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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. Shedlock
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Pianoforte Sonata
+       Its Origin and Development
+
+Author: J.S. Shedlock
+
+Release Date: November 16, 2005 [EBook #17074]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIANOFORTE SONATA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by John Hagerson, Charles Aldarondo, Linda Cantoni,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+PIANOFORTE SONATA
+
+ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+BY
+
+J.S. SHEDLOCK, B.A.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT OF BERNARDO PASQUINI IN THE CHURCH OF SAN
+LORENZO IN LUCINA ROME
+
+SKETCHED BY STRITCH HUTTON]
+
+METHUEN & CO.
+36 ESSEX STREET, W.C.
+LONDON
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAP.                                                        PAGE
+
+   I. INTRODUCTORY                                              1
+
+  II. JOHANN KUHNAU                                            38
+
+ III. BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU           71
+
+  IV. EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES              82
+
+   V. HAYDN AND MOZART                                        111
+
+  VI. PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN                               130
+
+ VII. LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN                                    160
+
+VIII. TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN                         192
+
+  IX. SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT                     207
+
+   X. THE SONATA IN ENGLAND                                   221
+
+  XI. MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC.           235
+
+      INDEX                                                   241
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This little volume is entitled "The Pianoforte Sonata: its Origin and
+Development." Some of the early sonatas mentioned in it were, however,
+written for instruments of the jack or tangent kind. Even Beethoven's
+sonatas up to Op. 27, inclusive, were published for "Clavicembalo o
+Pianoforte." The Germans have the convenient generic term "Clavier,"
+which includes the old and the new instruments with hammer action;
+hence, they speak of a _Clavier Sonate_ written, say, by Kuhnau, in
+the seventeenth, or of one by Brahms in the nineteenth, century.
+
+The term "Piano e Forte" is, however, to be found in letters of a
+musical instrument maker named Paliarino, written, as we learn from
+the valuable article "Pianoforte," contributed by Mr. Hipkins to Sir
+George Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, already in the
+year 1598, and addressed to Alfonso II., Duke of Modena. The earliest
+sonata for a keyed instrument mentioned in this volume was published
+in 1695; and to avoid what seems an unnecessary distinction, I have
+used the term "Pianoforte Sonata" for that sonata and for some other
+works which followed, and which are usually and properly termed
+"Harpsichord Sonatas."
+
+I have to acknowledge kind assistance received from Mr. A.W. Hutton,
+Mr. F.G. Edwards, and Mr. E. Van der Straeten. And I also beg to thank
+Mr. W. Barclay Squire and Mr. A. Hughes-Hughes for courteous help at
+the British Museum; likewise Dr. Kopfermann, chief librarian of the
+musical section of the Berlin Royal Library.
+
+J.S. SHEDLOCK.
+
+LONDON, 1895.
+
+
+
+
+THE PIANOFORTE SONATA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+
+In history we find certain names associated with great movements:
+Luther with the Reformation, or Garibaldi with the liberation of
+Italy. Luther certainly posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg
+his famous Theses, and burnt the Papal Bull at the gates of that city;
+yet before Luther there lived men, such as the scholar Erasmus, who
+have been appropriately named Reformers before the Reformation. So,
+too, Cavour's cautious policy paved the way for Garibaldi's brilliant
+victories. Once again, Leonardo da Vinci is named as the inventor of
+chiaroscuro, yet he was preceded by Fra Filippo Lippi. And in similar
+manner, in music, certain men are associated with certain forms.
+Haydn, for example, is called the father of the quartet; close
+investigation, however, would show that he was only a link, and
+certainly not the first one in a long evolution. So, too, with the
+sonata. The present volume is, however, specially concerned with the
+_clavier_ or pianoforte sonata; and for that we have a convenient
+starting-point--the Sonata in B flat of Kuhnau, published in 1695. The
+date is easy to remember, for in that same year died England's
+greatest musician, Henry Purcell.
+
+Before studying the history of the pianoforte sonata, even in outline,
+it is essential that something should be said about the early history
+of the _sonata_. That term appears first to have been used in
+contradistinction to _cantata_: the one was a piece _sounded_
+(_suonata_, from _sonando_) by instruments; the other, one _sung_ by
+voices. The form of these early sonatas (as they appear in Giovanni
+Gabrieli's works towards the close of the sixteenth century) was
+vague; yet, in spite of light imitations, the basis was harmonic,
+rather than contrapuntal. They were among the first fruits of the
+Renaissance in Italy. But soon there came about a process of
+differentiation. Praetorius, in his _Syntagma musicum_, published at
+Wolfenbüttel in 1619, distinguishes between the _sonata_ and the
+_canzona_. Speaking generally, from the one seems to have come the
+sonata proper; from the other, the suite. During the whole of the
+eighteenth century there was a continual intercrossing of these two
+species; it is no easy matter, therefore, to trace the early stages of
+development of each separately.
+
+Marpurg, in his description of various kinds of pieces in his
+_Clavierstücke_, published at Berlin in 1762, says: "Sonatas are
+pieces in three or four movements, marked merely _Allegro_, _Adagio_,
+_Presto_, etc., although in character they may be really an
+_Allemande_, _Courante_, and _Gigue_." Corelli, as will be mentioned
+later on, gave dance titles in addition to Allegro, Adagio, etc.
+Marpurg also states that "when the middle movement is in slow time it
+is not always in the key of the first and last movements." This,
+again, shows intercrossing. The genuine suite consisted of several
+dance movements (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue) all in the
+same key. But we find occasionally in suites, a Fugue or Fuguetta, or
+even an Aria or Adagio; and in name, at any rate, one dance movement
+has formed part of the sonata since the time of Emanuel Bach.
+
+In 1611, Banchieri, an Olivetan monk, published at Venice his
+_L'Organo suonarino_, a work "useful and necessary to
+organists,"--thus runs the title-page. At the end of the volume there
+are some pieces, vocal and instrumental (a Concerto for soprano or
+tenor, with organ, a Fantasia, Ricercata, etc.), among which are to be
+found two _sonatas_, the one entitled, "Prima Sonata, doppio
+soggietto," the other "Seconda Sonata, soggietto triplicato." They are
+written out in open score of four staves, with mezzo-soprano, alto,
+tenor, and bass clefs. To show how the sonatas of those days differed
+both in form and contents from the sonata of our century, the first of
+the above-mentioned is given in short score. It will, probably, remind
+readers of "the first (_i.e._ sonatas) that my (_i.e._ Dr. Burney)
+musical inquiries have discovered, viz., some sonatas by Francesco
+Turini, which consisted of only a single movement, in fugue and
+imitation throughout."
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+Turini was organist of Brescia Cathedral, and in 1624 published
+_Madrigali a una, due, tre voci, con alcune Sonate e a tre, Ven.
+1624_. Between Turini, also Carlo Farina, who published violin
+sonatas at Dresden in 1628, and Corelli (_b._ 1653), who brought out
+his first work in 1683, one name of great importance is Giovanni
+Legrenzi.
+
+In the eighth volume of Dr. Burney's musical extracts there are two
+sonatas, _a tre, a due violini e violone_, by Legrenzi (opera ottava,
+1677). The first is in B flat. It commences with a movement in common
+time entitled _La Benivoglia_.
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+An Adagio in G minor (only six bars) is followed by an Allegro in D
+minor, six-eight time, closing on a major chord; then eight bars
+common time in B flat (no heading); and, finally, a Presto
+(three-four) commencing in G minor and closing in B flat. None of the
+movements is in binary form.
+
+The 2nd Sonata, in D, has five short movements. No. 1 has an opening
+of thirty-seven bars in common time, fugato. There is a modulation in
+the ninth bar to the dominant, and, later on, a return to the opening
+theme and key; in the intervening space, however, in spite of
+modulation, the principal key is not altogether avoided.
+
+Sonatas of various kinds by Legrenzi appeared between 1655 and 1677.
+Then there were the "Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale ouero Sonate da
+Camera, etc.," of Gio. Maria Bononcini, father of Battista Bononcini,
+the famous rival of Handel, published at Bologna in 1669, and the
+sonatas of Gio. Battista Vitali (Bologna, 1677). Giambatista Bassani
+of Bologna, although his junior by birth, was the violin master of the
+great Corelli. His sonatas only appeared after those of his
+illustrious pupil, yet may have been composed before. Of the twelve in
+Op. 5, most have many short movements; some, indeed, are so short as
+to be scarcely deserving of the name.
+
+By the time of Arcangelo Corelli, who, as mentioned, published his
+first work (Op. 1, twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass) in 1683,
+sonatas answered to the definition given by Mattheson in his _Das neu
+eröffnete Orchester_ (1713), in which they are said to consist of
+alternate Adagio and Allegro. J.G. Walther, again, in his dictionary
+of music,[1] which appeared at Leipzig in 1732, describes a sonata as
+a "grave artistic composition for instruments, especially violins."
+The idea of grouping movements was already in vogue in the sixteenth
+century. Morley in his _Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical
+Music_, printed in 1597, speaks of the desirableness of _alternating_
+Pavans and Galliards, the one being "a kind of staid musick ordained
+for grave dancing," and the other "a lighter and more stirring kind of
+dancing." Contrast was obtained, too, not only by difference in the
+character, but also, in the measure of the music; the former was in
+common, the latter in triple time.
+
+With regard to the grouping of movements, Corelli's sonatas show
+several varieties. The usual number, however, was four, and the order
+generally--slow, fast, slow, fast. Among the forty-eight (Op. 1, 2, 3,
+and 4, published 1685, 1690, 1694, and 1700 respectively) we find the
+majority in four movements, in the order given above[2]; of the twelve
+in Op. 3, no less than eleven have four movements, but--
+
+No. 1 (in F) has       Grave, Allegro, Vivace, Allegro.
+No. 6 (in G),          Vivace, Grave, Allegro, Allegro.
+No. 10 (in A minor),   Vivace, Allegro, Adagio, Allegro.
+
+There are, however, eight sonatas consisting of _three movements_; and
+as this, a century later, became the normal number, we will give the
+list:--
+
+Op. 1, No. 7 (in C)            Allegro, Grave, Allegro.
+                               (Middle movement begins in
+                               A minor, but ends in C.)
+
+Op. 2, No. 2 (in D minor)      Allemanda (Adagio)
+                               Corrente (Allegro), Giga
+                               (Allegro).
+
+Op. 2, No. 6 (in G minor)      Allemanda (Largo), Corrente,
+                               Giga.
+
+Op. 2, No. 9 (F sharp minor)   Allemanda (Largo).
+                               Tempo di Sarabanda (Largo).
+                               Giga (Allegro).
+
+Op. 4, No. 8 (D minor)         Preludio (Grave).
+                               Allemanda (Allegro).
+                               Sarabanda (Allegro).
+
+Op. 4, No. 10 (G)              Preludio[3] (Adagio) and Allegro.
+                               Adagio and Grave (E minor).
+                               Tempo di Gavotta (Allegro).
+
+Op. 4, No. 11 (C minor)        Preludio (Largo).
+                               Corrente (Allegro).
+                               Allemanda (Allegro).
+
+Op. 4, No. 12 (B minor)        Preludio (Largo).
+                               Allemanda (Presto).
+                               Giga (Allegro).
+
+It is interesting to note that each of the two sonatas (Op. 1, No. 7,
+and Op. 4, No. 10), most in keeping with its title of sonata, has the
+middle movement in a relative key. Op. 1, No. 7, begins with an
+Allegro in common time; and the short Grave is followed by a light
+Allegro in six-eight time. The first movement, with its marked return
+to the principal key, is very interesting in the matter of form. The
+other sonatas with suite titles have all their movements in the same
+key. Locatelli in his _XII Sonate_ for flute, published early in the
+eighteenth century, has in the first: Andante, Adagio, Presto; also
+Nos. 3, 5, etc. So, too, in Tartini's Sonatas (Op. 1) there are also
+some in three (No. 3, etc.). But Emanuel Bach commenced with that
+number, to which, with few and unimportant exceptions, he remained
+faithful; likewise to the slow movement dividing the two quick ones.
+The three-movement form used by J.S. Bach for his concertos and
+sonatas no doubt considerably influenced his son. But already, in
+1668, Diderich Becker, in his _Musikalische Frülings-Früchte_, wrote
+sonatas for violins, etc. and _continuo_, in three movements. (No. 10,
+Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. Again, Sonata No. 19 opens with a movement
+in common time, most probably an Allegro; then comes an Adagio, and,
+lastly, a movement in six-four, most probably quick _tempo_.) These
+sonatas of Becker _a 3_, _4_ or _5_, with _basso continuo_, are
+unfortunately only printed in parts. As a connecting link between the
+Gabrielis and Corelli, and more particularly as a forerunner of
+Kuhnau, Becker is of immense importance. We are concerned with the
+clavier sonata, otherwise we should certainly devote more space to
+this composer. We have been able to trace back sonatas by German
+composers to Becker (1668), and by Italian composers to Legrenzi
+(1655); those of Gabrieli and Banchieri, as short pieces, not a group
+of movements, are not taken into account. Now, of earlier history, we
+do know that Hans Leo. von Hasler, said to have been born at Nuremberg
+in 1564, studied first with his father, but afterwards at Venice, and
+for a whole year under A. Gabrieli. Italian and German art are thus
+intimately connected; but what each gave to, or received from, the
+other with regard to the sonata seems impossible to determine. The
+Becker sonatas appeared at Hamburg, and surely E. Bach must have been
+acquainted with them. Becker in his preface mentions another Hamburg
+musician--a certain Johann Schop--who did much for the cause of
+instrumental music. Schop, it appears, published concertos for various
+instruments already in the year 1644. And there was still another work
+of importance published at Amsterdam, very early in the eighteenth
+century, by the famous violinist and composer G. Torelli, which must
+have been known to E. Bach. It is entitled "Six Sonates ou Concerts à
+4, 5, e 6 Parties," and of these, five have three movements (Allegro,
+Adagio, and Allegro).
+
+Corelli was the founder of a school of violin composers, of which
+Geminiani,[4] Locatelli,[5] Veracini,[6] and Tartini[7] were the most
+distinguished representatives; the first two were actually pupils of
+the master. In the sonatas of these men there is an advance in two
+directions: sonata-form[8] is in process of evolution from binary
+form, _i.e._ the second half of the first section is filled with
+subject-matter of more definite character; the bars of modulation and
+development are growing in number and importance; and the principal
+theme appears as the commencement of a recapitulation. We should like
+to say that _binary_ is changing into _ternary_ form; unfortunately,
+however, the latter term is used for a different kind of movement. To
+speak of a movement in sonata-form, containing three sections
+(exposition, development, and recapitulation) as in binary form, seems
+a decided misnomer.
+
+The violinists just mentioned were the last great writers of sonatas
+in Italy. Emanuel Bach arose during the first half of the eighteenth
+century, and, henceforth, Germany took the lead; Bach was followed by
+Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The influence of the Corelli[9] school
+was felt in Germany and also in England. Sonatas were published by
+Veracini at Dresden in 1721, and by Tartini and Locatelli at Amsterdam
+before 1740. Again Veracini was for a time solo violinist to the
+Elector of Dresden (1720-23); Tartini lived for three years at Prague
+(1723-26), while Locatelli, during the first half of the eighteenth
+century, made frequent journeys throughout Germany. Emanuel Bach, the
+real founder of the modern pianoforte sonata, must have been
+influenced by their works.
+
+In a history of the development of the sonata generally, those of
+Corelli would occupy an important place, for in them we find not only
+fugal and dance forms, but also hints of sonata-form.
+
+Dr. Parry, in his article on "Sonata" in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians_, has named the Corrente of Corelli's 5th
+Sonata in Op. 4 as offering "nearly a miniature of modern binary
+form." The well-known Giga Allegro of the 9th Sonata (Op. 5), and the
+Allemanda Allegro of the 10th Concerto in C, also present remarkable
+foreshadowings.
+
+Handel, however, furnishes a very striking illustration--
+
+In the six "Sonatas or Trios for two Hoboys with a thorough bass for
+the harpsichord," said to have been composed already in 1696, we find
+quick movements in binary form. In some, the first section offers both
+a first and a second subject, while in the second section, after
+modulation, there is a return to the opening theme, though quite at
+the close of that section. A brief description of one will make the
+form clearer. The second Allegro of No. 4 (in F) has two sections. The
+first, which ends in the dominant key (C), contains forty-six bars.
+The opening theme begins thus:--
+
+[Music illustration: _a_]
+
+At the twenty-ninth bar, a passage leads to the second theme--
+
+[Music illustration: _b_]
+
+This second theme is, in a measure, evolved from the first. In any
+case, it is of subordinate character; and it differs slightly as given
+by first or second oboe, whereas the principal theme appears in
+exactly the same manner for both instruments.
+
+The second section opens with developments of _b_, and modulation from
+C major to D minor; _a_ also is developed, the music passing from the
+last-named key back to the opening one. There is a full close in that
+key, and then modulation to F. The remaining twenty-two bars give the
+first section in condensed form: first and second subjects and
+coda.[10]
+
+It would be interesting to trace the influences acting on the youth
+Handel at the time when he wrote these sonatas. Most probably they
+were Johann Philipp Krieger's[11] sonatas for violins and bass; N.A.
+Strungk's sonatas published at Dresden in 1691; and more especially
+Agostino Steffani's "Sonate da Camera" for two violins, alto, and
+bass, published in 1683. An opera by the last-named, which appeared at
+Hanover in 1699, has an "Air de Ballet," which contains the first
+notes of "Let the bright Seraphim"; besides, it is known that Handel
+culled ideas and "conveyed" notes from works of other composers; also,
+that he turned them to the best account.
+
+In the same year in which Corelli published his Op. 1 (1683), Domenico
+Scarlatti, the famous harpsichord player, was probably born; in the
+history of development his name is the principal one of importance
+between Corelli and Emanuel Bach. In the matter of technique he
+rendered signal service, but, for the moment, we are concerned with
+his contribution towards development. Scarlatti does not seem to have
+ever considered the sonata in the sense of a work consisting of
+several contrasting movements; all of his are of only one movement.
+The title "sonata" as applied to his pieces is, therefore, misleading.
+Whether the term was actually used by the composer himself seems
+doubtful. The first thirty of the sixty Scarlatti sonatas published by
+Breitkopf & Härtel appeared during the lifetime of the composer at
+Madrid. They are dedicated to John the Just, King of Portugal, and are
+merely entitled
+
+     _Essercizi per Gravicembalo._
+
+In editions of the eighteenth century the composer's pieces are styled
+Lessons or Suites. However, twelve published by J. Johnson, London,
+are described on the title-page as _Sonatas modernas_.
+
+From the earliest days of instrumental music dance tunes were divided
+into two sections. The process of evolution is interesting. In the
+earliest specimens, such as the _Branle_ given in the Orchésographie
+of Thoinot Arbeau, we find both sections in the same key, and there is
+only one theme. The movement towards the dominant note in this
+_Branle_ may be regarded as a latent modulation. In time the first
+section was developed, and the latent modulation became real; then,
+after certain intermediate stages, the custom was established of
+passing from the principal to the dominant key (or, in a minor piece,
+to the relative major or dominant minor), in which the first section
+closed. But in Corelli,[12] and even in Scarlatti,[13] we find,
+occasionally, a return to an earlier stage (_i.e._ a first section
+ending in the same key in which it commenced). In most of his pieces
+Scarlatti modulates to the dominant; in minor, to the relative major.
+Some exceptions deserve mention. In the Breitkopf & Härtel collection,
+No. 26, in A major, passes to the minor key of the dominant; and No.
+11, in C minor, modulates to the minor key of the dominant, but the
+section closes in the major key of the dominant.
+
+Scarlatti's sonatas consist, then, of one movement in binary form of
+the early type. Only in a few of these pieces is there a definite
+second subject; in none, a return to the opening theme. [Music
+illustration] In No. 26 there is just a return to the first bar (see
+second section, bar 11), but the previous ten bars show no modulation,
+and one can scarcely speak of thematic development. After the few bars
+of development and modulation, in some cases, the second section is
+found to consist merely of a repetition of some part of the first
+section, the key being tonic instead of dominant. This is,
+practically, embryonic sonata-form. The tonic and dominant portions of
+the first section are becoming differentiated; but the landmark,
+_i.e._ the return to the opening theme in the second section which
+divides binary from sonata form, is, in Scarlatti, non-existent. His
+first sections often consist of a principal theme and passages, also
+phrases indirectly connected with the opening one; sometimes of a
+chain of short phrases more or less evolved from the opening thought
+(see Nos. 1, 21, 29). (These and the numbers which follow refer to the
+Breitkopf & Härtel edition of sixty Scarlatti sonatas.) The composer
+often passes through the minor key of the dominant (in the first
+section) before arriving at the major; sometimes the major is
+introduced only late in the section (Nos. 7, 17, etc.), or minor
+remains (No. 26). We meet with a similar proceeding in Beethoven.
+Minor pieces often pass to the dominant minor, but end in major
+(_i.e._, first section). In Scarlatti there is, for the most part, no
+second subject, but frequently (Nos. 5, 7, 9, etc.) a concluding
+phrase which can, at times, be traced to the opening theme. Sonata 6,
+in F, shows a second subject of a certain independence. The best
+examples are to be found in Nos. 24 and 29 (in A and E); in these the
+character of the second subject differs from that of the first, and it
+is also in a minor key, which offers still another contrast.
+
+And now a word or two respecting Scarlatti's method of development. He
+alters figures (Nos. 12 and 54), extends them (Nos. 9 and 54), but
+often merely repeats passages on the same degrees as those of the
+first section, or on different ones. He makes use of imitation (Nos. 7
+and 36). Sometimes he evolves a phrase from a motive (No. 11). In No.
+19 the development assumes a certain importance. It commences, not, as
+in most cases, with the opening theme or figure of the first section,
+but with a group of semiquaver notes which appears later in that
+section. In No. 20 Scarlatti preserves the rhythm, but with total
+change of notes (No. 20)--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The same number gives another interesting specimen of change of
+rhythm. In No. 48 he picks out an unimportant group of notes, and
+works it by imitation and sequence. There are some interesting
+specimens of development in the thirty sonatas printed from
+manuscripts in the possession of Lord Viscount Fitzwilliam by Robert
+Birchall. Scarlatti's development bars are seldom many in number.
+
+After modulation and development, the music slides, as it were, into
+some phrase from the first section,[14] and allowance being made on
+account of difference of key (there the music was passing, or had
+passed from tonic; here it is returning to that key), the rest is more
+or less a repetition of the first section. _More or less_: sometimes
+the repetition is literal; at other times there is considerable
+deviation; and shortenings are frequent. With regard to style of
+writing for the clavier--a few canonic imitations excepted--there is
+no real polyphony. Most of the sonatas are in only two parts. The
+composer revels in rapid passages (runs, broken chords, simple and
+compound), wide leaps, difficult octaves, crossing of hands, and, of
+course, short shakes innumerable. Domenico Scarlatti was indeed one of
+the most renowned _virtuosi_ on the clavier. Handel met him at Rome in
+1708, and Cardinal Ottoboni persuaded them to compete with each other.
+We are told that upon the harpsichord the victory was doubtful, but
+upon the organ, Scarlatti himself confessed the superiority of his
+rival.[15]
+
+Johann Kuhnau published a sonata for clavier in 1695, and this was
+followed up by a set of seven sonatas ("Frische Früchte") in 1696, and
+a few years later (1700) by the seven "Bible" Sonatas. That he was the
+first composer who wrote a sonata for the clavier is a point which
+cannot be overlooked, and in the evolution of the sonata he occupies
+an interesting position. In the "Frische Früchte" there is, as Dr.
+C.H. Parry truly remarks in his excellent article "Sonata" in Sir G.
+Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, an awakening sense of the
+relation and balance of keys; but in the "Bible" Sonatas the form and
+order of the movements is entirely determined by the Bible stories. As
+specimens of programme-music they are altogether remarkable, and will,
+later on, be described in detail; they do not, however, come within
+the regular line of development. It was, of course, natural that such
+a new departure should attract the notice of John Sebastian Bach, who
+was Kuhnau's immediate successor as cantor of St. Thomas' School,
+Leipzig, and Spitta, in his life of Bach, refers to that composer's
+_Capriccio sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo_, and
+reminds us that "Kuhnau as well as so many others had some influence
+on Bach." Of course, among the "so many others," Froberger's name--as
+we shall see later on from Kuhnau's preface--deserves a prominent
+place. In addition to what Kuhnau says, Mattheson has recorded that
+"Froberger could depict whole histories on the clavier, giving a
+representation of the persons present and taking part in them, with
+all their natural characters." When writing the Capriccio above named,
+Spitta believes that Bach was specially influenced by the last of the
+"Bible" Sonatas (we may perhaps add that Spitta tells us that Bach
+was intimately acquainted with Kuhnau). He indeed says: "We might
+doubt the early origin of the Capriccio if its evident 'dependence' on
+Kuhnau did not solve the mystery." Then, again, in a Sonata in D by
+Bach, published in the Bach Gesellschaft edition, Spitta calls
+attention to the opening subject in D, and does not hesitate to
+declare that "it is constructed on the pattern of a particular part of
+the story of Jacob's marriage" (the 3rd of the "Bible" Sonatas). His
+description of the Bach sonata would, doubtless, have attracted more
+notice but for the fact that copies of the Kuhnau sonatas were
+extremely rare; they were, we believe, never reprinted since the
+commencement of the eighteenth century. The first two have now been
+published by Messrs Novello & Co. The Kuhnau influence on Bach seems,
+however, to have been of short duration; for, after these juvenile
+attempts, as Spitta observes, "he never again returned to this branch
+of music in the whole course of a long artistic career extending over
+nearly fifty years." The fugue form absorbed nearly the whole
+attention of that master; and the idea of programme-music remained in
+abeyance until Beethoven revived it a century later.[16] Emanuel Bach
+inherited some of his father's genius, and he may instinctively have
+felt the utter hopelessness of following directly in his footsteps.
+J.S. Bach had exhausted the possibilities of the fugue form. It was
+perhaps fortunate for Emanuel Bach that, while still young, he left
+his father's house. After residing for a few years at
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he entered the service of Frederick the Great;
+and at the court of that monarch he came, at any rate, directly under
+Italian influence.
