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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Destiny of Man, by John Fiske
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Destiny of Man
+       Viewed in the Light of His Origin
+
+Author: John Fiske
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2005 [EBook #17239]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESTINY OF MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
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+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN
+
+VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF HIS ORIGIN
+
+
+BY
+
+
+JOHN FISKE
+
+
+
+TWENTIETH EDITION.
+
+
+BOSTON
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
+
+1893
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1884,
+
+BY JOHN FISKE.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+MY CHILDREN,
+
+MAUD, HAROLD, CLARENCE, RALPH, ETHEL, AND HERBERT,
+
+This Essay
+
+_IS LOVINGLY DEDICATED._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Having been invited to give an address before the Concord School of
+Philosophy this summer, upon some subject relating to the question of
+immortality there under discussion, it seemed a proper occasion for
+putting together the following thoughts on the origin of Man and his
+place in the universe. In dealing with the unknown, it is well to take
+one's start a long way within the limits of the known. The question of a
+future life is generally regarded as lying outside the range of
+legitimate scientific discussion. Yet while fully admitting this, one
+does not necessarily admit that the subject is one with regard to which
+we are forever debarred from entertaining an opinion. Now our opinions
+on such transcendental questions must necessarily be affected by the
+total mass of our opinions on the questions which lie within the scope
+of scientific inquiry; and from this point of view it becomes of
+surpassing interest to trace the career of Humanity within that segment
+of the universe which is accessible to us. The teachings of the doctrine
+of evolution as to the origin and destiny of Man have, moreover, a very
+great speculative and practical value of their own, quite apart from
+their bearings upon any ultimate questions. The body of this essay is
+accordingly devoted to setting forth these teachings in what I conceive
+to be their true light; while their transcendental implications are
+reserved for the sequel.
+
+As the essay contains an epitome of my own original contributions to the
+doctrine of evolution, I have added at the end a short list of
+references to other works of mine, where the points here briefly
+mentioned are more fully argued and illustrated. The views regarding the
+progress of human society, and the elimination of warfare, are set forth
+at greater length in a little book now in the press, and soon to appear,
+entitled "American Political Ideas."
+
+PETERSHAM, September 6, 1884.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+     I. Man's Place in Nature as affected by the Copernican Theory.
+    II. As affected by Darwinism.
+   III. On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.
+    IV. The Origin of Infancy.
+     V. The Dawning of Consciousness.
+    VI. Lengthening of Infancy and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.
+   VII. Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.
+  VIII. Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.
+    IX. The Origins of Society and of Morality.
+     X. Improvableness of Man.
+    XI. Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.
+   XII. First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilisation.
+  XIII. Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.
+   XIV. End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off
+             the Brute-Inheritance.
+    XV. The Message of Christianity.
+   XVI. The Question as to a Future Life.
+
+
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+Man's Place in Nature, as affected by the Copernican Theory.
+
+
+When we study the Divine Comedy of Dante--that wonderful book wherein
+all the knowledge and speculation, all the sorrows and yearnings, of the
+far-off Middle Ages are enshrined in the glory of imperishable verse--we
+are brought face to face with a theory of the world and with ways of
+reasoning about the facts of nature which seem strange to us to-day, but
+from the influence of which we are not yet, and doubtless never shall
+be, wholly freed. A cosmology grotesque enough in the light of later
+knowledge, yet wrought out no less carefully than the physical theories
+of Lucretius, is employed in the service of a theology cumbrous in its
+obsolete details, but resting upon fundamental truths which mankind can
+never safely lose sight of. In the view of Dante and of that phase of
+human culture which found in him its clearest and sweetest voice, this
+earth, the fair home of man, was placed in the centre of a universe
+wherein all things were ordained for his sole behoof: the sun to give
+him light and warmth, the stars in their courses to preside over his
+strangely checkered destinies, the winds to blow, the floods to rise, or
+the fiend of pestilence to stalk abroad over the land,--all for the
+blessing, or the warning, or the chiding, of the chief among God's
+creatures, Man. Upon some such conception as this, indeed, all theology
+would seem naturally to rest. Once dethrone Humanity, regard it as a
+mere local incident in an endless and aimless series of cosmical
+changes, and you arrive at a doctrine which, under whatever specious
+name it may be veiled, is at bottom neither more nor less than Atheism.
+On its metaphysical side Atheism is the denial of anything psychical in
+the universe outside of human consciousness; and it is almost
+inseparably associated with the materialistic interpretation of human
+consciousness as the ephemeral result of a fleeting collocation of
+particles of matter. Viewed upon this side, it is easy to show that
+Atheism is very bad metaphysics, while the materialism which goes with
+it is utterly condemned by modern science.[1] But our feeling toward
+Atheism goes much deeper than the mere recognition of it as
+philosophically untrue. The mood in which we condemn it is not at all
+like the mood in which we reject the corpuscular theory of light or Sir
+G.C. Lewis's vagaries on the subject of Egyptian hieroglyphics. We are
+wont to look upon Atheism with unspeakable horror and loathing. Our
+moral sense revolts against it no less than our intelligence; and this
+is because, on its practical side, Atheism would remove Humanity from
+its peculiar position in the world, and make it cast in its lot with the
+grass that withers and the beasts that perish; and thus the rich and
+varied life of the universe, in all the ages of its wondrous duration,
+becomes deprived of any such element of purpose as can make it
+intelligible to us or appeal to our moral sympathies and religious
+aspirations.
+
+And yet the first result of some of the grandest and most irrefragable
+truths of modern science, when newly discovered and dimly comprehended,
+has been to make it appear that Humanity must be rudely unseated from
+its throne in the world and made to occupy an utterly subordinate and
+trivial position; and it is because of this mistaken view of their
+import that the Church has so often and so bitterly opposed the teaching
+of such truths. With the advent of the Copernican astronomy the
+funnel-shaped Inferno, the steep mountain of Purgatory crowned with its
+terrestrial paradise, and those concentric spheres of Heaven wherein
+beatified saints held weird and subtle converse, all went their way to
+the limbo prepared for the childlike fancies of untaught minds, whither
+Hades and Valhalla had gone before them. In our day it is hard to
+realize the startling effect of the discovery that Man does not dwell at
+the centre of things, but is the denizen of an obscure and tiny speck of
+cosmical matter quite invisible amid the innumerable throng of flaming
+suns that make up our galaxy. To the contemporaries of Copernicus the
+new theory seemed to strike at the very foundations of Christian
+theology. In a universe where so much had been made without discernible
+reference to Man, what became of that elaborate scheme of salvation
+which seemed to rest upon the assumption that the career of Humanity was
+the sole object of God's creative forethought and fostering care? When
+we bear this in mind, we see how natural and inevitable it was that the
+Church should persecute such men as Galileo and Bruno. At the same time
+it is instructive to observe that, while the Copernican astronomy has
+become firmly established in spite of priestly opposition, the
+foundations of Christian theology have not been shaken thereby. It is
+not that the question which once so sorely puzzled men has ever been
+settled, but that it has been outgrown. The speculative necessity for
+man's occupying the largest and most central spot in the universe is no
+longer felt. It is recognized as a primitive and childish notion. With
+our larger knowledge we see that these vast and fiery suns are after all
+but the Titan like _servants_ of the little planets which they bear with
+them in their flight through the abysses of space. Out from the awful
+gaseous turmoil of the central mass dart those ceaseless waves of gentle
+radiance that, when caught upon the surface of whirling worlds like
+ours, bring forth the endlessly varied forms and the endlessly complex
+movements that make up what we can see of life. And as when God revealed
+himself to his ancient prophet He came not in the earthquake or the
+tempest but in a voice that was still and small, so that divine spark
+the Soul, as it takes up its brief abode in this realm of fleeting
+phenomena, chooses not the central sun where elemental forces forever
+blaze and clash, but selects an outlying terrestrial nook where seeds
+may germinate in silence, and where through slow fruition the mysterious
+forms of organic life may come to take shape and thrive. He who thus
+looks a little deeper into the secrets of nature than his forefathers of
+the sixteenth century may well smile at the quaint conceit that man
+cannot be the object of God's care unless he occupies an immovable
+position in the centre of the stellar universe.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+Man's Place in Nature, as affected by Darwinism.
+
+
+When the Copernican astronomy was finally established through the
+discoveries of Kepler and Newton, it might well have been pronounced the
+greatest scientific achievement of the human mind; but it was still more
+than that. It was the greatest revolution that had ever been effected in
+Man's views of his relations to the universe in which he lives, and of
+which he is--at least during the present life--a part. During the
+nineteenth century, however, a still greater revolution has been
+effected. Not only has Lyell enlarged our mental horizon in time as much
+as Newton enlarged it in space, but it appears that throughout these
+vast stretches of time and space with which we have been made acquainted
+there are sundry well-marked changes going on. Certain definite paths of
+development are being pursued; and around us on every side we behold
+worlds, organisms, and societies in divers stages of progress or
+decline. Still more, as we examine the records of past life upon our
+globe, and study the mutual relations of the living things that still
+remain, it appears that the higher forms of life--including Man
+himself--are the modified descendants of lower forms. Zooelogically
+speaking, Man can no longer be regarded as a creature apart by himself.
+We cannot erect an order on purpose to contain him, as Cuvier tried to
+do; we cannot even make a separate family for him. Man is not only a
+vertebrate, a mammal, and a primate, but he belongs, as a genus, to the
+catarrhine family of apes. And just as lions, leopards, and
+lynxes--different genera of the cat-family--are descended from a common
+stock of carnivora, back to which we may also trace the pedigrees of
+dogs, hyaenas, bears, and seals; so the various genera of platyrrhine and
+catarrhine apes, including Man, are doubtless descended from a common
+stock of primates, back to which we may also trace the converging
+pedigrees of monkeys and lemurs, until their ancestry becomes
+indistinguishable from that of rabbits and squirrels. Such is the
+conclusion to which the scientific world has come within a quarter of a
+century from the publication of Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species;" and
+there is no more reason for supposing that this conclusion will ever be
+gainsaid than for supposing that the Copernican astronomy will some time
+be overthrown and the concentric spheres of Dante's heaven reinstated in
+the minds of men.
+
+It is not strange that this theory of man's origin, which we associate
+mainly with the name of Mr. Darwin, should be to many people very
+unwelcome. It is fast bringing about a still greater revolution in
+thought than that which was heralded by Copernicus; and it naturally
+takes some time for the various portions of one's theory of things to
+become adjusted, one after another, to so vast and sweeping a change.
+From many quarters the cry goes up,--If this be true, then Man is at
+length cast down from his high position in the world. "I will not be
+called a mammal, or the son of a mammal!" once exclaimed an acquaintance
+of mine who perhaps had been brought up by hand. Such expressions of
+feeling are crude, but the feeling is not unjustifiable. It is urged
+that if man is physically akin to a baboon, as pigs are akin to horses,
+and cows to deer, then Humanity can in nowise be regarded as occupying a
+peculiar place in the universe; it becomes a mere incident in an endless
+series of changes, and how can we say that the same process of evolution
+that has produced mankind may not by and by produce something far more
+perfect? There was a time when huge bird-like reptiles were the lords of
+creation, and after these had been "sealed within the iron hills" there
+came successive dynasties of mammals; and as the iguanodon gave place to
+the great Eocene marsupials, as the mastodon and the sabre-toothed lion
+have long since vanished from the scene, so may not Man by and by
+disappear to make way for some higher creature, and so on forever? In
+such case, why should we regard Man as in any higher sense the object of
+Divine care than a pig? Still stronger does the case appear when we
+remember that those countless adaptations of means to ends in nature,
+which since the time of Voltaire and Paley we have been accustomed to
+cite as evidences of creative design, have received at the hands of Mr.
