+were only regarded as binding within the limits of the clan. There was
+no recognition of the wickedness of robbery and murder in general.</p>
+
+<p>This state of things, as above hinted, could not come to an end as
+long as men obtained food by seizing upon edible objects already in
+existence. The supply of fish, game, or fruit being strictly limited,
+men must ordinarily fight under penalty of starvation. If we could put
+a moral interpretation <span class="pagenum"><a id="page80" name="page80"></a>80</span>upon events which antedated morality as
+we understand it, we should say it was their duty to fight; and the
+reverence accorded to the chieftain who murdered most successfully in
+behalf of his clansmen was well deserved. It is worthy of note that,
+in isolated parts of the earth where the natural supply of food is
+abundant, as in sundry tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean, men have
+ceased from warfare and become gentle and docile without rising above
+the intellectual level of savagery. Compared with other savages, they
+are like the chimpanzee as contrasted with the gorilla. Such
+exceptional instances well illustrate the general truth that, so long
+as the method of obtaining food was the same as that employed by brute
+animals, men must continue to fight like dogs over a bone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page81" name="page81"></a>81</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_12" name="Ch_12"></a>XII.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilization.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>But presently man&#8217;s superior intelligence came into play in such wise
+that other and better methods of getting food were devised. When in
+intervals of peace men learned to rear flocks and herds, and to till
+the ground, and when they had further learned to exchange with one
+another the products of their labour, a new step, of most profound
+significance, was taken. Tribes which had once learned how to do these
+things were not long in overcoming their neighbours, and flourishing
+at their expense, for agriculture allows a vastly greater population
+to live upon a given area, and in many ways it favours social
+compactness. An immense series of social changes was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page82" name="page82"></a>82</span>now begun.
+Whereas the only conceivable bond of political combination had
+heretofore been blood-relationship, a new basis was now furnished by
+territorial contiguity and by community of occupation. The supply of
+food was no longer strictly limited, for it could be indefinitely
+increased by peaceful industry; and moreover, in the free exchange of
+the products of labour, it ceased to be true that one man&#8217;s interest
+was opposed to another&#8217;s. Men did not at once recognize this fact, and
+indeed it has not yet become universally recognized, so long have men
+persisted in interpreting the conditions of industrial life in
+accordance with the immemorial traditions of the time when the means
+of subsistence were strictly limited, so that one man&#8217;s success meant
+another&#8217;s starvation. Our robber tariffs&#8212;miscalled &#8220;protective&#8221;&#8212;are
+survivals of the barbarous mode of thinking which fitted the ages
+before industrial civilization began. But although the pacific
+implications of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page83" name="page83"></a>83</span>free exchange were very slowly recognized, it
+is not the less true that the beginnings of agriculture and commerce
+marked the beginnings of the greatest social revolution in the whole
+career of mankind. Henceforth the conditions for the maintenance of
+physical life became different from what they had been throughout the
+past history of the animal world. It was no longer necessary for men
+to quarrel for their food like dogs over a bone; for they could now
+obtain it far more effectively by applying their intelligence to the
+task of utilizing the forces of inanimate nature; and the due
+execution of such a task was in no wise assisted by wrath and
+contention, but from the outset was rather hindered by such things.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the beginnings of industrial civilization. Out of its
+exigencies, continually increasing in complexity, have proceeded,
+directly or indirectly, the arts and sciences which have given to
+modern <span class="pagenum"><a id="page84" name="page84"></a>84</span>life so much of its interest and value. But more
+important still has been the work of industrial civilization in the
+ethical field. By furnishing a wider basis for political union than
+mere blood-relationship, it greatly extended the area within which
+moral obligations were recognized as binding. At first confined to the
+clan, the idea of duty came at length to extend throughout a state in
+which many clans were combined and fused, and as it thus increased in
+generality and abstractness, the idea became immeasurably strengthened
+and ennobled. At last, with the rise of empires, in which many states
+were brought together in pacific industrial relations, the recognized
+sphere of moral obligation became enlarged until it comprehended all
+mankind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page85" name="page85"></a>85</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_13" name="Ch_13"></a>XIII.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>This rise of empires, this coalescence of small groups of men into
+larger and larger political aggregates, has been the chief work of
+civilization, when looked at on its political side.<a href="#fn13" name="fnm13" id="fnm13"><span class="fnm">13</span></a> Like all the
+work of evolution, this process has gone on irregularly and
+intermittently, and its ultimate tendency has only gradually become
+apparent. This process of coalescence has from the outset been brought
+about by the needs of industrial civilization, and the chief obstacle
+which it has had to encounter has been the universal hostility and
+warfare bequeathed from primeval times. The history of mankind has
+been largely made up of fighting, but in the careers of the most <span class="pagenum"><a id="page86" name="page86"></a>86</span>progressive races this fighting has been far from meaningless, like
+the battles of kites and crows. In the stream of history which,
+beginning on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, has widened until in
+our day it covers both sides of the Atlantic and is fast extending
+over the remotest parts of the earth,&#8212;in this main stream of history
+the warfare which has gone on has had a clearly discernible purpose
+and meaning. Broadly considered, this warfare has been chiefly the
+struggle of the higher industrial civilization in defending itself
+against the attacks of neighbours who had not advanced beyond that
+early stage of humanity in which warfare was chronic and normal.
+During the historic period, the wars of Europe have been either
+contests between the industrial and the predatory types of society, or
+contests incident upon the imperfect formation of large political
+aggregates. There have been three ways in which great political bodies
+have arisen. The earliest and lowest <span class="pagenum"><a id="page87" name="page87"></a>87</span>method was that of
+<em>conquest without incorporation</em>. A single powerful tribe conquered
+and annexed its neighbours without admitting them to a share in the
+government. It appropriated their military strength, robbed them of
+most of the fruits of their labour, and thus virtually enslaved them.
+Such was the origin of the great despotic empires of Oriental type.
+Such states degenerate rapidly in military strength. Their slavish
+populations, accustomed to be starved and beaten or massacred by the
+tax-gatherer, become unable to fight, so that great armies of them
+will flee before a handful of freemen, as in the case of the ancient
+Persians and the modern Egyptians. To strike down the executive head
+of such an assemblage of enslaved tribes is to effect the conquest or
+the dissolution of the whole mass, and hence the history of Eastern
+peoples has been characterized by sudden and gigantic revolutions.</p>
+
+<p>The second method of forming great <span class="pagenum"><a id="page88" name="page88"></a>88</span>political bodies was that of
+<em>conquest with incorporation</em>. The conquering tribe, while annexing
+its neighbours, gradually admitted them to a share in the government.
+In this way arose the Roman empire, the largest, the most stable, and
+in its best days the most pacific political aggregate the world had as
+yet seen. Throughout the best part of Europe, its conquests succeeded
+in transforming the ancient predatory type of society into the modern
+industrial type. It effectually broke up the primeval clan-system,
+with its narrow ethical ideas, and arrived at the broad conception of
+rights and duties coextensive with Humanity. But in the method upon
+which Rome proceeded there was an essential element of weakness. The
+simple device of representation, by which political power is equally
+retained in all parts of the community while its exercise is delegated
+to a central body, was entirely unknown to the Romans. Partly for this
+reason, and partly because of the terrible military pressure to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page89" name="page89"></a>89</span>which the frontier was perpetually exposed, the Roman government
+became a despotism which gradually took on many of the vices of the
+Oriental type. The political weakness which resulted from this allowed
+Europe to be overrun by peoples organized in clans and tribes, and for
+some time there was a partial retrogression toward the disorder
+characteristic of primitive ages. The retrogression was but partial
+and temporary, however; the exposed frontier has been steadily pushed
+eastward into the heart of Asia; the industrial type of society is no
+longer menaced by the predatory type; the primeval clan-system has
+entirely disappeared as a social force; and warfare, once ubiquitous
+and chronic, has become local and occasional.</p>
+
+<p>The third and highest method of forming great political bodies is that
+of <em>federation</em>. The element of fighting was essential in the two
+lower methods, but in this it is not essential. Here there is no
+conquest, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page90" name="page90"></a>90</span>but a voluntary union of small political groups into
+a great political group. Each little group preserves its local
+independence intact, while forming part of an indissoluble whole.
+Obviously this method of political union requires both high
+intelligence and high ethical development In early times it was
+impracticable. It was first attempted, with brilliant though ephemeral
+success, by the Greeks, but it failed for want of the device of
+representation. In later times it was put into operation, with
+permanent success, on a small scale by the Swiss, and on a great scale
+by our forefathers in England. The coalescence of shires into the
+kingdom of England, effected as it was by means of a representative
+assembly, and accompanied by the general retention of local
+self-government, afforded a distinct precedent for such a gigantic
+federal union as men of English race have since constructed in
+America. The principle of federation was there, though not the name.
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page91" name="page91"></a>91</span>And here we hit upon the fundamental contrast between the
+history of England and that of France. The method by which the modern
+French nation has been built up has been the Roman method of conquest
+with incorporation. As the ruler of Paris gradually overcame his
+vassals, one after another, by warfare or diplomacy, he annexed their
+counties to his royal domain, and governed them by lieutenants sent
+from Paris. Self-government was thus crushed out in France, while it
+was preserved in England. And just as Rome achieved its unprecedented
+dominion by adopting a political method more effective than any that
+had been hitherto employed, so England, employing for the first time a
+still higher and more effective method, has come to play a part in the
+world compared with which even the part played by Rome seems
+insignificant. The test of the relative strength of the English and
+Roman methods came when England and France contended for the
+possession of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page92" name="page92"></a>92</span>North America. The people which preserved its
+self-government could send forth self-supporting colonies; the people
+which had lost the very tradition of self-government could not. Hence
+the dominion of the sea, with that of all the outlying parts of the
+earth, fell into the hands of men of English race; and hence the
+federative method of political union&#8212;the method which contains every
+element of permanence, and which is pacific in its very conception&#8212;is
+already assuming a sway which is unquestionably destined to become
+universal.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing all this in mind, we cannot fail to recognize the truth of the
+statement that the great wars of the historic period have been either
+contests between the industrial and the predatory types of society or
+contests incident upon the imperfect formation of great political
+aggregates. Throughout the turmoil of the historic period&#8212;which on a
+superficial view seems such a chaos&#8212;we see certain definite <span class="pagenum"><a id="page93" name="page93"></a>93</span>tendencies at work; the tendency toward the formation of larger and
+larger political aggregates, and toward the more perfect maintenance
+of local self-government and individual freedom among the parts of the
+aggregate. This two-sided process began with the beginnings of
+industrial civilization; it has aided the progress of industry and
+been aided by it; and the result has been to diminish the quantity of
+warfare, and to lessen the number of points at which it touches the
+ordinary course of civilized life. With the further continuance of
+this process, but one ultimate result is possible. It must go on until
+warfare becomes obsolete. The nineteenth century, which has witnessed
+an unprecedented development of industrial civilization, with its
+attendant arts and sciences, has also witnessed an unprecedented
+diminution in the strength of the primeval spirit of militancy. It is
+not that we have got rid of great wars, but that the relative
+proportion of human strength which has <span class="pagenum"><a id="page94" name="page94"></a>94</span>been employed in warfare
+has been remarkably less than in any previous age. In our own history,
+of the two really great wars which have permeated our whole social
+existence,&#8212;the Revolutionary War and the War of Secession,&#8212;the first
+was fought in behalf of the pacific principle of equal representation;
+the second was fought in behalf of the pacific principle of
+federalism. In each case, the victory helped to hasten the day when
+warfare shall become unnecessary. In the few great wars of Europe
+since the overthrow of Napoleon, we may see the same principle at
+work. In almost every case the result has been to strengthen the
+pacific tendencies of modern society. Whereas warfare was once
+dominant over the face of the earth, and came home in all its horrid
+details to everybody&#8217;s door, and threatened the very existence of
+industrial civilization; it has now become narrowly confined in time
+and space, it no longer comes home to everybody&#8217;s door, and, in so far
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page95" name="page95"></a>95</span>as it is still tolerated, for want of a better method of
+settling grave international questions, it has become quite ancillary
+to the paramount needs, of industrial civilization. When we can see so
+much as this lying before us on the pages of history, we cannot fail
+to see that the final extinction of warfare is only a question of
+time. Sooner or later it must come to an end, and the pacific
+principle of federalism, whereby questions between states are settled,
+like questions between individuals by due process of law, must reign
+supreme over all the earth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page96" name="page96"></a>96</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_14" name="Ch_14"></a>XIV.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off the Brute-Inheritance.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>As regards the significance of Man&#8217;s position in the universe, this
+gradual elimination of strife is a fact of utterly unparalleled
+grandeur. Words cannot do justice to such a fact. It means that the
+wholesale destruction of life, which has heretofore characterized
+evolution ever since life began, and through which the higher forms of
+organic existence have been produced, must presently come to an end in
+the case of the chief of God&#8217;s creatures. It means that the universal
+struggle for existence, having succeeded in bringing forth that
+consummate product of creative energy, the Human Soul, has done its
+work and will presently cease. In the lower regions of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page97" name="page97"></a>97</span>organic
+life it must go on, but as a determining factor in the highest work of
+evolution it will disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The action of natural selection upon Man has long since been
+essentially diminished through the operation of social conditions. For
+in all grades of civilization above the lowest, &#8220;there are so many
+kinds of superiorities which severally enable men to survive,
+notwithstanding accompanying inferiorities, that natural selection
+cannot by itself rectify any particular unfitness.&#8221; In a race of
+inferior animals any maladjustment is quickly removed by natural
+selection, because, owing to the universal slaughter, the highest
+completeness of life possible to a given grade of organization is
+required for the mere maintenance of life. But under the conditions
+surrounding human development it is otherwise.<a href="#fn14" name="fnm14" id="fnm14"><span class="fnm">14</span></a> There is a wide
+interval between the highest and lowest degrees of completeness of
+living that are compatible with maintenance of life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page98" name="page98"></a>98</span>Hence the wicked flourish. Vice is but slowly eliminated,
+because mankind has so many other qualities, beside the bad ones,
+which enable it to subsist and achieve progress in spite of them, that
+natural selection&#8212;which always works through death&#8212;cannot come into
+play. The improvement of civilized man goes on mainly through
+processes of direct adaptation. The principle in accordance with which
+the gloved hand of the dandy becomes white and soft while the hand of
+the labouring man grows brown and tough is the main principle at work
+in the improvement of Humanity. Our intellectual faculties, our
+passions and prejudices, our tastes and habits, become strengthened by
+use and weakened by disuse, just as the blacksmith&#8217;s arm grows strong
+and the horse turned out to pasture becomes unfit for work. This law
+of use and disuse has been of immense importance throughout the whole
+evolution of organic life. With Man it has come to be paramount.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page99" name="page99"></a>99</span>If now we contrast the civilized man intellectually and morally
+with the savage, we find that, along with his vast increase of
+cerebral surface, he has an immensely greater power of representing in
+imagination objects and relations not present to the senses. This is
+the fundamental intellectual difference between civilized men and
+savages.<a href="#fn15" name="fnm15" id="fnm15"><span class="fnm">15</span></a> The power of imagination, or ideal representation,
+underlies the whole of science and art, and it is closely connected
+with the ability to work hard and submit to present discomfort for the
+sake of a distant reward. It is also closely connected with the
+development of the sympathetic feelings. The better we can imagine
+objects and relations not present to sense, the more readily we can
+sympathize with other people. Half the cruelty in the world is the
+direct result of stupid incapacity to put one&#8217;s self in the other
+man&#8217;s place. So closely inter-related are our intellectual and moral
+natures that the development of sympathy is very considerably <span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>100</span>determined by increasing width and variety of experience. From the
+simplest form of sympathy, such as the painful thrill felt on seeing
+some one in a dangerous position, up to the elaborate complication of
+altruistic feelings involved in the notion of abstract justice, the
+development is very largely a development of the representative
+faculty. The very same causes, therefore, deeply grounded in the
+nature of industrial civilization, which have developed science and
+art, have also had a distinct tendency to encourage the growth of the
+sympathetic emotions.</p>
+
+<p>But, as already observed, these emotions are still too feebly
+developed, even in the highest races of men. We have made more
+progress in intelligence than in kindness. For thousands of
+generations, and until very recent times, one of the chief occupations
+of men has been to plunder, bruise, and kill one another. The selfish
+and ugly passions which are <span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>101</span>primordial&#8212;which have the
+incalculable strength of inheritance from the time when animal
+consciousness began&#8212;have had but little opportunity to grow weak from
+disuse. The tender and unselfish feelings, which are a later product
+of evolution, have too seldom been allowed to grow strong from
+exercise. And the whims and prejudices of the primeval militant
+barbarism are slow in dying out from the midst of peaceful industrial
+civilization. The coarser forms of cruelty are disappearing, and the
+butchery of men has greatly diminished. But most people apply to
+industrial pursuits a notion of antagonism derived from ages of
+warfare, and seek in all manner of ways to cheat or overreach one
+another. And as in more barbarous times the hero was he who had slain
+his tens of thousands, so now the man who has made wealth by
+overreaching his neighbours is not uncommonly spoken of in terms which
+imply approval. Though gentlemen, moreover, no longer assail one
+another <span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>102</span>with knives and clubs, they still inflict wounds with
+cruel words and sneers. Though the free&#8212;thinker is no longer chained
+to a stake and burned, people still tell lies about him, and do their
+best to starve him by hurting his reputation. The virtues of
+forbearance and self-control are still in a very rudimentary state,
+and of mutual helpfulness there is far too little among men.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless in all these respects some improvement has been made,
+along with the diminution of warfare, and by the time warfare has not
+merely ceased from the earth but has come to be the dimly remembered
+phantom of a remote past, the development of the sympathetic side of
+human nature will doubtless become prodigious. The manifestation of
+selfish and hateful feelings will be more and more sternly repressed
+by public opinion, and such feelings will become weakened by disuse,
+while the sympathetic feelings will increase in strength as the sphere
+for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>103</span>their exercise is enlarged. And thus at length we see what
+human progress means. It means throwing off the
+brute-inheritance,&#8212;gradually throwing it off through ages of struggle
+that are by and by to make struggle needless. Man is slowly passing
+from a primitive social state in which he was little better than a
+brute, toward an ultimate social state in which his character shall
+have become so transformed that nothing of the brute can be detected
+in it. The ape and the tiger in human nature will become extinct.