+
+An interesting link between Kuhnau and E. Bach is Mattheson, who
+published at Hamburg in 1713 a sonata dedicated to the one who can
+best play it (_derjenigen Persohn gewidmet, die sie am besten spielen
+wird_). The work itself not being available, the following description
+of it by J. Faisst (_Caecilia_, vol. 25, p. 157) may prove
+interesting:--"It (_i.e._ the sonata) consists of only one movement,
+which, considering its evidently intentional wealth of technique,
+might be named a Toccata. But in form this one movement clearly
+belongs to the sonata order, and, in fact, holds a middle place
+between the tendencies towards sonata-form (the term taken in the
+narrower sense of form of one single movement) noticeable in Kuhnau,
+and the more developed shape which this form has assumed within recent
+times. We have here three sections. In the opening one, the theme,
+after its first exposition in the key of G, forms the basis of various
+passages, and then appears in the key of the dominant, followed again
+by passages of larger extent and richer contents; finally, in
+abbreviated form, it reappears in the tonic. The second section
+commences in the parallel key, E minor, with passages which recall
+those of the first section, and continues with the theme in the same
+key; afterwards theme and passages are developed through the keys of A
+minor, C major, G major, D major and B minor; in the last, in which
+the theme occurs, there is a full close. As third section the first is
+taken _Da Capo_." It is evident from a remark made by Mattheson in his
+_Der volkommene Capellmeister_, which appeared at Hamburg in 1739,
+that some of the sonatas written during the transition period, between
+Corelli and E. Bach, are lost, or, at any rate, have not been
+discovered.[17] Mattheson says: "During the last years successful
+attempts have been made to write sonatas for the clavier (formerly
+they were for violins or instruments of that kind); still, up to now,
+they have not the right form, and are capable of being touched (_i.e._
+played) rather than of touching: they aim at the movement of fingers
+rather than of hearts."[18]
+
+A little later than Mattheson (_i.e._ in 1721), Pier Giuseppo Sandoni,
+husband of the famous vocalist Cuzzoni, published at London "Sonate
+per il Cembalo," dedicated to the Duchess of Pembroke. No. 1, in D
+minor, has three movements, an Allemande, Largo, and Giga Presto; they
+are all short, and in two sections; and, as a rule, the writing is in
+two parts. No. 2, in F, opens with an Allegro of peculiar form. It
+has four sections, each of which is repeated; the first (seven bars)
+modulates to the key of C, closing thus--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The second section (also consisting of seven bars) soon modulates to D
+minor, closing in that key in a manner similar to the first. The third
+section (ten bars) consists of modulation and slight development, and
+closes in A minor. The fourth section (fifteen bars) passes by means
+of broken chords (in imitation of the last bar of the previous
+section) through various keys, ending in the same fashion as the first
+section, only, by way probably of intensification at the end, there
+are seven instead of four quaver chords; the section, of course, ends
+in F. This movement in the matter of form offers an interesting link
+between Kuhnau and E. Bach. The second movement is a minuet, with
+variations; it certainly has a beginning, but seems endless. The 3rd
+Sonata, in A, resembles No. 1 in form, also in grouping of movements.
+
+And in addition to the sonata of Mattheson, the Sei Sonatine per
+Violino e Cembalo, di Georgio Philippo Telemann, published at
+Amsterdam in 1721, will give us an approximate idea of the clavier
+sonata between Kuhnau and Emanuel Bach. Each number, by the way, is
+headed--title-page notwithstanding--a sonata. No. 1, in A major,
+consists of four movements, Adagio, Allegro, Largo, Allegro, and all
+the four are in binary form. The second is naturally the most
+important; the others are very short and simple. In this Allegro,
+besides the allusion in the dominant key to the theme at the opening
+of the second section there is a return to it, after modulation, in
+the principal key. Some of the other sonatas are longer, but No. 1
+represents, roughly, the other five as to form and contents. No. 6, in
+F, by the way, has only three movements: Vivace, Cantabile, and
+Presto.
+
+The "Sonate per Gravicembalo, novamente composte," published by
+Giovanni Battista Pescetti in 1739, deserve notice, since they
+appeared three years before the six sonatas dedicated by Emanuel Bach
+to Frederick the Great. They are nine in number. In style of writing,
+order, and character of movements, they bear the stamp of the period
+in which they were written. Most of the movements in binary form are
+of the intermediate type, _i.e._ they have the principal theme in the
+dominant at the beginning of the exposition section, and again, later
+on, in the principal key. There is considerable variety in the order
+and number of movements. No. 1, for instance, has an Adagio, an
+Allegro, and a Menuett with variations. No. 2, in D, has four
+movements: Andante, Adagio, Allegro, Giga; the short Adagio is in D
+minor. No. 3, in G minor: Presto and A Tempo Giusto (a dignified
+fugue). The influence of Handel is strong, also that of Scarlatti.
+Bars such as the following--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+foreshadow, in a curious manner, the _Alberti_ bass.
+
+A great number of clavier sonatas were written about the time during
+which Emanuel Bach flourished: his first sonatas appeared in 1742, his
+last in 1787. An interesting collection of no less than seventy-two
+sonatas (sixty-seven by various composers; five anonymous), issued in
+twelve parts, under the title _Oeuvres mêlées_ (twelve books, each
+containing six sonatas), was published by Haffner at Würzburg,
+somewhere between 1760 and 1767. And another collection of symphonies
+and sonatas, principally by Saxon composers, was published at Leipzig
+in 1762 under the title _Musikalisches Magazin_. We will give the
+names of some of the chief composers, with titles of their works,
+adding a few other details. It is difficult in some cases to ascertain
+the year of publication; and it is practically impossible to say when
+the sonatas were actually composed:--
+
+     BACH, Wilh. Friedemann. Sei sonate, No. 1,[19] D
+     major (Dresden, 1745). Sonata in C (published in Litolff's
+     _Maîtres du Clavecin_), and others in D and G (autographs),
+     and in F, A, and B flat (manuscripts).
+
+     BACH, Joh. Ernst. Two sonatas (in _Oeuvres
+     mêlées_).
+
+     NICHELMANN, Christoph. Sei brevi sonate, etc., Op.
+     2; Nuremberg (between 1745-1756).
+
+     HASSE. Two sonatas in E flat and B flat
+     (manuscript; on one is the date of 1754). Two sonatas, one
+     in D minor (only one Lento movement); the other in D major
+     (only one Allegro movement in old binary form). These are
+     both in the Leipzig collection named above.
+
+     BENDA, Georg. Sei sonate (Berlin, 1757). Sonatas in
+     G, C minor, and G, also seven sonatinas (Vermischte
+     Clavierstücke, Gotha, 1780).
+
+     WAGENSEIL, Georg. Sonata (_Oeuvres mêlées_). Six
+     sonatas for the harpsichord (with accompaniment for a
+     violin).[20] Opera prima. (A. Hummel, London.)
+
+     SCHAFFRATH, Christoph.[21] Six sonates, Op. 2
+     (published by Haffner, Nuremberg, 1754).
+
+     MOZART, Leopold. Three sonatas (_Oeuvres mêlées_).
+
+     MÜTHEL, Joh. Gottfr. Three sonatas, etc. (Haffner,
+     Nuremberg, about 1753); three sonatas (autograph).
+
+     UMSTATT, Joseph.[22] One sonata (_Oeuvres mêlées_).
+     Sonata consisting of only a Minuetto, Trio, and Gigue
+     (Leipzig collection). And the two Italians--
+
+     GALUPPI. Sonate per cembalo (London); and
+
+     PARADIES, P. Domenico. Twelve sonate di
+     gravicembalo (London).
+
+     GRÉTRY, Belgian composer (1741-1813), wrote "Six
+     sonates pour le clavecin" (1768), to which, unfortunately,
+     we have not been able to gain access.
+
+From the two collections, etc., may be gathered many facts of
+interest. First, as regards the number and character of movements in a
+sonata. Emanuel Bach kept, for the most part, to three: two fast
+movements, divided by a slow one.[23] In the second of his Leipzig
+collections (1780), there are two with only two movements (Nos. 2 and
+3; a few bars connecting the two movements of No. 3). But among other
+composers there are many examples; in some sonatas, the first movement
+is a slow one; in others, both movements are quick, in which case the
+second one is frequently a minuet.[24] All twelve sonatas of Paradies
+have only two movements.
+
+Of sonatas in three movements, some commence with a slow movement
+followed by two quick movements.[25] (In one instance, in E. Bach's
+sonatas, the 1st Collection, No. 2, in F, we even find two slow
+movements followed by a quick one, Andante, Larghetto, Allegro assai.)
+But the greater number had the usual order:--Allegro or Allegretto,
+Andante or Adagio, and Allegro or Presto. Thus Hasse, Nichelmann,
+Benda, and other composers. Now in E. Bach's Würtemberg sonatas we
+found all three movements were in the same key, and there are similar
+cases in Hasse, Fried. Bach, Joh. Ernst Bach, etc.; but for the most
+part, the middle (slow) movement was in some nearly related key; in a
+sonata commencing in major--in the relative, or tonic minor, or minor
+under-dominant; and even (as in a sonata by Adlgasser) in the
+upper-dominant. Joh. C.F. Bach, in one instance, selected the minor
+key of the upper-dominant, and there are examples of more remote keys
+(E. Bach, Coll. of 1780, No. 1). With sonatas commencing in minor, the
+key selected for the middle movement was generally the relative major
+of the under-dominant, or that of the tonic; sometimes even tonic
+major. A very extraordinary example of a remote key is to be met with
+in Bach's Collection of 1779, No. 3: his opening movement is B minor,
+but his middle one, G minor.[26]
+
+It should be mentioned with regard to sonatas in three movements
+commencing in a minor key, that the last generally (in works of this
+period) remains and ends in minor. In modern sonatas the major is
+often found, at any rate before the close (see Beethoven, Op. 10, No.
+1, etc.).
+
+Baldassare Galuppi, born in 1706 on the island of Burano, near Venice,
+was a pupil of Lotti's. Two sets of six "Sonate per il cembalo" of
+his were published in London. We cannot give the date, but may state
+that a sonata of his in manuscript bears the date 1754 (whether of
+copy or composition is uncertain; anyhow, the year given acts as
+limit). The variety in the number of the movements of the published
+sonatas (one has four, some have three, some two, while No. 2 of the
+first set has only one) points to a period of transition. This alone,
+apart from the freshness and charm of the music, entitles them to
+notice. Much of the writing is thin (only two parts), and,
+technically, the music far less interesting than the Scarlatti pieces.
+Some of the phrases and figures, and the occasional employment of the
+Alberti bass, tell, however, of the new era soon about to be
+inaugurated by Haydn. There is one little feature in the 1st Sonata of
+the first set which may be mentioned. In the second section of the
+Adagio (a movement in binary form) of that sonata, the theme appears,
+as usual then, at the beginning of the second section, and, later on,
+reappears in the principal key, but it starts on the fourth, instead
+of the eighth quaver of the bar.
+
+There was great variety in the order of movements. Sometimes a slow
+movement was followed by two quick movements;[27] and the third
+movement was frequently a minuet. The quick movement sometimes came in
+the middle (Galuppi, Sonata in B flat), sometimes at the beginning
+(E. Bach, Coll. 1781, No. 3), sometimes at the end (E. Bach, Coll.
+1779, No. 2). Then, again, sometimes all, but frequently two of the
+three movements, were connected, _i.e._ the one passed to the other
+without break.
+
+So much for sonatas in two or three movements. But among the _Oeuvres
+mêlées_ there are no less than twenty which have four movements--some
+in the old order: slow, fast, slow, fast; others in a new order:
+Allegro, Andante or Adagio, Minuet, and Allegro or Presto.[28] Thus
+Wagenseil,[29] Houpfeld, J.E. Bach, Hengsberger, and Kehl. Sometimes
+(as in Seyfert and Goldberg) the Minuet came immediately after the
+Allegro[30] (see Beethoven chapter with regard to position of Minuet
+or Scherzo in his sonatas). In a sonata by Schaffrath, the opening
+Allegro is followed by a Fugue. Again (in Spitz, Zach, and Fischer)
+the following order is found: Allegro, Andante, Allegro, Minuet. In
+Fischer all the movements are in one key; only the Trio of the Minuet
+is in the tonic minor. In Spitz the Andante is in the under-dominant,
+the other movements being in the principal key. In Zach the Andante is
+in the minor tonic, and the third movement in the upper-dominant. It
+is well to notice that _in none of these four-movement sonatas are the
+movements connected_. The same thing is to be observed in Beethoven,
+with exception, perhaps, of Op. 110. In the _Oeuvres mêlées_ there is
+only one instance of a sonata in _five_ movements by Umstatt. It
+consists of an Allegro, Adagio (in the dominant), Fugue Allegro (in
+the relative of dominant), a Minuet in the principal key, with Trio in
+relative minor; and, finally, a Presto. By way of contrast, we may
+recall the two sonatas of Hasse, in one movement, already mentioned,
+and also the last of Emanuel Bach's six sonatas of 1760.
+
+The works of many of the composers named in connection with
+differences in the number and order of movements are forgotten; and,
+in some cases, indeed, their names are not even thought worthy of a
+place in musical dictionaries. Yet these variations are of great
+moment in the history of development. And this for a double reason.
+First, many of the works must have been known to E. Bach, and yet he
+seems to have remained, up to the last, faithful to the three-movement
+plan. One or two of his sonatas have only two movements, none,
+however, has four. Secondly, the experiment of extending the number to
+more than three, practically passed unheeded by Dussek, Clementi,
+Mozart,[31] Haydn,[32] and by all the composers of importance until
+Beethoven. The last-named commenced with sonatas in four movements;
+but, as will be seen in a later chapter, he afterwards became partial
+to the scheme of three movements.
+
+Let us now consider, and quite briefly, movements in binary form;
+again, in this matter, some instructive facts will be gathered from
+the works of Bach's contemporaries. As in Scarlatti, so here we find
+the first of the two sections into which such a movement is divided,
+ending in one case[33] in the tonic, but, as a rule, in the dominant.
+There is, however, an instance of the close in the under-dominant
+(Müthel, No. 2 of the Sonatas of 1780), and in E. Bach, in the
+relative minor of the under-dominant (Sonatas of 1780, No. 3, Finale).
+In a minor key, the first section closed either in the key of the
+relative major, or that of the dominant minor[34]--much more
+frequently the former.
+
+Now, in proportion as the second part of the first section grew more
+definite, so also did the approach to it. Everyone knows the pause so
+frequently to be found in Haydn and Mozart, on the dominant of the
+dominant, _i.e._ if the key of the piece were C--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+It is instructive to compare the less formal methods of approaching
+the new key in E. Bach and his contemporary Paradies; with them it was
+generally by means of a half-close. It must be remembered that E. Bach
+frequently has a movement quite on Scarlatti lines, _i.e._ without a
+definite second subject;[35] also that the second subject in Bach's
+time was, as a rule, of secondary importance. But, curiously, in the
+Finale of a sonata written by Leopold Mozart (father of the great
+genius), after a half cadence on the dominant of the dominant, _tempo_
+and measure change (from Presto two-four, to Andante three-four, the
+latter remaining until the end of the first section), and the same
+occurs in the recapitulation section; by this means the second theme
+was made specially prominent. In a sonata of Scarlatti's, in D,
+commencing
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+there is a definite second subject in, by the way, the minor key of
+the dominant, and it is divided from the first by two bars in common
+time (a descending scale and a shake on a semibreve). And then again,
+in No. 12 of the "Libro de XII. Sonatas Modernas para Clavicordio,"
+the second subject is divided from the first by two bars of common
+time (the piece is in Scarlatti's favourite measure, three-eight), an
+ascending scale and a shake. There are clear examples of a second
+subject, besides E. Bach, in Eberlin, Fleischer, J.C. Bach, and J.C.F.
+Bach. Yet even in Haydn's sonatas one cannot always speak of a second
+subject. The further history of the development of the contents of the
+second half of the first section shows, as it were, a struggle between
+two ideals. One was _kinship_, _i.e._ the endeavour to present the
+secondary matter in strong relationship to the opening one (the
+opening notes or bars of a real second subject were, indeed,
+frequently the same, allowance being made, of course, for difference
+of key); the other was _contrast_, _i.e._ the endeavour to obtain
+variety. Haydn was more affected by the first; Mozart by the second.
+In Beethoven the two are happily combined. It is important to notice
+the closing bars of many first sections of the period of which we are
+speaking. For instance, in E. Bach, the first movement of the sonata
+in each of the Collections of 1781 and 1783 has a concluding theme
+(as in the sonata of Scarlatti, and frequently evolved from the
+opening theme). Though in the complementary key, it cannot count as
+"the second subject." It appears after the complementary key has been
+ushered in by one cadence, and after having apparently run its course,
+it has been wound up by another. Then, again, the portion between the
+cadences just mentioned is at times filled with a true theme, so that
+the concluding one, like the cave of Abraham's field of Machpelah, is
+in reality an appendency. _Sometimes there are several_: the
+enlargement of the exposition section by Beethoven, and still more
+modern composers, so that it contains sometimes three, and even more
+themes, is practically an exposition section on Scarlatti lines, only
+on a larger scale: the figure has become a phrase, mere connecting
+passages have acquired organic meaning. The second section of
+Scarlatti's movement in binary form contained a few bars of
+development and modulation. Then a return was made to the opening key
+of the piece, _but never to the opening theme_; and in that key a
+portion more or less great, more or less varied, according to
+circumstances, was repeated. That return to the opening theme is, as
+we have already said, the landmark which divides binary from sonata
+form.
+
+In sonatas of the middle of the eighteenth century the modulation
+section (in a major key) ended in various ways,--on the dominant
+chord (of the principal key), on the tonic chord of the relative
+minor, the under-dominant, or even on the tonic itself of the
+principal key. Later on, Haydn and Mozart kept, for the most part, to
+the dominant chord. Beethoven, on account of the distant, and often
+abrupt, modulations of his middle sections, generally marked the
+approach to the recapitulation by clear, and often prolonged, dominant
+harmony; sometimes, however, the return of the principal theme comes
+as a surprise. The recapitulation always remained more or less
+faithful to the exposition. It is interesting to note how little the
+character and contents of the recapitulation section have been
+affected in modern times by the growth of the development section. In
+the matter of balance the two sections of movements in binary form are
+more satisfactory than the two sections (two, so far as outward
+division is concerned) of modern sonatas. The grain of mustard-seed in
+the parable grew into a tree, and so, likewise, have the few bars of
+modulation of early days grown into an important section. However
+difficult to determine the exact moment at which a movement in
+sonata-form really ceased to be binary, there seems no doubt that that
+moment has now passed. We have already noted when the change
+commenced.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+JOHANN KUHNAU
+
+
+This remarkable musician was born, April 1660,[36] at Geysing, where
+his grandfather, who, on account of his religious opinions, had been
+forced to leave Bohemia, had settled. Already in his ninth year young
+Kuhnau showed gifts for science and art. He had a pleasing voice, and
+first studied under Salomon Krügner, and afterwards under Christian
+Kittel,[37] organist of the Elector at Dresden. His next teachers were
+his brother Andreas Kuhnau, Alexander Hering,[38] and Vincenzo
+Albrici. In 1680 the plague broke out at Dresden, and Kuhnau returned
+to his parents. He then went to Zittau with a certain Erhard Titius,
+who had been _Praefectus_ at the Kreuzschule, Dresden, and received
+help from the court organist, Moritz Edelmann, also from the
+"celebrated" Weise. A motet of Kuhnau's was given at Zittau under his
+direction. After the death of Titius, Kuhnau resided for a time in the
+house of J.J. von Hartig, judge at Zittau. In 1682 he went to Leipzig,
+where D. Scherzer endeavoured to obtain for him the post of organist
+at St. Thomas'; Kühnel, however, was appointed. The latter died in
+1684, and was succeeded by Kuhnau, who in 1700 also became cantor of
+St. Thomas'. He devoted much of his time to jurisprudence. Among other
+things, he wrote a curious satire, entitled _Der musikalische
+Quacksalber_, published in 1700. There remain in manuscript,
+_Tractatus de tetrachordo_ and _Introductio ad compositionem
+musicalem_. Kuhnau had many pupils; we know of two who afterwards
+became distinguished men. The one was Christoph Graupner (1683-1760),
+who in 1710 became capellmeister at Darmstadt. In 1722, on the death
+of Kuhnau, Graupner,[39] who had been prize scholar under him,
+presented his testimonials, was examined, and seemed likely to become
+cantor as his teacher's successor. Meanwhile, however, John Sebastian
+Bach offered himself as candidate, and as Dr. Pepusch before Handel at
+Cannons in 1710, so did Graupner retire before his great rival.
+Mattheson, in his _Ehren-Pforte_ (p. 410), tells us that "as a
+composer for the clavier, Graupner may rank as one of the best of his
+time." He wrote suites and sonatas for clavier. Johann Friedrich Fasch
+(1688-1758 or 9), the second pupil, soon after leaving Leipzig, where
+he had enjoyed Kuhnau's instruction from 1701-7, went to Italy, and on
+his return studied for a short time with Graupner. Fasch then filled
+various posts, until in 1722 (the very year indeed of Kuhnau's death)
+he became capellmeister at Anhalt Zerbst, where he remained until his
+death. His son, Carl Friedrich Christian, was the founder of the
+Berlin _Singakademie_. In 1756 Emanuel Bach had something to do with
+Fasch's appointment as clavecinist to Frederick the Great. The father,
+who was then seventy years of age, and who, like old Sebastian Bach,
+lived with the fear of God before his eyes, opposed the wish of his
+son to enter the service of the infidel king. Emanuel, who wished the
+younger Fasch to come to Berlin, wrote to the father to say "that in
+the land over which Frederick the Great ruled, one could believe what
+one liked; that the king himself was certainly not religious, but on
+that very account esteemed everyone alike." Bach offered to take young
+Fasch into his house, and to preserve him as much as possible from
+temptation. With regard to Graupner, it would be interesting to know
+whether in any of his sonatas (the autographs of which are, we
+believe, at Darmstadt) he worked at all on Kuhnau's lines. And with
+regard to Fasch, one would like to know whether he ever conversed with
+Emanuel Bach about his father, who taught him theory, and about Johann
+Kuhnau, his father's renowned teacher. It is from such by-paths of
+history that one sometimes learns more than from statements showing
+how son descended from sire, and how pupils were directly influenced
+by their teachers.
+
+But it is as a musician that we are now concerned with Kuhnau, and, in
+the first place, as the composer of the earliest known sonata for the
+clavier. In 1695 he published at Leipzig--
+
+"Sieben Partien aus dem Re, Mi, Fa, oder Terzia minore eines jedweden
+Toni, benebenst einer _Sonata_ aus dem B. Denen Liebhabern dieses
+Instrumenten zu gar besondern Vergnügen aufgesetzet." That is--
+
+Seven Partitas based on the Re, Mi, Fa, or minor third of each mode,
+together with a Sonata in B flat, for the especial gratification of
+lovers of this instrument.
+
+With respect to this sonata, Kuhnau remarks in his preface: "I have
+added at the end a Sonata in B flat, which will please amateurs; for
+why should not such things be attempted on the clavier as well as on
+other instruments?" In such modest fashion was ushered into the world
+the first sonata for clavier, or, at any rate, the earliest with which
+we are acquainted.[40]
+
+Mattheson, in _Das neu eröffnete Orchester_ (1713), speaks about the
+_revival_ of clavier sonatas, so that it is not quite certain whether
+that B flat Sonata was actually the first.[41] During the seventeenth
+century, sonatas were written for various instruments, with a figured
+bass for the cembalo.
+
+It will, of course, be interesting to trace the influences acting upon
+Kuhnau. They were of two kinds: the one, Italian; the other, German.
+Corelli deserves first mention; and next, the Italian organist and
+composer, Vincenzo Albrici,[42] capellmeister to the Elector of Saxony
+from 1664-88, and afterwards organist of St. Thomas', Leipzig, who is
+known to have encouraged Kuhnau when young, and to have helped him to
+learn the Italian language. But German influence must also have been
+strong. Of Froberger special mention will be made later on. There was
+one man, Diderich Becker, who published sonatas for violins and bass
+already in 1668, and these, if we mistake not, must have been well
+known to Kuhnau. Apart from the character of the music, the title of
+the work, _Musikalische Frülings Früchte_, and the religious style of
+the preface, remind one of Kuhnau's "Frische Früchte," also of his
+preface to the "Bible" Sonatas. It is curious to find the quaint
+expression "unintelligent birds" used first by Becker, and afterwards
+by Kuhnau.
+
+Let us describe briefly the above-mentioned B flat Sonata. The first
+movement is in common time, but the composer gave it no heading. It is
+generally supposed (Becker, Rimbault, Pauer) to be an Allegro;
+_moderato_ might well be added, for the stately, Handelian-like (the
+anachronism must be excused) music will scarcely bear a rapid _tempo_.
+The movement opens with an eight-bar phrase, closing on the dominant.
+Then the music, evolved from previous material, passes rapidly through
+various related keys. After this modulation section there is a cadence
+to F major, and in this, the dominant key, something like a new
+subject appears, though it is closely allied to the first. A return is
+soon made to the principal key, but there is no repetition of the
+opening theme. After a cadence ending on the tonic (B flat), and two
+coda-like bars, comes a fugal movement, still in the same key. The
+vigorous subject, the well-contrasted counterpoint, the interesting
+episodes, and many attractive details help one to forget the monotony
+of key so prevalent in the days in which this sonata was written.
+This, and indeed other fugues of Kuhnau show strong foreshadowings of
+Handel and Bach; of this matter, however, more anon. The counterpoint
+to the third entry of the subject is evolved from the opening subject
+of the sonata. The third movement consists of a fine Adagio in E flat,
+in the key of the subdominant and in three-four time. Then follows a
+short Allegro in three-four time, of polyphonic character. At the
+close of the movement Kuhnau has written the opening chords of the
+first movement with the words _Da Capo_. A similar indication is to be
+found in one of the "Frische Früchte" Sonatas. This repetition, also
+the third movement leading directly to the fourth, and the thematic
+connection mentioned above, would seem to show that the composer
+regarded the various sections of his sonata as parts of a whole.