+Darwin a very different interpretation. The lobster's powerful claw, the
+butterfly's gorgeous tints, the rose's delicious fragrance, the
+architectural instinct of the bee, the astonishing structure of the
+orchid, are no longer explained as the results of contrivance. That
+simple but wasteful process of survival of the fittest, through which
+such marvellous things have come into being, has little about it that is
+analogous to the ingenuity of human art. The infinite and eternal Power
+which is thus revealed in the physical life of the universe seems in
+nowise akin to the human soul. The idea of beneficent purpose seems for
+the moment to be excluded from nature, and a blind process, known as
+Natural Selection, is the deity that slumbers not nor sleeps. Reckless
+of good and evil, it brings forth at once the mother's tender love for
+her infant and the horrible teeth of the ravening shark, and to its
+creative indifference the one is as good as the other.
+
+In spite of these appalling arguments the man of science, urged by the
+single-hearted purpose to ascertain the truth, be the consequences what
+they may, goes quietly on and finds that the terrible theory must be
+adopted; the fact of man's consanguinity with dumb beasts must be
+admitted. In reaching this conclusion, the man of science reasons upon
+the physical facts within his reach, applying to them the same
+principles of common-sense whereby our everyday lives are successfully
+guided; and he is very apt to smile at the methods of those people who,
+taking hold of the question at the wrong end, begin by arguing about all
+manner of fancied consequences. For his knowledge of the history of
+human thinking assures him that such methods have through all past time
+proved barren of aught save strife, while his own bold yet humble method
+is the only one through which truth has ever been elicited. To pursue
+unflinchingly the methods of science requires dauntless courage and a
+faith that nothing can shake. Such courage and such loyalty to nature
+brings its own reward. For when once the formidable theory is really
+understood, when once its implications are properly unfolded, it is seen
+to have no such logical consequences as were at first ascribed to it. As
+with the Copernican astronomy, so with the Darwinian biology, we rise to
+a higher view of the workings of God and of the nature of Man than was
+ever attainable before. So far from degrading Humanity, or putting it on
+a level with the animal world in general, the Darwinian theory shows us
+distinctly for the first time how the creation and the perfecting of Man
+is the goal toward which Nature's work has all the while been tending.
+It enlarges tenfold the significance of human life, places it upon even
+a loftier eminence than poets or prophets have imagined, and makes it
+seem more than ever the chief object of that creative activity which is
+manifested in the physical universe.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man.
+
+
+In elucidating these points, we may fitly begin by considering the
+question as to the possibility of the evolution of any higher creature
+than Man, to whom the dominion over this earth shall pass. The question
+will best be answered by turning back and observing one of the most
+remarkable features connected with the origin of Man and with his
+superiority over other animals. And let it be borne in mind that we are
+not now about to wander through the regions of unconditional
+possibility. We are not dealing with vague general notions of
+development, but with the scientific Darwinian theory, which alleges
+development only as the result of certain rigorously defined agencies.
+The chief among these agencies is Natural Selection. It has again and
+again been illustrated how by the cumulative selection and inheritance
+of slight physical variations generic differences, like those between
+the tiger and the leopard, or the cow and the antelope, at length arise;
+and the guiding principle in the accumulation of slight physical
+differences has been the welfare of the species. The variant forms on
+either side have survived while the constant forms have perished, so
+that the lines of demarcation between allied species have grown more and
+more distinct, and it is usually only by going back to fossil ages that
+we can supply the missing links of continuity. In the desperate struggle
+for existence no peculiarity, physical or psychical, however slight, has
+been too insignificant for natural selection to seize and enhance; and
+the myriad fantastic forms and hues of animal and vegetal life
+illustrate the seeming capriciousness of its workings. Psychical
+variations have never been unimportant since the appearance of the first
+faint pigment-spot which by and by was to translate touch into vision,
+as it developed into the lenses and humours of the eye.[2] Special
+organs of sense and the lower grades of perception and judgment were
+slowly developed through countless ages, in company with purely physical
+variations of shape of foot, or length of neck, or complexity of
+stomach, or thickness of hide. At length there came a wonderful
+moment--silent and unnoticed, as are the beginnings of all great
+revolutions. Silent and unnoticed, even as the day of the Lord which
+cometh like a thief in the night, there arrived that wonderful moment at
+which psychical changes began to be of more use than physical changes to
+the brute ancestor of Man. Through further ages of ceaseless struggle
+the profitable variations in this creature occurred oftener and oftener
+in the brain, and less often in other parts of the organism, until by
+and by the size of his brain had been doubled and its complexity of
+structure increased a thousand-fold, while in other respects his
+appearance was not so very different from that of his brother apes.[3]
+Along with this growth of the brain, the complete assumption of the
+upright posture, enabling the hands to be devoted entirely to prehension
+and thus relieving the jaws of that part of their work, has cooeperated
+in producing that peculiar contour of head and face which is the chief
+distinguishing mark of physical Man. These slight anatomical changes
+derive their importance entirely from the prodigious intellectual
+changes in connection with which they have been produced; and these
+intellectual changes have been accumulated until the distance,
+psychically speaking, between civilized man and the ape is so great as
+to dwarf in comparison all that had been achieved in the process of
+evolution down to the time of our half-human ancestor's first
+appearance. No fact in nature is fraught with deeper meaning than this
+two-sided fact of the extreme physical similarity and enormous psychical
+divergence between Man and the group of animals to which he traces his
+pedigree. It shows that when Humanity began to be evolved an entirely
+new chapter in the history of the universe was opened. Henceforth the
+life of the nascent soul came to be first in importance, and the bodily
+life became subordinated to it. Henceforth it appeared that, in this
+direction at least, the process of zooelogical change had come to an end,
+and a process of psychological change was to take its place. Henceforth
+along this supreme line of generation there was to be no further
+evolution of new species through physical variation, but through the
+accumulation of psychical variations one particular species was to be
+indefinitely perfected and raised to a totally different plane from that
+on which all life had hitherto existed. Henceforth, in short, the
+dominant aspect of evolution was to be not the genesis of species, but
+the progress of Civilization.
+
+As we thoroughly grasp the meaning of all this, we see that upon the
+Darwinian theory it is impossible that any creature zoologically
+distinct from Man and superior to him should ever at any future time
+exist upon the earth. In the regions of unconditional possibility it is
+open to any one to argue, if he chooses, that such a creature may come
+to exist; but the Darwinian theory is utterly opposed to any such
+conclusion. According to Darwinism, the creation of Man is still the
+goal toward which Nature tended from the beginning. Not the production
+of any higher creature, but the perfecting of Humanity, is to be the
+glorious consummation of Nature's long and tedious work. Thus we
+suddenly arrive at the conclusion that Man seems now, much more clearly
+than ever, the chief among God's creatures. On the primitive barbaric
+theory, which Mr. Darwin has swept away, Man was suddenly flung into the
+world by the miraculous act of some unseen and incalculable Power acting
+from without; and whatever theology might suppose, no scientific reason
+could be alleged why the same incalculable Power might not at some
+future moment, by a similar miracle, thrust upon the scene some mightier
+creature in whose presence Man would become like a sorry beast of
+burden. But he who has mastered the Darwinian theory, he who recognizes
+the slow and subtle process of evolution as the way in which God makes
+things come to pass, must take afar higher view. He sees that in the
+deadly struggle for existence which has raged throughout countless aeons
+of time, the whole creation has been groaning and travailing together in
+order to bring forth that last consummate specimen of God's handiwork,
+the Human Soul.
+
+To the creature thus produced through a change in the direction in which
+natural selection has worked, the earth and most of its living things
+have become gradually subordinated. In all the classes of the animal and
+vegetal worlds many ancient species have become extinct, and many modern
+species have come into being, through the unchecked working of natural
+selection, since Man became distinctively human. But in this respect a
+change has long been coming over the face of nature. The destinies of
+all other living things are more and more dependent upon the will of
+Man. It rests with him to determine, to a great degree, what plants and
+animals shall remain upon the earth and what shall be swept from its
+surface. By unconsciously imitating the selective processes of Nature,
+he long ago wrought many wild species into forms subservient to his
+needs. He has created new varieties of fruit and flower and cereal
+grass, and has reared new breeds of animals to aid him in the work of
+civilization; until at length he is beginning to acquire a mastery over
+mechanical and molecular and chemical forces which is doubtless destined
+in the future to achieve marvellous results whereof today we little
+dream. Natural selection itself will by and by occupy a subordinate
+place in comparison with selection by Man, whose appearance on the earth
+is thus seen more clearly than ever to have opened an entirely new
+chapter in the mysterious history of creation.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+The Origin of Infancy.
+
+
+But before we can fully understand the exalted position which the
+Darwinian theory assigns to man, another point demands consideration.
+The natural selection of psychical peculiarities does not alone account
+for the origin of Man, or explain his most signal difference from all
+other animals. That difference is unquestionably a difference in kind,
+but in saying this one must guard against misunderstanding. Not only in
+the world of organic life, but throughout the known universe, the
+doctrine of evolution regards differences in kind as due to the gradual
+accumulation of differences in degree. To cite a very simple case, what
+differences of kind can be more striking than the differences between a
+nebula, a sun, a planet like the earth, and a planet like our moon? Yet
+these things are simply examples of cosmical matter at four different
+stages of cooling. The physical differences between steam, water, and
+ice afford a more familiar example. In the organic world the perpetual
+modification of structures that has been effected through natural
+selection exhibits countless instances of differences in kind which have
+risen from the accumulation of differences in degree. No one would
+hesitate to call a horse's hoof different in kind from a cat's paw; and
+yet the horse's lower leg and hoof are undoubtedly developed from a
+five-toed paw. The most signal differences in kind are wont to arise
+when organs originally developed for a certain purpose come to be
+applied to a very different purpose, as that change of the fish's
+air-bladder into a lung which accompanied the first development of land
+vertebrates. But still greater becomes the revolution when a certain
+process goes on Until it sets going a number of other processes,
+unlocking series after series of causal agencies until a vast and
+complicated result is reached, such as could by no possibility have been
+foreseen. The creation of Man was one of these vast and complicated
+results due to the unlocking of various series of causal agencies; and
+it was the beginning of a deeper and mightier difference in kind than
+any that slowly evolving Nature had yet witnessed.
+
+I have indicated, as the moment at which the creation of mankind began,
+the moment when psychical variations became of so much more use to our
+ancestors than physical variations that they were seized and enhanced by
+natural selection, to the comparative neglect of the latter. Increase of
+intellectual capacity, in connection with the developing brain of a
+single race of creatures, now became the chief work of natural selection
+in originating Man; and this, I say, was the opening of a new chapter,
+the last and most wonderful chapter, in the history of creation. But the
+increasing intelligence and enlarged experience of half-human man now
+set in motion a new series of changes which greatly complicated the
+matter. In order to understand these changes, we must consider for a
+moment one very important characteristic of developing intelligence.