+Theology has had much to say about original sin. This original sin is
+neither more nor less than the brute-inheritance which every man
+carries with him, and the process of evolution is an advance toward
+true salvation. Fresh value is thus added to human life. The modern
+prophet, employing the methods of science, may again proclaim that the
+kingdom of heaven is at hand. Work ye, therefore, early and late, to
+prepare its coming.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>104</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_15" name="Ch_15"></a>XV.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">The Message of Christianity.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>Now what is this message of the modern prophet but pure
+Christianity?&#8212;not the mass of theological doctrine ingeniously piled
+up by Justin Martyr and Tertullian and Clement and Athanasius and
+Augustine, but the real and essential Christianity which came, fraught
+with good tidings to men, from the very lips of Jesus and Paul! When
+did St. Paul&#8217;s conception of the two men within him that warred
+against each other, the appetites of our brute nature and the
+God-given yearning for a higher life,&#8212;when did this grand conception
+ever have so much significance as now? When have we ever before held
+such a clew to the meaning of Christ in the Sermon on the Mount?
+&#8220;Blessed are the meek, for they <span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>105</span>shall inherit the earth.&#8221; In
+the cruel strife of centuries has it not often seemed as if the earth
+were to be rather the prize of the hardest heart and the strongest
+fist? To many men these words of Christ have been as foolishness and
+as a stumbling-block, and the ethics of the Sermon on the Mount have
+been openly derided as too good for this world. In that wonderful
+picture of modern life which is the greatest work of one of the great
+seers of our time, Victor Hugo gives a concrete illustration of the
+working of Christ&#8217;s methods. In the saintlike career of Bishop Myriel,
+and in the transformation which his example works in the character of
+the hardened outlaw Jean Valjean, we have a most powerful commentary
+on the Sermon on the Mount. By some critics who could express their
+views freely about &#8220;Les Mis&eacute;rables&#8221; while hesitating to impugn
+directly the authority of the New Testament, Monseigneur Bienvenu was
+unsparingly ridiculed as a man of impossible goodness, and as a
+milksop and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>106</span>fool withal. But I think Victor Hugo understood
+the capabilities of human nature, and its real dignity, much better
+than these scoffers. In a low stage of civilization Monseigneur
+Bienvenu would have had small chance of reaching middle life. Christ
+himself, we remember, was crucified between two thieves. It is none
+the less true that when once the degree of civilization is such as to
+allow this highest type of character, distinguished by its meekness
+and kindness, to take root and thrive, its methods are incomparable in
+their potency. The Master knew full well that the time was not yet
+ripe,&#8212;that he brought not peace, but a sword. But he preached
+nevertheless that gospel of great joy which is by and by to be
+realized by toiling Humanity, and he announced ethical principles fit
+for the time that is coming. The great originality of his teaching,
+and the feature that has chiefly given it power in the world, lay in
+the distinctness with which he conceived a state of society
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>107</span>from which every vestige of strife, and the modes of behaviour
+adapted to ages of strife, shall be utterly and forever swept away.
+Through misery that has seemed unendurable and turmoil that has seemed
+endless, men have thought on that gracious life and its sublime ideal,
+and have taken comfort in the sweetly solemn message of peace on earth
+and good will to men.</p>
+
+<p>I believe that the promise with which I started has now been amply
+redeemed. I believe it has been fully shown that so far from degrading
+Humanity, or putting it on a level with the animal world in general,
+the doctrine of evolution shows us distinctly for the first time how
+the creation and the perfecting of Man is the goal toward which
+Nature&#8217;s work has been tending from the first. We can now see clearly
+that our new knowledge enlarges tenfold the significance of human
+life, and makes it seem more than ever the chief object of Divine
+care, the consummate fruition of that creative energy which is
+manifested throughout the knowable universe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>108</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="Ch_16" name="Ch_16"></a>XVI.</h2>
+
+<p class="ch_desc">The Question as to a Future Life.</p>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#Contents">Return</a></p>
+
+<p>Upon the question whether Humanity is, after all, to cast in its lot
+with the grass that withers and the beasts that perish, the whole
+foregoing argument has a bearing that is by no means remote or
+far-fetched. It is not likely that we shall ever succeed in making the
+immortality of the soul a matter of scientific demonstration, for we
+lack the requisite data. It must ever remain an affair of religion
+rather than of science. In other words, it must remain one of that
+class of questions upon which I may not expect to convince my
+neighbour, while at the same time I may entertain a reasonable
+conviction of my own upon the subject.<a href="#fn16" name="fnm16" id="fnm16"><span class="fnm">16</span></a> In the domain of cerebral
+physiology the question might be debated forever without
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>109</span>a result. The only thing which cerebral physiology tells us,
+when studied with the aid of molecular physics, is against the
+materialist, so far as it goes. It tells us that, during the present
+life, although thought and feeling are always manifested in connection
+with a peculiar form of matter, yet by no possibility can thought and
+feeling be in any sense the products of matter. Nothing could be more
+grossly unscientific than the famous remark of Cabanis, that the brain
+secretes thought as the liver secretes bile. It is not even correct to
+say that thought goes on in the brain. What goes on in the brain is an
+amazingly complex series of molecular movements, with which thought
+and feeling are in some unknown way correlated, not as effects or as
+causes, but as concomitants. So much is clear, but cerebral physiology
+says nothing about another life. Indeed, why should it? The last place
+in the world to which I should go for information about a state of
+things in which <span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>110</span>thought and feeling can exist in the absence
+of a cerebrum would be cerebral physiology!</p>
+
+<p>The materialistic assumption that there is no such state of things,
+and that the life of the soul accordingly ends with the life of the
+body, is perhaps the most colossal instance of baseless assumption
+that is known to the history of philosophy. No evidence for it can be
+alleged beyond the familiar fact that during the present life we know
+Soul only in its association with Body, and therefore cannot discover
+disembodied soul without dying ourselves. This fact must always
+prevent us from obtaining direct evidence for the belief in the soul&#8217;s
+survival. But a negative presumption is not created by the absence of
+proof in cases where, in the nature of things, proof is
+inaccessible.<a href="#fn17" name="fnm17" id="fnm17"><span class="fnm">17</span></a> With his illegitimate hypothesis of annihilation,
+the materialist transgresses the bounds of experience quite as widely
+as the poet who sings of the New Jerusalem with its river of life <span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>111</span>and its streets of gold. Scientifically speaking, there is not a
+particle of evidence for either view.</p>
+
+<p>But when we desist from the futile attempt to introduce scientific
+demonstration into a region which confessedly transcends human
+experience, and when we consider the question upon broad grounds of
+moral probability, I have no doubt that men will continue in the
+future, as in the past, to cherish the faith in a life beyond the
+grave. In past times the disbelief in the soul&#8217;s immortality has
+always accompanied that kind of philosophy which, under whatever name,
+has regarded Humanity as merely a local incident in an endless and
+aimless series of cosmical changes. As a general rule, people who have
+come to take such a view of the position of Man in the universe have
+ceased to believe in a future life. On the other hand, he who regards
+Man as the consummate fruition of creative energy, and the chief
+object of Divine care, is almost irresistibly driven to the belief <span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>112</span>that the soul&#8217;s career is not completed with the present life upon
+the earth. Difficulties on theory he will naturally expect to meet in
+many quarters; but these will not weaken his faith, especially when he
+remembers that upon the alternative view the difficulties are at least
+as great. We live in a world of mystery, at all events, and there is
+not a problem in the simplest and most exact departments of science
+which does not speedily lead us to a transcendental problem that we
+can neither solve nor elude. A broad common-sense argument has often
+to be called in, where keen-edged metaphysical analysis has confessed
+itself baffled.</p>
+
+<p>Now we have here seen that the doctrine of evolution does not allow us
+to take the atheistic view of the position of Man. It is true that
+modern astronomy shows us giant balls of vapour condensing into fiery
+suns, cooling down into planets fit for the support of life, and at
+last growing cold and rigid in death, like the moon. And <span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>113</span>there
+are indications of a time when systems of dead planets shall fall in
+upon their central ember that was once a sun, and the whole lifeless
+mass, thus regaining heat, shall expand into a nebulous cloud like
+that with which we started, that the work of condensation and
+evolution may begin over again. These Titanic events must doubtless
+seem to our limited vision like an endless and aimless series of
+cosmical changes. They disclose no signs of purpose, or even of
+dramatic tendency;<a href="#fn18" name="fnm18" id="fnm18"><span class="fnm">18</span></a> they seem like the weary work of Sisyphos. But
+on the face of our own planet, where alone we are able to survey the
+process of evolution in its higher and more complex details, we do
+find distinct indications of a dramatic tendency, though doubtless not
+of purpose in the limited human sense. The Darwinian theory, properly
+understood, replaces as much teleology<a href="#fn19" name="fnm19" id="fnm19"><span class="fnm">19</span></a> as it destroys. From the
+first dawning of life we see all things working together toward one
+mighty goal, the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>114</span>evolution of the most exalted spiritual
+qualities which characterize Humanity. The body is cast aside and
+returns to the dust of which it was made. The earth, so marvellously
+wrought to man&#8217;s uses, will also be cast aside. The day is to come, no
+doubt, when the heavens shall vanish as a scroll, and the elements be
+melted with fervent heat. So small is the value which Nature sets upon
+the perishable forms of matter! The question, then, is reduced to
+this: are Man&#8217;s highest spiritual qualities, into the production of
+which all this creative energy has gone, to disappear with the rest?
+Has all this work been done for nothing? Is it all ephemeral, all a
+bubble that bursts, a vision that fades? Are we to regard the
+Creator&#8217;s work as like that of a child, who builds houses out of
+blocks, just for the pleasure of knocking them down? For aught that
+science can tell us, it may be so, but I can see no good reason for
+believing any such thing. On such a view <span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>115</span>the riddle of the
+universe becomes a riddle without a meaning. Why, then, are we any
+more called upon to throw away our belief in the permanence of the
+spiritual element in Man than we are called upon to throw away our
+belief in the constancy of Nature? When questioned as to the ground of
+our irresistible belief that like causes must always be followed by
+like effects, Mr. Mill&#8217;s answer was that it is the result of an
+induction coextensive with the whole of our experience; Mr. Spencer&#8217;s
+answer was that it is a postulate which we make in every act of
+experience;<a href="#fn20" name="fnm20" id="fnm20"><span class="fnm">20</span></a> but the authors of the &#8220;Unseen Universe,&#8221; slightly
+varying the form of statement, called it a supreme act of faith,&#8212;the
+expression of a trust in God, that He will not &#8220;put us to permanent
+intellectual confusion.&#8221; Now the more thoroughly we comprehend that
+process of evolution by which things have come to be what they are,
+the more we are likely to feel that to deny the everlasting
+persistence of the spiritual element in Man <span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>116</span>is to rob the
+whole process of its meaning. It goes far toward putting us to
+permanent intellectual confusion, and I do not see that any one has as
+yet alleged, or is ever likely to allege, a sufficient reason for our
+accepting so dire an alternative.</p>
+
+<p>For my own part, therefore, I believe in the immortality of the soul,
+not in the sense in which I accept the demonstrable truths of science,
+but as a supreme act of faith in the reasonableness of God&#8217;s work.
+Such a belief, relating to regions quite inaccessible to experience,
+cannot of course be clothed in terms of definite and tangible meaning.
+For the experience which alone can give us such terms we must await
+that solemn day which is to overtake us all. The belief can be most
+quickly defined by its negation, as the refusal to believe that this
+world is all. The materialist holds that when you have described the
+whole universe of phenomena of which we can become cognizant under the
+conditions of the present life, then the whole story is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>117</span>told.
+It seems to me, on the contrary, that the whole story is not thus
+told. I feel the omnipresence of mystery in such wise as to make it
+far easier for me to adopt the view of Euripides, that what we call
+death may be but the dawning of true knowledge and of true life. The
+greatest philosopher of modern times, the master and teacher of all
+who shall study the process of evolution for many a day to come, holds
+that the conscious soul is not the product of a collocation of
+material particles, but is in the deepest sense a divine effluence.
+According to Mr. Spencer, the divine energy which is manifested
+throughout the knowable universe is the same energy that wells up in
+us as consciousness. Speaking for myself, I can see no insuperable
+difficulty in the notion that at some period in the evolution of
+Humanity this divine spark may have acquired sufficient concentration
+and steadiness to survive the wreck of material forms and endure
+forever. Such a crowning wonder seems to me no more <span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>118</span>than the
+fit climax to a creative work that has been ineffably beautiful and
+marvellous in all its myriad stages.</p>
+
+<p>Only on some such view can the reasonableness of the universe, which
+still remains far above our finite power of comprehension, maintain
+its ground. There are some minds inaccessible to the class of
+considerations here alleged, and perhaps there always will be. But on
+such grounds, if on no other, the faith in immortality is likely to be
+shared by all who look upon the genesis of the highest spiritual
+qualities in Man as the goal of Nature&#8217;s creative work. This view has
+survived the Copernican revolution in science, and it has survived the
+Darwinian revolution. Nay, if the foregoing exposition be sound, it is
+Darwinism which has placed Humanity upon a higher pinnacle than ever.
+The future is lighted for us with the radiant colours of hope. Strife
+and sorrow shall disappear. Peace and love shall reign supreme. The
+dream of poets, the lesson <span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>119</span>of priest and prophet, the
+inspiration of the great musician, is confirmed in the light of modern
+knowledge; and as we gird ourselves up for the work of life, we may
+look forward to the time when in the truest sense the kingdoms of this
+world shall become the kingdom of Christ, and he shall reign for ever
+and ever, king of kings and lord of lords.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>120</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="ChapterHead"><a id="references" name="references"></a>REFERENCES.</h2>
+<p class="returnTOC"><a href="#refmark">Return</a></p>
+<div class="refs">
+<ul>
+<li>C.P., Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 1874;</li>
+<li>U.W., The Unseen World, 1876;</li>
+<li>D., Darwinism and Other Essays, 1879;</li>
+<li>E.E., Excursions of an Evolutionist, 1884.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ol>
+<li><a id="fn1" name="fn1"></a>C.P. ii. 432-451.<a href="#fnm1"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn2" name="fn2"></a>C.P. ii. 89-91.<a href="#fnm2"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn3" name="fn3"></a>C.P. ii. 318-321; D. 45.<a href="#fnm3"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn4" name="fn4"></a>U.W. 40-42; D. 65-74; E.E. 278-282, 327, 336.<a href="#fnm4"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn5" name="fn5"></a>C.P. ii. 154-159.<a href="#fnm5"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn6" name="fn6"></a>C.P. ii. 133-135.<a href="#fnm6"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn7" name="fn7"></a>D. 45-48; E.E. 306-319.<a href="#fnm7"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn8" name="fn8"></a>C.P. ii. 310.<a href="#fnm8"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn9" name="fn9"></a>E.E. 109-146.<a href="#fnm9"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn10" name="fn10"></a>C.P. ii. 284-323.<a href="#fnm10"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn11" name="fn11"></a>C.P. ii. 342-346, 358-363.<a href="#fnm11"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn12" name="fn12"></a>C.P. ii. 202-208.<a href="#fnm12"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn13" name="fn13"></a>C.P. ii. 213-224.<a href="#fnm13"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn14" name="fn14"></a>C.P. ii. 334.<a href="#fnm14"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn15" name="fn15"></a>C.P. ii. 312-315.<a href="#fnm15"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn16" name="fn16"></a>U.W. 54; E.E. 289-291.<a href="#fnm16"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>121</span><a id="fn17" name="fn17"></a>U.W. 47-50; D. 75.<a href="#fnm17"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn18" name="fn18"></a>D. 96-102.<a href="#fnm18"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn19" name="fn19"></a>C.P. ii. 406.<a href="#fnm19"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+<li><a id="fn20" name="fn20"></a>C.P. i. 45-71, 286; ii. 162; U.W. 6; D. 87-95.<a href="#fnm20"><span class="returnFN">Return</span></a></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>John Fiske&#8217;s Writings.</h3>
+
+<p>MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS: Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by
+Comparative Mythology, <em>17th Edition</em>. 12mo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY. Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with
+Criticisms on the Positive Philosophy. <em>14th Edition</em>. 2 vols.,
+8vo, $6.00</p>
+
+<p>THE UNSEEN WORLD, and other Essays, <em>12th Edition</em>. 12mo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST. <em>15th Edition</em>. 12mo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>DARWINISM, and other Essays. <em>8th Edition</em>. 12mo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>THE DESTINY OF MAN, viewed in the Light of His Origin. <em>20th
+Edition</em>. 16mo, $1.00.</p>
+
+<p>THE IDEA OF GOD, as affected by Modern Knowledge. A Sequel to &#8220;The
+Destiny of Man.&#8221; <em>14th Thousand</em>. 16mo, $1.00.</p>
+
+<p>THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789. <em>12th Edition</em>.