+
+In addition, Kuhnau wrote thirteen sonatas. The "Frische Clavier
+Früchte," or "Sieben Suonaten von guter Invention u. Manier auf dem
+Clavier zu spielen," were published in 1696, and later editions in
+1710 and 1724. In a quaint preface the composer tells us that in
+naming his "Fresh Fruits" "sonatas," he kept in mind all kinds of
+_inventiones_ and changes (Veränderungen) by which so-called sonatas
+are superior to mere partitas. Already a century before this preface
+was written, Praetorius had distinguished between two classes of
+instrumental music: the one, grave; the other, gay. The composer has
+also a word to say about the graces or ornaments, the "sugar which
+sweetens the fruits." In modern reprints of Kuhnau the sugar is
+sometimes forgotten.[43] These "Frische Früchte" were followed by six
+"Bible" Sonatas in 1700. The former, both as regards form and
+contents, are remarkable. Kuhnau was a man of deeper thought and
+loftier conception than Emanuel Bach, but he was fettered by fugal
+forms,[44] and was fighting against them much in the same spirit in
+which Beethoven, a century later, fought against sonata-form, in the
+most general sense of that term. Beethoven was not only the more
+gifted, but he profited by the experiments of his predecessors, and he
+enjoyed the advantage of a vastly improved technique; Haydn, Mozart,
+Clementi, and others were the stepping-stones by which he rose to
+higher things. Kuhnau's attempts at sonata writing were bold, often
+rugged; and his experiments in programme-music, extraordinary. The
+latter were soon forgotten, while the clever, clear-formed sonatas of
+Emanuel Bach served as a gratification to the age in which he lived,
+and as guides to the composers who followed him. The "Frische
+Früchte," standing between Corelli and Emanuel Bach, are of interest.
+The fugal element is still strong; and we find, not so much the smooth
+style of Corelli as the vigorous style of Froberger and other
+composers of North Germany. In character of subject-matter and in form
+there is decided advance as compared with the B flat Sonata. Kuhnau
+still seems rather limited in figures, and therefore repeats
+himself;[45] then again his movements do not always show gradation of
+interest. Their order and number are, indeed, perplexing, and not
+always satisfactory. The 2nd Sonata, in D, for instance, commences
+with a fine Allegro, followed first by a short Adagio, commencing in
+the relative minor, and intermixed with short presto passages, and
+then by a lively movement in six-eight time. These three would form an
+admirable sonata, yet the composer does not end here. There is still
+another short Adagio, and a concluding movement; and in spite of some
+fine passages, these appendages form a decided anti-climax. Similar
+instances are to be found in the other sonatas.
+
+Now for a few words concerning their form. Some of the opening
+movements (for instance, those of Nos. 1, 2) are practically based on
+fugue-form, with which, by the way, sonata-form is allied.
+
+The first movement of No. 4, in C minor, is of interest, both in its
+resemblances to, and differences from, modern sonata-form. It has
+_four_ sections:--
+
+     _a._ Eleven bars, beginning and ending in C minor, and
+     containing a characteristic theme.
+
+     _b._ Eleven bars, beginning in E flat (_i.e._ relative major
+     of opening key) and closing in G minor (_i.e._ key of minor
+     dominant). It contains a theme rhythmically allied to the
+     principal theme. _This section is repeated._
+
+     _c._ Nine-and-a-half bars, opening in C minor, and passing
+     to, and closing in E flat. It contains imitative passages
+     evolved from the principal theme.
+
+     _d._ Exact repetition of first section, only with a close on
+     the major chord.
+
+The last movement of the 6th Sonata, in B flat, offers a still more
+striking resemblance to sonata-form; the various sections are better
+balanced; the middle or development section (with its close strettos)
+is particularly noticeable; also the recapitulation, which is not
+literal, as in the above example. The slow movements--occasionally
+very short--follow no particular plan. The fugal element is always
+more or less present, but some of the other movements have somewhat of
+a suite character; No. 6, indeed, opens with a _Ciaccona_. There is a
+certain formality about Kuhnau's music, and, for reasons already
+mentioned, he is occasionally monotonous. But there is an independent
+spirit running through his sonatas, and a desire to escape from the
+trammels of tradition which are quite refreshing. And there is a
+nobility in the style and skill in the workmanship which remind us of
+the great Bach. There are, indeed, resemblances to Bach, also to
+Handel. Scheibe, in his _Critischer Musikus_, mentions Kuhnau, in
+conjunction with Keiser, Telemann, and Handel, as one of the greatest
+composers of the eighteenth century. The mention of Kuhnau together
+with Handel deserves note. The constant discoveries which are being
+made of Handel's indebtedness to other composers suggest the thought
+that perhaps Kuhnau was also laid under contribution. No one, we
+think, can hear the "Bible" Sonatas without coming to the conclusion
+that Handel was acquainted with the works of his illustrious
+predecessor. We will just place side by side three passages from the
+"Bible" Sonatas of Kuhnau with three from a harpsichord suite of
+Handel--
+
+[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 2. KUHNAU.]
+
+[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Ouverture.
+HANDEL.]
+
+[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU.]
+
+[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille.
+HANDEL.]
+
+[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU.]
+
+[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille.
+HANDEL.]
+
+It should be noticed that the three Handel quotations are all from the
+same suite. We do not mean to infer that the above passages from
+Handel are plagiarisms, but merely that the Kuhnau music was,
+unconsciously, in his mind when he wrote them.
+
+C.F. Becker, in his _Hausmusik in Deutschland_, has suggested that
+these sonatas were known also to Mozart, and begs us to look on this
+picture, the opening of a Vivace movement in Kuhnau's 6th Sonata:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+and on this, from _The Magic Flute_:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+Faisst, however, justly observes that though the harmonic basis is the
+same in both, with Kuhnau the under-part is melody, whereas with
+Mozart it is the reverse. He also accuses Becker--and justly, as
+readers may see by turning to the passage in the _Zauberflöte_--of not
+having represented the passage quite honestly. Reminiscence hunters
+need to be very careful.
+
+In these sonatas, as compared with the one in B flat, the thematic
+material is of greater importance; and so, too, in the slow movements
+the writing is simpler and more melodious.
+
+The rapid rate at which they were composed deserves mention. Kuhnau
+seems to have had the ready pen of a Schubert. In the preface to these
+"Frische Früchte" he says: "I wrote these seven sonatas straight off,
+though attending at the same time to my duties (he was _juris
+practicus_, also organist of St. Thomas'), so that each day one was
+completed. Thus, this work, which I commenced on the Monday of one
+week, was brought to an end by the Monday of the following week."
+
+Kuhnau's second (and, so far as we know, last) set of sonatas bears
+the following title:--
+
+Musikalische Vorstellung
+Einiger
+Biblischer Historien
+In 6 Sonaten
+Auf dem Klavier zu spielen
+Allen Liebhabern zum Vergnügen
+Verfüget
+von
+Johann Kuhnauen.
+
+That is--
+
+Musical Representation
+of some
+Bible Stories
+In 6 Sonatas
+To be performed on the Clavier
+For the gratification of amateurs
+Arranged
+by
+Johann Kuhnau.
+
+Kuhnau was not the originator of programme-music. In the so-called
+_Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book_,[46] in the Fitzwilliam Library, there
+is a Fantasia by John Munday, who died 1630, in which there is given a
+description of weather both fair and foul. Again, Froberger, who died
+in 1667, is said to have been able, _on the clavier_, to describe
+incidents, ideas, and feelings; there is, indeed, in existence a
+battle-piece of his. And then Buxtehude (_d._ 1707) wrote a set of
+seven Suites for clavier, in which he is said to have represented the
+nature and characteristics of the planets; these are, unfortunately,
+lost. With Froberger's music, at any rate, Kuhnau was familiar. In a
+long preface to these Bible stories, the composer refers to the
+subject of programme-music. He reminds us how from ancient times
+musicians have tried to rival the masters of rhetoric, sculpture, and
+painting in terms of their own art. And he expressly refers to
+programme pieces, and even to sonatas by the "distinguished
+Froberger[47] and other excellent composers." The essence of his long,
+elaborate, and, at times, somewhat confused argument (it must be
+remembered that he was discussing a very difficult subject; and, also,
+that he was the first to write about it) is as follows:--He believes
+music capable by itself of producing wonderful effects, but in special
+cases, requiring the assistance of words. Music, he tells us, can
+express sadness or joy; for that no words are necessary. When,
+however, some individual--as in his sonatas--is referred to, words
+become essential, _i.e._ if one is to distinguish between the
+lamentation of a sad Hezekiah, a weeping Peter, or a mourning
+Jeremiah. In other language, words are necessary to render the emotion
+definite. Kuhnau gives a quaint illustration of the absolute necessity
+of words in certain cases; and that illustration is of particular
+interest, inasmuch as it points to still earlier, and possibly,
+clavier sonatas. "I remember," says our author, "hearing a few years
+ago a sonata composed by a celebrated Chur-Fürst capellmeister, to
+which he had given the title, 'La Medica.' After--so far as I can
+recall--describing the whines of the patient and of his relations, the
+running of the latter to the doctor, the pouring forth of their
+sorrow, there came, finally, a Gigue, under which stood the words,
+'The patient is progressing favourably, but has not quite recovered
+his health.' At this some mocked, and were of opinion that, had it
+been in his power, the author might well have depicted the joy at a
+perfect recovery. So far, however, as I could judge, there was good
+reason for adding words to the music. The sonata commenced in D minor;
+in the Gigue there was constant modulation towards G minor. At the
+final close, in D, the ear was not satisfied, and expected the closing
+cadence in G." In this wise was the partial recovery expressed in
+tones, and explained in words.
+
+Except for the unmistakable seriousness of the author, this
+description might be taken as a joke, just as in one of the "Bible"
+Sonatas the deceit of Jacob is expressed by a deceptive cadence; but
+such extreme examples serve to emphasise the author's declaration
+that, at times, words are indispensable. Before noticing the sonatas
+themselves, one more quotation in reference to the same subject must
+be made from this interesting preface. The humblest scholar, Kuhnau
+tells us, knows the rule forbidding consecutive perfect consonances,
+and he speaks of certain strict _censores_ who expose the clumsiness
+of _musical poets_ who have refused to be bound by that rule. "But,"
+says Kuhnau, in lawyer-like language: "_Cessante ratione prohibitionis
+cessat ipsa prohibitio_." The term _musical poets_ (the italics are
+ours) is a remarkable one; Kuhnau himself, of course, was one of them.
+
+Philipp Spitta, in his _Life of J.S. Bach_, devotes one short
+paragraph to the Bible stories, and gives one or two brief quotations
+from the second; but they certainly deserve a longer notice.
+
+The 1st Sonata is entitled "The Fight between David and Goliath." It
+opens with a bold section, intended, as we learn from a
+superscription, to represent _the bravado of Goliath_. The giant's
+characteristic theme, on which the whole section is built, is as
+follows:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+Then follows a section in A minor. A Chorale represents the prayer to
+God of the terrified Israelites, while the palpitating quaver
+accompaniment stands for the terror which seized them at sight of the
+giant; the harmonies are very striking. This Chorale setting should be
+compared with one by Bach (Spitta's _Life of Bach_, English edition,
+vol. i. p. 216), said to owe its existence to the influence of Georg
+Böhm, organist at Lüneburg at the commencement of the eighteenth
+century. Next comes a little pastoral movement (C major, three-four
+time) expressive of David's courage and of his confidence in God. Then
+a tone-picture is given of the encounter; the heavy tread of the
+Philistine is heard in the bass, while semiquaver passages, evolved
+from a figure in the preceding movement, evidently portray the
+spirited youth. One realistic bar scarcely needs the explanation given
+by Kuhnau that it is the slinging of the stone which smote the
+Philistine in his forehead; and the same may be said of the "Goliath
+falls" in the following bar:--
+
+[Music illustration: Il combáttere frà l'uno e l'altro, e la loro
+contésa. Vien tirata la selce colla frombola nella fronte del
+gigante. Casca Goliath.]
+
+This section, limited to sixteen bars, is not only an early, but a
+notable specimen of programme-music; it is realistic, but not in the
+least ridiculous. Rapid passages with points of imitation tell of the
+flight of the Philistines. A bright movement (still in C) bears the
+superscription, "The joy of the Israelites at their victory"; in it
+there is an allusion to the pastoral movement. Maidens then advance,
+with timbrels and instruments of music, to meet the victor, and the
+sonata concludes with a stately Minuet, similar in character to the
+Minuet in the Overture to Handel's _Samson_; the people are dancing
+and singing for joy.
+
+The 2nd Sonata presents to us a very different picture. Here we have
+the melancholy of Saul driven away by means of music. There are a few
+realistic effects, such as the paroxysms of madness of Saul, and the
+casting of the javelin; but the subject is one which readily lends
+itself to real musical treatment. The music of the 1st Sonata was
+principally objective; here, however, it is principally subjective. In
+the first part of the work the music depicts, now the sadness, now the
+rage of the monarch. The opening is worthy of Bach, and presents,
+indeed, a foreshadowing of the opening of the 16th Prelude of the
+"Well-tempered Clavier." Spitta mentions the fine fugue, with the
+subject standing for the melancholy, the counter-subject for the
+madness of the king; and he justly remarks that these two images of
+Saul "contain the poetical germ of a truly musical development." The
+"dimly brooding" theme of the fugue brings to one's mind the "Kyrie
+eleison" fugue of Mozart's _Requiem_; also the theme of the Allegro of
+Beethoven's Sonata in C minor (Op. 111), notwithstanding the fact that
+Kuhnau's is slow and sad, but Beethoven's, fast and fiery. Here is the
+first half of the former--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+Let not our readers be deceived by the word "fugue." The movement is
+no mere formal scholastic piece of writing such as one might expect;
+the preluding of David on his harp, the "javelin" episode, the
+paroxysms of rage give to it rather the character of a free fantasia.
+One word with regard to the paroxysm passages. We quoted above a
+sentence from the preface respecting the violation of the rule
+respecting consecutive consonances by certain "poet musicians."
+Kuhnau, under this plural mask, was, as we have mentioned, certainly
+referring to himself, for in another part of the preface he specially
+calls attention to the consecutive fifths by which he depicts the
+disordered mind of King Saul. This first movement, opening in G minor,
+ends on the chord of G major. We now come to a movement (B flat)
+entitled "The Refreshing Melody from David's Harp." The following is
+part of David's soothing theme:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+At first it is not heard in its entirety. The sweet singer of Israel
+plays it, or sometimes only the first two bars, in various keys, and
+with varied harmonisation, as if watching the king and trying the
+effect on him of different modulations. Besides in the principal key,
+it appears several times, and in succession, in the relative minor,
+then in the minor key of the supertonic. The key of the subdominant
+enters with refreshing effect; after that, a return is made to the
+principal key, which continues until the close of the movement.
+Between each delivery of the theme, occur passages similar to the
+following:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+as if to denote the restlessness of the king. And as the character of
+the music, especially towards the close, suggests _piano_ and
+_pianissimo_, it would seem as though intended to express the gradual
+healing power of the music. As a piece of abstract music, the movement
+appears long, but not if the dramatic situation be kept well in mind.
+At length the sounds of the harp cease, and a closing, peaceful, and
+dignified movement in G minor tells of Saul's now tranquil state of
+mind.
+
+The 3rd Sonata, entitled "The Marriage of Jacob," opens with a
+delightful Gigue; over it stands the superscription, "The joy of the
+family of Laban at the arrival of their relation Jacob." The beginning
+of the second section has, as usual, the subject inverted. The music
+is gay and sparkling. Then comes a section illustrative of Jacob's
+seven years' service for a wife. The music expresses effort and
+fatigue, but by way of musical contrast sprightly bars intervene from
+time to time, to represent happy moments when the lovers meet. Further
+on we have the bridal-song of the companions of Rachel: a short,
+quaint, and delicate movement in minor and in triple time. It
+commences thus:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+A short section follows, full of rapid semiquaver passages and points
+of imitation (such a mode of procedure is frequently adopted by the
+composer); and then comes a sudden change in the character of the
+music. No _tempo_ is marked, but, evidently, it must not be rapid. It
+is a tone-picture of the deception practised by Laban upon Jacob when
+he substituted Leah in place of Rachel. At first, it is a free
+recitative. A quotation of a few bars will give a good idea of the
+extraordinary harmonies and rhythmical figures:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+And again--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The Fugue, short and vigorous, has a characteristic theme:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+A new section expresses Jacob's happiness until he discovers the
+deceit practised on him. The exact moment of displeasure is indicated
+by a superscription; the latter, however, was scarcely necessary--the
+notes speak for themselves. For there are reminiscences of the Laban
+recitative, of the fugue theme, and also (in augmentation) of the
+counter-subject. This is, indeed, an early instance of the employment
+of representative themes. The composer then naïvely orders the section
+descriptive of the wedding festivities to be repeated, to illustrate
+the second marriage of Jacob with the beloved Rachel.
+
+The 4th Sonata deals with Hezekiah's mortal sickness and recovery. It
+is shorter than the preceding ones, and of simpler structure. It opens
+with slow, sad music: the prophet of God has summoned the king to
+prepare for death. His ardent prayer to heaven is naturally expressed
+by a well-known Chorale, supported by most effective polyphonic
+harmony. After a short thematic working of a figure from the Chorale,
+the latter is submitted to fresh treatment: the movement (in six-four
+time) somewhat resembles the old Corrente. The sonata concludes with a
+lively movement in binary form. It is intended to depict the king's
+joy at his recovery. There are a few bars _adagio_ in each section:
+Hezekiah recalls the past. This is the only one of the sonatas which,
+as abstract music, would be satisfactory without any programme.
+
+No. 5 is entitled "Gideon, the Saviour of Israel." From a musical
+point of view it is the least interesting of the set, yet it contains
+some curious programme effects. It will be remembered that a sign
+from heaven was given to Gideon: the fleece was to be covered with
+dew, but the ground to remain dry; the next night, however, the order
+of things was reversed. Kuhnau expresses the latter by giving a theme
+in _contrary motion_. This may almost be described as punning in
+music. The composer, however, meant it seriously; from the tone of his
+preface, and the narration, with comments, which he has prefixed to
+each sonata, in addition to the explanatory words over the music
+itself, it is clear that his aim was to elucidate and intensify the
+Bible stories by means of his art. He was a man, apparently, of deep
+religious belief.
+
+The battle-picture is a curiosity, but, as music, of little value. The
+flight of the Midianites is depicted in the following primitive
+manner:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The 6th (and last) Sonata bears the title, "The Tomb of Jacob." We
+have, at first, mournful music: the sons of the Patriarch are standing
+round the deathbed. At length Jacob dies, and they "ponder over the
+consequences of the sad event." A quiet, expressive theme
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+is then treated fugally, and with marked effect. Then comes the
+journey from Egypt to the land of Canaan. The bass, progressing in
+quavers, expresses motion. From time to time a curious syncopated
+semiquaver figure is heard in the upper part: it may be intended to
+represent sobbing. The following quotation, including one of these
+"sobbing" passages, will give a good idea of the character of this
+section--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+A short, solemn phrase is headed, "The Burial of Israel." Then a
+finely worked-out fugal section depicts the great grief of the
+bystanders. It is in four parts, but in one place the addition of a
+fifth part and stretto treatment render the feeling of grief more
+intense. A peaceful closing section in the major key and in triple
+time expresses the consoled minds of the survivors.
+
+From this _résumé_ of these "Bible" Sonatas, it will be seen that they
+have nothing in common with the ordinary sonata of the time in which
+they were written. They were bold attempts at programme-music; and,
+as we have already said, the form is entirely determined by the
+subject-matter.
+
+In the old edition of these "Bible" Sonatas, in addition to the
+preface of which we have made mention, Kuhnau has related the Bible
+stories in his own characteristic language. We give a translation of
+the first two, as specimens.
+
+
+I. _The Combat between David and Goliath_
+
+The portrait given in Scripture of great Goliath is something quite
+uncommon: a monster of nature appears, a giant, tall as a tree. Six
+ells will not suffice to measure his length; the high helmet of brass
+which he wears on his head makes him appear still taller; and the
+scaly coat of mail, the greaves of brass placed about his legs,
+together with the enormously heavy shield which he carries, also his
+strong spear, tipped with iron, like unto a weaver's beam,
+sufficiently show that he is of mighty strength, and that all these
+exceedingly heavy loads do not inconvenience him in the slightest. If
+the mere description of this man creates fear, how much greater will
+not the terror of the poor Israelites be when the living image of this
+their enemy appears before them. For he stands before them in his
+brazen armour, rivalling the sun in brilliancy, makes with the
+rustling of his armour a terrible din, and snorts and bellows as if he
+would devour them at one mouthful; his words sound in their ears like
+dreadful thunder. He holds in contempt his enemies and their equipage,
+and demands that a hero be sent out to him from their camp; this
+combat is to show whose shoulders shall bear the yoke of bondage. By
+this means he imagines that the sceptre will soon pass from the
+Israelites to the Philistines. But a miracle is about to happen! When
+courage fails all the heroes of Israel, when the giant has only to
+show himself, to cause them to flee, when, also, the terrible warrior
+continues, according to his custom, to pour contempt on the enemy,
+David, a slim, courageous stripling, a simple shepherd-boy, then
+appears, and offers to fight the bully. He is accused of rashness.
+This, however, troubles David but little; he adheres firmly to his
+heroic resolution, and seeks audience of King Saul. By God's help, he
+had fought with a bear and a lion who had taken from him a lamb, had
+snatched the prey from the jaws of these cruel beasts, and, further,
+had slain them. Thus he hoped would end the struggle with this bear
+and lion of a Philistine. Strongly relying upon God, he advances
+towards the powerful giant, with a sling, and with some specially
+selected pebbles. Then the Philistines think to themselves, "Now will
+the great hero blow away the enemy like a speck of dust, or kill him
+as he would a fly." All at once Goliath becomes terrible in his rage,
+and raves, uttering frightful oaths at David, declaring that he is
+treated as if he were a dog, and that David comes to him with
+shepherd's staff, and not with weapons worthy of a warrior. David,
+however, is fearless. He relies on his God, and prophesies to the
+enemy that, though without sword, spear, or shield, he will cast
+Goliath to the ground; that he will cut off his head, and leave his
+carcase as food for birds and wild beasts. Hereupon David rushes at
+the Philistine, wounds him in the forehead with a sharp stone cast
+from his sling, so that Goliath falls to the ground. Before he has
+time to rise, David, making use of his opportunity, slays him with his
+own sword, and bears away from the field of battle, the hewn-off head
+as a trophy of victory. As formerly the Israelites fled before the
+snorting and stamping of the great Goliath, so now flee the
+Philistines in consequence of the victory of young David. Thus they
+give opportunity to the Israelites to pursue them, and to fill the
+roads with the corpses of the slain fugitives. It is easy to imagine
+how great must have been the joy of the victorious Hebrews. In proof
+of it, we learn how women came forth from the cities of Judea, with
+drum, fiddle, and other musical instruments, to meet the victors, and
+sang alternately: "Saul hath slain his thousands, but David his ten
+thousands."
+
+Thus the sonata expresses--
+
+1. The stamping and defying of Goliath.
+
+2. The terror of the Israelites, and their prayer to God at sight of
+the terrible enemy.
+
+3. The courage of David, his desire to humble the pride of the giant,
+and his childlike trust in God.
+
+4. The contest of words between David and Goliath, and the contest
+itself, in which Goliath is wounded in the forehead by a stone, so
+that he falls to the ground and is slain.
+
+5. The flight of the Philistines, and how they are pursued by the
+Israelites, and slain by the sword.
+
+6. The exultation of the Israelites over their victory.
+
+7. The praise of David, sung by the women in alternate choirs.
+
+8. And, finally, the general joy, expressing itself in hearty dancing
+and leaping.
+
+
+II. _David curing Saul by means of Music_
+
+Among the heavy blows dealt to us at times by God, for holy reasons,
+are to be counted bodily sicknesses. Of these one can in a real sense
+say that they cause pain. Hence the invention of that physician of
+Padua was by no means ridiculous, who thus represented in
+picture-form, over his house-door, the various sicknesses: a man
+attacked by many dogs and gesticulating wildly, through pain. To each
+of these dogs was given a name, and each acted accordingly. The dog,
+Gout, was biting the man's foot; the dog, Pleurisy, his loins; Stone,
+his kidneys; Colic, his belly, and so on. Finally, a great sheep-dog,
+representing daily fever, had thrown the man to the ground. The
+inventor could easily have known (for that he did not require any
+special experience) that sicknesses act upon men in a manner not less
+gentle. By the exercise of patience, pain can at length be conquered,
+although the soul, so intimately combined with the body, must feel it
+not a little. But when the soul is attacked by sickness, patience
+always gives way; for bodily, cannot in any way be compared with
+mental, suffering. Inner anguish shows itself in restless gestures.
+Scripture takes us into a lazaretto of such afflicted persons. Among
+others, we meet with a royal and singular patient. Saul is his name.
+Of him we read: "The spirit of the Lord departed from Saul, and he was
+vexed by an evil spirit from the Lord." Where God is absent, and the
+Evil One present, there must dwell all manner of evil. The hateful
+aspect of this man in his paroxysms of pain can readily be imagined.
+His eyes turn the wrong way, and sparks of fire, so to speak, dart out
+one after the other; his face is so disfigured, that human features
+can scarce be recognised; his heart casts forth, as it were, a wild,
+stormy sea of foam. Distrust, jealousy, envy, hatred, and fear burst
+forth from him. Especially does the javelin, constantly flying from
+his hand, show that his heart rages fiercely with anger. To sum up:
+his soul-sickness is so great that the marks of hellish tortures can
+be clearly traced. At lucid intervals (_lucidis intervallis_) or quiet
+hours, the tortured king realises his indescribable evil; and he
+therefore seeks after a man who can cure him. But under such
+extraordinary circumstances can help be hoped for? From human arts,
+Saul could not expect any salvation. But God sometimes works wonders
+among men. So he sends to him a noble musician, the excellent David,
+and puts uncommon power into his harp-playing. For when Saul, so to
+speak, is sweating in the hot bath of sadness, and David plays only
+one little piece, the king is at once refreshed, and brought into a
+state of repose.
+
+Thus the sonata represents--
+
+1. Saul's sadness and madness.
+
+2. David's refreshing harp-playing, and
+
+3. Tranquillity restored to the king's mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU
+
+
+In the year 1637 was born at Massa de Valnevola (Tuscany) Bernardo
+Pasquini,[48] who is said to have been one of the most distinguished
+performers on the organ and also the harpsichord. He studied under
+Loreto Vittori and Antonio Cesti, but his real master was evidently
+Palestrina, whose scores young Bernardo studied with fervent zeal. He
+was appointed organist of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, and, according
+to the monument erected to his memory by his nephew, Bernardo
+Ricordati, and his pupil, Bernardo Gaffi, in the church of San Lorenzo
+in Lucina of that city, the composer was for a time in the service of
+Battista, Prince Borghese. The inscription runs thus:--
+
+"D.O.M.
+
+"Bernardo Pasquino Hetrusco e Massa Vallis Nevolæ Liberianæ Basilicæ
+S.P.Q.R. Organedo viro probitate vitæ et moris lepore laudatissimo qui
+Excell. Jo. Bap. Burghesii Sulmonensium Principis clientela et
+munificentia honestatus musicis modulis apud omnes fere Europæ
+Principes nominis gloriam adeptus anno sal. MDCCX. die XXII. Novembris
+S. Ceciliæ sacro ab Humanis excessit ut cujus virtutes et studia
+prosecutus fuerat in terris felicius imitaretur in coelis. Bernardus
+Gaffi discipulus et Bernardus Ricordati ex sorore nepos præceptori et
+avunculo amantissimo moerentes monumentum posuere. Vixit annos LXXII.