+
+The simplest actions in which the nervous system is concerned are what
+we call reflex actions. All the visceral actions which keep us alive
+from moment to moment, the movements of the heart and lungs, the
+contractions of arteries, the secretions of glands, the digestive
+operations of the stomach and liver, belong to the class of reflex
+actions. Throughout the animal world these acts are repeated, with
+little or no variation, from birth until death, and the tendency to
+perform them is completely organized in the nervous system before birth.
+Every animal breathes and digests as well at the beginning of his life
+as he ever does. Contact with air and food is all that is needed, and
+there is nothing to be learned. These actions, though they are performed
+by the nervous system, we do not class as psychical, because they are
+nearly or quite unattended by consciousness. The psychical life of the
+lowest animals consists of a few simple acts directed toward the
+securing of food and the avoidance of danger, and these acts we are in
+the habit of classing as instinctive. They are so simple, so few, and so
+often repeated, that the tendency to perform them is completely
+organized in the nervous system before birth. The animal takes care of
+himself as soon as he begins to live. He has nothing to learn, and his
+career is a simple repetition of the careers of countless ancestors.
+With him heredity is everything, and his individual experience is next
+to nothing.
+
+As we ascend the animal scale till we come to the higher birds and
+mammals, we find a very interesting and remarkable change beginning. The
+general increase of intelligence involves an increasing variety and
+complication of experiences. The acts which the animal performs in the
+course of its life become far more numerous, far more various, and far
+more complex. They are therefore severally repeated with less frequency
+in the lifetime of each individual. Consequently the tendency to perform
+them is not completely organized in the nervous system of the offspring
+before birth. The short period of ante-natal existence does not afford
+time enough for the organization of so many and such complex habitudes
+and capacities. The process which in the lower animals is completed
+before birth is in the higher animals left to be completed after birth.
+When the creature begins its life it is not completely organized.
+Instead of the power of doing all the things which its parents did, it
+starts with the power of doing only some few of them; for the rest it
+has only latent capacities which need to be brought out by its
+individual experience after birth. In other words, it begins its
+separate life not as a matured creature, but as an infant which needs
+for a time to be watched and helped.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+The Dawning of Consciousness.
+
+
+Here we arrive at one of the most wonderful moments in the history of
+creation,--the moment of the first faint dawning of consciousness, the
+foreshadowing of the true life of the soul. Whence came the soul we no
+more know than we know whence came the universe. The primal origin of
+consciousness is hidden in the depths of the bygone eternity. That it
+cannot possibly be the product of any cunning arrangement of material
+particles is demonstrated beyond peradventure by what we now know of the
+correlation of physical forces.[4] The Platonic view of the soul, as a
+spiritual substance, an effluence from Godhood, which under certain
+conditions becomes incarnated in perishable forms of matter, is
+doubtless the view most consonant with the present state of our
+knowledge. Yet while we know not the primal origin of the soul, we have
+learned something with regard to the conditions under which it has
+become incarnated in material forms. Modern psychology has something to
+say about the dawning of conscious life in the animal world. Reflex
+action is unaccompanied by consciousness. The nervous actions which
+regulate the movements of the viscera go on without our knowledge; we
+learn of their existence only by study, as we learn of facts in outward
+nature. If you tickle the foot of a person asleep, and the foot is
+withdrawn by simple reflex action, the sleeper is unconscious alike of
+the irritation and of the movement, even as the decapitated frog is
+unconscious when a drop of nitric acid falls on his back and he lifts up
+a leg and rubs the place. In like manner the reflex movements which make
+up the life of the lowest animals are doubtless quite unconscious, even
+when in their general character they simulate conscious actions, as they
+often do. In the case of such creatures, the famous hypothesis of
+Descartes, that animals are automata, is doubtless mainly correct. In
+the case of instincts also, where the instinctive actions are completely
+organized before birth, and are repeated without variation during the
+whole lifetime of the individual, there is probably little if any
+consciousness. It is an essential prerequisite of consciousness that
+there should be a period of delay or tension between the receipt of an
+impression and the determination of the consequent movement. Diminish
+this period of delay and you diminish the vividness of consciousness. A
+familiar example will make this clear. When you are learning to play a
+new piece of music on the piano, especially if you do not read music
+rapidly, you are intensely conscious of each group of notes on the page,
+and of each group of keys that you strike, and of the relations of the
+one to the other. But when you have learned the piece by heart, you
+think nothing of either notes or keys, but play automatically while your
+attention is concentrated upon the artistic character of the music. If
+somebody thoughtlessly interrupts you with a question about Egyptian
+politics, you go on playing while you answer him politely. That is,
+where you had at first to make a conscious act of volition for each
+movement, the whole group of movements has now become automatic, and
+volition is only concerned in setting the process going. As the delay
+involved in the perception and the movement disappears, so does the
+consciousness of the perception and the movement tend to disappear.
+Consciousness implies perpetual discrimination, or the recognition of
+likenesses and differences, and this is impossible unless impressions
+persist long enough to be compared with one another. The physical organs
+in connection with whose activity consciousness is manifested are the
+upper and outer parts of the brain,--the cerebrum and cerebellum. These
+organs never receive impressions directly from the outside world, but
+only from lower nerve-centres, such as the spinal cord, the medulla, the
+optic lobes, and other special centres of sensation. The impressions
+received by the cerebrum and cerebellum are waves of molecular
+disturbance sent up along centripetal nerves from the lower centres, and
+presently drafted off along centrifugal nerves back to the lower
+centres, thus causing the myriad movements which make up our active
+life. Now there is no consciousness except when molecular disturbance is
+generated in the cerebrum and cerebellum faster than it can be drafted
+off to the lower centres.[5] It is the surplus of molecular disturbance
+remaining in the cerebrum and cerebellum, and reflected back and forth
+among the cells and fibres of which these highest centres are composed,
+that affords the physical condition for the manifestation of
+consciousness. Memory, emotion, reason, and volition begin with this
+retention of a surplus of molecular motion in the highest centres. As we
+survey the vertebrate sub-kingdom of animals, we find that as this
+surplus increases, the surface of the highest centres increases in area.
+In the lowest vertebrate animal, the amphioxus, the cerebrum and
+cerebellum do not exist at all. In fishes we begin to find them, but
+they are much smaller than the optic lobes. In such a highly organized
+fish as the halibut, which weighs about as much as an average-sized man,
+the cerebrum is smaller than a melon-seed. Continuing to grow by adding
+concentric layers at the surface, the cerebrum and cerebellum become
+much larger in birds and lower mammals, gradually covering up the optic
+lobes. As we pass to higher mammalian forms, the growth of the cerebrum
+becomes most conspicuous, until it extends backwards so far as to cover
+up the cerebellum, whose functions are limited to the conscious
+adjustment of muscular movements. In the higher apes the cerebrum begins
+to extend itself forwards, and this goes on in the human race. The
+cranial capacity of the European exceeds that of the Australian by forty
+cubic inches, or nearly four times as much as that by which the
+Australian exceeds the gorilla; and the expansion is almost entirely in
+the upper and anterior portions. But the increase of the cerebral
+surface is shown not only in the general size of the organ, but to a
+still greater extent in the irregular creasing and furrowing of the
+surface. This creasing and furrowing begins to occur in the higher
+mammals, and in civilized man it is carried to an astonishing extent.
+The amount of intelligence is correlated with the number, the depth, and
+the irregularity of the furrows. A cat's brain has a few symmetrical
+creases. In an ape the creases are deepened into slight furrows, and
+they run irregularly, somewhat like the lines in the palm of your hand.
+With age and experience the furrows grow deeper and more sinuous, and
+new ones appear; and in man these phenomena come to have great
+significance. The cerebral surface of a human infant is like that of an
+ape. In an adult savage, or in a European peasant, the furrowing is
+somewhat marked and complicated. In the brain of a great scholar, the
+furrows are very deep and crooked, and hundreds of creases appear which
+are not found at all in the brains of ordinary men. In other words, the
+cerebral surface of such a man, the seat of conscious mental life, has
+become enormously enlarged in area; and we must further observe that it
+goes on enlarging in some cases into extreme old age.[6]
+
+Putting all these facts together, it becomes plain that in the lowest
+animals, whose lives consist of sundry reflex actions monotonously
+repeated from generation to generation, there can be nothing, or next to
+nothing, of what we know as consciousness. It is only when the life
+becomes more complicated and various, so that reflex action can no
+longer determine all its movements and the higher nerve-centres begin to
+be evolved, that the dawning of consciousness is reached. But with the
+growth of the higher centres the capacities of action become so various
+and indeterminate that definite direction is not given to them until
+after birth. The creature begins life as an infant, with its partially
+developed cerebrum representing capabilities which it is left for its
+individual experience to bring forth and modify.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+Lengthening of Infancy, and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface.
+
+
+The first appearance of infancy in the animal world thus heralded the
+new era which was to be crowned by the development of Man. With the
+beginnings of infancy there came the first dawning of a conscious life
+similar in nature to the conscious life of human beings, and there came,
+moreover, on the part of parents, the beginning of feelings and actions
+not purely self-regarding. But still more, the period of infancy was a
+period of plasticity. The career of each individual being no longer
+wholly predetermined by the careers of its ancestors, it began to become
+teachable. Individuality of character also became possible at the same
+time, and for the same reason. All birds and mammals which take care of
+their young are teachable, though in very various degrees, and all in
+like manner show individual peculiarities of disposition, though in most
+cases these are slight and inconspicuous. In dogs, horses, and apes
+there is marked teachableness, and there are also marked differences in
+individual character.
+
+But in the non-human animal world all these phenomena are but slightly
+developed. They are but the dim adumbrations of what was by and by to
+bloom forth in the human race. They can scarcely be said to have served
+as a prophecy of the revolution that was to come. One generation of dumb
+beasts is after all very like another, and from studying the careers of
+the mastodon, the hipparion, the sabre-toothed lion, or even the
+dryopithecus, an observer in the Miocene age could never have foreseen
+the possibility of a creature endowed with such a boundless capacity of
+progress as the modern Man. Nevertheless, however dimly suggestive was
+this group of phenomena, it contained the germ of all that is preeminent
+in humanity. In the direct line of our ancestry it only needed that the
+period of infancy should be sufficiently prolonged, in order that a
+creature should at length appear, endowed with the teachableness, the
+individuality, and the capacity for progress which are the peculiar
+prerogatives of fully-developed Man.[7] In this direct line the manlike
+apes of Africa and the Indian Archipelago have advanced far beyond the
+mammalian world in general. Along with a cerebral surface, and an
+accompanying intelligence, far greater than that of other mammals, these
+tailless apes begin life as helpless babies, and are unable to walk, to
+feed themselves, or to grasp objects with precision until they are two
+or three months old. These apes have thus advanced a little way upon the
+peculiar road which our half-human forefathers began to travel as soon
+as psychical variations came to be of more use to the species than
+variations in bodily structure. The gulf by which the lowest known man
+is separated from the highest known ape consists in the great increase
+of his cerebral surface, with the accompanying intelligence, and in the
+very long duration of his infancy. These two things have gone hand in
+hand. The increase of cerebral surface, due to the working of natural
+selection in this direction alone, has entailed a vast increase in the
+amount of cerebral organization that must be left to be completed after
+birth, and thus has prolonged the period of infancy. And conversely the
+prolonging of the plastic period of infancy, entailing a vast increase
+in teachableness and versatility, has contributed to the further
+enlargement of the cerebral surface. The mutual reaction of these two
+groups of facts must have gone on for an enormous length of time since
+man began thus diverging from his simian brethren. It is not likely that
+less than a million years have elapsed since the first page of this new
+chapter in the history of creation was opened: it is probable that the
+time has been much longer. In comparison with such a period, the whole
+recorded duration of human history shrinks into nothingness. The
+pyramids of Egypt seem like things of yesterday when we think of the
+Cave-Men of western Europe in the glacial period, who scratched pictures
+of mammoths on pieces of reindeer-antler with a bit of pointed flint.