+Crown 8vo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND or the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations
+to Civil and Religious Liberty. <em>10th Thousand</em>. Crown 8vo, $2.00.</p>
+
+<p>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. In Riverside Library for Young People. 16mo, 75
+cents.</p>
+
+<p>THE DISCOVERY AND SPANISH CONQUEST OF AMERICA. With Maps, <em>11th
+Thousand</em>. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.</p>
+
+<p>THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. <em>8th Thousand</em>. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.</p>
+
+<p>CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. CONSIDERED WITH SOME REFERENCE TO
+ITS ORIGINS. <em>56th Thousand.</em> Crown 8vo, $1.00, <em>net</em>.</p>
+
+<p>HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN &amp; CO.<br />
+BOSTON AND NEW YORK.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>AMERICAN POLITICAL IDEAS, viewed from the Stand-point of Universal
+History. <em>Seventh Edition</em>. 12mo, $1.00. HARPER &amp; BROTHERS, New York.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>THE WRITINGS OF JOHN FISKE.</h3>
+
+<p>THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.</p>
+
+<p><em>With some Account of Ancient America and the Spanish Conquest. With a
+steel portrait of Mr. Fiske, reproductions of many old maps, several
+modern maps, facsimiles, and other illustrations. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+$4.00.</em></p>
+
+<p><em>LARGE-PAPER EDITION. Limited to 250 copies. 4 vols. 8vo, $16.00, net.</em></p>
+
+<p>This work forms the beginning of Mr. Fiske&#8217;s history of America. It is,
+perhaps, the most important single portion yet completed by him, and
+gives the results of vast research.</p>
+
+<p>THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.</p>
+
+<p><em>With Plans of Battles, and a new Steel Portrait of Washington, engraved
+by Willcox from a miniature never before reproduced. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+gilt top, $4.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>The reader may turn to these volumes with full assurance of faith for a
+fresh rehearsal of the old facts, which no time can stale, and for new
+views of those old facts, according to the larger framework of ideas in
+which they can now be set by the master of a captivating style and an
+expert in historical philosophy.&#8212;<em>New York Evening Post</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The freshness and vivid interest of the narrative and the comprehensive
+generalization which springs naturally from the author&#8217;s plan of a large
+work on American history, of which the two volumes now published are no
+more than a third or a fourth part, make it a book of new and permanent
+interest.&#8212;<em>Springfield Republican</em>.</p>
+
+<p>CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES</p>
+
+<p><em>Considered with some Reference to its Origins. With Questions on the
+Text by Frank A. Hill, and Bibliographical Notes by Mr. Fiske. 12mo,
+$1.00, net.</em></p>
+
+<p>If this admirable volume (Fiske&#8217;s &#8220;Civil Government&#8221;) can be fairly
+taught to our rising generation, the future, we believe, will show that
+Mr. Fiske has never done more useful work than in its preparation.&#8212;<em>The
+Congregationalist</em> (Boston).</p>
+
+<p>THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789.</p>
+
+<p><em>With Map, Notes, etc. Crown 8vo, $2.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>The author combines in an unusual degree the impartiality of the trained
+scholar with the fervor of the interested narrator&#8230;. The volume should
+be in every library in the land.&#8212;<em>The Congregationalist</em> (Boston).</p>
+
+<p>An admirable book&#8230;. Mr. Fiske has a great talent for making history
+interesting to the general reader.&#8212;<em>New York Times</em>.</p>
+
+<p>THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND;</p>
+
+<p><em>Or, the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to Civil and Religious
+Liberty. Crown 8vo, $2.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>It deals with the early colonial history of New England in the
+entertaining and vivid style which has marked all of Mr. Fiske&#8217;s
+writings on American history, and it is distinguished, like them, by its
+aggressive patriotism and its justice to all parties in controversy&#8230;.
+The whole book is novel and fresh in treatment, philosophical and wise,
+and will not be laid down till one has read the last page, and remains
+impatient for what is still to come.&#8212;<em>Boston Post</em>.</p>
+
+<p>THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</p>
+
+<p><em>In Riverside Library for Young People. With Maps. 16mo, 75 cents.</em></p>
+
+<p>John Fiske&#8217;s &#8220;War of Independence&#8221; is a miracle&#8230;. A book brilliant and
+effective beyond measure&#8230;. It is a statement that every child can
+comprehend, but that only a man of consummate genius could have
+written.&#8212;Mrs. CAROLINE H. DALL, <em>in the Springfield Republican</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the Revolution, as Mr. Fiske tells it, is one of surpassing
+interest. His treatment is a marvel of clearness and comprehensiveness;
+discarding non-essential details, he selects with a fine historic
+instinct the main currents of history, traces them with the utmost
+precision, and tells the whole story in a masterly fashion. His little
+volume will be a text-book for older quite as much as for young
+readers.&#8212;<em>Christian Union</em> (New York).</p>
+
+<p>OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY</p>
+
+<p><em>Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with Criticisms on the Positive
+Philosophy. In two volumes. 8vo, $6.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;You must allow me to thank you for the very great interest with which I
+have at last slowly read the whole of your work&#8230;. I never in my life
+read so lucid an expositor (and therefore thinker) as you are; and I
+think that I understand nearly the whole, though perhaps less clearly
+about cosmic theism and causation than other parts. It is hopeless to
+attempt out of so much to specify what has interested me most, and
+probably you would not care to hear. It pleased me to find that here and
+there I had arrived, from my own crude thoughts, at some of the same
+conclusions with you, though I could seldom or never have given my
+reasons for such conclusions.&#8221;&#8212;CHARLES DARWIN.</p>
+
+<p>This work of Mr. Fiske&#8217;s may be not unfairly designated the most
+important contribution yet made by America to philosophical
+literature.&#8212;<em>The Academy</em> (London).</p>
+
+<p>DARWINISM, AND OTHER ESSAYS.</p>
+
+<p>If ever there was a spirit thoroughly invigorated by the &#8220;joy of right
+understanding&#8221; it is that of the author of these pieces. Even the reader
+catches something of his intellectual buoyancy, and is thus carried
+almost lightly through discussions which would be hard and dry in the
+hands of a less animated writer&#8230;. No less confident and serene than
+his acceptance of the utmost logical results of recent scientific
+discovery is Mr. Fiske&#8217;s assurance that the foundations of spiritual
+truths, so called, cannot possibly be shaken thereby.&#8212;<em>The Atlantic
+Monthly</em> (Boston).</p>
+
+<p>THE UNSEEN WORLD,</p>
+
+<p><em>And Other Essays. 12mo, $2.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>To each study the writer seems to have brought, besides an excellent
+quality of discriminating judgment, full and fresh special knowledge,
+that enables him to supply much information on the subject, whatever it
+may be, that is not to be found in the volume he is noticing. To the
+knowledge, analytical power, and faculty of clear statement, that appear
+in all these papers, Mr. Fiske adds a just independence of thought that
+conciliates respectful consideration of his views, even when they are
+most at variance with the commonly accepted ones.&#8212;<em>Boston Advertiser</em>.</p>
+
+<p>EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST.</p>
+
+<p><em>12mo, $2.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>Among our thoughtful essayists there are none more brilliant than Mr.
+John Fiske. His pure style suits his clear thought. He does not write
+unless he has something to say; and when he does write he shows not only
+that he has thoroughly acquainted himself with the subject but that he
+has to a rare degree the art of so massing his matter as to bring out
+the true value of the leading points in artistic relief. It is this
+perspective which makes his work such agreeable reading even on abstruse
+subjects, and has enabled him to play the same part in popularizing
+Spencer in this country that Littr&eacute; performed for Comte in France, and
+Dumont for Bentham in England. The same qualities appear to good
+advantage in his new volume, which contains his later essays on his
+favorite subject of evolution&#8230;. They are well worth reperusal.&#8212;<em>The
+Nation</em> (New York).</p>
+
+<p>MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.</p>
+
+<p><em>Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by Comparative Mythology. 12mo,
+$2.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Fiske has given us a book which is at once sensible and attractive,
+on a subject about which much is written that is crotchety or
+tedious.&#8212;W.R.S. RALSTON, in <em>Athen&aelig;um</em> (London).</p>
+
+<p>A perusal of this thorough work cannot be too strongly recommended to
+all who are interested in comparative mythology.&#8212;<em>Revue Critique</em>
+(Paris).</p>
+
+<p>THE DESTINY OF MAN,</p>
+
+<p><em>Viewed in the Light of his Origin. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Fiske has given us in his &#8220;Destiny of Man&#8221; a most attractive
+condensation of his views as expressed in his various other works. One
+is charmed by the directness and clearness of his style, his simple and
+pure English, and his evident knowledge of his subject&#8230;. Of one thing
+we may be sure, that none are leading us more surely or rapidly to the
+full truth than men like the author of this little book, who reverently
+study the works of God for the lessons which he would teach his
+children.&#8212;<em>Christian Union</em> (New York).</p>
+
+<p>THE IDEA OF GOD,</p>
+
+<p><em>As Affected by Modern Knowledge. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00.</em></p>
+
+<p>The charms of John Fiske&#8217;s style are patent. The secrets of its fluency,
+clearness, and beauty are secrets which many a maker of literary stuffs
+has attempted to unravel, in order to weave like cloth-of-gold&#8230;. A
+model for authors and a delight to readers.&#8212;<em>The Critic</em> (New York).</p>
+
+<p>*** <em>For sale by all Booksellers. Sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of
+price by the Publishers,</em></p>
+
+<p>HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN &amp; CO.</p>
+
+<p><em>4 Park Street, Boston; 11 East 17th Street, New York.</em></p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESTINY OF MAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 17239-h.htm or 17239-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/3/17239/
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/17239.txt b/17239.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..afc4d21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17239.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2355 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Destiny of Man
+       Viewed in the Light of His Origin
+
+Author: John Fiske
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2005 [EBook #17239]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESTINY OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN
+
+VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF HIS ORIGIN
+
+
+BY
+
+
+JOHN FISKE
+
+
+
+TWENTIETH EDITION.
+
+
+BOSTON
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
+
+1893
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1884,
+
+BY JOHN FISKE.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+MY CHILDREN,
+
+MAUD, HAROLD, CLARENCE, RALPH, ETHEL, AND HERBERT,
+
+This Essay
+
+_IS LOVINGLY DEDICATED._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Having been invited to give an address before the Concord School of
+Philosophy this summer, upon some subject relating to the question of
+immortality there under discussion, it seemed a proper occasion for
+putting together the following thoughts on the origin of Man and his
+place in the universe. In dealing with the unknown, it is well to take
+one's start a long way within the limits of the known. The question of a
+future life is generally regarded as lying outside the range of
+legitimate scientific discussion. Yet while fully admitting this, one
+does not necessarily admit that the subject is one with regard to which
+we are forever debarred from entertaining an opinion. Now our opinions
+on such transcendental questions must necessarily be affected by the
+total mass of our opinions on the questions which lie within the scope
+of scientific inquiry; and from this point of view it becomes of
+surpassing interest to trace the career of Humanity within that segment
+of the universe which is accessible to us. The teachings of the doctrine
+of evolution as to the origin and destiny of Man have, moreover, a very
+great speculative and practical value of their own, quite apart from
+their bearings upon any ultimate questions. The body of this essay is
+accordingly devoted to setting forth these teachings in what I conceive
+to be their true light; while their transcendental implications are
+reserved for the sequel.
+
+As the essay contains an epitome of my own original contributions to the
+doctrine of evolution, I have added at the end a short list of
+references to other works of mine, where the points here briefly
+mentioned are more fully argued and illustrated. The views regarding the
+progress of human society, and the elimination of warfare, are set forth
+at greater length in a little book now in the press, and soon to appear,
+entitled "American Political Ideas."
+
+PETERSHAM, September 6, 1884.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+     I. Man's Place in Nature as affected by the Copernican Theory.
+    II. As affected by Darwinism.
+   III. On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.
+    IV. The Origin of Infancy.
+     V. The Dawning of Consciousness.
+    VI. Lengthening of Infancy and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.
+   VII. Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.
+  VIII. Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.
+    IX. The Origins of Society and of Morality.
+     X. Improvableness of Man.
+    XI. Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.
+   XII. First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilisation.
+  XIII. Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.
+   XIV. End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off
+             the Brute-Inheritance.
+    XV. The Message of Christianity.
+   XVI. The Question as to a Future Life.
+
+
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+Man's Place in Nature, as affected by the Copernican Theory.
+
+
+When we study the Divine Comedy of Dante--that wonderful book wherein
+all the knowledge and speculation, all the sorrows and yearnings, of the
+far-off Middle Ages are enshrined in the glory of imperishable verse--we
+are brought face to face with a theory of the world and with ways of
+reasoning about the facts of nature which seem strange to us to-day, but
+from the influence of which we are not yet, and doubtless never shall
+be, wholly freed. A cosmology grotesque enough in the light of later
+knowledge, yet wrought out no less carefully than the physical theories
+of Lucretius, is employed in the service of a theology cumbrous in its
+obsolete details, but resting upon fundamental truths which mankind can
+never safely lose sight of. In the view of Dante and of that phase of
+human culture which found in him its clearest and sweetest voice, this
+earth, the fair home of man, was placed in the centre of a universe
+wherein all things were ordained for his sole behoof: the sun to give
+him light and warmth, the stars in their courses to preside over his
+strangely checkered destinies, the winds to blow, the floods to rise, or
+the fiend of pestilence to stalk abroad over the land,--all for the
+blessing, or the warning, or the chiding, of the chief among God's
+creatures, Man. Upon some such conception as this, indeed, all theology
+would seem naturally to rest. Once dethrone Humanity, regard it as a
+mere local incident in an endless and aimless series of cosmical
+changes, and you arrive at a doctrine which, under whatever specious
+name it may be veiled, is at bottom neither more nor less than Atheism.
+On its metaphysical side Atheism is the denial of anything psychical in
+the universe outside of human consciousness; and it is almost
+inseparably associated with the materialistic interpretation of human
+consciousness as the ephemeral result of a fleeting collocation of
+particles of matter. Viewed upon this side, it is easy to show that
+Atheism is very bad metaphysics, while the materialism which goes with
+it is utterly condemned by modern science.[1] But our feeling toward
+Atheism goes much deeper than the mere recognition of it as
+philosophically untrue. The mood in which we condemn it is not at all
+like the mood in which we reject the corpuscular theory of light or Sir
+G.C. Lewis's vagaries on the subject of Egyptian hieroglyphics. We are
+wont to look upon Atheism with unspeakable horror and loathing. Our
+moral sense revolts against it no less than our intelligence; and this
+is because, on its practical side, Atheism would remove Humanity from
+its peculiar position in the world, and make it cast in its lot with the
+grass that withers and the beasts that perish; and thus the rich and
+varied life of the universe, in all the ages of its wondrous duration,
+becomes deprived of any such element of purpose as can make it
+intelligible to us or appeal to our moral sympathies and religious
+aspirations.