+menses XI. dies XIV."
+
+Pasquini enjoyed reputation as a dramatic composer, and the success of
+an opera of his performed at the Teatro Capranica, Rome, during the
+festivities in honour of Queen Christina of Sweden (1679), is
+specially noted; or, according to Mendel, he wrote two successful
+operas, one for the opening of the Teatro Capranica, and a second for
+the festivals. He also wrote an oratorio: _La Sete di Christo_.
+Pasquini died in the year 1710.
+
+But, it will be asked, Why is he mentioned in a book which is
+concerned with the sonata? It is known that he was a skilful performer
+on the harpsichord, and some Toccatas and Suites of his appear to have
+been published in a collection of clavier music at Amsterdam in 1704.
+Fétis, in his _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, even states that
+he wrote sonatas for _gravicembalo_. Here are his words:--
+
+"Landsberg possédait un recueil manuscrit original de pièces d'orgue
+de Pasquini, dont j'ai extrait deux toccates, composées en 1697. Ce
+manuscrit est indiqué d'une manière inexacte dans le catalogue de la
+bibliothèque de ce professeur (Berlin, 1859) de cette manière:
+Pasquini (Bernardo) _Sonate pei Gravicembalo_ (libro prezioso). Volume
+grosso _E scritto di suo (sua) mano in questo libro_. Ce même
+catalogue indiqué aussi de Bernard Pasquini: _Saggi di
+contrapunto_--Anno 1695. Volume forte. _E scritto di suo (sua) mano in
+questo libro_. Malheureusement ces précieux ouvrages sont passés en
+Amérique avec toute la bibliothèque musicale du professeur Landsberg."
+
+Whether these precious volumes actually went to America seems
+doubtful. Anyhow both volumes are now safely housed in the Berlin
+Royal Library. It may be mentioned that the first contains no real
+sonata: its contents consist principally of suites, toccatas,
+variations, and fugues.
+
+In the story of Italian instrumental music, Pasquini is little more
+than a name. The fourth volume of A.W. Ambros' _History of Music_
+concludes thus:--"So ist uns von dem gerühmten Meister nichts
+geblieben, als seine Name u. seine stolze Grabschrift in San Lorenzo
+in Lucina." (Thus of the famous master (_i.e._ Pasquini) nothing
+remains except his name and his proud monument in San Lorenzo in
+Lucina). The writer of the article "D. Scarlatti," in Sir George
+Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, remarks that the famous
+harpsichord player and composer "has been called a pupil of Bernardo
+Pasquini." But he considers this "most improbable, seeing that
+Pasquini was of the school of Palestrina, and wrote entirely in the
+contrapuntal style, whereas Domenico Scarlatti's chief interest is
+that he was the first composer who studied the peculiar
+characteristics of the free style of the harpsichord."
+
+Of Pasquini as a performer on the harpsichord, Mattheson relates "how
+on his visit to Rome he found Corelli playing the violin, Pasquini the
+harpsichord, and Gattani the lute, all in the orchestra of the
+Opera-house." And, once more, in the notice of Pasquini in the same
+dictionary, we are informed that the composer "exercised a certain
+influence on German musicians." In C.F. Weitzmann's _Geschichte des
+Clavierspiels_ there is an interesting reference to some Toccatas of
+Pasquini published in "Toccates et suites pour le clavecin de MM.
+Pasquini, Paglietti et Gaspard Kerle, Amsterdam, Roger, 1704." A
+Toccata was published (most probably one of those in the above work)
+by I. Walsh in his
+
+Second Collection
+of
+Toccates, Vollentarys and Fugues
+made on purpose for the
+Organ and Harpsichord
+Compos'd by
+Pasquini, Polietti
+and others
+The most Eminent Foreign Authors.
+
+Of Polietti,[49] court organist at Vienna before J.S. Bach was born,
+Emil Naumann has, by the way, given an interesting account in an
+article "Ein bisher unbekannt gebliebener Vorgänger Seb. Bach's unter
+den Italienern" (_Neue Berl. Mus.-Ztg._ Jahrgang 29). The Toccatas of
+Pasquini, published by Roger, and a so-called "Sonata,"[50] printed by
+Weitzmann in the work just referred to, constitute, we believe, all
+that has hitherto appeared in print of this composer.
+
+And yet surely Pasquini may lay claim to a place in the history of
+instrumental music and the sonata, for he not only wrote suites, but
+also sonatas for the harpsichord, or, to be quite exact, for two
+harpsichords. Some, at any rate, of his music is to be found in the
+British Museum. There are three volumes (Add. MSS. 31,501-3). On the
+fly-leaf of the first is written:--
+
+"Ad Usum Bernardi Felicij Ricordati de Baggiano in Etruria."
+
+Then comes in pencil a note probably made when the volumes came into
+the possession of the British Museum:--
+
+"These are original MSS. by the hand of Bernardo Pasquini, 1637-1710,
+the greatest organist of Italy in the second half of the 17th century,
+and written for his nephew B. Ricordati. They are the only MSS. of
+Pasquini known to be in Europe. This vol. is dated at the end, Dec.
+3, 1704; at the beginning, May 6, 1703."
+
+And now for its contents. The first piece is a short suite,[51]
+consisting of a Tastata (the old term for Prelude), a Corrente and an
+Aria; and it shows that Pasquini could write homophonic as well as
+polyphonic music. Then follows a piece in the key of D major, headed
+
+     "A due Cembali, 1704, Bernardo Pasquini,"
+
+which consists of three movements. First one commencing with chords,
+after which, fugal imitation. Next we have a fugal movement, like the
+preceding one, in common time; lastly, one in six-eight time. All
+three movements are in the same key. The part for each cembalo is
+written on a separate stave, the one below the other. Only the bass
+notes are written, and the upper parts are indicated by figures. But
+this will be clearer presently, for we shall give one or more
+illustrations. At the close of the six-eight movement is written
+_fine_, and on the following page another piece begins in C major,
+marked merely 2a, commencing thus:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+This theme reminds one of Bach's Adagio from the 2nd Organ Concerto--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+or even Handel's "Along the Monster Atheist strode."[52] The movements
+of this second piece are similar in structure and character to those
+of the first. Next we have a piece of lighter character in two
+movements, and, apparently, for one cembalo: there is, of course, only
+one bass part (figured). At the commencement is merely marked _Basso
+continuo_. The following piece is headed 3a Sonata (3rd Sonata). It is
+in the key of D minor, and it has three movements, all in the same
+key. Now, as all the pieces for _two cembali_ in the volume after this
+are marked as sonatas, coupled with the fact that before this 3rd
+Sonata there are two pieces for two cembali, the latter of which is
+marked 2a (second), we may conclude that these two are also sonatas.
+The piece for one cembalo between the 2nd and 3rd Sonatas is, as we
+have remarked, of lighter character, and was possibly considered a
+suite. After the 3rd Sonata comes a fourth, then a _Basso continuo_
+(containing, however, by exception, more than one suite), and so on,
+alternately, until the 14th Sonata is reached. Then follows the last
+piece in the volume. The superscription, "For one _or_ two
+cembali,"[53] leads us to believe that the preceding _Basso continuo_
+numbers were intended for one cembalo. It should be stated that
+movements in binary form are rare among the sonatas, frequent among
+the _Basso continuo_ pieces,--another reason for considering the
+latter suites.
+
+The structure of the 3rd Sonata[54] is extremely simple. The first,
+probably an Allegro moderato, opens with a bold characteristic phrase,
+which is repeated in the second bar by the second cembalo; points of
+imitation, in fact, continue throughout the movement. At the seventh
+bar there is modulation to the dominant, and at the ninth, to the
+subdominant, in which the opening theme recurs. A stately antiphonal
+passage leads back to the principal key, and the movement concludes
+with a cadence such as we find in many a work of Bach's or Handel's.
+The Adagio opens with short phrases for each instrument alternately. A
+new subject in the relative major is treated in imitative fashion.
+After a return to the opening theme, also an allusion to the second
+theme, a new figure is introduced, but the movement soon comes to a
+close. This slow movement brings to one's mind "The Lord is a Man of
+War," and the major section of the duet, "Thou in Thy Mercy," in
+Handel's _Israel in Egypt_. The third movement, in structure, much
+resembles the first; the music is broad and vigorous. The closing bars
+suggest the stringendo passage and presto bars in the coda of the
+Scherzo of the "Choral Symphony." Of course it is disappointing to
+have only the bass parts for each instrument. The volume, as we have
+already stated, was for the use of Ricordati, and probably the uncle
+and nephew performed these sonatas together. Musicians will be able to
+write out the figured basses, and thus form some idea of the music.
+The figures are an outline of what was in the composer's mind; but
+these basses, like those of Bach and Handel, so simple, so clear to
+the composers who penned them, will always remain more or less a _crux
+criticorum_. It will be noticed that the three movements, as in some
+of Corelli's sonatas, are all in the same key.
+
+We now give the opening bars of the three movements of the piece for
+one or two cembali:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+All the other sonatas are more or less after the pattern of the one
+given. The other two volumes contain suites, airs with variations,
+arias, and a quantity of short figured basses, apparently as studies.
+
+Before closing this short chapter we will add a word or two about
+Italian music for the harpsichord at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. A recent writer remarks that "Domenico Scarlatti seems to
+spring full-armed into the view of history." But his father, the
+renowned opera-writer, Alessandro Scarlatti, wrote music for the
+harpsichord, also his pupil, Gaëtano Grieco, who succeeded him as
+Professor at the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo (Naples) in
+1717. The influence of the master can be clearly traced in the music
+of the pupil; and, if one may judge from the simpler character of
+Grieco's music[55] as compared with that of D. Scarlatti, he, too, was
+a predecessor. Grieco is said to have been born about 1680; D.
+Scarlatti was born in 1683; but this, of course, decides nothing as to
+the dates of their compositions. The harpsichord music of G. Grieco
+has both character and charm, and it is indeed strange that none of
+his pieces have been included either in the _Trésor des Pianistes_,
+the _Maîtres du Clavecin_, or Pauer's Collections of old music.
+
+This chapter is headed: "A Contemporary of Kuhnau." The latter
+published all his known sonatas by the year 1700, while the dates
+assigned to the Pasquini sonata volume are, as we have seen, 1703-4.
+But at that time Pasquini was over sixty years of age; it is therefore
+more than probable that he was really the predecessor of the German
+master as a writer of clavier sonatas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES
+
+
+Carl Phillip Emanuel, third son of J.S. Bach, was born at Weimar, 8th
+or 14th March, 1714, and died at Hamburg, 14th December, 1788. He
+studied composition and clavier-playing with his father. His brother,
+Wilhelm Friedemann, his senior by four years, went through a similar
+course, but learnt, in addition, the violin under J.G. Graun.
+Emanuel's attention, however, was concentrated on the one instrument;
+and to this we probably owe the numerous clavier sonatas which he
+wrote, and which paved the way for those of Haydn, Mozart, and
+Beethoven. In his twenty-first year (1735) Emanuel left his father's
+house in order to study jurisprudence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder; three
+years later, however, he went to Berlin, and as cembalist entered the
+service of Frederick the Great (1740).[56] Already in his father's
+house, the young student saw and heard many distinguished musicians;
+he himself has told us that no musician of any note passed through
+Leipzig without seeking an opportunity to meet his father, so famed as
+composer and as performer on the organ and clavier. And again,
+afterwards, at the Court of Prussia, he came into contact with the
+most notable composers and performers of his day. From among these may
+be singled out C.H. Graun (composer of the "Tod Jesu") and Georg
+Benda.[57] Graun was already in the service of Frederick when the
+latter was only Crown Prince.[58] It would be interesting to learn the
+special influences acting upon Emanuel before he published his first
+set of sonatas in 1742, but this is scarcely possible. The collection
+of symphonies[59] or sonatas published at Leipzig in 1762, mentioned
+in our introductory chapter, gives, however, some idea of the music
+of that period; and it is possible that many of the numbers were
+written before Emanuel Bach published his first works. The "Sammlung
+Vermischte Clavierstücke für geübte und ungeübte Spieler," by Georg
+Benda, may also be mentioned; it is of great interest, especially the
+Sonata in C minor. The character of the music and style of writing for
+the instrument constantly remind one of Emanuel Bach. Benda, born in
+1721, joined the King of Prussia's Band in 1742, and soon became known
+as an experienced performer on the harpsichord. Unfortunately it is
+impossible to ascertain the dates of composition of the various pieces
+of this collection, and thus to find out whether Benda was an imitator
+of Bach or _vice versâ_; the collection itself was only published at
+Gotha in 1780.
+
+The Italian taste in music which prevailed at the Prussian Court[60]
+had undoubtedly a marked influence on Bach, and one for good. The
+severe counterpoint of the North German school and the suave melody of
+the Sunny South blended together with happy results.
+
+It is customary to speak _en bloc_ of Emanuel Bach's sonatas; if,
+however, the earlier be compared with some of the later ones,
+interesting differences may be detected, and developments traced. But
+the composer's artistic career, unfortunately, does not show a steady,
+regular advance such as we find in J.S. Bach or Beethoven. C.H.
+Bitter, his biographer and enthusiastic admirer, has to confess that
+he was a practical man, and that he wrote at times to please pupils
+and amateurs; while, occasionally, his aim may have been pecuniary
+gain.
+
+Of his early period, we shall notice the "Sei Sonate per Cembalo,"
+dedicated to Frederick II. of Prussia (1742), and the Würtemberg
+Sonatas, published in 1745. Of his middle period, the "Sechs Sonaten
+fürs Clavier mit veränderten Reprisen," Berlin, 1760, and the "Sechs
+leichte Sonaten," Leipzig, 1766. And of his latter period, the six
+collections of "Sonaten für Kenner u. Liebhaber," published at Leipzig
+between 1779 and 1787. With regard, however, to the last-named, it
+must be remembered that some are of a comparatively early date. Thus
+the 3rd Sonata of the 3rd Collection, one of the finest of Bach's
+works, was composed in 1763, while the collection itself only appeared
+in 1781. But a table of dates will be given further on.
+
+If some of the best sonatas written after 1760 be compared with those
+of 1742, there will be found in the later works more character in the
+subject-matter, also movements of greater length. Practice, too, had
+improved the composer's style of writing. The later Bach did not
+return to the principal theme in such a crude, nay, lawless, fashion
+as the following:--
+
+[Music illustration: (Frederick) Sonata 1. First Movement.]
+
+In these "Frederick" Sonatas there is as yet no tendency to enharmonic
+and other surprise modulation such as Bach afterwards displayed. Then
+as to technique, we find here octaves and large chords comparatively
+rare,[61] while scale passages are more restricted. Like Beethoven,
+Emanuel Bach seized hold of additional notes to the keyboard. In 1742
+his highest and lowest notes, apparently, were--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+but afterwards--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+In the introductory chapter we noted the change with regard to the
+number of movements of a sonata which took place between 1683, when
+Corelli published his first sonatas, and 1740, when E. Bach composed
+his first set. Instances were given of sonatas in three movements by
+Corelli, but with that composer _four_ was the normal number; with E.
+Bach, _three_. This change came about in great measure through the
+concerto. From E. Bach, we are able to show the links in the chain of
+development: Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; but though between
+Kuhnau, the first writer of sonatas for the clavier, and Bach, B.
+Pasquini wrote, as mentioned in the last chapter, sonatas in three
+movements, yet we have no knowledge that Bach was acquainted with
+them. Kuhnau, in fact, however interesting a phenomenon in the musical
+firmament, is not necessary to explain the appearance of Bach. Joh.
+Sebastian Bach was undoubtedly acquainted with the "Bible" Sonatas. He
+must have admired them, but he may have been afraid of the freedom of
+form which they displayed, and of their tendency to programme-music;
+and perhaps he did not speak of them to his sons, lest they should be
+led astray. For, as we have already mentioned, Sebastian Bach seems to
+have yielded for a moment to the Kuhnau influence, but, if we may
+judge from his subsequent art-work, he did not feel satisfied that it
+was a good one.
+
+In 1742, E. Bach dedicated the six sonatas (composed in 1740) to
+Frederick the Great. The title-page runs thus:--
+
+Sei Sonate
+per Cembalo
+che all' Augusta Maestà
+di
+Frederico II.
+Rè di Prussia
+D.D.D.
+l'Autore
+Carlo Filippo Emanuele Bach
+Musico di Camera di S.M.
+Alle spese di Balth. Schmid
+in Norimberga.
+
+And in the obsequious dedication, the composer describes them as works
+"debolissimo Talento mio." As Bach's earliest published sonatas, they
+are, for our purpose, of special interest. Their order is as
+follows:--
+
+Sonata 1, in F            Poco Allegro, Andante, Vivace.
+  "    2, "  B flat       Vivace, Adagio, Allegro assai.
+  "    3, "  E            Poco Allegro, Adagio, Presto.
+  "    4, "  C minor      Allegro, Adagio, Presto.
+  "    5, "  C            Poco Allegro, Andante, Allegro assai.
+  "    6, "  A            Allegro, Adagio, Allegro.
+
+The first and last movements of all six are in binary form. In the
+five major sonatas, the first sections close in the key of the
+dominant, and in the one minor sonata (No. 4), in the relative major.
+The opening movement of each sonata is in early sonata-form: the
+second section starts with the principal theme, or a brief allusion
+to it; but then, after a short development with modulation, there is a
+return to the principal key and to the principal theme.[62] The final
+movements, on the other hand, are of the usual _suite_ order. Of
+interest and, indeed, of importance in our history of development are
+the contents of the first section of the opening movements. In some of
+the Scarlatti sonatas (see No. 56) there is to be found a fairly
+definite second subject in the dominant key, or, in the case of a
+minor piece, in the dominant minor or relative major. Here the process
+of differentiation is continued; in the 2nd Sonata the contrast
+between the two subjects is specially marked. We give the opening bar
+of each--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+In most of the developments the composer steers clear of the principal
+key, so that at the return of the principal theme it may appear fresh.
+To such a method, since Beethoven, we are quite accustomed; but it is
+curious how little attention--even with the example of E. Bach before
+him--Haydn paid to such an effective means of contrast in some of his
+early sonatas. In Bach's No. 6, in A, the development assumes unusual
+magnitude; it is even longer than the first section. And it is not
+only long, but interesting. One passage, of which we quote a portion,
+has rather a modern appearance:[63]--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The return of the principal theme is preceded by an unexpected entry
+of the opening bars in B minor,--a first sign of that humour which
+afterwards formed so prominent a feature in Bach's music. And the
+theme itself, after the opening notes, is dealt with in original
+fashion.
+
+The middle movements of Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 6 are in the key of the
+relative minor; that of No. 1 is in the tonic minor, and that of No. 4
+(C minor), in the relative major. No. 1, twice interrupted by a
+recitative (upper part and figured bass),[64] is dignified, yet
+tender, and, in form, original. The Adagio, in C sharp minor, of No. 3
+is a movement of singular charm; it is based on imitation, but, though
+old in style, it breathes something of the new spirit, or rather--for
+there is nothing new under the sun--of the old Florentine spirit which
+freed music for a time from the fetters of polyphony. The genius of
+Johann Sebastian Bach gained the victory over form, and, in fact,
+exhausted fugue-form. It is in the clever, but dry fugues of some of
+his contemporaries and, especially, successors, that one can feel the
+absolute necessity for a new departure. This Adagio is, as it were, a
+delicate remembrance, and one not unmixed with sadness, of the
+composer's immortal parent.
+
+The light, lively final movements need no description. All the music
+of these sonatas is written in two or three parts or voices;
+occasionally there are chord passages in which for the moment the
+number is increased. We have dwelt somewhat in detail on this work, as
+it appears to be little known.
+
+There is a sonata in the key of D major, published in the 3rd
+Collection (1763) of Marpurg's _Clavierstücke_ (p. 10), by E. Bach,
+which was written in the same year (1740), but earlier than the
+"Frederick" Sonatas. C.H. Bitter remarks that if the year of
+composition were not known, it would certainly pass as a much later
+work. The first movement reminds one of Beethoven's terse, bold style.
+Bitter refers to the freedom with which the thoughts are expressed, to
+the melodious character of the Andante, and to the humour of the
+Finale. He might also have referred to the style of writing for the
+instrument, which suggests a later date.
+
+In 1745 (?) appeared the Würtemberg Sonatas (so called because they
+were dedicated to Bach's pupil, the _Duca di Wirtemberg e Teckh_, as
+he is named on the title-page of the original edition). These sonatas
+are marked as Opera seconda. They were offered by the composer to the
+Duke in recognition of the many favours shown to him "at the time when
+I had the honour of giving you lessons in music at Berlin."[65] Of
+these sonatas we have only been able to have access to the two
+preserved in the British Museum; the others are probably of similar
+character.
+
+No. 1, in E flat, opens with an Adagio, followed by an Allegro assai
+(E flat), and then by a Menuet alternato and Trio, both in E flat, and
+with the former _da capo_. The first and second movements are in old
+binary form; the Allegro shows the influence of D. Scarlatti. The
+Minuet is fresh and pleasing. It is evident, taking E. Bach himself
+as standard, that this is a suite rather than a sonata.
+
+No. 2, in B flat, is of similar character and construction. Both
+sonatas are old in form, but more modern in their subject-material and
+style of writing than those dedicated to the King of Prussia. In the
+latter there is a solidity not to be found here; in its place we have
+lightness, almost merriment; they were written, one would almost
+think, expressly for the amusement of the Duke. The rapid semi-quaver
+passages (as in No. 1) and the crossing of hands (as in No. 2) tell in
+no undecided manner of the influence of Scarlatti. The exceedingly
+light and graceful Minuets remind one of the kinship between the
+composer and Haydn.
+
+In a letter to Forkel, dated 10th February 1775, Bach writes as
+follows:--
+
+"Die 2 Sonaten, welche Ihren Beyfall vorzüglich haben, sind die
+einzigen von dieser Art, die ich je gemacht habe. Sie gehören zu der,
+aus dem H-moll, die ich Ihnen mitschickte, zu der aus dem B, die Sie
+nun auch haben, u. zu 2en aus der Hafner-Würtembergischen Sammlung, u.
+sind alle 6 anno 1743, im Töplitzer Bade von mir, der ich damahls sehr
+gicht-brüchig war, auf einem Claviacord mit der kurzen Octav
+verfertiget."[66]
+
+It would be interesting to know the two sonatas belonging to this
+period, "the only ones of the kind that I have ever written." In the
+catalogue of musical remains of E. Bach, published two years after his
+death, the opening bars are given of a Sonata in B minor (see above
+letter) written at Töplitz in 1743--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+This, surely, must be the one mentioned in the above letter.
+
+In 1760, Bach published six sonatas with varied repeats (_mit
+veränderten Reprisen_), dedicated to Princess Amelia of Prussia. In
+the preface the composer remarks that "nowadays change or repetition
+is indispensable." He complains that some players will not play the
+notes as written, even the first time; and again, that players, if the
+changing on repetition is left to them, make alterations unsuitable to
+the character of the music. These sonatas are of great historic
+interest. This preface, also the evident necessity for additional
+(inner part) notes at times, especially in the slow movements of E.
+Bach and other composers of that day, make one feel that, as it now
+stands, much of Bach's music is a dead letter. Here we are face to
+face with a question which in a kindred matter has given rise to much
+controversy. If the music is to produce its proper effect, something
+must be done. To that (in the case of Emanuel Bach's sonatas) all
+reasonable musicians must agree. Yet not, perhaps, as to what that
+something should be. According to certain authorities, only additions
+should be made which are strictly in keeping with the spirit of the
+age in which the music was written. Some, on the other hand, would
+bring the music up to date; they think it better to clothe
+eighteenth-century music in nineteenth-century dress, than to ask
+musicians with nineteenth-century ears to listen to patched-up
+eighteenth-century music. The second plan would not be approved by
+musicians who hold the classical masters in veneration; with a little
+modification, the first one, however, ought to meet with general
+acceptance. We may write in keeping with the spirit of a past age, but
+the music must now be played on an instrument of different character,
+compass, and quality of tone; so surely in making additions (and, so
+far as certain ornaments are concerned, alterations) these things
+ought to be taken into consideration. A certain latitude should,
+therefore, be allowed to the transcriber; hard-and-fast rules in such
+a delicate task are impossible. The late Dr. Bülow edited six of
+Emanuel Bach's sonatas,[67] and though he was well acquainted with the
+composer's style of writing, his anxious desire to present the music
+in the most favourable light sometimes led him to make changes of
+which even lenient judges would not approve. The matter is an
+interesting one, and we may therefore venture to refer somewhat in
+detail to one passage. In the 3rd Sonata (F minor) of the 3rd
+Collection, the passage--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+has been changed by Bülow: he has altered the C flat in the second
+half of the first bar into a C natural, thus smoothing down the hard
+progression to the key of B flat minor. Now this very passage had
+already, nearly a hundred years previously, attracted the notice of
+Forkel, who admitted that, apart from the context, it jarred against
+his musical feeling. But he had thought over the composer's intention
+in writing that sonata, and had come to the conclusion that, in the
+opening Allegro, Bach wished to express indignation.[68] He therefore
+asks: "Are the hard, rough, passionate expressions of an angry and
+indignant man beautiful?" In this case, Forkel was of opinion that the
+hard modulation was a faithful record of what the composer wished to
+express.[69] The natural order of history seems inverted here. One
+would have expected Forkel to look upon the music from an abstract,
+but Bülow from a poetical point of view. C.H. Bitter--also on purely
+musical grounds--condemns Bülow's alterations. He says:--"Even
+weaknesses of great masters, among which the passages in question are
+not to be counted, still more so, special peculiarities, should be
+left untouched. What would become of Beethoven, if each generation of
+musicians, according to individual judgment, arrogated to itself the
+right, here and there, of expunging hardnesses, smoothing down
+peculiarities, and softening even sharp points with which, from time
+to time, we come into unpleasant contact? Works of art must be
+accepted as they are."
+
+The first part of Bitter's argument is sound; but, unfortunately for
+the last, the writer in his life of Emanuel Bach and his brothers
+insists on the necessity of _not_ accepting Emanuel's clavier works
+_as they are_.
+
+He quotes a passage from the Andante of the 4th Sonata of the second
+set of the "Reprisen Sonaten," and comes to the natural conclusion
+that it was only an outline requiring filling up.