+Yet during an entire geologic aeon before these Cave-Men appeared on the
+scene, "a being erect upon two legs," if we may quote from Serjeant
+Buzfuz, "and wearing the outward semblance of a man and not of a
+monster," wandered hither and thither over the face of the earth,
+setting his mark upon it as no other creature yet had done, leaving
+behind him innumerable tell-tale remnants of his fierce and squalid
+existence, yet too scantily endowed with wit to make any written
+disclosure of his thoughts and deeds. If the physiological annals of
+that long and weary time could now be unrolled before us, the principal
+fact which we should discern, dominating all other facts in interest and
+significance, would be that mutual reaction between increase of cerebral
+surface and lengthening of babyhood which I have here described.
+
+Thus through the simple continuance and interaction of processes that
+began far back in the world of warm-blooded animals, we get at last a
+creature essentially different from all others. Through the complication
+of effects the heaping up of minute differences in degree has ended in
+bringing forth a difference in kind. In the human organism physical
+variation has well-nigh stopped, or is confined to insignificant
+features, save in the grey surface of the cerebrum. The work of cerebral
+organization is chiefly completed after birth, as we see by contrasting
+the smooth ape-like brain-surface of the new-born child with the
+deeply-furrowed and myriad-seamed surface of the adult civilized brain.
+The plastic period of adolescence, lengthened in civilized man until it
+has come to cover more than one third of his lifetime, is thus the
+guaranty of his boundless progressiveness. Inherited tendencies and
+aptitudes still form the foundations of character; but individual
+experience has come to count as an enormous factor in modifying the
+career of mankind from generation to generation. It is not too much to
+say that the difference between man and all other living creatures, in
+respect of teachableness, progressiveness, and individuality of
+character, surpasses all other differences of kind that are known to
+exist in the universe.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection.
+
+
+In the fresh light which these considerations throw upon the problem of
+man's origin, we can now see more clearly than ever how great a
+revolution was inaugurated when natural selection began to confine its
+operations to the surface of the cerebrum. Among the older incidents in
+the evolution of organic life, the changes were very wonderful which out
+of the pectoral fin of a fish developed the jointed fore-limb of the
+mammal with its five-toed paw, and thence through much slighter
+variation brought forth the human arm with its delicate and crafty hand.
+More wondrous still were the phases of change through which the
+rudimentary pigment-spot of the worm, by the development and
+differentiation of successive layers, gave place to the
+variously-constructed eyes of insects, mollusks, and vertebrates. The
+day for creative work of this sort has probably gone by, as the day for
+the evolution of annulose segments and vertebrate skeletons has gone
+by,--on our planet, at least. In the line of our own development, all
+work of this kind stopped long ago, to be replaced by different methods.
+As an optical instrument, the eye had well-nigh reached extreme
+perfection in many a bird and mammal ages before man's beginnings; and
+the essential features of the human hand existed already in the hands of
+Miocene apes. But different methods came in when human intelligence
+appeared upon the scene. Mr. Spencer has somewhere reminded us that the
+crowbar is but an extra lever added to the levers of which the arm is
+already composed, and the telescope but adds a new set of lenses to
+those which already exist in the eye. This beautiful illustration goes
+to the kernel of the change that was wrought when natural selection
+began to confine itself to the psychical modification of our ancestors.
+In a very deep sense all human science is but the increment of the power
+of the eye, and all human art is the increment of the power of the
+hand.[8] Vision and manipulation,--these, in their countless indirect
+and transfigured forms, are the two cooeperating factors in all
+intellectual progress. It is not merely that with the telescope we see
+extinct volcanoes on the moon, or resolve spots of nebulous cloud into
+clusters of blazing suns; it is that in every scientific theory we frame
+by indirect methods visual images of things not present to sense. With
+our mind's eye we see atmospheric convulsions on the surfaces of distant
+worlds, watch the giant ichthyosaurs splashing in Jurassic oceans,
+follow the varied figures of the rhythmic dance of molecules as chemical
+elements unite and separate, or examine, with the aid of long-forgotten
+vocabularies now magically restored, the manners and morals, the laws
+and superstitions, of peoples that have ceased to be.[9] And so in art
+the wonderful printing-press, and the engine that moves it, are the
+lineal descendants through countless stages of complication, of the
+simple levers of primitive man and the rude stylus wherewith he engraved
+strange hieroglyphs on the bark of trees. In such ways, since the human
+phase of evolution began, has the direct action of muscle and sense been
+supplemented and superseded by the indirect work of the inquisitive and
+inventive mind.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life.
+
+
+Let us note one further aspect of this mighty revolution. In its lowly
+beginnings the psychical life was merely an appendage to the life of the
+body. The avoidance of enemies, the securing of food, the perpetuation
+of the species, make up the whole of the lives of lower animals, and the
+rudiments of memory, reason, emotion, and volition were at first
+concerned solely with the achievement of these ends in an increasingly
+indirect, complex, and effective way. Though the life of a large portion
+of the human race is still confined to the pursuit of these same ends,
+yet so vast has been the increase of psychical life that the simple
+character of the ends is liable to be lost sight of amid the variety,
+the indirectness, and the complexity of the means. But in civilized
+society other ends, purely immaterial in their nature, have come to add
+themselves to these, and in some instances to take their place. It is
+long since we were told that Man does not live by bread alone. During
+many generations we have seen thousands of men, actuated by the noblest
+impulse of which humanity is capable, though misled by the teachings of
+a crude philosophy, despising and maltreating their bodies as clogs and
+incumbrances to the life of the indwelling soul. Countless martyrs we
+have seen throwing away the physical earthly life as so much worthless
+dross, and all for the sake of purely spiritual truths. As with
+religion, so with the scientific spirit and the artistic spirit,--the
+unquenchable craving to know the secrets of nature, and the yearning to
+create the beautiful in form and colour and sound. In the highest human
+beings such ends as these have come to be uppermost in consciousness,
+and with the progress of material civilization this will be more and
+more the case. If we can imagine a future time when warfare and crime
+shall have been done away with forever, when disease shall have been for
+the most part curbed, and when every human being by moderate labour can
+secure ample food and shelter, we can also see that in such a state of
+things the work of civilization would be by no means completed. In
+ministering to human happiness in countless ways, through the pursuit of
+purely spiritual ends, in enriching and diversifying life to the utmost,
+there would still be almost limitless work to be done. I believe that
+such a time will come for weary and suffering mankind. Such a faith is
+inspiring. It sustains one in the work of life, when one would otherwise
+lose heart. But it is a faith that rests upon induction. The process of
+evolution is excessively slow, and its ends are achieved at the cost of
+enormous waste of life, but for innumerable ages its direction has been
+toward the goal here pointed out; and the case may be fitly summed up in
+the statement that whereas in its rude beginnings the psychical life was
+but an appendage to the body, in fully-developed Humanity the body is
+but the vehicle for the soul.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+The Origins of Society and of Morality.
+
+
+One further point must be considered before this outline sketch of the
+manner of man's origin can be called complete. The psychical development
+of Humanity, since its earlier stages, has been largely clue to the
+reaction of individuals upon one another in those various relations
+which we characterize as social.[10] In considering the origin of Man,
+the origin of human society cannot be passed over. Foreshadowings of
+social relations occur in the animal world, not only in the line of our
+own vertebrate ancestry, but in certain orders of insects which stand
+quite remote from that line. Many of the higher mammals are gregarious,
+and this is especially true of that whole order of primates to which we
+belong. Rudimentary moral sentiments are also clearly discernible in the
+highest members of various mammalian orders, and in all but the lowest
+members of our own order. But in respect of definiteness and permanence
+the relations between individuals in a state of gregariousness fall far
+short of the relations between individuals in the rudest human society.
+The primordial unit of human society is the family, and it was by the
+establishment of definite and permanent family relationships that the
+step was taken which raised Man socially above the level of gregarious
+apehood. This great point was attained through that lengthening of the
+period of helpless childhood which accompanied the gradually increasing
+intelligence of our half-human ancestors. When childhood had come to
+extend over a period of ten or a dozen years--a period which would be
+doubled, or more than doubled, where several children were born in
+succession to the same parents--the relationships between father and
+mother, brethren and sisters, must have become firmly knit; and thus the
+family, the unit of human society, gradually came into existence.[11]
+The rudimentary growth of moral sentiment must now have received a
+definite direction. As already observed, with the beginnings of infancy
+in the animal world there came the genesis in the parents of feelings
+and actions not purely self-regarding. Rudimentary sympathies, with
+rudimentary capacity for self-devotion, are witnessed now and then among
+higher mammals, such as the dog, and not uncommonly among apes. But as
+the human family, with its definite relationships, came into being,
+there must necessarily have grown up between its various members
+reciprocal necessities of behaviour. The conduct of the individual could
+no longer be shaped with sole reference to his own selfish desires, but
+must be to a great extent subordinated to the general welfare of the
+family. And in judging of the character of his own conduct, the
+individual must now begin to refer it to some law of things outside of
+himself; and hence the germs of conscience and of the idea of duty. Such
+were no doubt the crude beginnings of human morality.
+
+With this genesis of the family, the Creation of Man may be said, in a
+certain sense, to have been completed. The great extent of cerebral
+surface, the lengthened period of infancy, the consequent capacity for
+progress, the definite constitution of the family, and the judgment of
+actions as good or bad according to some other standard than that of
+selfish desire,--these are the attributes which essentially distinguish
+Man from other creatures. All these, we see, are direct or indirect
+results of the revolution which began when natural selection came to
+confine itself to psychical variations, to the neglect of physical
+variations. The immediate result was the increase of cerebrum. This
+prolonged the infancy, thus giving rise to the capacity for progress;
+and infancy, in turn, originated the family and thus opened the way for
+the growth of sympathies and of ethical feelings. All these results have
+perpetually reacted upon one another until a creature different in kind
+from all other creatures has been evolved. The creature thus evolved
+long since became dominant over the earth in a sense in which none of
+his predecessors ever became dominant; and henceforth the work of
+evolution, so far as our planet is concerned, is chiefly devoted to the
+perfecting of this last and most wonderful product of creative energy.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+Improvableness of Man.
+
+
+For the creation of Man was by no means the creation of a perfect being.