+
+And yet the first result of some of the grandest and most irrefragable
+truths of modern science, when newly discovered and dimly comprehended,
+has been to make it appear that Humanity must be rudely unseated from
+its throne in the world and made to occupy an utterly subordinate and
+trivial position; and it is because of this mistaken view of their
+import that the Church has so often and so bitterly opposed the teaching
+of such truths. With the advent of the Copernican astronomy the
+funnel-shaped Inferno, the steep mountain of Purgatory crowned with its
+terrestrial paradise, and those concentric spheres of Heaven wherein
+beatified saints held weird and subtle converse, all went their way to
+the limbo prepared for the childlike fancies of untaught minds, whither
+Hades and Valhalla had gone before them. In our day it is hard to
+realize the startling effect of the discovery that Man does not dwell at
+the centre of things, but is the denizen of an obscure and tiny speck of
+cosmical matter quite invisible amid the innumerable throng of flaming
+suns that make up our galaxy. To the contemporaries of Copernicus the
+new theory seemed to strike at the very foundations of Christian
+theology. In a universe where so much had been made without discernible
+reference to Man, what became of that elaborate scheme of salvation
+which seemed to rest upon the assumption that the career of Humanity was
+the sole object of God's creative forethought and fostering care? When
+we bear this in mind, we see how natural and inevitable it was that the
+Church should persecute such men as Galileo and Bruno. At the same time
+it is instructive to observe that, while the Copernican astronomy has
+become firmly established in spite of priestly opposition, the
+foundations of Christian theology have not been shaken thereby. It is
+not that the question which once so sorely puzzled men has ever been
+settled, but that it has been outgrown. The speculative necessity for
+man's occupying the largest and most central spot in the universe is no
+longer felt. It is recognized as a primitive and childish notion. With
+our larger knowledge we see that these vast and fiery suns are after all
+but the Titan like _servants_ of the little planets which they bear with
+them in their flight through the abysses of space. Out from the awful
+gaseous turmoil of the central mass dart those ceaseless waves of gentle
+radiance that, when caught upon the surface of whirling worlds like
+ours, bring forth the endlessly varied forms and the endlessly complex
+movements that make up what we can see of life. And as when God revealed
+himself to his ancient prophet He came not in the earthquake or the
+tempest but in a voice that was still and small, so that divine spark
+the Soul, as it takes up its brief abode in this realm of fleeting
+phenomena, chooses not the central sun where elemental forces forever
+blaze and clash, but selects an outlying terrestrial nook where seeds
+may germinate in silence, and where through slow fruition the mysterious
+forms of organic life may come to take shape and thrive. He who thus
+looks a little deeper into the secrets of nature than his forefathers of
+the sixteenth century may well smile at the quaint conceit that man
+cannot be the object of God's care unless he occupies an immovable
+position in the centre of the stellar universe.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+Man's Place in Nature, as affected by Darwinism.
+
+
+When the Copernican astronomy was finally established through the
+discoveries of Kepler and Newton, it might well have been pronounced the
+greatest scientific achievement of the human mind; but it was still more
+than that. It was the greatest revolution that had ever been effected in
+Man's views of his relations to the universe in which he lives, and of
+which he is--at least during the present life--a part. During the
+nineteenth century, however, a still greater revolution has been
+effected. Not only has Lyell enlarged our mental horizon in time as much
+as Newton enlarged it in space, but it appears that throughout these
+vast stretches of time and space with which we have been made acquainted
+there are sundry well-marked changes going on. Certain definite paths of
+development are being pursued; and around us on every side we behold
+worlds, organisms, and societies in divers stages of progress or
+decline. Still more, as we examine the records of past life upon our
+globe, and study the mutual relations of the living things that still
+remain, it appears that the higher forms of life--including Man
+himself--are the modified descendants of lower forms. Zooelogically
+speaking, Man can no longer be regarded as a creature apart by himself.
+We cannot erect an order on purpose to contain him, as Cuvier tried to
+do; we cannot even make a separate family for him. Man is not only a
+vertebrate, a mammal, and a primate, but he belongs, as a genus, to the
+catarrhine family of apes. And just as lions, leopards, and
+lynxes--different genera of the cat-family--are descended from a common
+stock of carnivora, back to which we may also trace the pedigrees of
+dogs, hyaenas, bears, and seals; so the various genera of platyrrhine and
+catarrhine apes, including Man, are doubtless descended from a common
+stock of primates, back to which we may also trace the converging
+pedigrees of monkeys and lemurs, until their ancestry becomes
+indistinguishable from that of rabbits and squirrels. Such is the
+conclusion to which the scientific world has come within a quarter of a
+century from the publication of Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species;" and
+there is no more reason for supposing that this conclusion will ever be
+gainsaid than for supposing that the Copernican astronomy will some time
+be overthrown and the concentric spheres of Dante's heaven reinstated in
+the minds of men.
+
+It is not strange that this theory of man's origin, which we associate
+mainly with the name of Mr. Darwin, should be to many people very
+unwelcome. It is fast bringing about a still greater revolution in
+thought than that which was heralded by Copernicus; and it naturally
+takes some time for the various portions of one's theory of things to
+become adjusted, one after another, to so vast and sweeping a change.
+From many quarters the cry goes up,--If this be true, then Man is at
+length cast down from his high position in the world. "I will not be
+called a mammal, or the son of a mammal!" once exclaimed an acquaintance
+of mine who perhaps had been brought up by hand. Such expressions of
+feeling are crude, but the feeling is not unjustifiable. It is urged
+that if man is physically akin to a baboon, as pigs are akin to horses,
+and cows to deer, then Humanity can in nowise be regarded as occupying a
+peculiar place in the universe; it becomes a mere incident in an endless
+series of changes, and how can we say that the same process of evolution
+that has produced mankind may not by and by produce something far more
+perfect? There was a time when huge bird-like reptiles were the lords of
+creation, and after these had been "sealed within the iron hills" there
+came successive dynasties of mammals; and as the iguanodon gave place to
+the great Eocene marsupials, as the mastodon and the sabre-toothed lion
+have long since vanished from the scene, so may not Man by and by
+disappear to make way for some higher creature, and so on forever? In
+such case, why should we regard Man as in any higher sense the object of
+Divine care than a pig? Still stronger does the case appear when we
+remember that those countless adaptations of means to ends in nature,
+which since the time of Voltaire and Paley we have been accustomed to
+cite as evidences of creative design, have received at the hands of Mr.
+Darwin a very different interpretation. The lobster's powerful claw, the
+butterfly's gorgeous tints, the rose's delicious fragrance, the
+architectural instinct of the bee, the astonishing structure of the
+orchid, are no longer explained as the results of contrivance. That
+simple but wasteful process of survival of the fittest, through which
+such marvellous things have come into being, has little about it that is
+analogous to the ingenuity of human art. The infinite and eternal Power
+which is thus revealed in the physical life of the universe seems in
+nowise akin to the human soul. The idea of beneficent purpose seems for
+the moment to be excluded from nature, and a blind process, known as
+Natural Selection, is the deity that slumbers not nor sleeps. Reckless
+of good and evil, it brings forth at once the mother's tender love for
+her infant and the horrible teeth of the ravening shark, and to its
+creative indifference the one is as good as the other.
+
+In spite of these appalling arguments the man of science, urged by the
+single-hearted purpose to ascertain the truth, be the consequences what
+they may, goes quietly on and finds that the terrible theory must be
+adopted; the fact of man's consanguinity with dumb beasts must be
+admitted. In reaching this conclusion, the man of science reasons upon
+the physical facts within his reach, applying to them the same
+principles of common-sense whereby our everyday lives are successfully
+guided; and he is very apt to smile at the methods of those people who,
+taking hold of the question at the wrong end, begin by arguing about all
+manner of fancied consequences. For his knowledge of the history of
+human thinking assures him that such methods have through all past time
+proved barren of aught save strife, while his own bold yet humble method
+is the only one through which truth has ever been elicited. To pursue
+unflinchingly the methods of science requires dauntless courage and a
+faith that nothing can shake. Such courage and such loyalty to nature
+brings its own reward. For when once the formidable theory is really
+understood, when once its implications are properly unfolded, it is seen
+to have no such logical consequences as were at first ascribed to it. As
+with the Copernican astronomy, so with the Darwinian biology, we rise to
+a higher view of the workings of God and of the nature of Man than was
+ever attainable before. So far from degrading Humanity, or putting it on
+a level with the animal world in general, the Darwinian theory shows us
+distinctly for the first time how the creation and the perfecting of Man
+is the goal toward which Nature's work has all the while been tending.
+It enlarges tenfold the significance of human life, places it upon even
+a loftier eminence than poets or prophets have imagined, and makes it
+seem more than ever the chief object of that creative activity which is
+manifested in the physical universe.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.
+
+
+In elucidating these points, we may fitly begin by considering the
+question as to the possibility of the evolution of any higher creature
+than Man, to whom the dominion over this earth shall pass. The question
+will best be answered by turning back and observing one of the most
+remarkable features connected with the origin of Man and with his
+superiority over other animals. And let it be borne in mind that we are
+not now about to wander through the regions of unconditional
+possibility. We are not dealing with vague general notions of
+development, but with the scientific Darwinian theory, which alleges
+development only as the result of certain rigorously defined agencies.
+The chief among these agencies is Natural Selection. It has again and
+again been illustrated how by the cumulative selection and inheritance
+of slight physical variations generic differences, like those between
+the tiger and the leopard, or the cow and the antelope, at length arise;
+and the guiding principle in the accumulation of slight physical
+differences has been the welfare of the species. The variant forms on
+either side have survived while the constant forms have perished, so
+that the lines of demarcation between allied species have grown more and
+more distinct, and it is usually only by going back to fossil ages that
+we can supply the missing links of continuity. In the desperate struggle
+for existence no peculiarity, physical or psychical, however slight, has
+been too insignificant for natural selection to seize and enhance; and
+the myriad fantastic forms and hues of animal and vegetal life
+illustrate the seeming capriciousness of its workings. Psychical
+variations have never been unimportant since the appearance of the first
+faint pigment-spot which by and by was to translate touch into vision,
+as it developed into the lenses and humours of the eye.[2] Special
+organs of sense and the lower grades of perception and judgment were
+slowly developed through countless ages, in company with purely physical
+variations of shape of foot, or length of neck, or complexity of
+stomach, or thickness of hide. At length there came a wonderful
+moment--silent and unnoticed, as are the beginnings of all great
+revolutions. Silent and unnoticed, even as the day of the Lord which
+cometh like a thief in the night, there arrived that wonderful moment at
+which psychical changes began to be of more use than physical changes to
+the brute ancestor of Man. Through further ages of ceaseless struggle
+the profitable variations in this creature occurred oftener and oftener
+in the brain, and less often in other parts of the organism, until by
+and by the size of his brain had been doubled and its complexity of
+structure increased a thousand-fold, while in other respects his
+appearance was not so very different from that of his brother apes.[3]
+Along with this growth of the brain, the complete assumption of the
+upright posture, enabling the hands to be devoted entirely to prehension
+and thus relieving the jaws of that part of their work, has cooeperated
+in producing that peculiar contour of head and face which is the chief
+distinguishing mark of physical Man. These slight anatomical changes
+derive their importance entirely from the prodigious intellectual
+changes in connection with which they have been produced; and these
+intellectual changes have been accumulated until the distance,
+psychically speaking, between civilized man and the ape is so great as
+to dwarf in comparison all that had been achieved in the process of
+evolution down to the time of our half-human ancestor's first
+appearance. No fact in nature is fraught with deeper meaning than this
+two-sided fact of the extreme physical similarity and enormous psychical
+divergence between Man and the group of animals to which he traces his
+pedigree. It shows that when Humanity began to be evolved an entirely
+new chapter in the history of the universe was opened. Henceforth the
+life of the nascent soul came to be first in importance, and the bodily
+life became subordinated to it. Henceforth it appeared that, in this
+direction at least, the process of zooelogical change had come to an end,
+and a process of psychological change was to take its place. Henceforth
+along this supreme line of generation there was to be no further
+evolution of new species through physical variation, but through the
+accumulation of psychical variations one particular species was to be
+indefinitely perfected and raised to a totally different plane from that
+on which all life had hitherto existed. Henceforth, in short, the
+dominant aspect of evolution was to be not the genesis of species, but
+the progress of Civilization.
+
+As we thoroughly grasp the meaning of all this, we see that upon the
+Darwinian theory it is impossible that any creature zoologically
+distinct from Man and superior to him should ever at any future time
+exist upon the earth. In the regions of unconditional possibility it is
+open to any one to argue, if he chooses, that such a creature may come
+to exist; but the Darwinian theory is utterly opposed to any such
+conclusion. According to Darwinism, the creation of Man is still the
+goal toward which Nature tended from the beginning. Not the production
+of any higher creature, but the perfecting of Humanity, is to be the
+glorious consummation of Nature's long and tedious work. Thus we
+suddenly arrive at the conclusion that Man seems now, much more clearly
+than ever, the chief among God's creatures. On the primitive barbaric
+theory, which Mr. Darwin has swept away, Man was suddenly flung into the
+world by the miraculous act of some unseen and incalculable Power acting
+from without; and whatever theology might suppose, no scientific reason
+could be alleged why the same incalculable Power might not at some
+future moment, by a similar miracle, thrust upon the scene some mightier
+creature in whose presence Man would become like a sorry beast of
+burden. But he who has mastered the Darwinian theory, he who recognizes
+the slow and subtle process of evolution as the way in which God makes
+things come to pass, must take afar higher view. He sees that in the
+deadly struggle for existence which has raged throughout countless aeons
+of time, the whole creation has been groaning and travailing together in
+order to bring forth that last consummate specimen of God's handiwork,
+the Human Soul.
+
+To the creature thus produced through a change in the direction in which
+natural selection has worked, the earth and most of its living things
+have become gradually subordinated. In all the classes of the animal and
+vegetal worlds many ancient species have become extinct, and many modern
+species have come into being, through the unchecked working of natural
+selection, since Man became distinctively human. But in this respect a
+change has long been coming over the face of nature. The destinies of
+all other living things are more and more dependent upon the will of
+Man. It rests with him to determine, to a great degree, what plants and
+animals shall remain upon the earth and what shall be swept from its
+surface. By unconsciously imitating the selective processes of Nature,
+he long ago wrought many wild species into forms subservient to his
+needs. He has created new varieties of fruit and flower and cereal
+grass, and has reared new breeds of animals to aid him in the work of
+civilization; until at length he is beginning to acquire a mastery over
+mechanical and molecular and chemical forces which is doubtless destined
+in the future to achieve marvellous results whereof today we little
+dream. Natural selection itself will by and by occupy a subordinate
+place in comparison with selection by Man, whose appearance on the earth
+is thus seen more clearly than ever to have opened an entirely new
+chapter in the mysterious history of creation.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+The Origin of Infancy.
+
+
+But before we can fully understand the exalted position which the
+Darwinian theory assigns to man, another point demands consideration.
+The natural selection of psychical peculiarities does not alone account
+for the origin of Man, or explain his most signal difference from all
+other animals. That difference is unquestionably a difference in kind,
+but in saying this one must guard against misunderstanding. Not only in
+the world of organic life, but throughout the known universe, the
+doctrine of evolution regards differences in kind as due to the gradual
+accumulation of differences in degree. To cite a very simple case, what
+differences of kind can be more striking than the differences between a
+nebula, a sun, a planet like the earth, and a planet like our moon? Yet
+these things are simply examples of cosmical matter at four different
+stages of cooling. The physical differences between steam, water, and
+ice afford a more familiar example. In the organic world the perpetual
+modification of structures that has been effected through natural
+selection exhibits countless instances of differences in kind which have
+risen from the accumulation of differences in degree. No one would
+hesitate to call a horse's hoof different in kind from a cat's paw; and
+yet the horse's lower leg and hoof are undoubtedly developed from a
+five-toed paw. The most signal differences in kind are wont to arise
+when organs originally developed for a certain purpose come to be
+applied to a very different purpose, as that change of the fish's
+air-bladder into a lung which accompanied the first development of land
+vertebrates. But still greater becomes the revolution when a certain
+process goes on Until it sets going a number of other processes,
+unlocking series after series of causal agencies until a vast and
+complicated result is reached, such as could by no possibility have been
+foreseen. The creation of Man was one of these vast and complicated
+results due to the unlocking of various series of causal agencies; and
+it was the beginning of a deeper and mightier difference in kind than
+any that slowly evolving Nature had yet witnessed.