+
+With all his faults, one cannot but admire the spirit in which Bülow
+worked. He felt the greatness of the old masters, regretted the
+limited means which they had at their command, also the stenographic
+system in which they were accustomed to express their thoughts; and he
+sought, therefore, to make use of modern means, and thereby was
+naturally tempted to introduce modern effects. The restoration of the
+old masters is a difficult and delicate task, and in most cases, one
+may add, a thankless one. In the matter of transcription, however, it
+is important to distinguish between a Bülow and a Tausig: the one
+displayed the intelligence of an artist; the other, the
+thoughtlessness of a _virtuoso_.
+
+But what, it may be asked, is the character of the changes made by
+Bach? The matter is of interest; by examining these sonatas, we get
+some idea of the difference between letter and spirit. However, from
+what we have said above, a mere imitation of these changes, in playing
+Bach's music, would, in its turn, be letter rather than spirit.
+
+As a rule the bass remains the same, though plain crotchets may become
+quavers, as in extract from Sonata 1 given below, or notes turned into
+broken octaves--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+or, at times, some very slight alteration may occur, such as--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+In the upper parts the changes are similar to those found in the
+variations of Haydn and Mozart. An illustration will be better than
+any explanation, and we accordingly give a brief extract from the 1st
+Sonata: first the five bars of the Allegretto, as at the opening, then
+as they are changed--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The publication of the set of six Leipzig collections of sonatas,
+etc., commenced in 1779; but thirteen years previously, the composer
+had published a set of "Sechs Leichte Clavier Sonaten," and these, in
+one or two respects, are curious. The opening movement of No. 6 has no
+double bars, and, therefore, no repeat of the first section. And
+again, it has a coda pausing on the dominant chord and followed by an
+Andantino. This second movement, peculiar in form and modulation, ends
+on the dominant of F, leading directly to the Presto.
+
+The opening of the Larghetto of No. 2--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+was probably the prototype of many a theme of the classical masters.
+
+The works by which Emanuel Bach is best known are the six collections
+of sonatas, rondos, and fantasias published at Leipzig between
+1779-1787. The composer died in 1788. The 1st Collection (1779) bears
+the title "Sechs Claviersonaten für Kenner und Liebhaber," and, in
+fact, contains six sonatas. But "nebst einigen Rondos" (together with
+some Rondos) was already added to the title-page of the 2nd and 3rd
+Collections; and to the remaining ones, the still further addition of
+"Freye Fantasien."
+
+For the sake of reference, the list of sonatas is subjoined--
+
+       Coll.
+(1779)  1    Sonata in C                      1773  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " F                      1758  Berlin.
+        "       "    " B minor                1774  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " A (Bülow No. 3)        1765  Potsdam.
+        "       "    " F                      1772  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " G (Bülow No. 4)        1765  Potsdam.
+(1780)  2       "    " G                      1774  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " F                      1780  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " A (Bülow No. 2)        1780  Hamburg.
+(1781)  3       "    " A minor                1774  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " D minor (Bülow No. 5)  1766  Potsdam.
+        "       "    " F minor (Bülow No. 1)  1763  Berlin.
+(1783)  4       "    " G                      1781  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " E minor                1765  Berlin.
+(1785)  5       "    " E minor                1784  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " B flat                 1784  Hamburg.
+(1787)  6       "    " D                      1785  Hamburg.
+        "       "    " E minor                1785  Hamburg.
+
+Without copious musical examples, an analysis of these eighteen
+sonatas would prove heavy reading. It will, therefore, be easier for
+the writer, and certainly pleasanter for his readers, to give a
+somewhat "freye Fantasia" description of them, laying emphasis
+naturally on points connected with the special purpose in view.[70]
+
+In the matter of tonality there are some curiosities. When Beethoven's
+1st Symphony appeared, the opening bars of the introduction became
+stumbling-stones to the pedagogues of that day. The work was, without
+doubt, in the key of C major; yet, instead of opening with the tonic
+chord of that key, the composer led up to it through the keys of the
+subdominant, relative minor, and dominant. No wonder that such a
+proceeding surprised conventional minds, and that the critics warned
+Beethoven of the danger of "going his own way." But his predecessor,
+Emanuel Bach, had also strayed from the pedagogic path, a narrow one,
+yet, in the end, leading to destruction. In the first book (1779), the
+5th Sonata (as shown by the whole of the movement, with exception of
+the two opening bars) is in the key of F major, yet the first bar is
+in C minor (minor key of the dominant) and the second, in D minor
+(relative minor of the principal key).
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+There were, no doubt, respecters of tonality also in Emanuel Bach's
+day, to whom such free measures must have seemed foolhardy. While
+composing this sonata Bach was, apparently, in daring mood. The slow
+middle movement in D minor opens with an inversion of the dominant
+ninth, and the Finale in F thus--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+Of the character of the first section of movements in binary form we
+have already spoken in the introductory chapter.
+
+In the matter of development, the Bach sonatas are in one respect
+particularly striking; the composer seems to have resolutely turned
+away from the fugal style, and in so doing probably found himself
+somewhat hampered. Like the early Florentine reformers, Bach was
+breaking with the past, and with a mightier past than the one on which
+the Florentines turned their back; like them, he, too, was occupied
+with a new form. Not the music itself of the first operas, but the
+spirit which prompted them, is what we now admire; in E. Bach,
+too,--especially when viewed in the light of subsequent history,--we
+at times take the will for the deed.
+
+We meet with much the same kinds of development as in Scarlatti:
+phrases or passages taken bodily from the first section and repeated
+on different degrees of the scale, extensions of phrases, and
+passage-writing based on some figure from the exposition, etc. The
+short development section of the Sonata in G (Collection No. 6) offers
+examples of the three methods of development just mentioned. Bach,
+like Scarlatti, was a master of his instrument, and even when--as was
+said of Mendelssohn--he had nothing particular to say, he always
+managed to say that little well. E. Bach has already much to suffer in
+the inevitable comparison with Beethoven; and the fact that we have
+the full message of the one, but not of the other, no doubt
+accentuates the difference.
+
+In many ways Bach reminds one of Beethoven. There are unexpected
+fortes and pianos, unexpected crescendos and diminuendos. Of such, the
+noble Larghetto in F minor of the Sonata in F (Collection 1779, No. 2)
+offers, indeed, several fine examples. Particularly would we notice
+the passage just before the return of the opening theme; it begins
+_ff_, but there is a gradual decrease to _pp_; the latter seems
+somewhat before its time, and therefore surprises. Then, again, we
+meet with out-of-the-way modulations. Bach was extremely fond of
+enharmonic transitions,[71] and the same can be said of Beethoven in
+both his early and his late works. The means employed by the two
+composers may be the same, but the effect is, of course, always more
+striking in Beethoven, whose thoughts were deeper, and whose means of
+expressing them were in every way more extended. And once again, in
+some of the forms of melody, in figures and passages, traces can be
+found of connection between the two masters. To our thinking the bond
+of union between E. Bach and Beethoven is stronger than the
+oft-mentioned one between the early master and Haydn: Haydn was
+practically Bach's pupil; Beethoven, his spiritual heir. This it is
+which gives interest to any outward resemblances which may be
+detected, not the resemblances themselves.
+
+In Bach's six sonatas of 1742 the movements are detached. But the
+opening movement (an Andante in sonata form) of the 2nd Sonata of the
+Leipzig Collection of 1779 ends with a few bars in canonic form (and
+with quaint Bebung effect), leading without break to the following
+Larghetto. The next sonata also connects the second with the third
+movement. In the above case the change was merely from the key of
+tonic major to that of minor; but here the movement is in G minor, and
+an enharmonic modulation leads to the dominant of B minor, key of the
+final movement. The sonata begins in B minor, and the choice of the
+remote key of G minor for the middle movement is somewhat curious.
+Sonata No. 4 connects first and second movements; and the third is
+evidently meant to follow without pause. It must, however be
+remembered that the majority of the Leipzig sonatas do not have the
+various movements thus connected. It therefore seems to have been an
+experiment rather than a settled plan. Examples of the connection of
+movements are also to be found in Nichelmann and J.C.F. Bach. The same
+thing may be seen in some of Haydn's sonatas (Nos. 18, 22, etc.),
+while Beethoven offers a remarkable instance in his sonata, Op. 57.
+
+The 1st Sonata of the 2nd Collection passes from the first to the
+second movement (Allegretto, G minor; Larghetto, F sharp minor) in a
+curious manner, by enharmonic means. The last bar has--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The quotation is in abbreviated form. The second chord would, of
+course, be taken at first as dominant minor ninth on G. The 1st Sonata
+of the 4th Collection is not striking as music, and certainly not of
+sufficient importance to justify serious inquiry into the peculiar
+order of keys for the three movements (G, G minor, and E major).
+
+With regard to the number of movements, all except two of the eighteen
+sonatas have three; the second and third of the 2nd Collection have
+only two.
+
+John Christian Bach, or the "London" Bach, as he was called, dedicated
+his fifth work, consisting of six sonatas "Pour le clavecin ou
+pianoforte," to Ernst, Duke of Mecklenburg. This cannot have been
+before 1759, as that was the year in which the composer came to
+London. He describes himself on the title-page as--"Maître de Musique
+de S.M. la Reine d'Angleterre." These sonatas, as we learn from the
+dedication, were written for the "amusement" of the Duke. The first,
+third, and fourth have each only two movements. They remind us less of
+E. Bach than of Haydn's early style. There is some very fresh,
+pleasing writing in them. No. 5 has some excellent practising
+passages, and perhaps the following--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+may have suggested to Cramer his first study. The middle movement of
+No. 6 is a vigorous double Fugue; the whole sonata is, indeed, one of
+the finest of the set.
+
+A Sonata in D, by Wilhelm Friedmann Bach, is commented on by Dr. Parry
+in his "Sonata" dictionary article. There is another one in C major, a
+fresh and vigorous example of a musician whose powers were never fully
+developed.
+
+The sonatas of Pietro Domenico Paradies (_b._ 1710), a contemporary of
+E. Bach, are of interest. They were published in London by John
+Johnson, and bear the title, "Sonate di gravicembalo dedicate a sua
+altezza reale la principessa da Pier Domenico Paradies Napolitano."
+The edition bears no date; but the right of printing and selling
+granted by George II. bears the date November 28, 1754. A second
+edition was published at Amsterdam in 1770. The sonatas are twelve in
+number, and consist of only two movements of various character: some
+have an Allegro or Presto, followed by a Presto, Allegro, or Gigue;
+and sometimes (as in Nos. 9 and 11) the second movement is an Andante.
+In other sonatas the first movement is in slow time. These
+two-movement sonatas would seem to form an intermediate stage between
+Scarlatti and Emanuel Bach. As a matter of fact, however, the latter,
+as we have seen, had published clavier sonatas in three movements long
+before the appearance of those of Paradies. In some of the movements
+in binary form Paradies shows an advance on Scarlatti (see Nos. 1 and
+10), for in the second section there is a return, after modulation, to
+the principal theme. Some have the theme in the dominant key at the
+commencement of that section, others not. Thus we see various stages
+represented in these sonatas. The music is delightfully fresh, and,
+from a technical point of view, interesting. The influence of
+Scarlatti both in letter and spirit is strongly felt. In some of the
+movements (_cf._ first movement of No. 8 and of No. 12) there is a
+feature which Paradies did not inherit from Scarlatti, _i.e._ the
+so-called Alberti bass. Of such a bass Scarlatti gives only slight
+hints. Alberti, said to have been its inventor, was a contemporary of
+Paradies, and the latter may have learnt the trick from him: there are
+many examples of its use. In Alberti, "VIII Sonate Opera Prima,"[72]
+the opening Allegro of No. 2 has it in forty-four of the forty-six
+bars of which it consists, and, besides, each section is repeated.
+That convenient form of accompaniment soon came into vogue. It occurs
+frequently in the sonatas and concertos of J.C. Bach and Haydn, but it
+is in the works of second-rate composers that one sees the full use,
+or rather abuse, made of it. No. 8 of the Paradies sonatas is
+particularly attractive, and the second movement forms a not
+unpleasant reminiscence of Handel's so-called "Harmonious Blacksmith"
+variations.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HAYDN AND MOZART
+
+
+I.--Haydn
+
+This composer, to whom is given the name of "father of the symphony
+and the quartet," was born at Rohrau, a small Austrian village on the
+Leitha, in the night between 31st March and 1st April 1732. At a very
+early age the boy's sweet voice attracted the notice of G. Reuter,
+capellmeister of St. Stephen's, Vienna, and for many years he sang in
+the cathedral choir. In 1749 he was dismissed, the alleged cause being
+a practical joke played by him on one of his fellow-choristers. He
+was, as Sir G. Grove relates in his article "Haydn" in the _Dictionary
+of Music and Musicians_, thrown upon the world "with an empty purse, a
+keen appetite, and no friends." Haydn took up his abode in an attic in
+the old Michaelerhaus. But it chanced that Metastasio lived in the
+same building, and the famous poet took an interest in the penniless
+composer, and, among other things, taught him Italian. Metastasio was
+extremely fond of music, and we know from his letters that the flowing
+compositions of his countrymen delighted him more than the learned
+music of Germany. Then Haydn made the acquaintance of Porpora, who
+gave him instruction in composition and in the art of singing. And he
+is also supposed to have studied the works of San Martini, an Italian
+composer in the service of Prince Esterhazy. In addition, Italian
+music was much played and much admired in Vienna. Emanuel Bach also,
+as we have seen, came under Italian influence, but not until he had
+finished his studies under his father's guidance. Once more, we may
+conclude that Haydn, before he commenced writing clavier sonatas, had
+made acquaintance with those of Paradies and of Alberti. These early
+Italian influences should be noted, for one is apt to think rather of
+the young composer as plodding through Fux's "Gradus" and playing
+Emanuel Bach's sonatas on his "little worm-eaten clavier." During his
+last years Haydn told his friend Griesinger that he had diligently
+studied Emanuel Bach, and that he owed very much to him. From the
+painter Dies, in his biographical notice of the master, we also learn
+how fond he was of playing Emanuel Bach's sonatas. And this influence
+was undoubtedly not only a strong, but a lasting one; in 1788, the
+year in which E. Bach died, Haydn wrote to Artaria, begging the latter
+to send him that master's last two works for clavier.
+
+In reference to Haydn, musicians are apt to speak merely of his
+sonatas, whereas those of Beethoven are generally described by their
+key, or their opus number; or as belonging to one of the three
+periods into which that master's art-work is usually divided. There is
+good reason for this difference. Haydn's sonatas are not of equal
+importance with those of his successor; and then some are
+old-fashioned, others second-rate. Beethoven's sonatas are by no means
+all of equal merit, yet there is not one but has some feature, whether
+of form, or development, or technique, by which it may be
+distinguished. And yet a close and careful study of Haydn's sonatas
+will show that he, too, had his periods of apprenticeship, mastery,
+and maturity. Let not our readers take alarm. We are not going to
+analyse his thirty-five sonatas, or to enter into minute details. But
+we shall try, by selecting some of the most characteristic works, to
+show how the master commenced, continued, and concluded.
+
+The earliest of the published sonatas,[73] No. 1 (33), is somewhat of
+a curiosity. It consists of four movements: an Allegro in G major; a
+Minuetto and Trio, G major and minor; an Adagio in G minor; and an
+Allegro molto in G major. It is the only sonata of Haydn's which
+contains four movements. The plaintive Trio and the Scarlatti-like
+Finale are attractive.
+
+In the year 1774, J.J. Hummel, at Amsterdam, published six sonatas,
+the last three of which appear to have been originally written for
+pianoforte and violin;[74] and in 1776 six more were printed by
+Longman & Broderip as Op. 14. These may serve as specimens of Haydn's
+early style; and in them, by the way, the composer was accused of
+imitating, nay, caricaturing, E. Bach.
+
+In the _European Magazine_ for October 1784 there appeared an account
+of Joseph Haydn, "a celebrated composer of music," in which occurs the
+following:--
+
+"Amongst the number of professors who wrote against our rising author
+was Philipp Emanuel Bach of Hamburgh (formerly of Berlin); and the
+only notice Haydn took of their scurrility and abuse was to publish
+lessons written in imitation of the several styles of his enemies, in
+which their peculiarities were so closely copied, and their extraneous
+passages (particularly those of Bach of Hamburgh) so inimitably
+burlesqued, that they all felt the poignancy of his musical wit,
+confessed its truth, and were silent."
+
+Further on the writer mentions the sonatas of Ops. 13 and 14 as
+"expressly composed in order to ridicule Bach of Hamburgh"; nay, he
+points to the second part of the second sonata in Op. 13 and the whole
+of the third sonata in the same work by way of special illustration.
+
+There are many resemblances to E. Bach in Haydn,--notes wide apart,
+pause bars, surprise modulations, etc.,--and this is not more
+extraordinary than to find resemblances between Mozart and Beethoven;
+but the charge of caricature seems unfair. Besides, it is scarcely
+likely that Haydn, who owed so much to Bach, would have done any such
+thing. It must be remembered that at the date of the _European
+Magazine_ in question, E. Bach had not yet published any of the six
+Leipzig Collections ("Sonaten für Kenner," etc.), by which he is best
+known at the present day.
+
+Of the six sonatas, Op. 13, the first three are Nos. 8 (26), 9 (27),
+10 (28) in Pohl's thematic catalogue (_Joseph Haydn_, vol. ii.). The
+other three have not been reprinted in modern collections. In the
+first three the keys and order of movements are as follow:--
+
+     No. 1. Allegro moderato in C; Adagio, F; Finale, Presto.
+
+     No. 2. Allegro moderato in E; Andante, E minor; Finale,
+     Tempo di Menuetto.
+
+     No. 3. Allegro moderato in F; Larghetto, E minor; Presto.
+
+These sonatas are interesting as music, and the workmanship is
+skilful. If one can get over the thinness of the part-writing,
+especially in the slow movements, there is much to enjoy in them. The
+style of movement--Tempo di Menuetto--in No. 2 recalls Emanuel Bach's
+"Würtemberg" sonatas of 1745.
+
+Here are the numbers of the sonatas of Op. 14: 11 (20), 12 (21), 13
+(22), 14 (23), 15 (24), 16 (25). And here are the keys and movements--
+
+     No. 1. Allegro con brio in G; Minuetto, G; Trio, G minor;
+     Presto.
+
+     No. 2. Allegro moderato in E flat; Minuetto, E flat; Trio, E
+     flat minor; Presto.
+
+     No. 3. Moderato in F; Adagio, B flat; Tempo di Menuetto.
+
+     No. 4. Allegro in A; Adagio; Tempo di Minuetto con
+     Variazione.
+
+     No. 5. Moderato in E; Presto.
+
+     No. 6. Allegro moderato in B minor; Tempo di Minuetto;
+     Presto.
+
+During the eighteenth century, both in Italy and Germany, sonatas in
+two movements were common, but with Haydn the reduction in No. 5
+probably was made on practical, and not artistic grounds. Schindler
+once asked Beethoven why he had only two movements to his Sonata in C
+minor (Op. 111), and the master replied--probably with a twinkle in
+his eye--that he had not had time for a third.
+
+If these sonatas of 1776 be compared with earlier ones (1767), an
+immense improvement in the development sections will be observed. In
+the earliest but one of the master's sonatas--No. 2 (30)--the whole of
+the middle section is in the principal key. No. 4 (Op. 14) has all
+three movements connected,--a plan, as we have already seen, adopted
+by E. Bach in some of his sonatas. The sonata in question is in the
+key of A major. The Allegro ends with an arpeggio dominant chord, and
+still in the same bar follows the dominant chord of the relative key
+of F sharp minor, leading directly to the Adagio; this movement, in
+its turn, closes on the dominant chord of A, the key, of course, of
+the final movement (Tempo di Minuetto con Variazioni).
+
+In 1780 six sonatas were published by Artaria, and dedicated to the
+sisters Franziska and Marianne v. Auenbrugger. They are Nos. 20 (1),
+21-24 (10-13), and 7 (14). No. 20 (1) is a bright little work. No. 21
+(10) (C sharp minor) opens with an interesting movement.[75] The
+sonata ends with a beautiful Menuetto and Trio, in which the composer
+comes very near to Beethoven. The middle movement is a Scherzando, and
+thereby hangs a little tale. No. 24 (13) commences with the same
+theme. When Haydn sent the sonatas to his publisher he called
+attention to this resemblance, and, in fact, requested that it should
+be mentioned on the inner side of the title-page. And he added: "I
+could, of course, have chosen a hundred other ideas in place of this
+one; but in order not to run any risk of blame on account of this
+intentional trifle (which the critics, and especially my enemies, will
+regard in a bad light), I make this _avertissement_. Or please add
+some note of a similar kind, otherwise it may prove detrimental to the
+sale." No. 22 (11) has an opening Allegro in Haydn's brightest
+manner. The short Largo is quaint and expressive; the _ff_ chord of
+the Neapolitan sixth is of fine effect. The movement ends on the
+dominant chord, and thus leads without break to the lively Presto
+Finale. The concluding movement of the next sonata displays a
+crispness and vigour which remind one of Haydn's great successor.
+Already in connection with these six sonatas have we mentioned
+Beethoven. And from this period onwards the kinship between the two
+composers becomes more evident. Haydn, however, did not, like
+Beethoven, rise steadily higher and higher; great moments came, as it
+were, by fits and starts. He wrote in season and out of season; _nulla
+dies sine linea_ seems to have been his motto. With Beethoven, a later
+work, unless it be one of his few _pièces d'occasion_, means a fuller
+revelation of his genius.
+
+We will now pass on to the latest period, represented by two great
+sonatas, both in the key of E flat. The one was written for the
+composer's friend and patron, Frau v. Genziger. The opening Allegro
+shows earnest, deep feeling, while at the close of the recapitulation
+Haydn makes us feel the full power of his genius; the passage
+irresistibly recalls moments in the first movement of the
+"Appassionata"; those stately reiterated chords, those solemn pauses,
+have a touch of mystery about them. It is interesting to see how the
+second theme is evolved from the principal subject of the movement; by
+a slight modification the character of the music is quite changed;
+what was stately is now light and graceful. The Adagio cantabile is
+one of the purest examples of a style of music which has become a
+thing of the past. The full and sustained tone of modern instruments
+has rendered unnecessary those turns, arpeggios, and numerous
+ornaments with which the composers of the last century tried to make
+amends for the fleeting tones of their harpsichords and clavichords.
+Haydn and Mozart were skilful in this art of embellishment, though
+sometimes it was unduly profuse; this Adagio of Haydn's is a model of
+sobriety. The bold minor section, which Frau v. Genziger, by the way,
+found rather troublesome to play, offers an effective contrast to the
+major. A graceful Tempo di Menuetto brings the work to an effective
+close. The other Sonata in E flat[76] is much more difficult to play.
+The writing is fuller, and it contains passages which even a modern
+pianist need not disdain. It is really strange that the sonata is not
+sometimes heard at the Popular Concerts. In the opening Allegro the
+exposition section contains more than the two orthodox themes, and the
+development section assumes considerable magnitude; the latter is
+full of clever details and bold modulations. The key of the Adagio is
+E major, but this is of course the enharmonic equivalent of F flat.
+Brahms, in his last Sonata for Violoncello and Pianoforte in F, has
+the slow movement in F sharp. This has been spoken of as a novelty,
+yet Haydn, as we see, had already made the experiment; and similar
+instances may be found in Schubert and Beethoven, though not in their
+pianoforte sonatas. The Finale Presto reminds one by the style of
+writing, and by a certain quaint humour, of Emanuel Bach; but there
+are some bold touches--_sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, prolongation
+of phrases, long dwelling on one harmony, etc.--which anticipate
+Beethoven. Traces of the past, foreshadowings of the future; these are
+familiar facts in evolution.
+
+
+II.--Mozart
+
+Before Mozart had reached the age of twenty he wrote six sonatas for a
+certain Baron Dürnitz, who, by the way, forgot to send the promised
+payment in return. Of these, Otto Jahn remarks that "their healthy
+freshness and finished form entitle them still to be considered as the
+best foundation for a musical education." Freshness is indeed the best
+term to describe both the thematic material and the developments. Four
+of them (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5) consist of the usual three movements;
+No. 4 commences with a long Adagio in two sections, each of which is
+repeated. Two graceful Minuets (the second taking the place of a Trio)
+follow, and the third movement is an Allegro in sonata-form. No. 6 has
+for its second movement a Rondeau en Polonaise, and for its third, a
+Theme with variations. The Rondo of No. 3 (in B flat) is unusually
+long; it contains two episodes, one in the relative minor, the other
+in the subdominant. The next three sonatas (in C, A minor, and D) are
+of greater importance. They are all said to have been written at
+Mannheim. The first was most probably the one mentioned in a letter of
+1777 written by Mozart to his father. He describes a public concert
+given on the 22nd of October, and says: "Then I played alone the last
+Sonata in D, then my Concerto in B flat, then a Fugue in C minor, and
+a splendid Sonata in C major out of my own head, with a Rondo at the
+end." The "last Sonata in D" was the last of the set of six noticed
+above. In reference to the Sonata in C, the expression "out of my own
+head" would seem to indicate that it had not at that time been written
+out. Mozart was right to speak of the work as "splendid." The bold
+opening subject, the well-contrasted second theme, the short but
+masterly development, the original leading back to the principal
+subject, and the many variations in the recapitulation section, fully
+justify his qualification. The slow movement is full of charm, and the
+Rondo, with its elaborate middle section, is of the highest interest.
+The 2nd Sonata, in A minor, is, next to the one in C minor, Mozart's
+finest effort in this department of musical literature. And there is a
+story connected with it. Capellmeister Cannabich's eldest daughter
+Rosa had captivated the young composer; he wrote to his father about
+her, and described her as "a pretty, charming girl," and added, "she
+has a staid manner and a great deal of sense for her age (the young
+lady was only thirteen); she speaks but little, and when she does
+speak, it is with grace and amiability." On the very next day after
+his arrival in Mannheim he began to write this sonata for her. The
+Allegro was finished in one day. Young Danner, the violinist, asked
+him about the Andante, and Mozart replied: "I mean to make it exactly
+like Mdlle. Rose herself." This was the picture to which he worked.