+The most essential feature of Man is his improvableness, and since his
+first appearance on the earth the changes that have gone on in him have
+been enormous, though they have continued to run along in the lines of
+development that were then marked out. The changes have been so great
+that in many respects the interval between the highest and the lowest
+men far surpasses quantitatively the interval between the lowest men and
+the highest apes. If we take into account the creasing of the cerebral
+surface, the difference between the brain of a Shakespeare and that of
+an Australian savage would doubtless be fifty times greater than the
+difference between the Australian's brain and that of an orang-outang.
+In mathematical capacity the Australian, who cannot tell the number of
+fingers on his two hands, is much nearer to a lion or wolf than to Sir
+Rowan Hamilton, who invented the method of quaternions. In moral
+development this same Australian, whose language contains no words for
+justice and benevolence, is less remote from dogs and baboons than from
+a Howard or a Garrison. In progressiveness, too, the difference between
+the lowest and the highest races of men is no less conspicuous. The
+Australian is more teachable than the ape, but his limit is nevertheless
+very quickly reached. All the distinctive attributes of Man, in short,
+have been developed to an enormous extent through long ages of social
+evolution.
+
+This psychical development of Man is destined to go on in the future as
+it has gone on in the past. The creative energy which has been at work
+through the bygone eternity is not going to become quiescent to-morrow.
+We have learned something of its methods of working, and from the
+careful observation of the past we can foresee the future in some of its
+most general outlines. From what has already gone on during the historic
+period of man's existence, we can safely predict a change that will by
+and by distinguish him from all other creatures even more widely and
+more fundamentally than he is distinguished today. Whenever in the
+course of organic evolution we see any function beginning as incidental
+to the performance of other functions, and continuing for many ages to
+increase in importance until it becomes an indispensable strand in the
+web of life, we may be sure that by a continuance of the same process
+its influence is destined to increase still more in the future. Such has
+been the case with the function of sympathy, and with the ethical
+feelings which have grown up along with sympathy and depend largely upon
+it for their vitality. Like everything else which especially
+distinguishes Man, the altruistic feelings were first called into
+existence through the first beginnings of infancy in the animal world.
+Their rudimentary form was that of the transient affection of a female
+bird or mammal for its young. First given a definite direction through
+the genesis of the primitive human family, the development of altruism
+has formed an important part of the progress of civilization, but as yet
+it has scarcely kept pace with the general development of intelligence.
+There can be little doubt that in respect of justice and kindness the
+advance of civilized man has been less marked than in respect of
+quick-wittedness. Now this is because the advancement of civilized man
+has been largely effected through fighting, through the continuance of
+that deadly struggle and competition which has been going on ever since
+organic life first appeared on the earth. It is through such fierce and
+perpetual struggle that the higher forms of life have been gradually
+evolved by natural selection. But we have already seen how in many
+respects the evolution of Man was the opening of an entirely new chapter
+in the history of the universe. In no respect was it more so than in the
+genesis of the altruistic emotions. For when natural selection, through
+the lengthening of childhood, had secured a determinate development for
+this class of human feelings, it had at last originated a power which
+could thrive only through the elimination of strife. And the later
+history of mankind, during the past thirty centuries, has been
+characterized by the gradual eliminating of strife, though the process
+has gone on with the extreme slowness that marks all the work of
+evolution. It is only at the present clay that, by surveying human
+history from the widest possible outlook, and with the aid of the habits
+of thought which the study of evolution fosters, we are enabled
+distinctly to observe this tendency. As this is the most wonderful of
+all the phases of that stupendous revolution in nature which was
+inaugurated in the Creation of Man, it deserves especial attention here;
+and we shall find it leading us quite directly to our conclusion. From
+the Origin of Man, when thoroughly comprehended in its general outlines,
+we shall at length be able to catch some glimpses of his Destiny.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+Universal Warfare of Primeval Men.
+
+
+In speaking of the higher altruistic feelings as being antagonistic to
+the continuance of warfare, I did not mean to imply that warfare can
+ever be directly put down by our horror of cruelty or our moral
+disapproval of strife. The actual process is much more indirect and
+complex than this. In respect of belligerency the earliest men were
+doubtless no better than brutes. They were simply the most crafty and
+formidable among brutes. To get food was the prime necessity of life,
+and as long as food was obtainable only by hunting and fishing, or
+otherwise seizing upon edible objects already in existence, chronic and
+universal quarrel was inevitable. The conditions of the struggle for
+existence were not yet visibly changed from what they had been from the
+outset in the animal world. That struggle meant everlasting slaughter,
+and the fiercest races of fighters would be just the ones to survive and
+perpetuate their kind. Those most successful primitive men, from whom
+civilized peoples are descended, must have excelled in treachery and
+cruelty, as in quickness of wit and strength of will. That moral sense
+which makes it seem wicked to steal and murder was scarcely more
+developed in them than in tigers or wolves. But to all this there was
+one exception. The family supplied motives for peaceful cooeperation.[12]
+Within the family limits fidelity and forbearance had their uses, for
+events could not have been long in showing that the most coherent
+families would prevail over their less coherent rivals. Observation of
+the most savage races agrees with the comparative study of the
+institutions of civilized peoples, in proving that the only bond of
+political union recognized among primitive men, or conceivable by them,
+was the physical fact of blood-relationship. Illustrations of this are
+found in plenty far within the historic period. The very township, which
+under one name or another has formed the unit of political society among
+all civilized peoples, was originally the stockaded dwelling-place of a
+clan which traced its blood to a common ancestor. In such a condition of
+things the nearest approach ever made to peace was a state of armed
+truce; and while the simple rules of morality were recognized, they were
+only regarded as binding within the limits of the clan. There was no
+recognition of the wickedness of robbery and murder in general.
+
+This state of things, as above hinted, could not come to an end as long
+as men obtained food by seizing upon edible objects already in
+existence. The supply of fish, game, or fruit being strictly limited,
+men must ordinarily fight under penalty of starvation. If we could put a
+moral interpretation upon events which antedated morality as we
+understand it, we should say it was their duty to fight; and the
+reverence accorded to the chieftain who murdered most successfully in
+behalf of his clansmen was well deserved. It is worthy of note that, in
+isolated parts of the earth where the natural supply of food is
+abundant, as in sundry tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean, men have
+ceased from warfare and become gentle and docile without rising above
+the intellectual level of savagery. Compared with other savages, they
+are like the chimpanzee as contrasted with the gorilla. Such exceptional
+instances well illustrate the general truth that, so long as the method
+of obtaining food was the same as that employed by brute animals, men
+must continue to fight like dogs over a bone.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilization.
+
+
+But presently man's superior intelligence came into play in such wise
+that other and better methods of getting food were devised. When in
+intervals of peace men learned to rear flocks and herds, and to till the
+ground, and when they had further learned to exchange with one another
+the products of their labour, a new step, of most profound significance,
+was taken. Tribes which had once learned how to do these things were not
+long in overcoming their neighbours, and flourishing at their expense,
+for agriculture allows a vastly greater population to live upon a given
+area, and in many ways it favours social compactness. An immense series
+of social changes was now begun. Whereas the only conceivable bond of
+political combination had heretofore been blood-relationship, a new
+basis was now furnished by territorial contiguity and by community of
+occupation. The supply of food was no longer strictly limited, for it
+could be indefinitely increased by peaceful industry; and moreover, in
+the free exchange of the products of labour, it ceased to be true that
+one man's interest was opposed to another's. Men did not at once
+recognize this fact, and indeed it has not yet become universally
+recognized, so long have men persisted in interpreting the conditions of
+industrial life in accordance with the immemorial traditions of the time
+when the means of subsistence were strictly limited, so that one man's
+success meant another's starvation. Our robber tariffs--miscalled
+"protective"--are survivals of the barbarous mode of thinking which
+fitted the ages before industrial civilization began. But although the
+pacific implications of free exchange were very slowly recognized, it is
+not the less true that the beginnings of agriculture and commerce marked
+the beginnings of the greatest social revolution in the whole career of
+mankind. Henceforth the conditions for the maintenance of physical life
+became different from what they had been throughout the past history of
+the animal world. It was no longer necessary for men to quarrel for
+their food like dogs over a bone; for they could now obtain it far more
+effectively by applying their intelligence to the task of utilizing the
+forces of inanimate nature; and the due execution of such a task was in
+no wise assisted by wrath and contention, but from the outset was rather
+hindered by such things.
+
+Such were the beginnings of industrial civilization. Out of its
+exigencies, continually increasing in complexity, have proceeded,
+directly or indirectly, the arts and sciences which have given to modern
+life so much of its interest and value. But more important still has been
+the work of industrial civilization in the ethical field. By furnishing
+a wider basis for political union than mere blood-relationship, it
+greatly extended the area within which moral obligations were recognized
+as binding. At first confined to the clan, the idea of duty came at
+length to extend throughout a state in which many clans were combined
+and fused, and as it thus increased in generality and abstractness, the
+idea became immeasurably strengthened and ennobled. At last, with the
+rise of empires, in which many states were brought together in pacific
+industrial relations, the recognized sphere of moral obligation became
+enlarged until it comprehended all mankind.
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare.
+
+
+This rise of empires, this coalescence of small groups of men into
+larger and larger political aggregates, has been the chief work of
+civilization, when looked at on its political side.[13] Like all the
+work of evolution, this process has gone on irregularly and
+intermittently, and its ultimate tendency has only gradually become
+apparent. This process of coalescence has from the outset been brought
+about by the needs of industrial civilization, and the chief obstacle
+which it has had to encounter has been the universal hostility and
+warfare bequeathed from primeval times. The history of mankind has been
+largely made up of fighting, but in the careers of the most progressive
+races this fighting has been far from meaningless, like the battles of
+kites and crows. In the stream of history which, beginning on the shores
+of the Mediterranean Sea, has widened until in our day it covers both
+sides of the Atlantic and is fast extending over the remotest parts of
+the earth,--in this main stream of history the warfare which has gone on
+has had a clearly discernible purpose and meaning. Broadly considered,
+this warfare has been chiefly the struggle of the higher industrial
+civilization in defending itself against the attacks of neighbours who
+had not advanced beyond that early stage of humanity in which warfare
+was chronic and normal. During the historic period, the wars of Europe
+have been either contests between the industrial and the predatory types
+of society, or contests incident upon the imperfect formation of large
+political aggregates. There have been three ways in which great
+political bodies have arisen. The earliest and lowest method was that of
+_conquest without incorporation_. A single powerful tribe conquered and
+annexed its neighbours without admitting them to a share in the
+government. It appropriated their military strength, robbed them of most
+of the fruits of their labour, and thus virtually enslaved them. Such
+was the origin of the great despotic empires of Oriental type. Such
+states degenerate rapidly in military strength. Their slavish
+populations, accustomed to be starved and beaten or massacred by the
+tax-gatherer, become unable to fight, so that great armies of them will
+flee before a handful of freemen, as in the case of the ancient Persians
+and the modern Egyptians. To strike down the executive head of such an
+assemblage of enslaved tribes is to effect the conquest or the
+dissolution of the whole mass, and hence the history of Eastern peoples
+has been characterized by sudden and gigantic revolutions.