+
+I have indicated, as the moment at which the creation of mankind began,
+the moment when psychical variations became of so much more use to our
+ancestors than physical variations that they were seized and enhanced by
+natural selection, to the comparative neglect of the latter. Increase of
+intellectual capacity, in connection with the developing brain of a
+single race of creatures, now became the chief work of natural selection
+in originating Man; and this, I say, was the opening of a new chapter,
+the last and most wonderful chapter, in the history of creation. But the
+increasing intelligence and enlarged experience of half-human man now
+set in motion a new series of changes which greatly complicated the
+matter. In order to understand these changes, we must consider for a
+moment one very important characteristic of developing intelligence.
+
+The simplest actions in which the nervous system is concerned are what
+we call reflex actions. All the visceral actions which keep us alive
+from moment to moment, the movements of the heart and lungs, the
+contractions of arteries, the secretions of glands, the digestive
+operations of the stomach and liver, belong to the class of reflex
+actions. Throughout the animal world these acts are repeated, with
+little or no variation, from birth until death, and the tendency to
+perform them is completely organized in the nervous system before birth.
+Every animal breathes and digests as well at the beginning of his life
+as he ever does. Contact with air and food is all that is needed, and
+there is nothing to be learned. These actions, though they are performed
+by the nervous system, we do not class as psychical, because they are
+nearly or quite unattended by consciousness. The psychical life of the
+lowest animals consists of a few simple acts directed toward the
+securing of food and the avoidance of danger, and these acts we are in
+the habit of classing as instinctive. They are so simple, so few, and so
+often repeated, that the tendency to perform them is completely
+organized in the nervous system before birth. The animal takes care of
+himself as soon as he begins to live. He has nothing to learn, and his
+career is a simple repetition of the careers of countless ancestors.
+With him heredity is everything, and his individual experience is next
+to nothing.
+
+As we ascend the animal scale till we come to the higher birds and
+mammals, we find a very interesting and remarkable change beginning. The
+general increase of intelligence involves an increasing variety and
+complication of experiences. The acts which the animal performs in the
+course of its life become far more numerous, far more various, and far
+more complex. They are therefore severally repeated with less frequency
+in the lifetime of each individual. Consequently the tendency to perform
+them is not completely organized in the nervous system of the offspring
+before birth. The short period of ante-natal existence does not afford
+time enough for the organization of so many and such complex habitudes
+and capacities. The process which in the lower animals is completed
+before birth is in the higher animals left to be completed after birth.
+When the creature begins its life it is not completely organized.
+Instead of the power of doing all the things which its parents did, it
+starts with the power of doing only some few of them; for the rest it
+has only latent capacities which need to be brought out by its
+individual experience after birth. In other words, it begins its
+separate life not as a matured creature, but as an infant which needs
+for a time to be watched and helped.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+The Dawning of Consciousness.
+
+
+Here we arrive at one of the most wonderful moments in the history of
+creation,--the moment of the first faint dawning of consciousness, the
+foreshadowing of the true life of the soul. Whence came the soul we no
+more know than we know whence came the universe. The primal origin of
+consciousness is hidden in the depths of the bygone eternity. That it
+cannot possibly be the product of any cunning arrangement of material
+particles is demonstrated beyond peradventure by what we now know of the
+correlation of physical forces.[4] The Platonic view of the soul, as a
+spiritual substance, an effluence from Godhood, which under certain
+conditions becomes incarnated in perishable forms of matter, is
+doubtless the view most consonant with the present state of our
+knowledge. Yet while we know not the primal origin of the soul, we have
+learned something with regard to the conditions under which it has
+become incarnated in material forms. Modern psychology has something to
+say about the dawning of conscious life in the animal world. Reflex
+action is unaccompanied by consciousness. The nervous actions which
+regulate the movements of the viscera go on without our knowledge; we
+learn of their existence only by study, as we learn of facts in outward
+nature. If you tickle the foot of a person asleep, and the foot is
+withdrawn by simple reflex action, the sleeper is unconscious alike of
+the irritation and of the movement, even as the decapitated frog is
+unconscious when a drop of nitric acid falls on his back and he lifts up
+a leg and rubs the place. In like manner the reflex movements which make
+up the life of the lowest animals are doubtless quite unconscious, even
+when in their general character they simulate conscious actions, as they
+often do. In the case of such creatures, the famous hypothesis of
+Descartes, that animals are automata, is doubtless mainly correct. In
+the case of instincts also, where the instinctive actions are completely
+organized before birth, and are repeated without variation during the
+whole lifetime of the individual, there is probably little if any
+consciousness. It is an essential prerequisite of consciousness that
+there should be a period of delay or tension between the receipt of an
+impression and the determination of the consequent movement. Diminish
+this period of delay and you diminish the vividness of consciousness. A
+familiar example will make this clear. When you are learning to play a
+new piece of music on the piano, especially if you do not read music
+rapidly, you are intensely conscious of each group of notes on the page,
+and of each group of keys that you strike, and of the relations of the
+one to the other. But when you have learned the piece by heart, you
+think nothing of either notes or keys, but play automatically while your
+attention is concentrated upon the artistic character of the music. If
+somebody thoughtlessly interrupts you with a question about Egyptian
+politics, you go on playing while you answer him politely. That is,
+where you had at first to make a conscious act of volition for each
+movement, the whole group of movements has now become automatic, and
+volition is only concerned in setting the process going. As the delay
+involved in the perception and the movement disappears, so does the
+consciousness of the perception and the movement tend to disappear.
+Consciousness implies perpetual discrimination, or the recognition of
+likenesses and differences, and this is impossible unless impressions
+persist long enough to be compared with one another. The physical organs
+in connection with whose activity consciousness is manifested are the
+upper and outer parts of the brain,--the cerebrum and cerebellum. These
+organs never receive impressions directly from the outside world, but
+only from lower nerve-centres, such as the spinal cord, the medulla, the
+optic lobes, and other special centres of sensation. The impressions
+received by the cerebrum and cerebellum are waves of molecular
+disturbance sent up along centripetal nerves from the lower centres, and
+presently drafted off along centrifugal nerves back to the lower
+centres, thus causing the myriad movements which make up our active
+life. Now there is no consciousness except when molecular disturbance is
+generated in the cerebrum and cerebellum faster than it can be drafted
+off to the lower centres.[5] It is the surplus of molecular disturbance
+remaining in the cerebrum and cerebellum, and reflected back and forth
+among the cells and fibres of which these highest centres are composed,
+that affords the physical condition for the manifestation of
+consciousness. Memory, emotion, reason, and volition begin with this
+retention of a surplus of molecular motion in the highest centres. As we
+survey the vertebrate sub-kingdom of animals, we find that as this
+surplus increases, the surface of the highest centres increases in area.
+In the lowest vertebrate animal, the amphioxus, the cerebrum and
+cerebellum do not exist at all. In fishes we begin to find them, but
+they are much smaller than the optic lobes. In such a highly organized
+fish as the halibut, which weighs about as much as an average-sized man,
+the cerebrum is smaller than a melon-seed. Continuing to grow by adding
+concentric layers at the surface, the cerebrum and cerebellum become
+much larger in birds and lower mammals, gradually covering up the optic
+lobes. As we pass to higher mammalian forms, the growth of the cerebrum
+becomes most conspicuous, until it extends backwards so far as to cover
+up the cerebellum, whose functions are limited to the conscious
+adjustment of muscular movements. In the higher apes the cerebrum begins
+to extend itself forwards, and this goes on in the human race. The
+cranial capacity of the European exceeds that of the Australian by forty
+cubic inches, or nearly four times as much as that by which the
+Australian exceeds the gorilla; and the expansion is almost entirely in
+the upper and anterior portions. But the increase of the cerebral
+surface is shown not only in the general size of the organ, but to a
+still greater extent in the irregular creasing and furrowing of the
+surface. This creasing and furrowing begins to occur in the higher
+mammals, and in civilized man it is carried to an astonishing extent.
+The amount of intelligence is correlated with the number, the depth, and
+the irregularity of the furrows. A cat's brain has a few symmetrical
+creases. In an ape the creases are deepened into slight furrows, and
+they run irregularly, somewhat like the lines in the palm of your hand.
+With age and experience the furrows grow deeper and more sinuous, and
+new ones appear; and in man these phenomena come to have great
+significance. The cerebral surface of a human infant is like that of an
+ape. In an adult savage, or in a European peasant, the furrowing is
+somewhat marked and complicated. In the brain of a great scholar, the
+furrows are very deep and crooked, and hundreds of creases appear which
+are not found at all in the brains of ordinary men. In other words, the
+cerebral surface of such a man, the seat of conscious mental life, has
+become enormously enlarged in area; and we must further observe that it
+goes on enlarging in some cases into extreme old age.[6]
+
+Putting all these facts together, it becomes plain that in the lowest
+animals, whose lives consist of sundry reflex actions monotonously
+repeated from generation to generation, there can be nothing, or next to
+nothing, of what we know as consciousness. It is only when the life
+becomes more complicated and various, so that reflex action can no
+longer determine all its movements and the higher nerve-centres begin to
+be evolved, that the dawning of consciousness is reached. But with the
+growth of the higher centres the capacities of action become so various
+and indeterminate that definite direction is not given to them until
+after birth. The creature begins life as an infant, with its partially
+developed cerebrum representing capabilities which it is left for its
+individual experience to bring forth and modify.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+Lengthening of Infancy, and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.
+
+
+The first appearance of infancy in the animal world thus heralded the
+new era which was to be crowned by the development of Man. With the
+beginnings of infancy there came the first dawning of a conscious life
+similar in nature to the conscious life of human beings, and there came,
+moreover, on the part of parents, the beginning of feelings and actions
+not purely self-regarding. But still more, the period of infancy was a
+period of plasticity. The career of each individual being no longer
+wholly predetermined by the careers of its ancestors, it began to become
+teachable. Individuality of character also became possible at the same
+time, and for the same reason. All birds and mammals which take care of
+their young are teachable, though in very various degrees, and all in
+like manner show individual peculiarities of disposition, though in most
+cases these are slight and inconspicuous. In dogs, horses, and apes
+there is marked teachableness, and there are also marked differences in
+individual character.
+
+But in the non-human animal world all these phenomena are but slightly
+developed. They are but the dim adumbrations of what was by and by to
+bloom forth in the human race. They can scarcely be said to have served
+as a prophecy of the revolution that was to come. One generation of dumb
+beasts is after all very like another, and from studying the careers of
+the mastodon, the hipparion, the sabre-toothed lion, or even the
+dryopithecus, an observer in the Miocene age could never have foreseen
+the possibility of a creature endowed with such a boundless capacity of
+progress as the modern Man. Nevertheless, however dimly suggestive was
+this group of phenomena, it contained the germ of all that is preeminent
+in humanity. In the direct line of our ancestry it only needed that the
+period of infancy should be sufficiently prolonged, in order that a
+creature should at length appear, endowed with the teachableness, the
+individuality, and the capacity for progress which are the peculiar
+prerogatives of fully-developed Man.[7] In this direct line the manlike
+apes of Africa and the Indian Archipelago have advanced far beyond the
+mammalian world in general. Along with a cerebral surface, and an
+accompanying intelligence, far greater than that of other mammals, these
+tailless apes begin life as helpless babies, and are unable to walk, to
+feed themselves, or to grasp objects with precision until they are two
+or three months old. These apes have thus advanced a little way upon the
+peculiar road which our half-human forefathers began to travel as soon
+as psychical variations came to be of more use to the species than
+variations in bodily structure. The gulf by which the lowest known man
+is separated from the highest known ape consists in the great increase
+of his cerebral surface, with the accompanying intelligence, and in the
+very long duration of his infancy. These two things have gone hand in
+hand. The increase of cerebral surface, due to the working of natural
+selection in this direction alone, has entailed a vast increase in the
+amount of cerebral organization that must be left to be completed after
+birth, and thus has prolonged the period of infancy. And conversely the
+prolonging of the plastic period of infancy, entailing a vast increase
+in teachableness and versatility, has contributed to the further
+enlargement of the cerebral surface. The mutual reaction of these two
+groups of facts must have gone on for an enormous length of time since
+man began thus diverging from his simian brethren. It is not likely that
+less than a million years have elapsed since the first page of this new
+chapter in the history of creation was opened: it is probable that the
+time has been much longer. In comparison with such a period, the whole
+recorded duration of human history shrinks into nothingness. The
+pyramids of Egypt seem like things of yesterday when we think of the
+Cave-Men of western Europe in the glacial period, who scratched pictures
+of mammoths on pieces of reindeer-antler with a bit of pointed flint.
+Yet during an entire geologic aeon before these Cave-Men appeared on the
+scene, "a being erect upon two legs," if we may quote from Serjeant
+Buzfuz, "and wearing the outward semblance of a man and not of a
+monster," wandered hither and thither over the face of the earth,
+setting his mark upon it as no other creature yet had done, leaving
+behind him innumerable tell-tale remnants of his fierce and squalid
+existence, yet too scantily endowed with wit to make any written
+disclosure of his thoughts and deeds. If the physiological annals of
+that long and weary time could now be unrolled before us, the principal
+fact which we should discern, dominating all other facts in interest and
+significance, would be that mutual reaction between increase of cerebral
+surface and lengthening of babyhood which I have here described.
+
+Thus through the simple continuance and interaction of processes that
+began far back in the world of warm-blooded animals, we get at last a
+creature essentially different from all others. Through the complication
+of effects the heaping up of minute differences in degree has ended in
+bringing forth a difference in kind. In the human organism physical
+variation has well-nigh stopped, or is confined to insignificant
+features, save in the grey surface of the cerebrum. The work of cerebral
+organization is chiefly completed after birth, as we see by contrasting
+the smooth ape-like brain-surface of the new-born child with the
+deeply-furrowed and myriad-seamed surface of the adult civilized brain.
+The plastic period of adolescence, lengthened in civilized man until it
+has come to cover more than one third of his lifetime, is thus the
+guaranty of his boundless progressiveness. Inherited tendencies and
+aptitudes still form the foundations of character; but individual
+experience has come to count as an enormous factor in modifying the
+career of mankind from generation to generation. It is not too much to
+say that the difference between man and all other living creatures, in
+respect of teachableness, progressiveness, and individuality of
+character, surpasses all other differences of kind that are known to
+exist in the universe.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.
+
+
+In the fresh light which these considerations throw upon the problem of
+man's origin, we can now see more clearly than ever how great a
+revolution was inaugurated when natural selection began to confine its
+operations to the surface of the cerebrum. Among the older incidents in
+the evolution of organic life, the changes were very wonderful which out
+of the pectoral fin of a fish developed the jointed fore-limb of the
+mammal with its five-toed paw, and thence through much slighter
+variation brought forth the human arm with its delicate and crafty hand.
+More wondrous still were the phases of change through which the
+rudimentary pigment-spot of the worm, by the development and
+differentiation of successive layers, gave place to the
+variously-constructed eyes of insects, mollusks, and vertebrates. The
+day for creative work of this sort has probably gone by, as the day for
+the evolution of annulose segments and vertebrate skeletons has gone
+by,--on our planet, at least. In the line of our own development, all
+work of this kind stopped long ago, to be replaced by different methods.
+As an optical instrument, the eye had well-nigh reached extreme
+perfection in many a bird and mammal ages before man's beginnings; and
+the essential features of the human hand existed already in the hands of
+Miocene apes. But different methods came in when human intelligence
+appeared upon the scene. Mr. Spencer has somewhere reminded us that the
+crowbar is but an extra lever added to the levers of which the arm is
+already composed, and the telescope but adds a new set of lenses to
+those which already exist in the eye. This beautiful illustration goes
+to the kernel of the change that was wrought when natural selection
+began to confine itself to the psychical modification of our ancestors.
+In a very deep sense all human science is but the increment of the power
+of the eye, and all human art is the increment of the power of the
+hand.[8] Vision and manipulation,--these, in their countless indirect
+and transfigured forms, are the two cooeperating factors in all
+intellectual progress. It is not merely that with the telescope we see
+extinct volcanoes on the moon, or resolve spots of nebulous cloud into
+clusters of blazing suns; it is that in every scientific theory we frame
+by indirect methods visual images of things not present to sense. With
+our mind's eye we see atmospheric convulsions on the surfaces of distant
+worlds, watch the giant ichthyosaurs splashing in Jurassic oceans,
+follow the varied figures of the rhythmic dance of molecules as chemical
+elements unite and separate, or examine, with the aid of long-forgotten
+vocabularies now magically restored, the manners and morals, the laws
+and superstitions, of peoples that have ceased to be.[9] And so in art
+the wonderful printing-press, and the engine that moves it, are the
+lineal descendants through countless stages of complication, of the
+simple levers of primitive man and the rude stylus wherewith he engraved
+strange hieroglyphs on the bark of trees. In such ways, since the human
+phase of evolution began, has the direct action of muscle and sense been
+supplemented and superseded by the indirect work of the inquisitive and
+inventive mind.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.