+One of Beethoven's finest sonatas, the C sharp minor, was inspired by
+a beautiful girl: a strong appeal to the emotions calls forth a
+composer's best powers. Mozart's first movement was written on 31st
+October, and the Rondo on 8th November. The Allegro maestoso presents
+many points of interest. The opening theme with its dotted motive is
+prominent throughout the movement; the transition passage to the key
+of the relative major is based on it, and so is the coda to the
+exposition section. Again, in the development and recapitulation
+sections it forms a striking feature, while in the final coda it is
+intensified by reiteration of the dotted figure, and also by the rise
+from the dominant to the tonic. The slow movement, with its expressive
+themes, graceful ornamentation, and bold middle section, was not
+surpassed by Mozart even in his C minor Sonata. The Presto closes the
+work in worthy manner; it forms a contrast to the first movement, and
+yet is allied to it in sentiment. The passionate outburst at the
+close, with the repeated E's, seems almost a reminiscence of the
+Allegro theme. There are two features in the development section of
+that movement which point to Beethoven: the one is the augmentation in
+the seventh bar of the quaver figure in the two preceding bars; the
+other, the phrase containing the shake which is evolved from an
+earlier one by curtailment of its first note. The 3rd Sonata, though
+in many ways attractive, will not bear comparison with the other two.
+In 1779, at Vienna, Mozart composed, among other sonatas, the
+beautiful one in A major,--the first example, perhaps, of a sonata
+commencing with a theme and variations. This first movement is very
+charming, but the gem of the work is the delicate Menuetto; the Trio
+speaks in tender, regretful tones of some happy past. The Alla Turca
+is lively, but not far removed from the commonplace.
+
+From among the symphonies of Mozart, the three (in G minor, E flat,
+and C) which he wrote in 1788 stand out with special prominence; and
+so, from the sonatas, do the three in A minor (1778), C minor (1784),
+and F (1788). In the first, as regards the writing, virtuosity
+asserts itself, and in the third, contrapuntal skill; but in the
+second, the greatness of music makes us forget the means by which that
+greatness is achieved. The Sonatas in A minor and F are wonderful
+productions, yet they stand a little lower than the C minor. The
+nobility and earnestness of the last-named give it a place near to
+Beethoven's best sonatas. We might say equal, were it not that the
+writing for the instrument is comparatively thin; however noble the
+ideas, they are but inadequately expressed. This C minor Sonata is
+remarkable for its originality, simplicity, and unity; Mozart
+possessed qualities which mark creative art of the highest kind. In
+writing some of his pianoforte sonatas, he had the public, or pupils,
+more or less in his mind; and though he did not become a mere
+sonata-maker, like some of his contemporaries, his whole soul was not
+always in his work; of this the inequalities in his music give
+evidence. In some movements (especially the closing ones) of the
+sonatas, the subject-matter is often trivial, and the passage-writing
+commonplace. The silkworm produces its smooth, regular ball of silk
+without effort, and in like manner Mozart could turn out Allegros,
+Rondos, sets of variations _à discretion_. The Sonata in C minor, to
+our thinking, is the only one in which he was entirely absorbed in his
+art; the only one in which the ideal is never marred by the real. The
+last movement is no mere Rondo, but one which stands in close
+relationship to the opening Allegro; they both have the same tragic
+spirit; both seem the outpouring of a soul battling with fate. The
+slow movement reveals Mozart's gift of melody and graceful
+ornamentation, yet beneath the latter runs a vein of earnestness; the
+theme of the middle section expresses subdued sadness. The affinity
+between this work and Beethoven's sonata (Op. 10, No. 1) in the same
+key is very striking.
+
+Mozart composed his C minor Sonata towards the end of the year 1784.
+The C minor Fantasia, which precedes it in some editions, was not
+written until the middle of 1785. The two, however, were published
+together by Mozart himself. It is impossible to consider this a new
+experiment in sonata-form, as regards grouping of movements; the unity
+of character and feeling between Fantasia and Sonata no doubt led to
+their juxtaposition. The Fantasia is practically complete in itself;
+so too is the Sonata. The two are printed separately in Breitkopf &
+Härtel's edition of Mozart's works.
+
+Haydn and Mozart represent an important stage in sonata history: they
+stand midway between Emanuel Bach and Beethoven. It is usual to look
+upon Bach as the founder, Haydn and Mozart as the builders-up, and
+Beethoven as the perfecter of the sonata edifice. Such a summing-up is
+useful in that it points to important landmarks in the evolution of
+the sonata; yet it is only a rough-and-ready one. Bach was something
+more than a founder, while Beethoven, to say the least, shook the
+foundations of the edifice. Haydn and Mozart would seem to be fairly
+described, for traces of scaffolding are all too evident in their
+works, yet they found the building already raised. Some of it,
+however, appeared to them in rococo style, and so they gradually
+rebuilt. And they not only altered, but enlarged and strengthened. Of
+rebuilding and alteration, their slow movements and finales give
+evidence; and of enlargement, all the three sections of movements in
+so-called sonata-form. Their subject-matter, as it grew in importance,
+grew in compass. This in itself, of course, enlarged the exposition
+section; but the transition passage from first to second theme, and
+the rounding-off of the section, both grew in proportion. The joints,
+too, of the structure were strengthened: the half cadence no longer
+sufficed to divide first from second subject, or, after development,
+to return to the principal theme; then, again, the wider scope of the
+development itself demanded more striking harmonies, more forcible
+figuration, and more varied cadences.
+
+The subject-matter, we have said, became more important; it differed
+also in character. The themes of Emanuel Bach, for the most part, seem
+to be evolved from harmonic progressions and groupings of notes; those
+of his successors, rather the source whence springs melody and
+figuration. The one uttered broken phrases; the others, complete
+musical sentences. Italian fashion prevailed during the second half
+of the eighteenth century much as it did in the first. The simple
+charm and warmth of the music of the violin-composers had penetrated
+the contrapuntal crust which covered Emanuel Bach's heart; and the
+feeling that he could never hope to rival his father must have
+rendered him all the more willing to yield to it. But the influence of
+his father could not be wholly cast aside, and Emanuel was, as it
+were, drawn in opposite directions; it is really wonderful what he
+actually achieved. True lovers of John Sebastian Bach know well that
+his music, though of a contrapuntal character, is by no means dry; but
+the formal aspect of it must have made its mark on the son ere he
+could feel the power, and realise the splendour of his father's
+genius.
+
+Haydn and Mozart, on the other hand, were born and bred in the very
+midst of Italian music. Of Haydn's early days we have already spoken,
+and those of Mozart were not unsimilar. Otto Jahn, in his life of that
+composer, says of the father Leopold, that "his ideas were firmly
+rooted in the traditions of Italian music"; so firmly, indeed, that he
+could not appreciate the mild innovations of a Gluck. This paternal
+influence was deepened, besides, by Mozart's early visits to Italy.
+
+Then, again, so far as we can make out, the clavier compositions of
+John Sebastian Bach, and, especially the "Well-tempered Clavier," were
+unknown both to Haydn and Mozart in their days of childhood and early
+manhood. What a difference in the case of Beethoven, who, it will be
+remembered, could play the greater number of the forty-eight Preludes
+and Fugues before he was twelve years of age! The beauty of Italian
+music not only impressed Haydn and Mozart, but kindled their creative
+faculties; while its simple, rhythmical character probably aided them
+materially in giving utterance to their thoughts and feelings. Nature
+had bestowed on them in rich measure the gift of melody, and they soon
+began to compose.
+
+Emanuel Bach, we have said, was drawn in two opposite directions.
+Haydn and Mozart, though they were spared this dual influence, had,
+however, to face a difficulty. They found a form ready to hand, yet
+one which, as we have attempted to show, required modifications of
+various kinds. The former had to make the old fit in with the new; but
+the latter, the new with the old. Hence their inspiration was
+handicapped. They were to some extent constructing as well as
+creating; and then their sense of order, balance, and proportion was
+so strong, that they often turned out movements more remarkable for
+their clearness of form than for the strength of their contents.
+
+Mozart profited by Haydn's early attempts, and his best sonatas are
+vastly superior to most of Haydn's. After Mozart's death, and even for
+some years before, Haydn seemed to have caught much of the spirit of
+the younger composer. He showed this especially in his London
+symphonies, but also in one or two of his later sonatas. "This mutual
+reaction," says Jahn, "so generously acknowledged by both musicians,
+must be taken into account in forming a judgment on them."
+
+Haydn, though fully conscious of his own powers, practically
+acknowledged the superiority of his brother-artist. On learning of
+Mozart's death, he exclaimed: "Posterity will not see such talent for
+a century to come!"--a prophecy which, at the time it was uttered,
+seemed likely of fulfilment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN
+
+
+I. Muzio Clementi
+
+Muzio Clementi, born at Rome in 1752, was brought to England by
+Alderman Beckford, father of the author of _Vathek_, and at Fonthill
+Abbey he had leisure to study the works of Handel, John Sebastian
+Bach, Emanuel Bach, Domenico Scarlatti, and Paradies. Clementi, like
+Scarlatti, was a _virtuoso_; but although both indulged largely in
+technical display, they were true and intelligent artists. In
+Scarlatti, the balance between his musical ideas and the form in which
+they were presented was almost perfect; in Clementi, virtuosity often
+gained the ascendency over virtue. With the latter, however, as indeed
+with E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and many other composers, the necessity
+of earning a living, and therefore of writing for "long" ears, mixed
+with the love of fame, produced works which, like the old Eden tree,
+contained both good and evil. To judge such great men really fairly,
+the chaff ought to be separated from the wheat; and the chaff ought
+to be thoroughly removed, even at the risk of sometimes losing a
+portion of wheat.
+
+To the true lover of music, choice selections are more precious than
+complete collections; the latter are, of course, necessary to those
+whose business it is to study the rise and development of the various
+composers. The pianoforte sonatas of Mozart, Haydn, Dussek, and
+Clementi might be reduced to very moderate compass. To suggest that
+any one of Beethoven's thirty-two should be removed out of its place
+would now sound flat blasphemy; but art progresses, and some even now
+are falling into oblivion. The catalogue of music performed at the
+Popular Concerts during the history of the past thirty-five years
+shows pretty clearly which sonatas of Beethoven are likely to live
+long, and which not. But to return to Clementi. He published his first
+three sonatas (Op. 2, Nos. 1-3) in 1770, the year in which Beethoven
+was born; and the influence which he exerted over that master was
+considerable. In Beethoven's library were to be found many sonatas of
+Clementi, and the master's predilection for them is well known. The
+world seldom renders full justice to men who prepared the way for
+greater than themselves; Pachelbel, Böhm, and Buxtehude, the immediate
+predecessors of Bach, and, again, Emanuel Bach, to whom Haydn was so
+indebted, and whose works were undoubtedly studied by Beethoven, are
+notable examples. This is, of course, perfectly natural: the best only
+survives; but musicians who take serious interest in their art ought,
+from time to time, to look back and see how much was accomplished and
+suggested by men who, in comparison with their mighty contemporaries
+and successors, are legitimately ranked as second-rate. Among such,
+Clementi holds high place. Beethoven over-shadowed the Italian
+composer; but the harsh judgment expressed by Mozart[77] has
+contributed not a little, we imagine, to the indifference now shown to
+the Clementi sonatas.[78] The judgment was a severe one; but Otto Jahn
+relates how Clementi told his pupil Berger that, "at the period of
+which Mozart writes, he devoted his attention to brilliant execution,
+and in particular to double runs and extemporised passages." And,
+again, Berger himself was of opinion that the sonata selected for
+performance by Clementi at the memorable contest with Mozart in
+presence of the Emperor Joseph the Second (December 1781), was
+decidedly inferior to his earlier compositions of the same kind. The
+sonata in question was the one in B flat (B. & H., No. 61; Holle, No.
+37), of which the opening theme commences in the same manner as the
+Allegro of the Overture to the _Magic Flute_. Mozart suffered much
+from the predominant Italian influence at court, and the "like all
+the Italians" in the letter just mentioned shows, to say the least, a
+bitter spirit. But the letter was a private one, probably hastily
+written. The judgment expressed was formed from an inferior work; in
+any case, it must not be taken too seriously. Mozart, by the way, was
+not the only composer who failed to render justice to his
+contemporaries.
+
+Clementi's sonatas may be roughly divided into three classes. Some he
+wrote merely for the display of technique, while some were composed
+for educational purposes. But there remain others in which his heart
+and soul were engaged, and in these he reaches a very high level. Our
+classification is a rough one, for often in those which we consider
+his best, there is plenty of showy technique. With the exception of
+Mozart's sonata in C minor, and Haydn's "Genziger" and "London"
+sonatas, both in E flat, also some of Rust's, of which we shall soon
+have something to say, there are, to our thinking, none which in
+spirit come nearer to Beethoven than some of Clementi's. Mr. E.
+Dannreuther, in his article on the composer in Sir George Grove's
+_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, justly remarks "that a judicious
+selection from his entire works would prove a boon."
+
+In order to trace the relationship between Clementi and Beethoven, it
+may be well to state that Clementi in 1783 had published up to Op. 11
+(Sonata and Toccata; the Toccata, by the way, is not included in the
+Breitkopf & Härtel edition; it appeared first, we believe, together
+with the sonata, in a London edition. Beethoven's first sonatas (Op.
+2) appeared only in 1796).[79] By 1802, Clementi had published up to
+Op. 40; in which year Beethoven composed two of the three sonatas, Op.
+31, Nos. 1-3. Between 1820-21 appeared Clementi's sonata, Op. 46
+(dedicated to Kalkbrenner), and the last set of three sonatas in
+(including the "Didone Abbandonata") Op. 50. Beethoven's sonata in E
+(Op. 109) appeared in November 1821. Thus Clementi at first influenced
+Beethoven, but, later on, the reverse must have been the case.
+
+Breitkopf & Härtel have published sixty-four sonatas of Clementi; and
+of these, sixty-three are to be found in the Holle edition.[80]
+
+The three sonatas, Op. 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (25, 26, 27), have only two
+movements, and are principally remarkable for their showy
+technique.[81]
+
+Clementi, of course, was well acquainted with Scarlatti's music, yet
+it would perhaps be difficult to point out any direct influence of the
+one over the other. In the next three sonatas, Op. 9, Nos. 4, 5, 6
+(11, 28, 12), the first and third are most interesting. In the second,
+Clementi indulges in his favourite passages of thirds, sixths, and
+octaves; there is, indeed, a Presto movement, a _moto perpetuo_ for
+the right hand, in octaves, which, if taken up to time, would tax even
+pianists of the present day. The 1st sonata may be noticed for its
+bold chords, and its _sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, which sound
+Beethovenish. The 3rd sonata reminds us in many ways of the Bonn
+master. In the opening Allegro there is a sighing figure--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+which plays an important part throughout the movement, and therefore
+gives a marked character to it. In the development section the bold
+contrasts, the powerful chords, the sighing figure in augmentation,
+all point to Beethoven. And, curiously enough, the principal theme,
+which now appears in major (the sonata is in G minor), reminds one
+very strongly of the "Eroica"--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+It is worth noticing that the "sighing figure" may be traced in the
+other two movements of the sonata. The next sonata, No. 10 (44), has
+three movements, all in the same key; the Trio of the Minuet is in the
+key of the subdominant. In the first movement may be noticed the
+extension of a phrase by repetition (_pp_) of its last two notes, a
+feature often to be met with in Beethoven (see, for instance, the
+first movement of the "Appassionata," development section).
+
+The piano phrase in the Rondo of No. 11 (45), before the organ point
+and the pause bar, is striking. No. 14 (2) is interesting. The broken
+octaves at the end of the exposition section, and the return by
+ellipsis to the principal theme, call to mind passages in Beethoven's
+Op. 22 and Op. 109. Sonata No. 16 (4) has a delightful first movement;
+the evolution of the second subject from the first deserves attention.
+In No. 18 (51) there is one point to notice. The key of the first
+movement is in F, but the principal theme in the recapitulation
+section appears in E flat; the second theme, however, according to
+rule, in the tonic.
+
+Sonata No. 19 (52), in F minor, demands more than a passing word. Our
+readers will, perhaps, be tired of our noticing foreshadowings of
+Beethoven, yet we must add others here. We can assure them, however,
+or rather those who are not familiar with Clementi's sonatas, that the
+passages to which we call attention only form a small proportion of
+those to which we might refer. The first movement (Allegro agitato) is
+concise; there is no padding. Every bar of the exposition section may
+be termed thematic. The second subject, in the orthodox relative
+major, is evolved from the principal theme. And the latter descends,
+but the former ascends--a true Beethoven contrast. The coda to the
+first section, with its working of a thematic figure in augmentation,
+forms a striking feature. At the close of the development section a
+long dignified dominant passage seems a preparation for the return of
+the principal theme, but the composer has a surprise; after a pause
+bar, the _second_ theme appears, and in A flat. A modulation soon
+leads back to F minor, and quite in Beethoven fashion--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+and the exposition coda is repeated in extended form. In the next
+movement (Largo e sostenuto) sombre tones still prevail; the key is
+that of the dominant minor. There is evident kinship between the first
+and last movements; of this the opening bar of the former and the
+closing bars of the latter offer signal proof.
+
+In No. 23 (43) at the end of the last movement, an organ point reminds
+us that the full intentions of the composer are not recorded. Thus, in
+Clementi's early sonatas at any rate, the interpreter, as in E.
+Bach's works, was expected to make additions. In No. 26 (7) the
+opening of the theme of the Arietta recalls, and in no vague manner,
+the opening of the Finale of Beethoven's Septet. No. 34 (8) is an
+excellent sonata; there is considerable freedom in the recapitulation
+section. In No. 39 (35) Clementi returns to an old form of sonata:
+there are only two movements, a Larghetto and Tempo di Minuetto, and
+both in the same key. With sonata No. 41 (32), the first of two
+published as Op. 34, Clementi breaks new ground. The idea of
+incorporating the subject-matter of an introductory slow movement had
+already occurred to Haydn,[82] but Clementi goes to greater lengths.
+(It must not be forgotten that Beethoven's "Sonate Pathétique," Op.
+13, appeared in 1799; possibly, before Clementi's.) From the opening
+characteristic subject of the Largo is evolved the principal subject
+of the Allegro _con fuoco_, and there is also relationship between it
+and the second subject. In the unusually long development section, a
+dramatic passage, evolved from the concluding bars of the Largo, leads
+to a slow section in which the opening notes of the Largo are given
+out in loud tones, and in the unexpected key of C major (the three
+repeated _sforzando_ crotchets remind one of the "fate" notes in the C
+minor Symphony); and when the Tempo primo is resumed, the
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+also reminds one of
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+in the same movement of the above-mentioned Symphony. Then, again, in
+an important coda the theme is given out in modified, yet intensified
+form. In the Finale of the sonata the Largo still makes its influence
+felt. Exception may perhaps be taken to the length of the first
+movement, and to the prominence throughout the work, of the principal
+key; but the evident desire of the composer to express something which
+was inwardly moving him gives great interest to the music.
+
+The sonata in B minor, Op. 40, is one of Clementi's most finished
+productions. The name of Beethoven must again be mentioned; for depth
+of meaning, boldness, style of development, and gradation of interest,
+the music comes within measurable distance of the greater master. Not
+only is there no padding, but here the technique serves a higher
+purpose than that of display; there are no formal successions of
+thirds, sixths, or octaves, no empty bravoura passages. The long
+development section of the first movement, with its bold contrasts,
+its varied presentation of thematic material, its peculiar mode of
+dealing with fragments of a theme, and its long dwelling on dominant
+harmony previous to the return of the principal theme,--all these
+things remind one of Beethoven. This movement is followed by a Largo
+(_mesto e patetico_) leading to the final Allegro. These two are
+intimately connected; and, moreover, the latter includes reminiscences
+from the introductory Adagio. After a brief reference to the Largo,
+the movement concludes with a passionate Presto coda. In Mr.
+Banister's _Life of Macfarren_ we learn that the latter considered the
+B minor of Clementi "one of the finest sonatas ever written"; and many
+musicians will, probably, agree with him.
+
+Of the three last sonatas (Op. 50, Nos. 1, 2, and 3), it must be
+remembered that when they appeared Beethoven had published up to Op.
+106, and possibly Op. 109. If, then, in some of the earlier Clementi
+sonatas we spoke of his influence on Beethoven, it is just the reverse
+here. Nevertheless, of these sonatas which must have been known to
+that master, one may have led him to think again of the idea of
+revealing the poetic basis of his sonatas.[83] Clementi gives the
+title, "Didone Abbandonata: Scena Tragica" to his work. The
+introductory Largo is _sostenuto e patetico_, while the Allegro which
+follows bears the superscription, _deliberando e meditando_; the
+Adagio is _dolente_; and the Allegro Finale, _agitato e con
+disperazione_. The music expresses throughout the sorrow and despair
+of the forsaken queen, while certain wild passages (as for example the
+coda of the first Allegro) tell also of her anger. This Allegro is an
+admirably sustained movement, and, at moments, the composer rises to
+the height of his argument. It is interesting, too, from a technical
+point of view, for there is no empty display. Whatever degree of
+inspiration may be accorded to the music, it will surely be
+acknowledged that the composer was full of his theme; that all his
+powers of head and heart were engaged in the task of illustration.
+This "Dido" sonata, of course, suffers if compared with those of
+Clementi's great contemporary; and some of the writing is formal and
+old-fashioned, and, at times, too thin to attract the sympathy or to
+excite the interest of pianists of the present day, who enjoy the
+richer inheritance of Beethoven, the romantic tone-pictures of
+Schumann and Brahms, the fascinating miniatures of Chopin, and the
+clever glitter of Liszt. Still it does not deserve utter oblivion.
+Hear what Fr. Rochlitz says of it in the _Allg. Mus. Zeit._: "It (the
+sonata) is indeed a tragic scene, one so clearly thought out and so
+definitely expressed, that it is by no means difficult--not only in
+each movement, but in its various divisions--to follow literally the
+course of changing feeling which is here developed."
+
+Schindler, with regard to the work, also remarks as follows: "Who
+understands nowadays how to interpret this musical soul-picture
+(written unfortunately in old stereotyped sonata-form!)? At best,
+glancing hastily over it, a pianist carelessly remarks that the
+poetical contents of this sonata are only expressed in the title." And
+again: "In the year 1827, at Baden, near Vienna, Clementi gave me
+details respecting the contents and interpretation of this tone-poem.
+A new edition of the work by J. André of Offenbach enabled me to
+insert a preface with the explanations of the veteran master."[84] And
+further, as a tone-picture expressing states of the soul, he knows "of
+no other work entitled sonata more worthy of a place beside those of
+Beethoven."
+
+
+II. Johann Ludwig Dussek
+
+This composer comes next to Clementi, in order of time, and, we may
+add, of merit. His natural gifts really exceeded those of Clementi;
+but the latter made a deep study of his art, and also of the
+pianoforte, to which, indeed, like Chopin, he devoted his whole
+attention. Dussek was fond of ease and pleasure, and never developed
+his powers to the full. It may be noted that both these celebrated
+pianists were connected with English music-publishing houses. Clementi
+prospered, though not in his first undertaking with Longman &
+Broderip; but Dussek was unsuccessful, and left England, so it is
+said, to avoid his creditors. There is, indeed, a letter written by
+Dussek from Hamburg, dated 12th June, 1801, to Clementi, and apart
+from the curious spectacle of these two pianists in commercial
+correspondence with each other, the letter is of interest, in that it
+belongs to a period of Dussek's life concerning the details of which
+there is some uncertainty.[85] Dussek, it may be mentioned, does not
+ever appear to have returned to London. In 1803 he became attached to
+Prince Louis Ferdinand, to whom he offered advice in pianoforte
+playing and composition. There is another letter extant of Dussek's
+written in the same year in which that Prince fell on the battlefield
+of Saalfeld (13th October, 1806), and this also we will give, as we
+believe, like the one above, it has never been published.[86] The
+catalogue of Dussek's works, in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary of Music
+and Musicians_, mentions three quartets for strings (Op. 60: in G, B
+flat, and E flat), most probably the works referred to in the second
+letter.
+
+Dussek, born in the year 1761, studied first with his father J.J.
+Dussek, and in his twenty-second year received further instruction
+from Emanuel Bach; he soon enjoyed great fame as an executant.
+Tomaschek, himself a pianist of note, thus speaks of him in his
+autobiography:--
+
+"There was, in fact, something magical about the way in which Dussek,
+with all his charming grace of manner, through his wonderful touch,
+extorted from the instrument delicious and at the same time emphatic
+tones. His fingers were like a company of ten singers, endowed with
+equal executive powers, and able to produce with the utmost perfection
+whatever their director could require. I never saw the Prague public
+so enchanted as they were on this occasion by Dussek's splendid
+playing. His fine declamatory style, especially in _cantabile_
+phrases, stands as the ideal for every artistic performance--something
+which no other pianist has since reached."
+
+The above quotation refers to a concert given at Prague in 1804.
+
+There is, unfortunately, great confusion in the opus numbers of
+Dussek's works; and, moreover, it is difficult, if not impossible, to
+give the dates either of composition or publication. Breitkopf &
+Härtel have published more than fifty sonatas, but we shall only refer
+to some of the more important ones. Dussek, like all the prominent
+composers of his time, not even excepting Haydn and Mozart, wrote
+music on a practical, rather than on a poetical basis; one of the
+letters given above acknowledges this in very frank terms. But to
+Dussek's credit be it said, his least valuable works are masterpieces
+as compared with those which the sonata-makers, Steibelt, Cramer, and
+others, fabricated by the hundred. In Dussek we find great charm and
+refinement, while the writing for the instrument is often highly
+attractive; but the art of developing themes was certainly not his
+strong point. That he was at times careless or indifferent may be seen
+from such a bar as the following (Op. 47, No. 1, Litolff ed.; Adagio,
+bar 9):--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The bar before the return of the principal theme in the Allegro of the
+sonata in E flat (Op. 75) furnishes another instance. Again, in the
+Allegro of the sonata in A flat, known as "Le Retour à Paris," there
+is a passage (commencing fifteen bars before the end of the exposition
+section) which, with slight alteration, might have been materially
+improved.
+
+Of the early sonatas, Op. 10, No. 2, in G minor, is an interesting
+work. It consists of two well-contrasted movements: an Adagio in
+binary, and a Vivace in sonata form. Of the Presto of Op. 10, No. 3,
+Professor Prout, in his interesting article, _Dussek's Pianoforte
+Sonatas_,[87] says: "Both the first and second principal subjects
+remind us irresistibly of that composer (Mendelssohn), while the
+phrase at the conclusion of the first part, repeated at the end of the
+movement, is almost identical with a well-known passage in the first
+movement of the 'Scotch Symphony.' Is the coincidence accidental, or
+did Mendelssohn know the sonata, and was he unconsciously influenced
+by it?"
+
+In his three last sonatas (Op. 70, 75, and 77), Dussek rises to a very
+high level; he was undoubtedly influenced by the earnestness of
+Beethoven, the chivalric spirit of Weber, and the poetry of Schubert.