+
+The second method of forming great political bodies was that of
+_conquest with incorporation_. The conquering tribe, while annexing its
+neighbours, gradually admitted them to a share in the government. In
+this way arose the Roman empire, the largest, the most stable, and in
+its best days the most pacific political aggregate the world had as yet
+seen. Throughout the best part of Europe, its conquests succeeded in
+transforming the ancient predatory type of society into the modern
+industrial type. It effectually broke up the primeval clan-system, with
+its narrow ethical ideas, and arrived at the broad conception of rights
+and duties coextensive with Humanity. But in the method upon which Rome
+proceeded there was an essential element of weakness. The simple device
+of representation, by which political power is equally retained in all
+parts of the community while its exercise is delegated to a central
+body, was entirely unknown to the Romans. Partly for this reason, and
+partly because of the terrible military pressure to which the frontier
+was perpetually exposed, the Roman government became a despotism which
+gradually took on many of the vices of the Oriental type. The political
+weakness which resulted from this allowed Europe to be overrun by
+peoples organized in clans and tribes, and for some time there was a
+partial retrogression toward the disorder characteristic of primitive
+ages. The retrogression was but partial and temporary, however; the
+exposed frontier has been steadily pushed eastward into the heart of
+Asia; the industrial type of society is no longer menaced by the
+predatory type; the primeval clan-system has entirely disappeared as a
+social force; and warfare, once ubiquitous and chronic, has become local
+and occasional.
+
+The third and highest method of forming great political bodies is that
+of _federation_. The element of fighting was essential in the two lower
+methods, but in this it is not essential. Here there is no conquest, but
+a voluntary union of small political groups into a great political
+group. Each little group preserves its local independence intact, while
+forming part of an indissoluble whole. Obviously this method of
+political union requires both high intelligence and high ethical
+development In early times it was impracticable. It was first attempted,
+with brilliant though ephemeral success, by the Greeks, but it failed
+for want of the device of representation. In later times it was put into
+operation, with permanent success, on a small scale by the Swiss, and on
+a great scale by our forefathers in England. The coalescence of shires
+into the kingdom of England, effected as it was by means of a
+representative assembly, and accompanied by the general retention of
+local self-government, afforded a distinct precedent for such a gigantic
+federal union as men of English race have since constructed in America.
+The principle of federation was there, though not the name. And here we
+hit upon the fundamental contrast between the history of England and
+that of France. The method by which the modern French nation has been
+built up has been the Roman method of conquest with incorporation. As
+the ruler of Paris gradually overcame his vassals, one after another, by
+warfare or diplomacy, he annexed their counties to his royal domain, and
+governed them by lieutenants sent from Paris. Self-government was thus
+crushed out in France, while it was preserved in England. And just as
+Rome achieved its unprecedented dominion by adopting a political method
+more effective than any that had been hitherto employed, so England,
+employing for the first time a still higher and more effective method,
+has come to play a part in the world compared with which even the part
+played by Rome seems insignificant. The test of the relative strength of
+the English and Roman methods came when England and France contended for
+the possession of North America. The people which preserved its
+self-government could send forth self-supporting colonies; the people
+which had lost the very tradition of self-government could not. Hence
+the dominion of the sea, with that of all the outlying parts of the
+earth, fell into the hands of men of English race; and hence the
+federative method of political union--the method which contains every
+element of permanence, and which is pacific in its very conception--is
+already assuming a sway which is unquestionably destined to become
+universal.
+
+Bearing all this in mind, we cannot fail to recognize the truth of the
+statement that the great wars of the historic period have been either
+contests between the industrial and the predatory types of society or
+contests incident upon the imperfect formation of great political
+aggregates. Throughout the turmoil of the historic period--which on a
+superficial view seems such a chaos--we see certain definite tendencies
+at work; the tendency toward the formation of larger and larger
+political aggregates, and toward the more perfect maintenance of local
+self-government and individual freedom among the parts of the aggregate.
+This two-sided process began with the beginnings of industrial
+civilization; it has aided the progress of industry and been aided by
+it; and the result has been to diminish the quantity of warfare, and to
+lessen the number of points at which it touches the ordinary course of
+civilized life. With the further continuance of this process, but one
+ultimate result is possible. It must go on until warfare becomes
+obsolete. The nineteenth century, which has witnessed an unprecedented
+development of industrial civilization, with its attendant arts and
+sciences, has also witnessed an unprecedented diminution in the strength
+of the primeval spirit of militancy. It is not that we have got rid of
+great wars, but that the relative proportion of human strength which has
+been employed in warfare has been remarkably less than in any previous
+age. In our own history, of the two really great wars which have
+permeated our whole social existence,--the Revolutionary War and the War
+of Secession,--the first was fought in behalf of the pacific principle
+of equal representation; the second was fought in behalf of the pacific
+principle of federalism. In each case, the victory helped to hasten the
+day when warfare shall become unnecessary. In the few great wars of
+Europe since the overthrow of Napoleon, we may see the same principle at
+work. In almost every case the result has been to strengthen the pacific
+tendencies of modern society. Whereas warfare was once dominant over the
+face of the earth, and came home in all its horrid details to
+everybody's door, and threatened the very existence of industrial
+civilization; it has now become narrowly confined in time and space, it
+no longer comes home to everybody's door, and, in so far as it is still
+tolerated, for want of a better method of settling grave international
+questions, it has become quite ancillary to the paramount needs, of
+industrial civilization. When we can see so much as this lying before us
+on the pages of history, we cannot fail to see that the final extinction
+of warfare is only a question of time. Sooner or later it must come to
+an end, and the pacific principle of federalism, whereby questions
+between states are settled, like questions between individuals by due
+process of law, must reign supreme over all the earth.
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off the
+Brute-Inheritance.
+
+
+As regards the significance of Man's position in the universe, this
+gradual elimination of strife is a fact of utterly unparalleled
+grandeur. Words cannot do justice to such a fact. It means that the
+wholesale destruction of life, which has heretofore characterized
+evolution ever since life began, and through which the higher forms of
+organic existence have been produced, must presently come to an end in
+the case of the chief of God's creatures. It means that the universal
+struggle for existence, having succeeded in bringing forth that
+consummate product of creative energy, the Human Soul, has done its work
+and will presently cease. In the lower regions of organic life it must
+go on, but as a determining factor in the highest work of evolution it
+will disappear.
+
+The action of natural selection upon Man has long since been essentially
+diminished through the operation of social conditions. For in all grades
+of civilization above the lowest, "there are so many kinds of
+superiorities which severally enable men to survive, notwithstanding
+accompanying inferiorities, that natural selection cannot by itself
+rectify any particular unfitness." In a race of inferior animals any
+maladjustment is quickly removed by natural selection, because, owing to
+the universal slaughter, the highest completeness of life possible to a
+given grade of organization is required for the mere maintenance of
+life. But under the conditions surrounding human development it is
+otherwise.[14] There is a wide interval between the highest and lowest
+degrees of completeness of living that are compatible with maintenance
+of life.
+
+Hence the wicked flourish. Vice is but slowly eliminated, because
+mankind has so many other qualities, beside the bad ones, which enable
+it to subsist and achieve progress in spite of them, that natural
+selection--which always works through death--cannot come into play. The
+improvement of civilized man goes on mainly through processes of direct
+adaptation. The principle in accordance with which the gloved hand of
+the dandy becomes white and soft while the hand of the labouring man
+grows brown and tough is the main principle at work in the improvement
+of Humanity. Our intellectual faculties, our passions and prejudices,
+our tastes and habits, become strengthened by use and weakened by
+disuse, just as the blacksmith's arm grows strong and the horse turned
+out to pasture becomes unfit for work. This law of use and disuse has
+been of immense importance throughout the whole evolution of organic
+life. With Man it has come to be paramount.
+
+If now we contrast the civilized man intellectually and morally with the
+savage, we find that, along with his vast increase of cerebral surface,
+he has an immensely greater power of representing in imagination objects
+and relations not present to the senses. This is the fundamental
+intellectual difference between civilized men and savages.[15] The power
+of imagination, or ideal representation, underlies the whole of science
+and art, and it is closely connected with the ability to work hard and
+submit to present discomfort for the sake of a distant reward. It is
+also closely connected with the development of the sympathetic feelings.
+The better we can imagine objects and relations not present to sense,
+the more readily we can sympathize with other people. Half the cruelty
+in the world is the direct result of stupid incapacity to put one's self
+in the other man's place. So closely inter-related are our intellectual
+and moral natures that the development of sympathy is very considerably
+determined by increasing width and variety of experience. From the
+simplest form of sympathy, such as the painful thrill felt on seeing
+some one in a dangerous position, up to the elaborate complication of
+altruistic feelings involved in the notion of abstract justice, the
+development is very largely a development of the representative faculty.
+The very same causes, therefore, deeply grounded in the nature of
+industrial civilization, which have developed science and art, have also
+had a distinct tendency to encourage the growth of the sympathetic
+emotions.
+
+But, as already observed, these emotions are still too feebly developed,
+even in the highest races of men. We have made more progress in
+intelligence than in kindness. For thousands of generations, and until
+very recent times, one of the chief occupations of men has been to
+plunder, bruise, and kill one another. The selfish and ugly passions
+which are primordial--which have the incalculable strength of
+inheritance from the time when animal consciousness began--have had but
+little opportunity to grow weak from disuse. The tender and unselfish
+feelings, which are a later product of evolution, have too seldom been
+allowed to grow strong from exercise. And the whims and prejudices of
+the primeval militant barbarism are slow in dying out from the midst of
+peaceful industrial civilization. The coarser forms of cruelty are
+disappearing, and the butchery of men has greatly diminished. But most
+people apply to industrial pursuits a notion of antagonism derived from
+ages of warfare, and seek in all manner of ways to cheat or overreach
+one another. And as in more barbarous times the hero was he who had
+slain his tens of thousands, so now the man who has made wealth by
+overreaching his neighbours is not uncommonly spoken of in terms which
+imply approval. Though gentlemen, moreover, no longer assail one another
+with knives and clubs, they still inflict wounds with cruel words and
+sneers. Though the free--thinker is no longer chained to a stake and
+burned, people still tell lies about him, and do their best to starve
+him by hurting his reputation. The virtues of forbearance and
+self-control are still in a very rudimentary state, and of mutual
+helpfulness there is far too little among men.
+
+Nevertheless in all these respects some improvement has been made, along
+with the diminution of warfare, and by the time warfare has not merely
+ceased from the earth but has come to be the dimly remembered phantom of
+a remote past, the development of the sympathetic side of human nature
+will doubtless become prodigious. The manifestation of selfish and
+hateful feelings will be more and more sternly repressed by public
+opinion, and such feelings will become weakened by disuse, while the
+sympathetic feelings will increase in strength as the sphere for their
+exercise is enlarged. And thus at length we see what human progress
+means. It means throwing off the brute-inheritance,--gradually throwing
+it off through ages of struggle that are by and by to make struggle
+needless. Man is slowly passing from a primitive social state in which
+he was little better than a brute, toward an ultimate social state in
+which his character shall have become so transformed that nothing of the
+brute can be detected in it. The ape and the tiger in human nature will
+become extinct. Theology has had much to say about original sin. This
+original sin is neither more nor less than the brute-inheritance which
+every man carries with him, and the process of evolution is an advance
+toward true salvation. Fresh value is thus added to human life. The
+modern prophet, employing the methods of science, may again proclaim
+that the kingdom of heaven is at hand. Work ye, therefore, early and
+late, to prepare its coming.