+
+
+Let us note one further aspect of this mighty revolution. In its lowly
+beginnings the psychical life was merely an appendage to the life of the
+body. The avoidance of enemies, the securing of food, the perpetuation
+of the species, make up the whole of the lives of lower animals, and the
+rudiments of memory, reason, emotion, and volition were at first
+concerned solely with the achievement of these ends in an increasingly
+indirect, complex, and effective way. Though the life of a large portion
+of the human race is still confined to the pursuit of these same ends,
+yet so vast has been the increase of psychical life that the simple
+character of the ends is liable to be lost sight of amid the variety,
+the indirectness, and the complexity of the means. But in civilized
+society other ends, purely immaterial in their nature, have come to add
+themselves to these, and in some instances to take their place. It is
+long since we were told that Man does not live by bread alone. During
+many generations we have seen thousands of men, actuated by the noblest
+impulse of which humanity is capable, though misled by the teachings of
+a crude philosophy, despising and maltreating their bodies as clogs and
+incumbrances to the life of the indwelling soul. Countless martyrs we
+have seen throwing away the physical earthly life as so much worthless
+dross, and all for the sake of purely spiritual truths. As with
+religion, so with the scientific spirit and the artistic spirit,--the
+unquenchable craving to know the secrets of nature, and the yearning to
+create the beautiful in form and colour and sound. In the highest human
+beings such ends as these have come to be uppermost in consciousness,
+and with the progress of material civilization this will be more and
+more the case. If we can imagine a future time when warfare and crime
+shall have been done away with forever, when disease shall have been for
+the most part curbed, and when every human being by moderate labour can
+secure ample food and shelter, we can also see that in such a state of
+things the work of civilization would be by no means completed. In
+ministering to human happiness in countless ways, through the pursuit of
+purely spiritual ends, in enriching and diversifying life to the utmost,
+there would still be almost limitless work to be done. I believe that
+such a time will come for weary and suffering mankind. Such a faith is
+inspiring. It sustains one in the work of life, when one would otherwise
+lose heart. But it is a faith that rests upon induction. The process of
+evolution is excessively slow, and its ends are achieved at the cost of
+enormous waste of life, but for innumerable ages its direction has been
+toward the goal here pointed out; and the case may be fitly summed up in
+the statement that whereas in its rude beginnings the psychical life was
+but an appendage to the body, in fully-developed Humanity the body is
+but the vehicle for the soul.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+The Origins of Society and of Morality.
+
+
+One further point must be considered before this outline sketch of the
+manner of man's origin can be called complete. The psychical development
+of Humanity, since its earlier stages, has been largely clue to the
+reaction of individuals upon one another in those various relations
+which we characterize as social.[10] In considering the origin of Man,
+the origin of human society cannot be passed over. Foreshadowings of
+social relations occur in the animal world, not only in the line of our
+own vertebrate ancestry, but in certain orders of insects which stand
+quite remote from that line. Many of the higher mammals are gregarious,
+and this is especially true of that whole order of primates to which we
+belong. Rudimentary moral sentiments are also clearly discernible in the
+highest members of various mammalian orders, and in all but the lowest
+members of our own order. But in respect of definiteness and permanence
+the relations between individuals in a state of gregariousness fall far
+short of the relations between individuals in the rudest human society.
+The primordial unit of human society is the family, and it was by the
+establishment of definite and permanent family relationships that the
+step was taken which raised Man socially above the level of gregarious
+apehood. This great point was attained through that lengthening of the
+period of helpless childhood which accompanied the gradually increasing
+intelligence of our half-human ancestors. When childhood had come to
+extend over a period of ten or a dozen years--a period which would be
+doubled, or more than doubled, where several children were born in
+succession to the same parents--the relationships between father and
+mother, brethren and sisters, must have become firmly knit; and thus the
+family, the unit of human society, gradually came into existence.[11]
+The rudimentary growth of moral sentiment must now have received a
+definite direction. As already observed, with the beginnings of infancy
+in the animal world there came the genesis in the parents of feelings
+and actions not purely self-regarding. Rudimentary sympathies, with
+rudimentary capacity for self-devotion, are witnessed now and then among
+higher mammals, such as the dog, and not uncommonly among apes. But as
+the human family, with its definite relationships, came into being,
+there must necessarily have grown up between its various members
+reciprocal necessities of behaviour. The conduct of the individual could
+no longer be shaped with sole reference to his own selfish desires, but
+must be to a great extent subordinated to the general welfare of the
+family. And in judging of the character of his own conduct, the
+individual must now begin to refer it to some law of things outside of
+himself; and hence the germs of conscience and of the idea of duty. Such
+were no doubt the crude beginnings of human morality.
+
+With this genesis of the family, the Creation of Man may be said, in a
+certain sense, to have been completed. The great extent of cerebral
+surface, the lengthened period of infancy, the consequent capacity for
+progress, the definite constitution of the family, and the judgment of
+actions as good or bad according to some other standard than that of
+selfish desire,--these are the attributes which essentially distinguish
+Man from other creatures. All these, we see, are direct or indirect
+results of the revolution which began when natural selection came to
+confine itself to psychical variations, to the neglect of physical
+variations. The immediate result was the increase of cerebrum. This
+prolonged the infancy, thus giving rise to the capacity for progress;
+and infancy, in turn, originated the family and thus opened the way for
+the growth of sympathies and of ethical feelings. All these results have
+perpetually reacted upon one another until a creature different in kind
+from all other creatures has been evolved. The creature thus evolved
+long since became dominant over the earth in a sense in which none of
+his predecessors ever became dominant; and henceforth the work of
+evolution, so far as our planet is concerned, is chiefly devoted to the
+perfecting of this last and most wonderful product of creative energy.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+Improvableness of Man.
+
+
+For the creation of Man was by no means the creation of a perfect being.
+The most essential feature of Man is his improvableness, and since his
+first appearance on the earth the changes that have gone on in him have
+been enormous, though they have continued to run along in the lines of
+development that were then marked out. The changes have been so great
+that in many respects the interval between the highest and the lowest
+men far surpasses quantitatively the interval between the lowest men and
+the highest apes. If we take into account the creasing of the cerebral
+surface, the difference between the brain of a Shakespeare and that of
+an Australian savage would doubtless be fifty times greater than the
+difference between the Australian's brain and that of an orang-outang.
+In mathematical capacity the Australian, who cannot tell the number of
+fingers on his two hands, is much nearer to a lion or wolf than to Sir
+Rowan Hamilton, who invented the method of quaternions. In moral
+development this same Australian, whose language contains no words for
+justice and benevolence, is less remote from dogs and baboons than from
+a Howard or a Garrison. In progressiveness, too, the difference between
+the lowest and the highest races of men is no less conspicuous. The
+Australian is more teachable than the ape, but his limit is nevertheless
+very quickly reached. All the distinctive attributes of Man, in short,
+have been developed to an enormous extent through long ages of social
+evolution.
+
+This psychical development of Man is destined to go on in the future as
+it has gone on in the past. The creative energy which has been at work
+through the bygone eternity is not going to become quiescent to-morrow.
+We have learned something of its methods of working, and from the
+careful observation of the past we can foresee the future in some of its
+most general outlines. From what has already gone on during the historic
+period of man's existence, we can safely predict a change that will by
+and by distinguish him from all other creatures even more widely and
+more fundamentally than he is distinguished today. Whenever in the
+course of organic evolution we see any function beginning as incidental
+to the performance of other functions, and continuing for many ages to
+increase in importance until it becomes an indispensable strand in the
+web of life, we may be sure that by a continuance of the same process
+its influence is destined to increase still more in the future. Such has
+been the case with the function of sympathy, and with the ethical
+feelings which have grown up along with sympathy and depend largely upon
+it for their vitality. Like everything else which especially
+distinguishes Man, the altruistic feelings were first called into
+existence through the first beginnings of infancy in the animal world.
+Their rudimentary form was that of the transient affection of a female
+bird or mammal for its young. First given a definite direction through
+the genesis of the primitive human family, the development of altruism
+has formed an important part of the progress of civilization, but as yet
+it has scarcely kept pace with the general development of intelligence.
+There can be little doubt that in respect of justice and kindness the
+advance of civilized man has been less marked than in respect of
+quick-wittedness. Now this is because the advancement of civilized man
+has been largely effected through fighting, through the continuance of
+that deadly struggle and competition which has been going on ever since
+organic life first appeared on the earth. It is through such fierce and
+perpetual struggle that the higher forms of life have been gradually
+evolved by natural selection. But we have already seen how in many
+respects the evolution of Man was the opening of an entirely new chapter
+in the history of the universe. In no respect was it more so than in the
+genesis of the altruistic emotions. For when natural selection, through
+the lengthening of childhood, had secured a determinate development for
+this class of human feelings, it had at last originated a power which
+could thrive only through the elimination of strife. And the later
+history of mankind, during the past thirty centuries, has been
+characterized by the gradual eliminating of strife, though the process
+has gone on with the extreme slowness that marks all the work of
+evolution. It is only at the present clay that, by surveying human
+history from the widest possible outlook, and with the aid of the habits
+of thought which the study of evolution fosters, we are enabled
+distinctly to observe this tendency. As this is the most wonderful of
+all the phases of that stupendous revolution in nature which was
+inaugurated in the Creation of Man, it deserves especial attention here;
+and we shall find it leading us quite directly to our conclusion. From
+the Origin of Man, when thoroughly comprehended in its general outlines,
+we shall at length be able to catch some glimpses of his Destiny.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.
+
+
+In speaking of the higher altruistic feelings as being antagonistic to
+the continuance of warfare, I did not mean to imply that warfare can
+ever be directly put down by our horror of cruelty or our moral
+disapproval of strife. The actual process is much more indirect and
+complex than this. In respect of belligerency the earliest men were
+doubtless no better than brutes. They were simply the most crafty and
+formidable among brutes. To get food was the prime necessity of life,
+and as long as food was obtainable only by hunting and fishing, or
+otherwise seizing upon edible objects already in existence, chronic and
+universal quarrel was inevitable. The conditions of the struggle for
+existence were not yet visibly changed from what they had been from the
+outset in the animal world. That struggle meant everlasting slaughter,
+and the fiercest races of fighters would be just the ones to survive and
+perpetuate their kind. Those most successful primitive men, from whom
+civilized peoples are descended, must have excelled in treachery and
+cruelty, as in quickness of wit and strength of will. That moral sense
+which makes it seem wicked to steal and murder was scarcely more
+developed in them than in tigers or wolves. But to all this there was
+one exception. The family supplied motives for peaceful cooeperation.[12]
+Within the family limits fidelity and forbearance had their uses, for
+events could not have been long in showing that the most coherent
+families would prevail over their less coherent rivals. Observation of
+the most savage races agrees with the comparative study of the
+institutions of civilized peoples, in proving that the only bond of
+political union recognized among primitive men, or conceivable by them,
+was the physical fact of blood-relationship. Illustrations of this are
+found in plenty far within the historic period. The very township, which
+under one name or another has formed the unit of political society among
+all civilized peoples, was originally the stockaded dwelling-place of a
+clan which traced its blood to a common ancestor. In such a condition of
+things the nearest approach ever made to peace was a state of armed
+truce; and while the simple rules of morality were recognized, they were
+only regarded as binding within the limits of the clan. There was no
+recognition of the wickedness of robbery and murder in general.
+
+This state of things, as above hinted, could not come to an end as long
+as men obtained food by seizing upon edible objects already in
+existence. The supply of fish, game, or fruit being strictly limited,
+men must ordinarily fight under penalty of starvation. If we could put a
+moral interpretation upon events which antedated morality as we
+understand it, we should say it was their duty to fight; and the
+reverence accorded to the chieftain who murdered most successfully in
+behalf of his clansmen was well deserved. It is worthy of note that, in
+isolated parts of the earth where the natural supply of food is
+abundant, as in sundry tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean, men have
+ceased from warfare and become gentle and docile without rising above
+the intellectual level of savagery. Compared with other savages, they
+are like the chimpanzee as contrasted with the gorilla. Such exceptional
+instances well illustrate the general truth that, so long as the method
+of obtaining food was the same as that employed by brute animals, men
+must continue to fight like dogs over a bone.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilization.
+
+
+But presently man's superior intelligence came into play in such wise
+that other and better methods of getting food were devised. When in
+intervals of peace men learned to rear flocks and herds, and to till the
+ground, and when they had further learned to exchange with one another
+the products of their labour, a new step, of most profound significance,
+was taken. Tribes which had once learned how to do these things were not
+long in overcoming their neighbours, and flourishing at their expense,
+for agriculture allows a vastly greater population to live upon a given
+area, and in many ways it favours social compactness. An immense series
+of social changes was now begun. Whereas the only conceivable bond of
+political combination had heretofore been blood-relationship, a new
+basis was now furnished by territorial contiguity and by community of
+occupation. The supply of food was no longer strictly limited, for it
+could be indefinitely increased by peaceful industry; and moreover, in
+the free exchange of the products of labour, it ceased to be true that
+one man's interest was opposed to another's. Men did not at once
+recognize this fact, and indeed it has not yet become universally
+recognized, so long have men persisted in interpreting the conditions of
+industrial life in accordance with the immemorial traditions of the time
+when the means of subsistence were strictly limited, so that one man's
+success meant another's starvation. Our robber tariffs--miscalled
+"protective"--are survivals of the barbarous mode of thinking which
+fitted the ages before industrial civilization began. But although the
+pacific implications of free exchange were very slowly recognized, it is
+not the less true that the beginnings of agriculture and commerce marked
+the beginnings of the greatest social revolution in the whole career of
+mankind. Henceforth the conditions for the maintenance of physical life
+became different from what they had been throughout the past history of
+the animal world. It was no longer necessary for men to quarrel for
+their food like dogs over a bone; for they could now obtain it far more
+effectively by applying their intelligence to the task of utilizing the
+forces of inanimate nature; and the due execution of such a task was in
+no wise assisted by wrath and contention, but from the outset was rather
+hindered by such things.
+
+Such were the beginnings of industrial civilization. Out of its
+exigencies, continually increasing in complexity, have proceeded,
+directly or indirectly, the arts and sciences which have given to modern
+life so much of its interest and value. But more important still has been
+the work of industrial civilization in the ethical field. By furnishing
+a wider basis for political union than mere blood-relationship, it
+greatly extended the area within which moral obligations were recognized
+as binding. At first confined to the clan, the idea of duty came at
+length to extend throughout a state in which many clans were combined
+and fused, and as it thus increased in generality and abstractness, the
+idea became immeasurably strengthened and ennobled. At last, with the
+rise of empires, in which many states were brought together in pacific
+industrial relations, the recognized sphere of moral obligation became
+enlarged until it comprehended all mankind.
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.
+
+
+This rise of empires, this coalescence of small groups of men into
+larger and larger political aggregates, has been the chief work of
+civilization, when looked at on its political side.[13] Like all the
+work of evolution, this process has gone on irregularly and
+intermittently, and its ultimate tendency has only gradually become
+apparent. This process of coalescence has from the outset been brought
+about by the needs of industrial civilization, and the chief obstacle
+which it has had to encounter has been the universal hostility and
+warfare bequeathed from primeval times. The history of mankind has been
+largely made up of fighting, but in the careers of the most progressive
+races this fighting has been far from meaningless, like the battles of
+kites and crows. In the stream of history which, beginning on the shores
+of the Mediterranean Sea, has widened until in our day it covers both
+sides of the Atlantic and is fast extending over the remotest parts of
+the earth,--in this main stream of history the warfare which has gone on
+has had a clearly discernible purpose and meaning. Broadly considered,
+this warfare has been chiefly the struggle of the higher industrial
+civilization in defending itself against the attacks of neighbours who
+had not advanced beyond that early stage of humanity in which warfare
+was chronic and normal. During the historic period, the wars of Europe
+have been either contests between the industrial and the predatory types
+of society, or contests incident upon the imperfect formation of large
+political aggregates. There have been three ways in which great
+political bodies have arisen. The earliest and lowest method was that of
+_conquest without incorporation_. A single powerful tribe conquered and
+annexed its neighbours without admitting them to a share in the
+government. It appropriated their military strength, robbed them of most
+of the fruits of their labour, and thus virtually enslaved them. Such
+was the origin of the great despotic empires of Oriental type. Such
+states degenerate rapidly in military strength. Their slavish
+populations, accustomed to be starved and beaten or massacred by the
+tax-gatherer, become unable to fight, so that great armies of them will
+flee before a handful of freemen, as in the case of the ancient Persians
+and the modern Egyptians. To strike down the executive head of such an
+assemblage of enslaved tribes is to effect the conquest or the
+dissolution of the whole mass, and hence the history of Eastern peoples
+has been characterized by sudden and gigantic revolutions.