+A new era had set in. These three composers were neither the _fools_
+of princes nor the servants of the public: they were in the world, yet
+not of it. They looked upon their art as a sacred thing; and most
+probably the shallowness of much of the music produced in such
+abundance towards the close of the eighteenth century spurred them on
+to higher efforts. Dussek had lived an irregular, aimless sort of
+life; he had wandered from one country to another, and had acquired
+the ephemeral fame of the _virtuoso_. Perhaps he was a disappointed
+man; there is a tinge of sadness about these last sonatas which
+supports such a view. Perhaps a feeling that his life was ebbing away
+made him serious: his music now shows no trifling. Explain it as you
+may, Dussek's three last contributions to sonata literature rank
+amongst the best of his day; and the indifference now shown to
+them--so far, at least, as the concert platform is concerned--is proof
+of ignorance, or bad taste. We say ignorance, because the rising
+generation has few, if any, opportunities of hearing this composer's
+music. It is eighteen years since his Op. 70 was given at the Popular
+Concerts; while twenty-three and twenty-nine years have passed since
+Op. 75 and Op. 77 have been played there.
+
+The sonata in A flat, entitled "Le Retour à Paris," is known in
+England as "Plus Ultra," and in an old edition it is dedicated to "Non
+plus Ultra." The latter was meant for Woelfl, a famous pianist and
+contemporary. His music is now forgotten, and his name is principally
+remembered in connection with Beethoven; like the latter, his talent
+for improvisation was great. The late J.W. Davidson, in his long and
+interesting preface to Brewer & Co.'s edition of Dussek's A flat
+sonata, leads us to believe that Dussek's publisher, and not the
+composer himself, was responsible for the change of title to "Plus
+Ultra." The opus number, too, was changed from 70 to 71. The following
+story is also told by Davidson in a preface contributed by him to the
+Brewer edition of the Woelfl sonata:--"Who will play it?" asked the
+publisher (Well), looking through the music of the composer. "I vill
+it blay," replied Woelfl. "Yes, but you won't buy the copies. No one
+but yourself or Dussek can play the Allegro, and I doubt if either of
+you can play the variations." Woelfl, however, sitting down before an
+old harpsichord, convinced the publisher of his error. "What shall we
+call it?" asked Well. "Call it 'Ne plus Ultra,'" said Woelfl, rubbing
+his hands with joy, and adding, "Now shall we see if Herr von Esch
+vill more blay, or Herr Bomdembo make de variation."
+
+Dussek's "Plus Ultra" (Op. 70) is justly admired; the music is fine,
+and in the matter of technique, setting aside a few sensational
+passages[88] in Woelfl's sonata, which his very long fingers enabled
+him to execute with comparative ease, far surpassed the earlier work.
+It must appear strange to many musicians who do not possess a copy of
+Woelfl's sonata, that, in any mention of the rivalry between the two
+composers, no reference is made to Woelfl's sonata beyond the title.
+An examination of the latter, however, would soon solve the mystery.
+The plain fact is this: both the music and even the technique are now
+absolutely uninteresting. The sonata, in the key of F major, commences
+with a brief introductory Adagio, followed by a long, tedious Allegro
+abounding in passages of thirds. A brief Andante comes between this
+Allegro and the Finale, consisting of flimsy variations on the popular
+melody "Life let us Cherish." In a book of small compass such as the
+present one, we only wish to dwell upon matters of interest. For some
+particular purpose Woelfl's sonatas might possibly prove of importance
+and even interest; but not here. The "Non plus Ultra," so far as we
+are concerned, may serve to remind us that Woelfl once lived; while
+the rest of his music, like some incidents in his life, may be
+consigned to oblivion. We cannot say that we have read all his
+sonatas, but enough of them, we believe, to judge, generally, of their
+contents.
+
+Professor Macfarren's opinion of Dussek, as composer for the
+pianoforte, in the _Imperial Dictionary of Biography_, is so
+excellent, that we cannot perhaps do better than quote his words:--
+
+"The immense amount of Dussek's compositions for the pianoforte have
+by no means equal merit; many of them were written for the mere object
+of sale, still more for the purpose of tuition, and some with the
+design of executive display. Of those which were produced, however, in
+the true spirit of art, expressing the composer's feelings in his own
+unrestrained ideas, there exist quite enough to stamp him one of the
+first composers for his instrument; and while these are indispensable
+in the complete library of the pianist, they are above value to the
+student in the development of his mechanism and the formation of his
+style. A strong characteristic of the composer is his almost redundant
+profusion of ideas;[89] but his rich fecundity of invention is greatly
+counterbalanced by diffuseness of design, resulting from the want of
+that power of condensation by means of which greater interest is often
+given to less beautiful matter."
+
+And then, again, in an analysis of a Dussek Quintet, he remarks that
+in that composer's works we may trace "not only the origin of many of
+the most beautiful effects with which later writers have been
+accredited, but some of the identical ideas by which these very
+writers have made their way into popularity."
+
+
+III. Friedrich Wilhelm Rust
+
+During the years 1744-45 a young man named Johann Ludwig Anton Rust
+went to Leipzig to study jurisprudence and philosophy. But he was also
+musical, and played the violin at performances given under the
+direction of J.S. Bach. On returning to his home at Wörlitz, Rust
+tried to inspire those around him with enthusiasm for the music of
+Bach. With his younger brother, Friedrich Wilhelm, he was, at any
+rate, successful; for the latter, already at the age of thirteen, was
+able to play by heart the whole of the "Well-tempered Clavier." Later
+on, young Friedrich went to Halle to study law, and there not only
+made the acquaintance of Friedemann Bach, but, in return for attending
+to the correspondence of that gifted musician, he received from him
+instruction in composition, organ and clavier playing. Afterwards, at
+Potsdam, he continued his clavier studies under Emanuel Bach. Surely a
+finer training never fell to the lot of any pupil. Schumann recommends
+young musicians to make Bach their daily bread; and of that, Rust must
+have had full weight. But the list of his teachers is not yet
+exhausted; he went to Italy in 1765, and studied the violin under
+Tartini. Rust composed operas, cantatas, concertos, and sonatas for
+violin,[90] and for pianoforte; the last-named, of which he wrote
+eight, now concern us.
+
+The earliest, entitled "Sonata Erotica," was composed in 1775; this
+work, however, was not published until the year 1888 (edited by his
+grandson, Dr. Wilhelm Rust,[91] late cantor of St. Thomas'). It is the
+first of a series of works extraordinary in many ways--in form,
+subject-matter, developments, and technique. With regard to the
+last-named, there is something to say, and it had better be said at
+once. Dr. E. Prieger, in his interesting pamphlet, _F.W. Rust: Ein
+Vorgänger Beethovens_, remarks as follows:--"While the grandson, full
+of enthusiasm, threw his whole soul into the creations of his
+ancestor, he gave a reflection, in his edition, of the pictures which
+had been vividly formed in his mind." To accomplish this he has
+strengthened the writing, and, in some cases, _modernised_ it. Dr.
+Prieger, who has seen some, if not all of the autographs, has assured
+us that "these additions only concern the exterior, and do not affect
+the fundamental, character of the work." This statement is, to a
+certain extent, satisfactory, and we receive it thankfully. But a
+great deal of the writing is far ahead of the age in which it was
+written; it reminds one now of Weber, now of Schumann. Why, one may
+ask, did not the editor indicate the additions in smaller notes? Then
+it would have been possible to see exactly what the elder Rust had
+written, and what the younger Rust had added. At present one can only
+marvel at some of the writing, and long to know how much of it really
+belongs to the composer. It appears that Rust, as editor of his
+grandfather's work, had some intention of describing his editions,
+etc., but death, which frequently prevents the best intentioned plans,
+intervened.
+
+The "Sonata Erotica" is noticeable, generally, for its charm, poetry,
+and spontaneity. The first movement, an Allegro moderato, is in
+sonata-form. The second, in the key of the relative minor, entitled
+Fantasie, has in it more of the spirit of Beethoven than of Emanuel
+Bach. The Finale is in rondo form; the middle section consists of a
+playful Duettino, containing free imitations.
+
+The next sonata (1777), in D flat, opens with a graceful Allegretto,
+and closes with a Tempo di Minuetto, which, for the most part, points
+backward rather than forward. The slow movement, Adagio sostenuto, is,
+however, of a higher order than either of these. It has Beethovenish
+breadth and dignity, yet lacks the power of the Bonn master: those
+magic touches by which the latter makes us feel his genius, and
+secures gradation of interest up to the very close of a movement. This
+Adagio, however, were the date of its composition unknown, might pass
+for a very clever imitation of Beethoven's style.
+
+In 1784, Rust wrote two sonatas, one in F sharp minor, the other in B
+flat minor. The latter consists of three movements, and the music,
+especially in the Adagio in E flat minor, bears traces of the great
+Bach; still there are passages which sound more modern even in this
+very Adagio, which points so clearly to him as the source of
+inspiration. The modern element, however, admits of explanation, for
+Haydn and Mozart, at the time in which the sonata was written, had
+appeared in the musical firmament. But in the works we are about to
+mention, the composer suggests Beethoven, Weber, and even Schumann. In
+writing about Clementi, we were compelled frequently, and at the risk
+of wearying our readers, to call attention to foreshadowings of both
+the letter and spirit of Beethoven. The cases of Clementi and Rust,
+however, are not quite parallel. With the former it was mere
+foreshadowing; with exception of a few passages in which there was
+note resemblance between the two composers, the music still bore
+traces of Clementi's mode of thought and style of writing. But with
+Rust, there are moments in which it is really difficult to believe
+that the music belongs to a pre-Beethoven period.
+
+The sonata[92] in D minor (1788) opens with a vigorous yet dignified
+Allegro; the graceful Adagio is of eighteenth century type; it is in
+the key of the relative major, but closes on the dominant chord of D
+minor, leading without break to a final Allegro, full of interesting
+details. The movement concludes with an impressive _poco adagio_ coda,
+in which Rust makes use of the principal theme of the opening
+movement. We will venture on one quotation, although a few bars,
+separated from the context, may convey only a feeble impression--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The sonata in D major, composed six years later, opens with an
+interesting Allegro. The second movement, in B minor, bears the
+superscription "Wehklage" (Lamentation). Rust's eldest son, a talented
+youth, who was studying at Halle University, was drowned in the river
+Saale, 23rd March 1794. Matthisson, the "Adelaide" poet, sent to the
+disconsolate father a poem entitled "Todtenkranz für ein Kind," to
+which Rust sketched music, and on that sketch is based this pathetic
+movement, which sounds like some tone-poem of the nineteenth century.
+Here is the impressive coda:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+There follows a dainty, old-fashioned Minuet, and a curious movement
+entitled "Schwermuth und Frohsinn" (Melancholy and Mirth);[93] though
+after the "Wehklage" these make little impression.
+
+During four years (1792-96), Rust was occupied with a sonata in C
+minor and major. The work is a remarkable one. It opens with an
+energetic Recitativo in C minor, interrupted for a few bars by an
+Arioso Adagio in C major. Then comes a Lento in six-four time based on
+the celebrated Marlbrook song, a dignified movement containing, among
+other canonic imitations, one in the ninth. It leads by means of a
+_stringendo_ bar to a brilliant Allegro con brio, a movement of which
+both the music and the technique remind one of Beethoven's bravoura
+style. A second section of the sonata commences with the recitative
+phrase of the opening of the work, only in A minor. This leads to a
+highly characteristic Andante, which Dr. Rust, the editor, in a
+preface to the published sonata, likens to the "mighty procession" in
+Lenau's _Faust_. The Finale consists of an animated Allegro, with a
+clever fugato by way of episode; there is still an Allegro maestoso,
+which, except for its length and the fact that it contains a middle
+section, Cantabile e religioso, we should call a long coda. The whole,
+evidently programme-music, is a sonata worked out somewhat on Kuhnau
+lines.
+
+Now, was Beethoven acquainted with Rust's music? Dr. Prieger, in the
+pamphlet mentioned above, remarks as follows:--"During the years
+1807-27 Wilhelm Karl Rust (_b._ 1787, _d._ 1855), the youngest son of
+our master, was in Vienna, and had the good fortune to make the
+acquaintance of Beethoven, who was pleased with his playing, and
+recommended him as teacher. Among Rust's lady pupils were Baroness
+Dorothea Ertmann and Maximiliane Brentano, both of whom belonged to
+Beethoven's most intimate circle of friends, and had been honoured by
+having works dedicated to them. The younger Rust was gifted with an
+extraordinary memory, and therefore it seems more than probable that
+he occasionally performed some of his father's works in that circle.
+On the other hand, we have Beethoven's energetic nature holding aloof
+from anything which might influence his own individuality."
+
+There, in a few words, is the answer to our question. And it is about
+the only one we can ever hope to obtain. Rust was altogether a
+remarkable phenomenon, a musician born, as it were, out of due time.
+If Beethoven, as seems quite possible, was acquainted with his music,
+then Rust exerted an influence over the master quite equal to that of
+Clementi. It almost seems as if we ought to say, greater.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN
+
+
+Bach's forty-eight Preludes and Fugues and Beethoven's thirty-two
+Sonatas tower above all other works written for the pianoforte; they
+were aptly described by the late Dr. Hans v. Bülow, the one as the
+Old, the other as the New Testament of musical literature. Each fresh
+study of them reveals new points of interest, new beauties; they are
+rich mines which it is impossible to exhaust. Bach seemed to have
+revealed all the possibilities of fugue-form; and the history of the
+last seventy years almost leads one to imagine that Beethoven was the
+last of the great sonata writers. To this matter, however, we will
+presently return. In speaking of the various composers from Kuhnau
+onwards, we have tried to show the special, also the earliest,
+influences acting on them; and we shall still pursue the same course
+with regard to Beethoven. When he went to Vienna in 1792 he found
+himself in the very centre of the musical world. Haydn, though past
+sixty years of age, was at the zenith of his fame; and Beethoven, for
+a time, studied under him. Mozart had died in the previous year, so
+his name was still in everybody's mouth. The early works of Beethoven
+give strong evidence of the influence exerted over him by these two
+composers. Then Prince Lichnowsky, the friend and pupil of Mozart, and
+Baron van Swieten, the patron and friend of both Haydn and Mozart,
+were among the earliest to take notice of the rising genius and to
+invite him to their musical _matinées_ and _soirées_; and one can
+easily guess what kind of music was performed on those occasions. But
+the little story of Beethoven remaining at van Swieten's house, after
+the guests had departed, in order to "send his host to bed with half a
+dozen of Bach's Fugues by way of _Abendsegen_" reminds us of another
+strong, and still earlier, influence. At Bonn, under the guidance of
+his master, Christian Gottlob Neefe, Beethoven was so well-grounded in
+the "Well-tempered Clavier," that already, at the age of twelve, he
+could play nearly the whole of it. But, if we are not mistaken, he
+also made early acquaintanceship with the sonatas of Emanuel Bach. For
+in 1773 Neefe published "Zwölf Klavier-Sonaten," which were dedicated
+to the composer just named. In the preface he says: "Since the period
+in which you, dearest Herr Capellmeister, presented to the public your
+masterly sonatas, worked out, too, with true taste, scarcely anything
+of a characteristic nature has appeared for this instrument.[94] Most
+composers have been occupied in writing Symphonies, Trios, Quartets,
+etc. And if now and then they have turned their attention to the
+clavier, the greater number of the pieces have been provided with an
+accompaniment, often of an extremely arbitrary kind, for the violin;
+so that they are as suitable for any other instrument as for the
+clavier." Then, later on, Neefe acknowledges how much instruction and
+how much pleasure he has received from the theoretical and practical
+works of E. Bach (we seem to be reading over again the terms in which
+Haydn expressed himself towards Bach). May we, then, not conclude that
+young Beethoven's attention was attracted to these "masterly sonatas,"
+and also to those of his teacher Neefe? This is scarcely the moment to
+describe the Neefe sonatas.[95] In connection, however, with
+Beethoven, one or two points must be noticed. In the third of the
+three sonatas which Beethoven composed at the age of eleven, the last
+movement is entitled: Scherzando allegro ma non troppo, and twice in
+Neefe do we come across the heading, Allegro e scherzando (first set,
+No. 5, last movement; and second set, No. 1, also last movement).
+Then, again, No. 2 of the second set opens with a brief introductory
+Adagio, one, by the way, to some extent connected with the Allegro
+which follows. In the 2nd of the above-mentioned Beethoven sonatas
+(the one in F minor) there is also a slow introduction; the young
+master, no mere imitator, anticipates his own "Sonate Pathétique," and
+repeats it in the body of the Allegro movement. Lastly, no one, we
+believe, can compare the Neefe variations with those of Beethoven in
+the 3rd sonata (in A) without coming to the conclusion that the pupil
+had diligently studied his teacher's compositions, which, we may add,
+were thoroughly sound, full of pleasing _cantabile_ writing, and, at
+times, not lacking in boldness. Let us venture on one quotation of
+only four bars from Sonata 1, in G, of the second set of six: it is
+the opening of a short Adagio connecting the Allegro with an Allegro e
+scherzando--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The enharmonic modulation from the second to the third bar reminds one
+of E. Bach, who was so fond of such changes; also of a similar one in
+the "Pathétique."
+
+Beethoven wrote thirty-two sonatas, and in the following table the
+opus number of each work is given, also the date of its publication;
+some have a title, and the greater number a dedication:--
+
+Sonata                     Published   Dedicated to
+
+Op.  2 No. 1 (F minor)        1796.    Haydn.
+  "    No. 2 (A)                "        "
+  "    No. 3 (C)                "        "
+Op.  7       (E flat)         1797.    Countess Babette Keglevics.
+Op. 10 No. 1 (C minor)        1798.    Countess Browne.
+  "    No. 2 (F)                "           "
+  "    No. 3 (D)                "           "
+Op. 13       (C minor, "Sonate
+               Pathétique")   1799.    Prince Charles Lichnowsky.
+Op. 14 No. 1 (E)                "      Baroness Braun.
+  "    No. 2 (G)                "           "
+Op. 22       (B flat)         1802.    Count Browne.
+Op. 26       (A flat)           "      Prince Charles Lichnowsky.
+Op. 27 No. 1 (E flat)           "      Princess Liechtenstein.
+  "    No. 2 (C sharp minor)    "      Countess Giulietta Guicciardi.
+Op. 28       (D)                "      Joseph de Sonnenfels.
+Op. 31 No. 1 (G)              1803.
+  "    No. 2 (D minor)          "
+  "    No. 3 (E flat)         1804.
+Op. 49 No. 1 (G minor)        1805.
+  "    No. 2 (G)                "
+Op. 53       (C)                "      Count Waldstein.
+Op. 54       (F)              1806.
+Op. 57       (F minor)        1807.    Count Brunswick.
+Op. 78       (F sharp)        1810.    Countess Theresa of Brunswick.
+Op. 79       (G)                "
+Op. 81A      (E flat; "Das Lebewohl,
+             die Abwesenheit,
+             das Wiedersehn") 1811.    Archduke Rudolph.
+Op. 90       (E minor)        1815.    Count Moritz Lichnowsky.
+Op. 101      (A)              1817.    Baroness Dorothea Ertmann.
+Op. 106      (B flat)         1819.    Archduke Rudolph.
+Op. 109      (E)              1821.    Maximiliane Brentano.
+Op. 110      (A flat)         1822.
+Op. 111      (C minor)        1823.    Archduke Rudolph.
+
+The autograph of the last sonata does not bear any dedication, but,
+from a letter of Beethoven (1st June, 1823) to the Archduke, it is
+evident that it was intended for the latter.[96]
+
+The fanciful name of "Moonlight" to Op. 27 (No. 2), the appropriate
+publisher's title of Op. 57, and the poetical superscriptions of Op.
+81A, have, without doubt, helped those sonatas towards their
+popularity. It does not always happen that the most popular works of a
+man are his best; but these in question justly rank among Beethoven's
+finest productions. The last five sonatas are wonderful tone-poems;
+yet, with the exception, perhaps, of Op. 110, in A flat, as regards
+perfection of form and unity of conception, not one equals Op. 27 (No.
+2), Op. 31 (No. 2), and Op. 57. Apart from any æsthetic
+considerations, the digital difficulties of the last five sonatas
+prevent their becoming common property. The brilliant technique of Op.
+53 has proved a special attraction to pianists, and it has therefore
+become widely known. With this one sonata Beethoven proved his
+superiority, even in the matter of virtuosity, over the best pianists
+of his day.
+
+In order to be able to enter fully into the spirit of the music of
+great composers, it is necessary to know the history of their lives.
+Beethoven's is fairly well known. But it may be worth while to refer,
+briefly, to the principal men and women to whom the master dedicated
+his pianoforte sonatas.
+
+Of the thirty-two, as will be seen from the above table, eight have no
+dedication.
+
+In the year 1792 Beethoven left Bonn and went to Vienna. There he
+studied counterpoint under Haydn, yet the lessons proved
+unsatisfactory. But the fame and influence of the veteran master no
+doubt prompted the young artist to dedicate to him the three sonatas,
+Op. 2. The title-page of the oldest Vienna edition runs thus:--
+
+Trois Sonates pour le Clavecin Piano-forte composées
+et dediées
+A Mr. Joseph Haydn Docteur en musique par
+Louis van Beethoven.
+
+There was perhaps more of sarcasm than respect in the "Docteur en
+musique"; Beethoven is related to have said that he had taken some
+lessons from Haydn, but had never learnt anything from him.
+Nevertheless he paid heed to his teacher's music. There are in the
+sonatas one or two reminiscences of Haydn, which seem to us curious
+enough to merit quotation. One occurs in the sonata in C minor (Op.
+10, No. 1). We give the passage (transposed) from Haydn, and the one
+from Beethoven:--
+
+[Music illustration: "Letter V," Pohl, No. 58.[97] HAYDN.]
+
+[Music illustration: Op. 10, No. 1. BEETHOVEN.]
+
+And another--
+
+[Music illustration: "In Native Worth" (_Creation_). HAYDN.]
+
+[Music illustration: Op. 31, No. 1. BEETHOVEN.]
+
+While speaking of reminiscences, a curious one may be mentioned. The
+theme of the slow movement of Beethoven's sonata in A (Op. 2, No. 2)
+strongly resembles the theme of the slow movement of his own Trio in B
+flat (Op. 97):--
+
+[Music illustration: Op. 2, No. 2.]
+
+[Music illustration: Trio, Op. 97. _Andante._]
+
+In Op. 111, again, the second subject of the Allegro recalls a phrase
+in the Presto of the Sonata in C sharp minor.
+
+Haydn, as the most illustrious composer of that day, stands first; but
+the next name worthy of mention is Count Waldstein, a young nobleman
+who had been a guide, philosopher, and friend to Beethoven during the
+Bonn days. The well-known entry in the young musician's Album just
+before his departure for Vienna shows in what high esteem he was held
+by Waldstein. Count Ferdinand Waldstein died in 1823.
+
+Prince Charles Lichnowsky was one of the composer's earliest patrons
+after the latter had settled in Vienna. The Prince, descended from an
+old Polish family, was born in 1758, and, consequently, was, by twelve
+years, Beethoven's senior. He lived mostly in Vienna. In 1789 he
+invited Mozart to accompany him to Berlin; and the King's proposal to
+name the latter his capellmeister is supposed to have been suggested
+by the Prince. Lichnowsky was also a pupil of Mozart's. His wife,
+Princess of Thun, was famous for her beauty, her kindly disposition,
+and for her skill as a musician. Beethoven had not been twelve months
+in Vienna when he was offered rooms in the Prince's house. It was
+there that the pianoforte sonatas Op. 2 were first played by their
+author in presence of Haydn. Beethoven remained in this house until
+1800. In 1799 the "Sonate Pathétique" was dedicated to the Prince, and
+in the following year the latter settled on him a yearly pension of
+600 florins. In the year 1806 there was a rupture between the two
+friends. At the time of the battle of Jena, Beethoven was at the seat
+of Prince Lichnowsky at Troppau, in Silesia, where some French
+officers were quartered. The independent artist refused to play to
+them, and when the Prince pressed the request, Beethoven got angry,
+started the same evening for Vienna, and,--anger still burning in his
+breast,--on his arrival home, he shattered a bust of his patron. The
+composer's refusal to play to the French officers was grounded on his
+hatred to Napoleon, who had just won the battle of Jena. Beethoven,
+however, became reconciled with the Prince before the death of the
+latter in 1814. It should be mentioned that Beethoven's first
+published work, the three pianoforte Trios, was dedicated to Prince
+Lichnowsky.
+
+The Archduke Rudolph (1788-1831) was one of the master's warmest
+friends, and one of his most devoted admirers. His uncle was Max
+Franz, Elector of Cologne, to whose chapel both Beethoven and his
+father had belonged. The Archduke was the son of Leopold of Tuscany
+and Maria Louisa of Spain; his aunt was Marie Antoinette, and his
+grandmother the famous Maria Theresa. He is supposed to have made the
+acquaintance of Beethoven during the winter of 1803-4, and then to
+have become his pupil. The pianoforte part of the Triple Concerto (Op.
+58), commenced in 1804, and published in 1807, is said to have been
+written for him.
+
+Concerning the Countess Giulietta Guicciardi, for whom Beethoven
+entertained a hopeless passion, and the Countess Theresa of Brunswick,
+to whom he is said to have been secretly engaged for some years, there
+is no necessity to enter into detail. Everyone has probably heard of
+the famous love-letters, and of the discussion as to which of these
+two they were addressed. Maximiliane Brentano was a niece of the
+famous Bettine Brentano.
+
+The Baroness Ertmann was an excellent performer on the pianoforte, and
+is said to have been unrivalled as an interpreter of Beethoven's
+music. Mendelssohn met her at Rome in 1831, and in a letter describes
+her playing of the C sharp minor and D minor Sonatas.
+
+We must now turn to the sonatas, yet neither for the purpose of
+analysis nor of admiration. We shall briefly discuss how far Beethoven
+worked on the lines established by his predecessors, and how far he
+modified them. And, naturally, the question of music on a poetic basis
+will be touched upon.
+
+The number of movements of which Beethoven's sonatas consist varies
+considerably: some have two, some three, others four. The three very
+early sonatas dedicated to Maximilian, Archbishop of Cologne, have
+only three movements (the second opens with a brief Larghetto, which,
+however, really forms part of the first movement). But the four
+Sonatas Op. 2 (Nos. 1, 2 and 3) and Op. 7 all have four movements--an
+Allegro, a slow movement, a Scherzo or Minuet and Trio, and a final
+Allegro or Rondo. There are examples in later sonatas of similar
+grouping; but it is an undeniable fact that in some of his greatest
+sonatas--Op. 31 (No. 2), Op. 27 (No. 2), Op. 53, Op. 57--he reverts to
+the three-movement sonata so faithfully adhered to by Emanuel Bach,
+Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi. And there is evidence that the omission
+of the Minuet or Scherzo in Op. 10 (Nos. 1 and 2), in Op. 13, and in
+others named above, was the result of reflection and not caprice.