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+The Message of Christianity.
+
+
+Now what is this message of the modern prophet but pure
+Christianity?--not the mass of theological doctrine ingeniously piled up
+by Justin Martyr and Tertullian and Clement and Athanasius and
+Augustine, but the real and essential Christianity which came, fraught
+with good tidings to men, from the very lips of Jesus and Paul! When did
+St. Paul's conception of the two men within him that warred against each
+other, the appetites of our brute nature and the God-given yearning for
+a higher life,--when did this grand conception ever have so much
+significance as now? When have we ever before held such a clew to the
+meaning of Christ in the Sermon on the Mount? "Blessed are the meek, for
+they shall inherit the earth." In the cruel strife of centuries has it
+not often seemed as if the earth were to be rather the prize of the
+hardest heart and the strongest fist? To many men these words of Christ
+have been as foolishness and as a stumbling-block, and the ethics of the
+Sermon on the Mount have been openly derided as too good for this world.
+In that wonderful picture of modern life which is the greatest work of
+one of the great seers of our time, Victor Hugo gives a concrete
+illustration of the working of Christ's methods. In the saintlike career
+of Bishop Myriel, and in the transformation which his example works in
+the character of the hardened outlaw Jean Valjean, we have a most
+powerful commentary on the Sermon on the Mount. By some critics who
+could express their views freely about "Les Miserables" while hesitating
+to impugn directly the authority of the New Testament, Monseigneur
+Bienvenu was unsparingly ridiculed as a man of impossible goodness, and
+as a milksop and fool withal. But I think Victor Hugo understood the
+capabilities of human nature, and its real dignity, much better than
+these scoffers. In a low stage of civilization Monseigneur Bienvenu
+would have had small chance of reaching middle life. Christ himself, we
+remember, was crucified between two thieves. It is none the less true
+that when once the degree of civilization is such as to allow this
+highest type of character, distinguished by its meekness and kindness,
+to take root and thrive, its methods are incomparable in their potency.
+The Master knew full well that the time was not yet ripe,--that he
+brought not peace, but a sword. But he preached nevertheless that gospel
+of great joy which is by and by to be realized by toiling Humanity, and
+he announced ethical principles fit for the time that is coming. The
+great originality of his teaching, and the feature that has chiefly
+given it power in the world, lay in the distinctness with which he
+conceived a state of society from which every vestige of strife, and the
+modes of behaviour adapted to ages of strife, shall be utterly and
+forever swept away. Through misery that has seemed unendurable and
+turmoil that has seemed endless, men have thought on that gracious life
+and its sublime ideal, and have taken comfort in the sweetly solemn
+message of peace on earth and good will to men.
+
+I believe that the promise with which I started has now been amply
+redeemed. I believe it has been fully shown that so far from degrading
+Humanity, or putting it on a level with the animal world in general, the
+doctrine of evolution shows us distinctly for the first time how the
+creation and the perfecting of Man is the goal toward which Nature's
+work has been tending from the first. We can now see clearly that our
+new knowledge enlarges tenfold the significance of human life, and makes
+it seem more than ever the chief object of Divine care, the consummate
+fruition of that creative energy which is manifested throughout the
+knowable universe.
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+The Question as to a Future Life.
+
+
+Upon the question whether Humanity is, after all, to cast in its lot
+with the grass that withers and the beasts that perish, the whole
+foregoing argument has a bearing that is by no means remote or
+far-fetched. It is not likely that we shall ever succeed in making the
+immortality of the soul a matter of scientific demonstration, for we
+lack the requisite data. It must ever remain an affair of religion
+rather than of science. In other words, it must remain one of that class
+of questions upon which I may not expect to convince my neighbour, while
+at the same time I may entertain a reasonable conviction of my own upon
+the subject.[16] In the domain of cerebral physiology the question might
+be debated forever without a result. The only thing which cerebral
+physiology tells us, when studied with the aid of molecular physics, is
+against the materialist, so far as it goes. It tells us that, during the
+present life, although thought and feeling are always manifested in
+connection with a peculiar form of matter, yet by no possibility can
+thought and feeling be in any sense the products of matter. Nothing
+could be more grossly unscientific than the famous remark of Cabanis,
+that the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile. It is not
+even correct to say that thought goes on in the brain. What goes on in
+the brain is an amazingly complex series of molecular movements, with
+which thought and feeling are in some unknown way correlated, not as
+effects or as causes, but as concomitants. So much is clear, but
+cerebral physiology says nothing about another life. Indeed, why should
+it? The last place in the world to which I should go for information
+about a state of things in which thought and feeling can exist in the
+absence of a cerebrum would be cerebral physiology!
+
+The materialistic assumption that there is no such state of things, and
+that the life of the soul accordingly ends with the life of the body, is
+perhaps the most colossal instance of baseless assumption that is known
+to the history of philosophy. No evidence for it can be alleged beyond
+the familiar fact that during the present life we know Soul only in its
+association with Body, and therefore cannot discover disembodied soul
+without dying ourselves. This fact must always prevent us from obtaining
+direct evidence for the belief in the soul's survival. But a negative
+presumption is not created by the absence of proof in cases where, in
+the nature of things, proof is inaccessible.[17] With his illegitimate
+hypothesis of annihilation, the materialist transgresses the bounds of
+experience quite as widely as the poet who sings of the New Jerusalem
+with its river of life and its streets of gold. Scientifically speaking,
+there is not a particle of evidence for either view.
+
+But when we desist from the futile attempt to introduce scientific
+demonstration into a region which confessedly transcends human
+experience, and when we consider the question upon broad grounds of
+moral probability, I have no doubt that men will continue in the future,
+as in the past, to cherish the faith in a life beyond the grave. In past
+times the disbelief in the soul's immortality has always accompanied
+that kind of philosophy which, under whatever name, has regarded
+Humanity as merely a local incident in an endless and aimless series of
+cosmical changes. As a general rule, people who have come to take such a
+view of the position of Man in the universe have ceased to believe in a
+future life. On the other hand, he who regards Man as the consummate
+fruition of creative energy, and the chief object of Divine care, is
+almost irresistibly driven to the belief that the soul's career is not
+completed with the present life upon the earth. Difficulties on theory
+he will naturally expect to meet in many quarters; but these will not
+weaken his faith, especially when he remembers that upon the alternative
+view the difficulties are at least as great. We live in a world of
+mystery, at all events, and there is not a problem in the simplest and
+most exact departments of science which does not speedily lead us to a
+transcendental problem that we can neither solve nor elude. A broad
+common-sense argument has often to be called in, where keen-edged
+metaphysical analysis has confessed itself baffled.
+
+Now we have here seen that the doctrine of evolution does not allow us
+to take the atheistic view of the position of Man. It is true that
+modern astronomy shows us giant balls of vapour condensing into fiery
+suns, cooling down into planets fit for the support of life, and at last
+growing cold and rigid in death, like the moon. And there are
+indications of a time when systems of dead planets shall fall in upon
+their central ember that was once a sun, and the whole lifeless mass,
+thus regaining heat, shall expand into a nebulous cloud like that with
+which we started, that the work of condensation and evolution may begin
+over again. These Titanic events must doubtless seem to our limited
+vision like an endless and aimless series of cosmical changes. They
+disclose no signs of purpose, or even of dramatic tendency;[18] they
+seem like the weary work of Sisyphos. But on the face of our own planet,
+where alone we are able to survey the process of evolution in its higher
+and more complex details, we do find distinct indications of a dramatic
+tendency, though doubtless not of purpose in the limited human sense.
+The Darwinian theory, properly understood, replaces as much
+teleology[19] as it destroys. From the first dawning of life we see all
+things working together toward one mighty goal, the evolution of the
+most exalted spiritual qualities which characterize Humanity. The body
+is cast aside and returns to the dust of which it was made. The earth,
+so marvellously wrought to man's uses, will also be cast aside. The day
+is to come, no doubt, when the heavens shall vanish as a scroll, and the
+elements be melted with fervent heat. So small is the value which Nature
+sets upon the perishable forms of matter! The question, then, is reduced
+to this: are Man's highest spiritual qualities, into the production of
+which all this creative energy has gone, to disappear with the rest? Has
+all this work been done for nothing? Is it all ephemeral, all a bubble
+that bursts, a vision that fades? Are we to regard the Creator's work as
+like that of a child, who builds houses out of blocks, just for the
+pleasure of knocking them down? For aught that science can tell us, it
+may be so, but I can see no good reason for believing any such thing. On
+such a view the riddle of the universe becomes a riddle without a
+meaning. Why, then, are we any more called upon to throw away our belief
+in the permanence of the spiritual element in Man than we are called
+upon to throw away our belief in the constancy of Nature? When
+questioned as to the ground of our irresistible belief that like causes
+must always be followed by like effects, Mr. Mill's answer was that it
+is the result of an induction coextensive with the whole of our
+experience; Mr. Spencer's answer was that it is a postulate which we
+make in every act of experience;[20] but the authors of the "Unseen
+Universe," slightly varying the form of statement, called it a supreme
+act of faith,--the expression of a trust in God, that He will not "put
+us to permanent intellectual confusion." Now the more thoroughly we
+comprehend that process of evolution by which things have come to be
+what they are, the more we are likely to feel that to deny the
+everlasting persistence of the spiritual element in Man is to rob the
+whole process of its meaning. It goes far toward putting us to permanent
+intellectual confusion, and I do not see that any one has as yet
+alleged, or is ever likely to allege, a sufficient reason for our
+accepting so dire an alternative.
+
+For my own part, therefore, I believe in the immortality of the soul,
+not in the sense in which I accept the demonstrable truths of science,
+but as a supreme act of faith in the reasonableness of God's work. Such
+a belief, relating to regions quite inaccessible to experience, cannot
+of course be clothed in terms of definite and tangible meaning. For the
+experience which alone can give us such terms we must await that solemn
+day which is to overtake us all. The belief can be most quickly defined
+by its negation, as the refusal to believe that this world is all. The
+materialist holds that when you have described the whole universe of
+phenomena of which we can become cognizant under the conditions of the
+present life, then the whole story is told. It seems to me, on the
+contrary, that the whole story is not thus told. I feel the omnipresence
+of mystery in such wise as to make it far easier for me to adopt the
+view of Euripides, that what we call death may be but the dawning of
+true knowledge and of true life. The greatest philosopher of modern
+times, the master and teacher of all who shall study the process of
+evolution for many a day to come, holds that the conscious soul is not
+the product of a collocation of material particles, but is in the
+deepest sense a divine effluence. According to Mr. Spencer, the divine
+energy which is manifested throughout the knowable universe is the same
+energy that wells up in us as consciousness. Speaking for myself, I can
+see no insuperable difficulty in the notion that at some period in the
+evolution of Humanity this divine spark may have acquired sufficient
+concentration and steadiness to survive the wreck of material forms and
+endure forever. Such a crowning wonder seems to me no more than the fit
+climax to a creative work that has been ineffably beautiful and
+marvellous in all its myriad stages.