+
+The second method of forming great political bodies was that of
+_conquest with incorporation_. The conquering tribe, while annexing its
+neighbours, gradually admitted them to a share in the government. In
+this way arose the Roman empire, the largest, the most stable, and in
+its best days the most pacific political aggregate the world had as yet
+seen. Throughout the best part of Europe, its conquests succeeded in
+transforming the ancient predatory type of society into the modern
+industrial type. It effectually broke up the primeval clan-system, with
+its narrow ethical ideas, and arrived at the broad conception of rights
+and duties coextensive with Humanity. But in the method upon which Rome
+proceeded there was an essential element of weakness. The simple device
+of representation, by which political power is equally retained in all
+parts of the community while its exercise is delegated to a central
+body, was entirely unknown to the Romans. Partly for this reason, and
+partly because of the terrible military pressure to which the frontier
+was perpetually exposed, the Roman government became a despotism which
+gradually took on many of the vices of the Oriental type. The political
+weakness which resulted from this allowed Europe to be overrun by
+peoples organized in clans and tribes, and for some time there was a
+partial retrogression toward the disorder characteristic of primitive
+ages. The retrogression was but partial and temporary, however; the
+exposed frontier has been steadily pushed eastward into the heart of
+Asia; the industrial type of society is no longer menaced by the
+predatory type; the primeval clan-system has entirely disappeared as a
+social force; and warfare, once ubiquitous and chronic, has become local
+and occasional.
+
+The third and highest method of forming great political bodies is that
+of _federation_. The element of fighting was essential in the two lower
+methods, but in this it is not essential. Here there is no conquest, but
+a voluntary union of small political groups into a great political
+group. Each little group preserves its local independence intact, while
+forming part of an indissoluble whole. Obviously this method of
+political union requires both high intelligence and high ethical
+development In early times it was impracticable. It was first attempted,
+with brilliant though ephemeral success, by the Greeks, but it failed
+for want of the device of representation. In later times it was put into
+operation, with permanent success, on a small scale by the Swiss, and on
+a great scale by our forefathers in England. The coalescence of shires
+into the kingdom of England, effected as it was by means of a
+representative assembly, and accompanied by the general retention of
+local self-government, afforded a distinct precedent for such a gigantic
+federal union as men of English race have since constructed in America.
+The principle of federation was there, though not the name. And here we
+hit upon the fundamental contrast between the history of England and
+that of France. The method by which the modern French nation has been
+built up has been the Roman method of conquest with incorporation. As
+the ruler of Paris gradually overcame his vassals, one after another, by
+warfare or diplomacy, he annexed their counties to his royal domain, and
+governed them by lieutenants sent from Paris. Self-government was thus
+crushed out in France, while it was preserved in England. And just as
+Rome achieved its unprecedented dominion by adopting a political method
+more effective than any that had been hitherto employed, so England,
+employing for the first time a still higher and more effective method,
+has come to play a part in the world compared with which even the part
+played by Rome seems insignificant. The test of the relative strength of
+the English and Roman methods came when England and France contended for
+the possession of North America. The people which preserved its
+self-government could send forth self-supporting colonies; the people
+which had lost the very tradition of self-government could not. Hence
+the dominion of the sea, with that of all the outlying parts of the
+earth, fell into the hands of men of English race; and hence the
+federative method of political union--the method which contains every
+element of permanence, and which is pacific in its very conception--is
+already assuming a sway which is unquestionably destined to become
+universal.
+
+Bearing all this in mind, we cannot fail to recognize the truth of the
+statement that the great wars of the historic period have been either
+contests between the industrial and the predatory types of society or
+contests incident upon the imperfect formation of great political
+aggregates. Throughout the turmoil of the historic period--which on a
+superficial view seems such a chaos--we see certain definite tendencies
+at work; the tendency toward the formation of larger and larger
+political aggregates, and toward the more perfect maintenance of local
+self-government and individual freedom among the parts of the aggregate.
+This two-sided process began with the beginnings of industrial
+civilization; it has aided the progress of industry and been aided by
+it; and the result has been to diminish the quantity of warfare, and to
+lessen the number of points at which it touches the ordinary course of
+civilized life. With the further continuance of this process, but one
+ultimate result is possible. It must go on until warfare becomes
+obsolete. The nineteenth century, which has witnessed an unprecedented
+development of industrial civilization, with its attendant arts and
+sciences, has also witnessed an unprecedented diminution in the strength
+of the primeval spirit of militancy. It is not that we have got rid of
+great wars, but that the relative proportion of human strength which has
+been employed in warfare has been remarkably less than in any previous
+age. In our own history, of the two really great wars which have
+permeated our whole social existence,--the Revolutionary War and the War
+of Secession,--the first was fought in behalf of the pacific principle
+of equal representation; the second was fought in behalf of the pacific
+principle of federalism. In each case, the victory helped to hasten the
+day when warfare shall become unnecessary. In the few great wars of
+Europe since the overthrow of Napoleon, we may see the same principle at
+work. In almost every case the result has been to strengthen the pacific
+tendencies of modern society. Whereas warfare was once dominant over the
+face of the earth, and came home in all its horrid details to
+everybody's door, and threatened the very existence of industrial
+civilization; it has now become narrowly confined in time and space, it
+no longer comes home to everybody's door, and, in so far as it is still
+tolerated, for want of a better method of settling grave international
+questions, it has become quite ancillary to the paramount needs, of
+industrial civilization. When we can see so much as this lying before us
+on the pages of history, we cannot fail to see that the final extinction
+of warfare is only a question of time. Sooner or later it must come to
+an end, and the pacific principle of federalism, whereby questions
+between states are settled, like questions between individuals by due
+process of law, must reign supreme over all the earth.
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off the
+Brute-Inheritance.
+
+
+As regards the significance of Man's position in the universe, this
+gradual elimination of strife is a fact of utterly unparalleled
+grandeur. Words cannot do justice to such a fact. It means that the
+wholesale destruction of life, which has heretofore characterized
+evolution ever since life began, and through which the higher forms of
+organic existence have been produced, must presently come to an end in
+the case of the chief of God's creatures. It means that the universal
+struggle for existence, having succeeded in bringing forth that
+consummate product of creative energy, the Human Soul, has done its work
+and will presently cease. In the lower regions of organic life it must
+go on, but as a determining factor in the highest work of evolution it
+will disappear.
+
+The action of natural selection upon Man has long since been essentially
+diminished through the operation of social conditions. For in all grades
+of civilization above the lowest, "there are so many kinds of
+superiorities which severally enable men to survive, notwithstanding
+accompanying inferiorities, that natural selection cannot by itself
+rectify any particular unfitness." In a race of inferior animals any
+maladjustment is quickly removed by natural selection, because, owing to
+the universal slaughter, the highest completeness of life possible to a
+given grade of organization is required for the mere maintenance of
+life. But under the conditions surrounding human development it is
+otherwise.[14] There is a wide interval between the highest and lowest
+degrees of completeness of living that are compatible with maintenance
+of life.
+
+Hence the wicked flourish. Vice is but slowly eliminated, because
+mankind has so many other qualities, beside the bad ones, which enable
+it to subsist and achieve progress in spite of them, that natural
+selection--which always works through death--cannot come into play. The
+improvement of civilized man goes on mainly through processes of direct
+adaptation. The principle in accordance with which the gloved hand of
+the dandy becomes white and soft while the hand of the labouring man
+grows brown and tough is the main principle at work in the improvement
+of Humanity. Our intellectual faculties, our passions and prejudices,
+our tastes and habits, become strengthened by use and weakened by
+disuse, just as the blacksmith's arm grows strong and the horse turned
+out to pasture becomes unfit for work. This law of use and disuse has
+been of immense importance throughout the whole evolution of organic
+life. With Man it has come to be paramount.
+
+If now we contrast the civilized man intellectually and morally with the
+savage, we find that, along with his vast increase of cerebral surface,
+he has an immensely greater power of representing in imagination objects
+and relations not present to the senses. This is the fundamental
+intellectual difference between civilized men and savages.[15] The power
+of imagination, or ideal representation, underlies the whole of science
+and art, and it is closely connected with the ability to work hard and
+submit to present discomfort for the sake of a distant reward. It is
+also closely connected with the development of the sympathetic feelings.
+The better we can imagine objects and relations not present to sense,
+the more readily we can sympathize with other people. Half the cruelty
+in the world is the direct result of stupid incapacity to put one's self
+in the other man's place. So closely inter-related are our intellectual
+and moral natures that the development of sympathy is very considerably
+determined by increasing width and variety of experience. From the
+simplest form of sympathy, such as the painful thrill felt on seeing
+some one in a dangerous position, up to the elaborate complication of
+altruistic feelings involved in the notion of abstract justice, the
+development is very largely a development of the representative faculty.
+The very same causes, therefore, deeply grounded in the nature of
+industrial civilization, which have developed science and art, have also
+had a distinct tendency to encourage the growth of the sympathetic
+emotions.
+
+But, as already observed, these emotions are still too feebly developed,
+even in the highest races of men. We have made more progress in
+intelligence than in kindness. For thousands of generations, and until
+very recent times, one of the chief occupations of men has been to
+plunder, bruise, and kill one another. The selfish and ugly passions
+which are primordial--which have the incalculable strength of
+inheritance from the time when animal consciousness began--have had but
+little opportunity to grow weak from disuse. The tender and unselfish
+feelings, which are a later product of evolution, have too seldom been
+allowed to grow strong from exercise. And the whims and prejudices of
+the primeval militant barbarism are slow in dying out from the midst of
+peaceful industrial civilization. The coarser forms of cruelty are
+disappearing, and the butchery of men has greatly diminished. But most
+people apply to industrial pursuits a notion of antagonism derived from
+ages of warfare, and seek in all manner of ways to cheat or overreach
+one another. And as in more barbarous times the hero was he who had
+slain his tens of thousands, so now the man who has made wealth by
+overreaching his neighbours is not uncommonly spoken of in terms which
+imply approval. Though gentlemen, moreover, no longer assail one another
+with knives and clubs, they still inflict wounds with cruel words and
+sneers. Though the free--thinker is no longer chained to a stake and
+burned, people still tell lies about him, and do their best to starve
+him by hurting his reputation. The virtues of forbearance and
+self-control are still in a very rudimentary state, and of mutual
+helpfulness there is far too little among men.
+
+Nevertheless in all these respects some improvement has been made, along
+with the diminution of warfare, and by the time warfare has not merely
+ceased from the earth but has come to be the dimly remembered phantom of
+a remote past, the development of the sympathetic side of human nature
+will doubtless become prodigious. The manifestation of selfish and
+hateful feelings will be more and more sternly repressed by public
+opinion, and such feelings will become weakened by disuse, while the
+sympathetic feelings will increase in strength as the sphere for their
+exercise is enlarged. And thus at length we see what human progress
+means. It means throwing off the brute-inheritance,--gradually throwing
+it off through ages of struggle that are by and by to make struggle
+needless. Man is slowly passing from a primitive social state in which
+he was little better than a brute, toward an ultimate social state in
+which his character shall have become so transformed that nothing of the
+brute can be detected in it. The ape and the tiger in human nature will
+become extinct. Theology has had much to say about original sin. This
+original sin is neither more nor less than the brute-inheritance which
+every man carries with him, and the process of evolution is an advance
+toward true salvation. Fresh value is thus added to human life. The
+modern prophet, employing the methods of science, may again proclaim
+that the kingdom of heaven is at hand. Work ye, therefore, early and
+late, to prepare its coming.
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+The Message of Christianity.
+
+
+Now what is this message of the modern prophet but pure
+Christianity?--not the mass of theological doctrine ingeniously piled up
+by Justin Martyr and Tertullian and Clement and Athanasius and
+Augustine, but the real and essential Christianity which came, fraught
+with good tidings to men, from the very lips of Jesus and Paul! When did
+St. Paul's conception of the two men within him that warred against each
+other, the appetites of our brute nature and the God-given yearning for
+a higher life,--when did this grand conception ever have so much
+significance as now? When have we ever before held such a clew to the
+meaning of Christ in the Sermon on the Mount? "Blessed are the meek, for
+they shall inherit the earth." In the cruel strife of centuries has it
+not often seemed as if the earth were to be rather the prize of the
+hardest heart and the strongest fist? To many men these words of Christ
+have been as foolishness and as a stumbling-block, and the ethics of the
+Sermon on the Mount have been openly derided as too good for this world.
+In that wonderful picture of modern life which is the greatest work of
+one of the great seers of our time, Victor Hugo gives a concrete
+illustration of the working of Christ's methods. In the saintlike career
+of Bishop Myriel, and in the transformation which his example works in
+the character of the hardened outlaw Jean Valjean, we have a most
+powerful commentary on the Sermon on the Mount. By some critics who
+could express their views freely about "Les Miserables" while hesitating
+to impugn directly the authority of the New Testament, Monseigneur
+Bienvenu was unsparingly ridiculed as a man of impossible goodness, and
+as a milksop and fool withal. But I think Victor Hugo understood the
+capabilities of human nature, and its real dignity, much better than
+these scoffers. In a low stage of civilization Monseigneur Bienvenu
+would have had small chance of reaching middle life. Christ himself, we
+remember, was crucified between two thieves. It is none the less true
+that when once the degree of civilization is such as to allow this
+highest type of character, distinguished by its meekness and kindness,
+to take root and thrive, its methods are incomparable in their potency.
+The Master knew full well that the time was not yet ripe,--that he
+brought not peace, but a sword. But he preached nevertheless that gospel
+of great joy which is by and by to be realized by toiling Humanity, and
+he announced ethical principles fit for the time that is coming. The
+great originality of his teaching, and the feature that has chiefly
+given it power in the world, lay in the distinctness with which he
+conceived a state of society from which every vestige of strife, and the
+modes of behaviour adapted to ages of strife, shall be utterly and
+forever swept away. Through misery that has seemed unendurable and
+turmoil that has seemed endless, men have thought on that gracious life
+and its sublime ideal, and have taken comfort in the sweetly solemn
+message of peace on earth and good will to men.
+
+I believe that the promise with which I started has now been amply
+redeemed. I believe it has been fully shown that so far from degrading
+Humanity, or putting it on a level with the animal world in general, the
+doctrine of evolution shows us distinctly for the first time how the
+creation and the perfecting of Man is the goal toward which Nature's
+work has been tending from the first. We can now see clearly that our
+new knowledge enlarges tenfold the significance of human life, and makes
+it seem more than ever the chief object of Divine care, the consummate
+fruition of that creative energy which is manifested throughout the
+knowable universe.
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+The Question as to a Future Life.
+
+
+Upon the question whether Humanity is, after all, to cast in its lot
+with the grass that withers and the beasts that perish, the whole
+foregoing argument has a bearing that is by no means remote or
+far-fetched. It is not likely that we shall ever succeed in making the
+immortality of the soul a matter of scientific demonstration, for we
+lack the requisite data. It must ever remain an affair of religion
+rather than of science. In other words, it must remain one of that class
+of questions upon which I may not expect to convince my neighbour, while
+at the same time I may entertain a reasonable conviction of my own upon
+the subject.[16] In the domain of cerebral physiology the question might
+be debated forever without a result. The only thing which cerebral
+physiology tells us, when studied with the aid of molecular physics, is
+against the materialist, so far as it goes. It tells us that, during the
+present life, although thought and feeling are always manifested in
+connection with a peculiar form of matter, yet by no possibility can
+thought and feeling be in any sense the products of matter. Nothing
+could be more grossly unscientific than the famous remark of Cabanis,
+that the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile. It is not
+even correct to say that thought goes on in the brain. What goes on in
+the brain is an amazingly complex series of molecular movements, with
+which thought and feeling are in some unknown way correlated, not as
+effects or as causes, but as concomitants. So much is clear, but
+cerebral physiology says nothing about another life. Indeed, why should
+it? The last place in the world to which I should go for information
+about a state of things in which thought and feeling can exist in the
+absence of a cerebrum would be cerebral physiology!
+
+The materialistic assumption that there is no such state of things, and
+that the life of the soul accordingly ends with the life of the body, is
+perhaps the most colossal instance of baseless assumption that is known
+to the history of philosophy. No evidence for it can be alleged beyond
+the familiar fact that during the present life we know Soul only in its
+association with Body, and therefore cannot discover disembodied soul
+without dying ourselves. This fact must always prevent us from obtaining
+direct evidence for the belief in the soul's survival. But a negative
+presumption is not created by the absence of proof in cases where, in
+the nature of things, proof is inaccessible.[17] With his illegitimate
+hypothesis of annihilation, the materialist transgresses the bounds of
+experience quite as widely as the poet who sings of the New Jerusalem
+with its river of life and its streets of gold. Scientifically speaking,
+there is not a particle of evidence for either view.
+
+But when we desist from the futile attempt to introduce scientific
+demonstration into a region which confessedly transcends human
+experience, and when we consider the question upon broad grounds of
+moral probability, I have no doubt that men will continue in the future,
+as in the past, to cherish the faith in a life beyond the grave. In past
+times the disbelief in the soul's immortality has always accompanied
+that kind of philosophy which, under whatever name, has regarded
+Humanity as merely a local incident in an endless and aimless series of
+cosmical changes. As a general rule, people who have come to take such a
+view of the position of Man in the universe have ceased to believe in a
+future life. On the other hand, he who regards Man as the consummate
+fruition of creative energy, and the chief object of Divine care, is
+almost irresistibly driven to the belief that the soul's career is not
+completed with the present life upon the earth. Difficulties on theory
+he will naturally expect to meet in many quarters; but these will not
+weaken his faith, especially when he remembers that upon the alternative
+view the difficulties are at least as great. We live in a world of
+mystery, at all events, and there is not a problem in the simplest and
+most exact departments of science which does not speedily lead us to a
+transcendental problem that we can neither solve nor elude. A broad
+common-sense argument has often to be called in, where keen-edged
+metaphysical analysis has confessed itself baffled.
+
+Now we have here seen that the doctrine of evolution does not allow us
+to take the atheistic view of the position of Man. It is true that
+modern astronomy shows us giant balls of vapour condensing into fiery
+suns, cooling down into planets fit for the support of life, and at last
+growing cold and rigid in death, like the moon. And there are
+indications of a time when systems of dead planets shall fall in upon
+their central ember that was once a sun, and the whole lifeless mass,
+thus regaining heat, shall expand into a nebulous cloud like that with
+which we started, that the work of condensation and evolution may begin
+over again. These Titanic events must doubtless seem to our limited
+vision like an endless and aimless series of cosmical changes. They
+disclose no signs of purpose, or even of dramatic tendency;[18] they
+seem like the weary work of Sisyphos. But on the face of our own planet,
+where alone we are able to survey the process of evolution in its higher
+and more complex details, we do find distinct indications of a dramatic
+tendency, though doubtless not of purpose in the limited human sense.
+The Darwinian theory, properly understood, replaces as much
+teleology[19] as it destroys. From the first dawning of life we see all
+things working together toward one mighty goal, the evolution of the
+most exalted spiritual qualities which characterize Humanity. The body
+is cast aside and returns to the dust of which it was made. The earth,
+so marvellously wrought to man's uses, will also be cast aside. The day
+is to come, no doubt, when the heavens shall vanish as a scroll, and the
+elements be melted with fervent heat. So small is the value which Nature
+sets upon the perishable forms of matter! The question, then, is reduced
+to this: are Man's highest spiritual qualities, into the production of
+which all this creative energy has gone, to disappear with the rest? Has
+all this work been done for nothing? Is it all ephemeral, all a bubble
+that bursts, a vision that fades? Are we to regard the Creator's work as
+like that of a child, who builds houses out of blocks, just for the
+pleasure of knocking them down? For aught that science can tell us, it
+may be so, but I can see no good reason for believing any such thing. On
+such a view the riddle of the universe becomes a riddle without a
+meaning. Why, then, are we any more called upon to throw away our belief
+in the permanence of the spiritual element in Man than we are called
+upon to throw away our belief in the constancy of Nature? When
+questioned as to the ground of our irresistible belief that like causes
+must always be followed by like effects, Mr. Mill's answer was that it
+is the result of an induction coextensive with the whole of our
+experience; Mr. Spencer's answer was that it is a postulate which we
+make in every act of experience;[20] but the authors of the "Unseen
+Universe," slightly varying the form of statement, called it a supreme
+act of faith,--the expression of a trust in God, that He will not "put
+us to permanent intellectual confusion." Now the more thoroughly we
+comprehend that process of evolution by which things have come to be
+what they are, the more we are likely to feel that to deny the
+everlasting persistence of the spiritual element in Man is to rob the
+whole process of its meaning. It goes far toward putting us to permanent
+intellectual confusion, and I do not see that any one has as yet
+alleged, or is ever likely to allege, a sufficient reason for our
+accepting so dire an alternative.
+
+For my own part, therefore, I believe in the immortality of the soul,
+not in the sense in which I accept the demonstrable truths of science,
+but as a supreme act of faith in the reasonableness of God's work. Such
+a belief, relating to regions quite inaccessible to experience, cannot
+of course be clothed in terms of definite and tangible meaning. For the
+experience which alone can give us such terms we must await that solemn
+day which is to overtake us all. The belief can be most quickly defined
+by its negation, as the refusal to believe that this world is all. The
+materialist holds that when you have described the whole universe of
+phenomena of which we can become cognizant under the conditions of the
+present life, then the whole story is told. It seems to me, on the
+contrary, that the whole story is not thus told. I feel the omnipresence
+of mystery in such wise as to make it far easier for me to adopt the
+view of Euripides, that what we call death may be but the dawning of
+true knowledge and of true life. The greatest philosopher of modern
+times, the master and teacher of all who shall study the process of
+evolution for many a day to come, holds that the conscious soul is not
+the product of a collocation of material particles, but is in the
+deepest sense a divine effluence. According to Mr. Spencer, the divine
+energy which is manifested throughout the knowable universe is the same
+energy that wells up in us as consciousness. Speaking for myself, I can
+see no insuperable difficulty in the notion that at some period in the
+evolution of Humanity this divine spark may have acquired sufficient
+concentration and steadiness to survive the wreck of material forms and
+endure forever. Such a crowning wonder seems to me no more than the fit
+climax to a creative work that has been ineffably beautiful and
+marvellous in all its myriad stages.
+
+Only on some such view can the reasonableness of the universe, which
+still remains far above our finite power of comprehension, maintain its
+ground. There are some minds inaccessible to the class of considerations
+here alleged, and perhaps there always will be. But on such grounds, if
+on no other, the faith in immortality is likely to be shared by all who
+look upon the genesis of the highest spiritual qualities in Man as the
+goal of Nature's creative work. This view has survived the Copernican
+revolution in science, and it has survived the Darwinian revolution.
+Nay, if the foregoing exposition be sound, it is Darwinism which has
+placed Humanity upon a higher pinnacle than ever. The future is lighted
+for us with the radiant colours of hope. Strife and sorrow shall
+disappear. Peace and love shall reign supreme. The dream of poets, the
+lesson of priest and prophet, the inspiration of the great musician, is
+confirmed in the light of modern knowledge; and as we gird ourselves up
+for the work of life, we may look forward to the time when in the truest
+sense the kingdoms of this world shall become the kingdom of Christ, and
+he shall reign for ever and ever, king of kings and lord of lords.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES.
+
+
+    C.P., Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 1874;
+    U.W., The Unseen World, 1876;
+    D., Darwinism and Other Essays, 1879;
+    E.E., Excursions of an Evolutionist, 1884.
+
+    1: C.P. ii. 432-451.
+    2: C.P. ii. 89-91.
+    3: C.P. ii. 318-321; D. 45.
+    4: U.W. 40-42; D. 65-74; E.E. 278-282, 327, 336.
+    5: C.P. ii. 154-159.
+    6: C.P. ii. 133-135.
+    7: D. 45-48; E.E. 306-319.
+    8: C.P. ii. 310.
+    9: E.E. 109-146.
+    10: C.P. ii. 284-323.
+    11: C.P. ii. 342-346, 358-363.
+    12: C.P. ii. 202-208.
+    13: C.P. ii. 213-224.
+    14: C.P. ii. 334.
+    15: C.P. ii. 312-315.
+    16: U.W. 54; E.E. 289-291.
+    17: U.W. 47-50; D. 75.
+    18: D. 96-102.
+    19: C.P. ii. 406.
+    20: C.P. i. 45-71, 286; ii. 162; U.W. 6; D. 87-95.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+John Fiske's Writings.
+
+
+MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS: Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by
+Comparative Mythology, _17th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY. Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with
+Criticisms on the Positive Philosophy. _14th Edition_. 2 vols.,
+8vo, $6.00
+
+THE UNSEEN WORLD, and other Essays, _12th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST. _15th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+DARWINISM, and other Essays. _8th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN, viewed in the Light of His Origin. _20th
+Edition_. 16mo, $1.00.
+
+THE IDEA OF GOD, as affected by Modern Knowledge. A Sequel to "The
+Destiny of Man." _14th Thousand_. 16mo, $1.00.
+
+THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789. _12th Edition_.
+Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND or the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations
+to Civil and Religious Liberty. _10th Thousand_. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. In Riverside Library for Young People. 16mo, 75
+cents.
+
+THE DISCOVERY AND SPANISH CONQUEST OF AMERICA. With Maps, _11th
+Thousand_. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. _8th Thousand_. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.
+
+CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. CONSIDERED WITH SOME REFERENCE TO
+ITS ORIGINS. _56th Thousand._ Crown 8vo, $1.00, _net_.
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+BOSTON AND NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AMERICAN POLITICAL IDEAS, viewed from the Stand-point of Universal
+History. _Seventh Edition_. 12mo, $1.00. HARPER & BROTHERS, New York.
+
+
+
+
+THE WRITINGS OF JOHN FISKE.
+
+
+THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.
+
+_With some Account of Ancient America and the Spanish Conquest. With a
+steel portrait of Mr. Fiske, reproductions of many old maps, several
+modern maps, facsimiles, and other illustrations. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+$4.00._
+
+_LARGE-PAPER EDITION. Limited to 250 copies. 4 vols. 8vo, $16.00, net._
+
+This work forms the beginning of Mr. Fiske's history of America. It is,
+perhaps, the most important single portion yet completed by him, and
+gives the results of vast research.
+
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
+
+_With Plans of Battles, and a new Steel Portrait of Washington, engraved
+by Willcox from a miniature never before reproduced. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+gilt top, $4.00._
+
+The reader may turn to these volumes with full assurance of faith for a
+fresh rehearsal of the old facts, which no time can stale, and for new
+views of those old facts, according to the larger framework of ideas in
+which they can now be set by the master of a captivating style and an
+expert in historical philosophy.--_New York Evening Post_.
+
+The freshness and vivid interest of the narrative and the comprehensive
+generalization which springs naturally from the author's plan of a large
+work on American history, of which the two volumes now published are no
+more than a third or a fourth part, make it a book of new and permanent
+interest.--_Springfield Republican_.
+
+
+CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+_Considered with some Reference to its Origins. With Questions on the
+Text by Frank A. Hill, and Bibliographical Notes by Mr. Fiske. 12mo,
+$1.00, net._
+
+If this admirable volume (Fiske's "Civil Government") can be fairly
+taught to our rising generation, the future, we believe, will show that
+Mr. Fiske has never done more useful work than in its preparation.--_The
+Congregationalist_ (Boston).
+
+
+THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789.
+
+_With Map, Notes, etc. Crown 8vo, $2.00._
+
+The author combines in an unusual degree the impartiality of the trained
+scholar with the fervor of the interested narrator.... The volume should
+be in every library in the land.--_The Congregationalist_ (Boston).
+
+An admirable book.... Mr. Fiske has a great talent for making history
+interesting to the general reader.--_New York Times_.
+
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND;
+
+_Or, the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to Civil and Religious
+Liberty. Crown 8vo, $2.00._
+
+It deals with the early colonial history of New England in the
+entertaining and vivid style which has marked all of Mr. Fiske's
+writings on American history, and it is distinguished, like them, by its
+aggressive patriotism and its justice to all parties in controversy....
+The whole book is novel and fresh in treatment, philosophical and wise,
+and will not be laid down till one has read the last page, and remains
+impatient for what is still to come.--_Boston Post_.
+
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+_In Riverside Library for Young People. With Maps. 16mo, 75 cents._
+
+John Fiske's "War of Independence" is a miracle.... A book brilliant and
+effective beyond measure.... It is a statement that every child can
+comprehend, but that only a man of consummate genius could have
+written.--Mrs. CAROLINE H. DALL, _in the Springfield Republican_.
+
+The story of the Revolution, as Mr. Fiske tells it, is one of surpassing
+interest. His treatment is a marvel of clearness and comprehensiveness;
+discarding non-essential details, he selects with a fine historic
+instinct the main currents of history, traces them with the utmost
+precision, and tells the whole story in a masterly fashion. His little
+volume will be a text-book for older quite as much as for young
+readers.--_Christian Union_ (New York).
+
+
+OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY
+
+_Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with Criticisms on the Positive
+Philosophy. In two volumes. 8vo, $6.00._
+
+"You must allow me to thank you for the very great interest with which I
+have at last slowly read the whole of your work.... I never in my life
+read so lucid an expositor (and therefore thinker) as you are; and I
+think that I understand nearly the whole, though perhaps less clearly
+about cosmic theism and causation than other parts. It is hopeless to
+attempt out of so much to specify what has interested me most, and
+probably you would not care to hear. It pleased me to find that here and
+there I had arrived, from my own crude thoughts, at some of the same
+conclusions with you, though I could seldom or never have given my
+reasons for such conclusions."--CHARLES DARWIN.
+
+This work of Mr. Fiske's may be not unfairly designated the most
+important contribution yet made by America to philosophical
+literature.--_The Academy_ (London).
+
+
+DARWINISM, AND OTHER ESSAYS.
+
+If ever there was a spirit thoroughly invigorated by the "joy of right
+understanding" it is that of the author of these pieces. Even the reader
+catches something of his intellectual buoyancy, and is thus carried
+almost lightly through discussions which would be hard and dry in the
+hands of a less animated writer.... No less confident and serene than
+his acceptance of the utmost logical results of recent scientific
+discovery is Mr. Fiske's assurance that the foundations of spiritual
+truths, so called, cannot possibly be shaken thereby.--_The Atlantic
+Monthly_ (Boston).
+
+
+THE UNSEEN WORLD,
+
+_And Other Essays. 12mo, $2.00._
+
+To each study the writer seems to have brought, besides an excellent
+quality of discriminating judgment, full and fresh special knowledge,
+that enables him to supply much information on the subject, whatever it
+may be, that is not to be found in the volume he is noticing. To the
+knowledge, analytical power, and faculty of clear statement, that appear
+in all these papers, Mr. Fiske adds a just independence of thought that
+conciliates respectful consideration of his views, even when they are
+most at variance with the commonly accepted ones.--_Boston Advertiser_.
+
+
+EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST.
+
+_12mo, $2.00._
+
+Among our thoughtful essayists there are none more brilliant than Mr.
+John Fiske. His pure style suits his clear thought. He does not write
+unless he has something to say; and when he does write he shows not only
+that he has thoroughly acquainted himself with the subject but that he
+has to a rare degree the art of so massing his matter as to bring out
+the true value of the leading points in artistic relief. It is this
+perspective which makes his work such agreeable reading even on abstruse
+subjects, and has enabled him to play the same part in popularizing
+Spencer in this country that Littre performed for Comte in France, and
+Dumont for Bentham in England. The same qualities appear to good
+advantage in his new volume, which contains his later essays on his
+favorite subject of evolution.... They are well worth reperusal.--_The
+Nation_ (New York).
+
+
+MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.
+
+_Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by Comparative Mythology. 12mo,
+$2.00._
+
+Mr. Fiske has given us a book which is at once sensible and attractive,
+on a subject about which much is written that is crotchety or
+tedious.--W.R.S. RALSTON, in _Athenaeum_ (London).
+
+A perusal of this thorough work cannot be too strongly recommended to
+all who are interested in comparative mythology.--_Revue Critique_
+(Paris).
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN,
+
+_Viewed in the Light of his Origin. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00._
+
+Mr. Fiske has given us in his "Destiny of Man" a most attractive
+condensation of his views as expressed in his various other works. One
+is charmed by the directness and clearness of his style, his simple and
+pure English, and his evident knowledge of his subject.... Of one thing
+we may be sure, that none are leading us more surely or rapidly to the
+full truth than men like the author of this little book, who reverently
+study the works of God for the lessons which he would teach his
+children.--_Christian Union_ (New York).
+
+
+THE IDEA OF GOD,
+
+_As Affected by Modern Knowledge. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00._
+
+The charms of John Fiske's style are patent. The secrets of its fluency,
+clearness, and beauty are secrets which many a maker of literary stuffs
+has attempted to unravel, in order to weave like cloth-of-gold.... A
+model for authors and a delight to readers.--_The Critic_ (New York).
+
+*** _For sale by all Booksellers. Sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of
+price by the Publishers,_
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+
+_4 Park Street, Boston; 11 East 17th Street, New York._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESTINY OF MAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 17239.txt or 17239.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/2/3/17239/
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/17239.zip b/17239.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97326fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/17239.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f36451a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #17239 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17239)