+
+Only on some such view can the reasonableness of the universe, which
+still remains far above our finite power of comprehension, maintain its
+ground. There are some minds inaccessible to the class of considerations
+here alleged, and perhaps there always will be. But on such grounds, if
+on no other, the faith in immortality is likely to be shared by all who
+look upon the genesis of the highest spiritual qualities in Man as the
+goal of Nature's creative work. This view has survived the Copernican
+revolution in science, and it has survived the Darwinian revolution.
+Nay, if the foregoing exposition be sound, it is Darwinism which has
+placed Humanity upon a higher pinnacle than ever. The future is lighted
+for us with the radiant colours of hope. Strife and sorrow shall
+disappear. Peace and love shall reign supreme. The dream of poets, the
+lesson of priest and prophet, the inspiration of the great musician, is
+confirmed in the light of modern knowledge; and as we gird ourselves up
+for the work of life, we may look forward to the time when in the truest
+sense the kingdoms of this world shall become the kingdom of Christ, and
+he shall reign for ever and ever, king of kings and lord of lords.
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES.
+
+
+    C.P., Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 1874;
+    U.W., The Unseen World, 1876;
+    D., Darwinism and Other Essays, 1879;
+    E.E., Excursions of an Evolutionist, 1884.
+
+    1: C.P. ii. 432-451.
+    2: C.P. ii. 89-91.
+    3: C.P. ii. 318-321; D. 45.
+    4: U.W. 40-42; D. 65-74; E.E. 278-282, 327, 336.
+    5: C.P. ii. 154-159.
+    6: C.P. ii. 133-135.
+    7: D. 45-48; E.E. 306-319.
+    8: C.P. ii. 310.
+    9: E.E. 109-146.
+    10: C.P. ii. 284-323.
+    11: C.P. ii. 342-346, 358-363.
+    12: C.P. ii. 202-208.
+    13: C.P. ii. 213-224.
+    14: C.P. ii. 334.
+    15: C.P. ii. 312-315.
+    16: U.W. 54; E.E. 289-291.
+    17: U.W. 47-50; D. 75.
+    18: D. 96-102.
+    19: C.P. ii. 406.
+    20: C.P. i. 45-71, 286; ii. 162; U.W. 6; D. 87-95.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+John Fiske's Writings.
+
+
+MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS: Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by
+Comparative Mythology, _17th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY. Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with
+Criticisms on the Positive Philosophy. _14th Edition_. 2 vols.,
+8vo, $6.00
+
+THE UNSEEN WORLD, and other Essays, _12th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST. _15th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+DARWINISM, and other Essays. _8th Edition_. 12mo, $2.00.
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN, viewed in the Light of His Origin. _20th
+Edition_. 16mo, $1.00.
+
+THE IDEA OF GOD, as affected by Modern Knowledge. A Sequel to "The
+Destiny of Man." _14th Thousand_. 16mo, $1.00.
+
+THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789. _12th Edition_.
+Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND or the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations
+to Civil and Religious Liberty. _10th Thousand_. Crown 8vo, $2.00.
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. In Riverside Library for Young People. 16mo, 75
+cents.
+
+THE DISCOVERY AND SPANISH CONQUEST OF AMERICA. With Maps, _11th
+Thousand_. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. _8th Thousand_. 2 vols., crown 8vo, $4.00.
+
+CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. CONSIDERED WITH SOME REFERENCE TO
+ITS ORIGINS. _56th Thousand._ Crown 8vo, $1.00, _net_.
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+BOSTON AND NEW YORK.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AMERICAN POLITICAL IDEAS, viewed from the Stand-point of Universal
+History. _Seventh Edition_. 12mo, $1.00. HARPER & BROTHERS, New York.
+
+
+
+
+THE WRITINGS OF JOHN FISKE.
+
+
+THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.
+
+_With some Account of Ancient America and the Spanish Conquest. With a
+steel portrait of Mr. Fiske, reproductions of many old maps, several
+modern maps, facsimiles, and other illustrations. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+$4.00._
+
+_LARGE-PAPER EDITION. Limited to 250 copies. 4 vols. 8vo, $16.00, net._
+
+This work forms the beginning of Mr. Fiske's history of America. It is,
+perhaps, the most important single portion yet completed by him, and
+gives the results of vast research.
+
+
+THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
+
+_With Plans of Battles, and a new Steel Portrait of Washington, engraved
+by Willcox from a miniature never before reproduced. 2 vols. crown 8vo,
+gilt top, $4.00._
+
+The reader may turn to these volumes with full assurance of faith for a
+fresh rehearsal of the old facts, which no time can stale, and for new
+views of those old facts, according to the larger framework of ideas in
+which they can now be set by the master of a captivating style and an
+expert in historical philosophy.--_New York Evening Post_.
+
+The freshness and vivid interest of the narrative and the comprehensive
+generalization which springs naturally from the author's plan of a large
+work on American history, of which the two volumes now published are no
+more than a third or a fourth part, make it a book of new and permanent
+interest.--_Springfield Republican_.
+
+
+CIVIL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+_Considered with some Reference to its Origins. With Questions on the
+Text by Frank A. Hill, and Bibliographical Notes by Mr. Fiske. 12mo,
+$1.00, net._
+
+If this admirable volume (Fiske's "Civil Government") can be fairly
+taught to our rising generation, the future, we believe, will show that
+Mr. Fiske has never done more useful work than in its preparation.--_The
+Congregationalist_ (Boston).
+
+
+THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 1783-1789.
+
+_With Map, Notes, etc. Crown 8vo, $2.00._
+
+The author combines in an unusual degree the impartiality of the trained
+scholar with the fervor of the interested narrator.... The volume should
+be in every library in the land.--_The Congregationalist_ (Boston).
+
+An admirable book.... Mr. Fiske has a great talent for making history
+interesting to the general reader.--_New York Times_.
+
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND;
+
+_Or, the Puritan Theocracy in its Relations to Civil and Religious
+Liberty. Crown 8vo, $2.00._
+
+It deals with the early colonial history of New England in the
+entertaining and vivid style which has marked all of Mr. Fiske's
+writings on American history, and it is distinguished, like them, by its
+aggressive patriotism and its justice to all parties in controversy....
+The whole book is novel and fresh in treatment, philosophical and wise,
+and will not be laid down till one has read the last page, and remains
+impatient for what is still to come.--_Boston Post_.
+
+
+THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+_In Riverside Library for Young People. With Maps. 16mo, 75 cents._
+
+John Fiske's "War of Independence" is a miracle.... A book brilliant and
+effective beyond measure.... It is a statement that every child can
+comprehend, but that only a man of consummate genius could have
+written.--Mrs. CAROLINE H. DALL, _in the Springfield Republican_.
+
+The story of the Revolution, as Mr. Fiske tells it, is one of surpassing
+interest. His treatment is a marvel of clearness and comprehensiveness;
+discarding non-essential details, he selects with a fine historic
+instinct the main currents of history, traces them with the utmost
+precision, and tells the whole story in a masterly fashion. His little
+volume will be a text-book for older quite as much as for young
+readers.--_Christian Union_ (New York).
+
+
+OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY
+
+_Based on the Doctrine of Evolution, with Criticisms on the Positive
+Philosophy. In two volumes. 8vo, $6.00._
+
+"You must allow me to thank you for the very great interest with which I
+have at last slowly read the whole of your work.... I never in my life
+read so lucid an expositor (and therefore thinker) as you are; and I
+think that I understand nearly the whole, though perhaps less clearly
+about cosmic theism and causation than other parts. It is hopeless to
+attempt out of so much to specify what has interested me most, and
+probably you would not care to hear. It pleased me to find that here and
+there I had arrived, from my own crude thoughts, at some of the same
+conclusions with you, though I could seldom or never have given my
+reasons for such conclusions."--CHARLES DARWIN.
+
+This work of Mr. Fiske's may be not unfairly designated the most
+important contribution yet made by America to philosophical
+literature.--_The Academy_ (London).
+
+
+DARWINISM, AND OTHER ESSAYS.
+
+If ever there was a spirit thoroughly invigorated by the "joy of right
+understanding" it is that of the author of these pieces. Even the reader
+catches something of his intellectual buoyancy, and is thus carried
+almost lightly through discussions which would be hard and dry in the
+hands of a less animated writer.... No less confident and serene than
+his acceptance of the utmost logical results of recent scientific
+discovery is Mr. Fiske's assurance that the foundations of spiritual
+truths, so called, cannot possibly be shaken thereby.--_The Atlantic
+Monthly_ (Boston).
+
+
+THE UNSEEN WORLD,
+
+_And Other Essays. 12mo, $2.00._
+
+To each study the writer seems to have brought, besides an excellent
+quality of discriminating judgment, full and fresh special knowledge,
+that enables him to supply much information on the subject, whatever it
+may be, that is not to be found in the volume he is noticing. To the
+knowledge, analytical power, and faculty of clear statement, that appear
+in all these papers, Mr. Fiske adds a just independence of thought that
+conciliates respectful consideration of his views, even when they are
+most at variance with the commonly accepted ones.--_Boston Advertiser_.
+
+
+EXCURSIONS OF AN EVOLUTIONIST.
+
+_12mo, $2.00._
+
+Among our thoughtful essayists there are none more brilliant than Mr.
+John Fiske. His pure style suits his clear thought. He does not write
+unless he has something to say; and when he does write he shows not only
+that he has thoroughly acquainted himself with the subject but that he
+has to a rare degree the art of so massing his matter as to bring out
+the true value of the leading points in artistic relief. It is this
+perspective which makes his work such agreeable reading even on abstruse
+subjects, and has enabled him to play the same part in popularizing
+Spencer in this country that Littre performed for Comte in France, and
+Dumont for Bentham in England. The same qualities appear to good
+advantage in his new volume, which contains his later essays on his
+favorite subject of evolution.... They are well worth reperusal.--_The
+Nation_ (New York).
+
+
+MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS.
+
+_Old Tales and Superstitions interpreted by Comparative Mythology. 12mo,
+$2.00._
+
+Mr. Fiske has given us a book which is at once sensible and attractive,
+on a subject about which much is written that is crotchety or
+tedious.--W.R.S. RALSTON, in _Athenaeum_ (London).
+
+A perusal of this thorough work cannot be too strongly recommended to
+all who are interested in comparative mythology.--_Revue Critique_
+(Paris).
+
+
+THE DESTINY OF MAN,
+
+_Viewed in the Light of his Origin. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00._
+
+Mr. Fiske has given us in his "Destiny of Man" a most attractive
+condensation of his views as expressed in his various other works. One
+is charmed by the directness and clearness of his style, his simple and
+pure English, and his evident knowledge of his subject.... Of one thing
+we may be sure, that none are leading us more surely or rapidly to the
+full truth than men like the author of this little book, who reverently
+study the works of God for the lessons which he would teach his
+children.--_Christian Union_ (New York).
+
+
+THE IDEA OF GOD,
+
+_As Affected by Modern Knowledge. 16mo, gilt top, $1.00._
+
+The charms of John Fiske's style are patent. The secrets of its fluency,
+clearness, and beauty are secrets which many a maker of literary stuffs
+has attempted to unravel, in order to weave like cloth-of-gold.... A
+model for authors and a delight to readers.--_The Critic_ (New York).
+
+*** _For sale by all Booksellers. Sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of
+price by the Publishers,_
+
+HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
+
+_4 Park Street, Boston; 11 East 17th Street, New York._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
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