+
+Among sketches for the Sonatas, Op. 10, Beethoven writes: "Zu den
+neuen Sonaten ganz kürze Menuetten" (to the new sonatas quite short
+Minuets); and also, a little further on, "Die Menuetten zu den Sonaten
+ins künftige nicht länger als von 16 bis 24 Takte" (in future the
+Minuets to the sonatas not to exceed from 16 to 24 bars). Then, again,
+there are two sketches for a movement of the Minuet or Scherzo kind,
+which were almost certainly intended for the Sonata No. 1 in C minor.
+One of these was afterwards completed, and has been published in the
+Supplement to Breitkopf & Härtel's edition of Beethoven's works. Both
+these were finally rejected, yet Beethoven made still another attempt.
+There is a sketch for an "Intermezzo zur Sonate aus C moll," and at
+the end of the music the composer writes: "durchaus so ohne Trio, nur
+ein Stück" (exactly thus without Trio, only one piece). So the Minuets
+were to be short; then the limit of length is prescribed; and, lastly,
+an Intermezzo _without_ Trio is planned. The composer proposed, but
+his [Greek: daimôn] disposed; the Sonata in C minor finally appeared
+in print with only an Adagio between the two quick movements.
+
+Schindler, in reference to the proposal made by Hoffmeister to
+Beethoven to edit a new edition of his pianoforte works, tells us that
+had that project been carried out, the master, in order to get a
+nearer approach to unity, would have reduced some of his earlier
+sonatas from four movements to three. And he adds: "He would most
+certainly have cut out the Scherzo Allegro from the highly pathetic
+sonata for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 30, No. 2; the first and third
+have only three movements), a movement in complete opposition to the
+character of the whole. He always objected to this movement, and, for
+the reason just assigned, advised that it should be omitted. Had the
+scheme been carried out, a small number of Scherzos, Allegros and
+Menuets would have been 'dismissed.' In our circle, however,
+objections were raised against this proposal; for among these
+Scherzos, etc., each of us had his favourite, and did not like the
+idea of its being removed from the place which it had long occupied.
+The master, however, pointed to the three-movement sonatas--Op. 10 in
+C minor, Op. 13, Op. 14, Op. 31 (Nos. 1 and 2), Op. 57, and others.
+The last sonatas--Op. 106 and Op. 110--which contain more than three
+movements must be judged in quite a different manner" (_Life of
+Beethoven_, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 215-16).
+
+Schindler's statements have sometimes been called in question; the
+above, however, bears on it the stamp of truth.
+
+But how came it to pass that Beethoven's first four sonatas--Op. 2
+(Nos. 1, 2, and 3) and Op. 7--have four movements? That is a question
+easier to ask than to answer. Schindler's remark that he followed
+custom is difficult to understand. In our introductory chapter we
+spoke of twenty sonatas containing four movements written probably
+about the middle of the eighteenth century, also of one of Wagenseil's
+for clavier with violin accompaniment; yet among the known sonatas of
+that period, these form a minority. Woelfl's Sonata in B flat (Op. 15)
+has four movements: Allegro, Andante, Scherzo Allegro, and Finale
+(theme and variations), but that work appeared shortly after
+Beethoven's Op. 2.
+
+Even Haydn, who is said to have introduced the Minuet into the
+Symphony, remained faithful to the three-movement form of sonata.
+Beethoven, however, wrote six sonatas consisting of two movements.
+This change in the direction of simplicity is striking, for in his
+quartets the composer became more and more complex. It seems as if he
+were merely intent on exhibiting strong contrast of mood: agitation
+and repose, or fierce passion followed by heavenly calm; we are
+referring especially to the Sonata in E minor (Op. 90) and to the one
+in C minor (Op. 111). The two sonatas of Op. 49--really sonatinas
+written for educational purposes--may be dismissed; also Op. 54, in
+the composition of which the head rather than the heart of the master
+was engaged. Even Op. 78, in F sharp, in spite of the Countess of
+Brunswick, to whom it was dedicated, does not seem the outcome of
+strong emotion; and therefore we do not take it now into
+consideration. The two sonatas (Op. 90 and 111) mentioned above are
+strong tone-poems, and the master having apparently said all that he
+had to say, stopped. The story, already related, about having no time
+to complete Op. 111 must not be taken seriously. Nevertheless, we do
+not for one moment imagine that Beethoven was thus reducing the number
+of movements, in accordance with some preconceived scheme.
+
+The D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) and the F minor (Op. 57) sonatas, not to
+speak of others, form the apotheosis of the sonata in three movements
+as established, though not invented, by Emanuel Bach. To say that
+Beethoven was the perfecter of the sonata is true, but it is scarcely
+the whole truth. The E minor appears a first great step in the process
+of dissolution; the C minor, a second. They were great steps, because
+they were those of a very great man. The experiments as to number of
+movements of which we spoke in our introductory chapter were
+interesting; and with regard to the number, and also the position of
+the Minuet before or after the slow movement, those experiments
+acquired additional interest, inasmuch as Beethoven seems for a time
+to have been affected by them. The two works named are, however, of
+the highest importance; in them, if we are not mistaken, are to be
+found the first signs of the disappearance, as it were, of the sonata
+of three movements, and, perhaps, of the sonata itself, into the
+"imperceptible." After Op. 90 Beethoven wrote sonatas in four
+movements, but that does not affect the argument, neither does the
+fact, that after Beethoven are to be found several remarkable sonatas
+with the same number. The process of evolution of the sonata was
+gradual; so also will be that of its dissolution. The title of
+"sonata" given by Beethoven to his Op. 90 and Op. 111 does not affect
+the music one jot; under any other name it would sound as well. You
+might call the "Choral Symphony" a Divertimento, and the title would
+be considered inappropriate; or a Polonaise, and the name would be
+scouted as ridiculous; but the music would still remain great and
+glorious. Yet taking into consideration the meaning of the term
+"sonata" as understood by Emanuel Bach, Haydn, and Beethoven himself,
+it can scarcely be the right one for these tone-poems in two sections.
+The sonata-form of the first movement in each case may have suggested
+the title. The two early sonatas Op. 27 (Nos. 1 and 2) are both styled
+sonata, but with the addition _quasi una fantasia_. And in neither
+case was the first movement in sonata-form; the one in E flat does not
+even contain such a movement. There are other signs of the process of
+disintegration in the later sonatas. Op. 109, in E, is peculiar as
+regards the form of the movements of which it is composed; and the
+fugues of Op. 101, 106, and 109--a return, by the way, to the
+past--show at least an unsettled state of mind. The sonata in A flat
+(Op. 110) was probably the germ whence sprang the sonata in B minor of
+Liszt--a work of which we shall soon have to speak.
+
+Beethoven departed from the custom of his predecessors Haydn and
+Mozart, and the general practice of sonata-writers before him, in the
+matter of tonality. In a movement in sonata-form the rule was for the
+second subject to be in the dominant key in the exposition section,
+and in the tonic in the recapitulation section, if the key of the
+piece was major; but if minor, in the relative major or dominant minor
+in the exposition, and in the tonic major or minor in the
+recapitulation. Thus, if the key were C major, the second subject
+would be first in G major, afterwards in C major; if the key were C
+minor, first in E flat major, or G minor, afterwards in C minor or
+major. In a minor movement the second subject is found more often in
+the relative major than in the dominant minor. The first and third
+movements of Beethoven's Sonata in D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) illustrate
+the latter; in each case the second subject is in A minor.
+
+In major keys, besides that of the dominant, Beethoven chose the
+mediant (E) in his sonata in C (Op. 53); and in the recapitulation it
+occurs first in the sub-mediant (A), and only afterwards, in varied
+form, in the orthodox tonic. Then in the B flat sonata (Op. 106) the
+second subject occurs in the sub-mediant (G). In the last sonata in C
+minor, the second subject is neither in the relative major, nor in the
+dominant minor, but in the major key of the sub-mediant. Once again,
+in the sonata in D major (Op. 10, No. 3) a second theme is introduced
+in the key of the relative minor before the dominant section is
+reached. With regard, indeed, to the number of themes and order of
+keys, some other movements of the Beethoven sonatas show departures
+from the orthodox rules.
+
+In the important matter of the repeat of the first section of a
+movement in sonata-form, we find the master, for the most part,
+adhering to the custom delivered unto him by his predecessors. And yet
+there were two strong reasons why he might have been tempted to depart
+from it. The repetition was a survival from the old dance movements in
+binary form. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mozart not only repeated, but
+introduced various kinds of ornaments, and even harmonic changes; and
+they expected performers to do the same. Beethoven, however, allowed
+no such licence--one, indeed, which in the hands of ordinary pianists
+would be calculated to spoil rather than to improve the music. Part,
+then, of the _raison d'être_ of the repeat ceased to exist. But a
+still stronger temptation to suppress it must have been the
+_programme_ or _picture_ which Beethoven had in his mind when he
+composed. The repeat, now become almost an empty form, must have
+proved at times a fetter to his imagination. In many ways he was bold;
+but in this matter strangely conservative. It was only in the sonata
+in F minor, Op. 57, that he first ventured to omit the repeat. It is
+not to be found in the opening movements of Op. 90 or Op. 110, yet in
+his last sonata (Op. 111) the composer almost seems as if he wished to
+atone for his previous sins of omission. He had evidently not settled
+the question one way or the other; but the fact that in three of his
+most poetical works he departed from custom, deserves note. Before his
+time the repeat, like the laws of the Medes and Persians, seemed
+irrevocably fixed.
+
+Beethoven added important introductions or codas, or even both, to
+some of the movements of his sonatas. Codas are to be found in the
+sonatas both of Haydn and Mozart, but not introductory movements; the
+idea of the latter, however, did not originate with Beethoven. The
+Grave which opens the "Pathétique" (Op. 13) does not merely throw the
+listener into the right mood for the Allegro, but the opening phrase--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+is afterwards made use of in the development section--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+and, later on, it occurs in double augmentation.
+
+The _maestoso_ which ushers in the Allegro of the last sonata contains
+foreshadowings which are better felt than explained.
+
+At times the codas of Haydn are interesting,--as, for example, the one
+at the end of the first movement of his "Genziger" Sonata in E
+flat,--yet they do not present the thematic material in any new or
+striking light. With Beethoven it is different. In the Sonata in E
+flat (Op. 7) not only is there contrapuntal working, but the principal
+theme, just at the close, is, as it were, rounded off, completed.
+Similar treatment may be seen in the first movement of the Sonata in D
+(Op. 10, No. 3) (here the effect is intensified by contrary motion);
+also in the Allegro of Op. 13, and other sonatas; the opening movement
+of Op. 57 offers a striking illustration.
+
+The coda to the first movement of the "Waldstein" Sonata (Op. 53) is
+on a most elaborate scale: it is almost as long as the development
+section. In the latter, only fragments of the principal theme had been
+worked, but in the coda it appears in complete form; fierce chords
+seem to retard its progress, and a sinking, syncopated figure is
+opposed to it, counteracting its rising, expanding nature. But it
+works its way onward and upward, until, as if exhausted by the effort,
+two descending scales lead to a quiet delivery of the second theme,
+which had not been heard during the development section. Then
+principal theme is given for the last time; it has overcome all
+obstacles, and proclaims its victory in loud and powerful chords. The
+Presto which closes the "Appassionata" (Op. 57) is one of Beethoven's
+grandest codas, and all the more wonderful in that it follows a
+movement of intense storm and stress. It is a coda, not merely to the
+last movement, but to the whole work: it recalls the first, as well as
+the third movement. The coda of the first movement of the C minor
+Symphony displays similar intensity; there, however, we have an
+expression of strong will; here, one of savage despair. The coda of
+the first movement of the "Adieux" Sonata (Op. 81A) is another
+memorable ending. The farewell notes sound sad in the opening Adagio,
+while in the Allegro which follows they are again plaintive, or else
+agitated. But in the coda, though still sad, they express a certain
+tenderness, and the lingering of friends loth to part. Whatever the
+special meaning of the music, the point which we here wish to
+emphasise is, that the coda presents thematic material, already amply
+developed, in quite a new light.
+
+In the matter of structure, Beethoven may be said, in the main, to
+have followed Haydn and Mozart, but the effect of his music is,
+nevertheless, very different. By overlapping of phrases; by very
+moderate use of full closes; by making passages of transition
+thoroughly thematic; by affinity and yet strong contrast between his
+principal and second themes; by a more organic system of development;
+by these and other means Beethoven surpassed his predecessors in power
+of continuity, intensity, and unity. Then, again, his conception of
+tonality was broader, and his harmonies were more varied; the fuller,
+richer tone of the pianoforte of his day influenced the character of
+his melodies; while the consequent progress of technique, as
+exhibited in the works of some of his immediate predecessors and
+contemporaries, enabled him to present his thoughts with greater
+variety and more striking effect than was possible to either Haydn or
+Mozart.
+
+Once more, Beethoven seemed to be elaborating some central thought;
+Haydn and Mozart (with few exceptions), to be deftly weaving together
+thoughts so as to obtain pleasing contrasts. In a similar manner, the
+first and last movements of a sonata with Beethoven are of kindred
+mood, though perhaps of different degree. Haydn and Mozart seem again
+to be aiming at contrast; after a dignified opening Allegro and a
+soft, graceful slow movement, they frequently wind up with a Finale of
+which the chief characteristics are humour, playfulness, and
+merriment, so that the listener may part company from them in a
+pleasant frame of mind.
+
+We have been comparing the composer, and to his advantage, with Haydn
+and Mozart. But the latter, however, sometimes come within near reach
+of the former; and had the means at their disposal been similar, they
+might possibly have equalled him. And, on the other hand, Beethoven's
+inspiration was sometimes at a comparatively low ebb. Speaking
+generally, however, the comparison, we believe, stands good.
+
+John Sebastian Bach devoted the greater part of his life to the art of
+developing themes. His skill was wonderful, and so, too,--considering
+the restrictions of the fugue-form,--was the imagination which he
+displayed. In Beethoven the old master seems to live again, only under
+new and more favourable conditions. Bach was brought up in the way of
+the fugue, Beethoven of the sonata; and, it may be added, from these,
+respectively, neither ever departed. From early youth onward, our
+composer was a deep student of Bach, and assimilated some of his
+predecessor's methods. One special feature of Beethoven's mode of
+development was to take a few notes, or sometimes merely a figure,
+from his theme, and to expand them into a phrase; as, for instance, in
+the opening movement of the sonata in C minor (Op. 10, No. 1), in
+which
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+forms the material for the closing phrase of the exposition section.
+And the opening figure of the Finale of the same sonata is employed in
+a similar manner at the commencement of the second section of the
+movement. The Rondo of Op. 10, No. 3, furnishes good illustrations.
+Now let us turn to Bach. In the 13th Fugue of the "Well-tempered
+Clavier," the closing notes of the subject
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+are expanded, commencing at bar twenty-four, into a melodious phrase.
+Also in the Prelude which follows (No. 14)
+
+[Music illustration] becomes [Music illustration]
+
+And some magnificent examples might be culled from the noble Preludes
+in E flat and B flat minor (Book 1, Nos. 8 and 22). Again, another
+special feature of Beethoven is the extension of a phrase by
+repetition of the last clause,--a method too familiar to need
+quotation. But let us give one illustration from Bach (Book 1, Fugue
+6)--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The 8th Prelude of Book I has been already mentioned to illustrate one
+point, but there are other Beethovenisms in it.
+
+These comparisons must not be misunderstood; study of Bach
+strengthened Beethoven's genius. We are not speaking of bald
+imitation, not even of conscious imitation. He not only received the
+message of the old master, as a child, but while he was a child; and
+that no doubt helped him more than all the works of his predecessors
+from Emanuel Bach upwards. It appealed to him strongly, because it was
+based on nature. Bach's Fugues are living organisms; they are
+expansions of some central thought. Development reveals the latent
+power, the latent meaning of the themes; were it merely artificial, no
+matter how skilful, it would be letter, not spirit. A clever
+contrapuntist once conceived the bold idea of competing with Bach; he
+wrote a series of Preludes and Fugues in all the keys, and displayed
+wonderful skill in all the arts of counterpoint, canon, and fugue,
+while in the matter of elaborate combinations he actually surpassed
+Bach (we refer here only to the "Well-tempered Clavier"). But the
+result was failure; the laborious work was wasted. Klengel had
+mistaken the means for the end; he had worked as a mathematician, not
+as a musician. Beethoven felt the true secret of Bach's greatness, and
+his own genius taught him how to profit by it. Next to the necessity
+of having something of importance to say, something which development
+will enhance, the great lesson which Beethoven learnt from Bach was
+unity in variety, the "highest law in all artistic creation," as Dr.
+H. Riemann well remarks in his _Catechism of Musical Æsthetics_.
+
+Very many, probably the greater number, of Beethoven's sonatas rest
+upon some poetic basis. Bombet, in his _Life of Haydn_, tells us how
+that composer sometimes "imagined a little romance, which might
+furnish him with musical sentiments and colours"; and the titles which
+he gave to many of his symphonies certainly support that statement. At
+other times the romance was already to hand, as in the case of the
+32nd sonata, which was inspired by Haydn's dear friend, Frau von
+Genziger. Of the poetic basis underlying some of Beethoven's sonatas
+we have fair knowledge. Schindler, in the second edition of his
+_Biography of Beethoven_, gives a few extracts from the Conversation
+Books (Conversations Hefte), in which, on account of the master's
+deafness, questions or answers were written down by those holding
+conversation with him. Beethoven read, and, of course, replied _viva
+voce_. We have not, it is true, his words, yet it is possible, at
+times, to gather their purport from the context. For instance, there
+is a conversation (or rather one half of it) recorded, which took
+place in 1823 between the composer and Schindler. The latter says: "Do
+you remember how I ventured a few years ago to play over to you the
+Sonata Op. 14?--now everything is clear." The next entry runs
+thus:--"I still feel the pain in my hand." A footnote explains that
+after Schindler had played the opening section of the first movement,
+Beethoven struck him somewhat roughly on the hand, pushed him from the
+stool, and, placing himself on it, played and _explained_ the sonata.
+Then Schindler says: "Two principles also in the middle section of
+'Pathétique,'" as if the teacher had called upon him to give
+illustrations from other sonatas of what he had explained concerning
+Op. 14. But there is another record of a conversation which took place
+between Beethoven and Schindler in the very month (March, 1827) in
+which the composer died. "As you feel well to-day," says the disciple,
+"we can continue our talk concerning the poetic basis ("wieder etwas
+poetisiren") of the Trio in B flat." And after some remarks about
+Aristotle's views of tragedy, and about the _Medea_ of Euripides, we
+come across the following:--"But why _everywhere_ a superscription? In
+many movements of the sonatas and symphonies, where feeling and one's
+own imagination might dictate, such a heading would do harm. Music
+ought not, and cannot, on all occasions give a definite direction to
+feeling." Beethoven must have been alluding to some scheme of his for
+indicating the nature of the contents of his works, and its boldness
+seems to have astonished Schindler. It is possible that Beethoven,
+conscious that his end was not far distant, carried away by the
+enthusiasm of the moment, and desirous of giving all possible help to
+the right understanding of his music, went far beyond the modest lines
+by which he was guided when writing his "Pastoral" Symphony.[98] But
+let us return to the conversation.
+
+"Good!" says Schindler, "then you will next set about writing an
+_angry_ sonata?" Beethoven would seem to have declared even that
+possible, for Schindler continues: "Oh! I have no doubt you will
+accomplish that, and I rejoice in anticipation." And, then, as if
+remembering that his master was an invalid, and that it would not be
+right to excite him by prolonging the argument, he added, probably in
+a half-jocular manner: "Your housekeeper must do her part, and first
+put you into a towering passion." The above extracts show pretty
+clearly that the poetic basis of his music was a subject which
+Beethoven took pleasure in discussing with his friends. Beethoven's
+back was, however, at once up if he found others pushing the matter
+too far. Of this we will give an instance. In the year 1782 Dr.
+Christian Müller of Bremen organised concerts among the members of his
+family, and, already at the beginning of the nineteenth century,
+Beethoven's name figured on the programmes. A friend of the family,
+Dr. Carl Iken, who took part in the musical proceedings, was an ardent
+admirer of Beethoven's music, and he ventured to draw up explanations
+and picture-programmes of the master's works; and these were read out
+before the performances of the works in question. It seems, indeed,
+that he was the first who felt impelled to give utterance to the
+poetical feelings aroused by Beethoven's music. Dr. Iken's intentions
+were of the best, and he may often have succeeded in throwing his
+audience into the right mood. A poetical programme, if not too
+fantastic, would often prove of better effect than the most skilful of
+analyses. These "Iken" programmes so delighted Dr. Müller that he sent
+several of them to the master at Vienna. Beethoven read, but his anger
+was stirred. He sent for Schindler, and dictated a letter to Dr.
+Müller. It was a friendly but energetic protest against such treatment
+of his or anyone else's music. He drew attention to the erroneous
+opinions to which it would give birth. _If explanations were needed_,
+he declared, _let them be limited to the general characteristics of
+the compositions_,[99] which it would not be difficult for cultured
+musicians to furnish. Thus relates Schindler, and there seems no
+reason to doubt his word. It is to be hoped that Dr. Müller's letter
+will one day be discovered. It was not the plan to which Beethoven
+objected, but the manner in which it was carried out.
+
+Before quitting this subject, let us refer to one or two sonatas
+concerning which there are well authenticated utterances of the
+master. Schindler once asked him for the key to the Sonatas in D minor
+(Op. 31, No. 2) and F minor ("Appassionata"), and Beethoven replied:
+"Read Shakespeare's _Tempest_." The reply was laconic. Beethoven, no
+doubt, could have furnished further details, but he abstained from so
+doing, and in this he was perfectly justified. Then Schindler, growing
+bold, ventured a further question: "What did the master intend to
+express by the Largo of the Sonata in D (Op. 10, No. 3)?" And the
+latter replied that everyone felt that this Largo described the
+condition of the soul of a melancholy man, with various nuances of
+light and shade. Beethoven's quiet, dignified utterances deserve
+special attention in these days of programme-music. It is perhaps well
+that he did not carry out his idea of furnishing the clue to the
+poetic idea underlying his sonatas. It would, of course, have been
+highly interesting to know the sources of his inspirations, but it is
+terrible to think of the consequences which would have ensued.
+Composers would have imitated him, and those lacking genius would have
+made themselves and their art ridiculous. Berlioz went to extremes,
+but his genius saved him; and Schumann, a true poet, though inclined
+to superscriptions, kept within very reasonable lines.
+
+It was undoubtedly this poetic basis that so affected the form of
+Beethoven's sonatas. The little romances by which Haydn spurred his
+imagination were as children's tales compared with the deep thoughts,
+the tragic events, and the masterpieces of Plato, Shakespeare, and
+Goethe, which in Beethoven sharpened feeling and intensified thought.
+The great sonatas of Beethoven are not mere cunningly-devised pieces,
+not mere mood-painting; they are real, living dramas.
+
+In aiming at a higher organisation, he actually became a disorganiser.
+"All things are growing or decaying," says Herbert Spencer. And in
+Beethoven, so far as sonata and sonata-form are concerned, we seem, as
+it were, to perceive the beginning of a period of decay.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN
+
+
+I. Weber
+
+The two greatest contemporaries of Beethoven were, undoubtedly, Carl
+Maria von Weber and Franz Schubert, and both wrote pianoforte sonatas.
+Many other composers of that period--some of them possessed of
+considerable talent--devoted themselves to that branch of musical
+literature: Steibelt (1764-1823), Woelfl (1772-1812), J.B. Cramer
+(1771-1858), J.N. Hummel (1778-1837), F.W.M. Kalkbrenner (1788-1849),
+and others. Of these, the first three may be named sonata-makers. The
+number which they produced is positively alarming; but it is some
+consolation to think that a knowledge of their works is not of
+essential importance. Steibelt's sonata in E flat (dedicated to Mme.
+Buonaparte) was given once at the Popular Concerts in 1860, and
+Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" sonata, several times between 1859 and 1873;
+not one, however, of the 105 said to have been written by J.B. Cramer
+has ever been heard there.[100] Most of these works justly merit the
+oblivion into which they have fallen; some are quite second, or even
+third rate; others were written merely as show pieces,[101] and are
+now, of course, utterly out of date; and many were written for
+educational purposes, or to suit popular taste (sonatas containing
+variations on national and favourite airs, light rondos, etc.).[102]
+
+Cramer's studies have achieved world-wide reputation, and, as music,
+they are often interesting. Also in his sonatas are to be found many
+serious, well-written movements; musical taste has, however, so
+changed since the rise of the romantic school, that it is doubtful
+whether they would be now acceptable even as teaching pieces.
+
+Hummel's few sonatas have suffered at the hand of time; but, though
+the music be mechanical, and therefore cold, there is much to interest
+pianists in the two sonatas in F sharp minor (Op. 81) and D major (Op.
+106). These were written after the composer's appointment at Weimar in
+1820. His two early sonatas (Op. 13, in E flat, and Op. 20, dedicated
+to Haydn) are not easy, yet not so difficult as the two just
+mentioned.
+
+Steibelt and Woelfl both measured themselves with Beethoven in the art
+of improvisation. The former was so ignominiously defeated that he
+never ventured to meet his rival again. Woelfl, however, fared better.
+With his long fingers he could accomplish wonders on the instrument;
+but only so far as technique was concerned did he surpass Beethoven.
+
+Carl Maria v. Weber (1786-1826) in early youth studied the pianoforte
+under two able court organists, J.P. Heuschkel[103] and J.N.
+Kalcher,[104] both of whom he always held in grateful remembrance.
+Under the direction of the latter he wrote some pianoforte sonatas,
+which, according to the statement of his son and biographer, M.M. v.
+Weber, were accidentally destroyed. Later on he studied under Vogler
+and other masters. He became a famous pianist, and at Berlin, in 1812,
+composed his 1st Sonata in C (Op. 24). No. 2, in A flat (Op. 39), was
+commenced at Prague in 1814, and completed at Berlin in 1816. No. 3,
+in D minor (Op. 49), was also written at Berlin, and in the same year.
+No. 4, in E minor (Op. 70), occupied the composer between the years
+1819 and 1822; it was written at Hosterwitz, near Dresden, during the
+time he was at work on his opera _Euryanthe_.
+
+Weber and Schubert are both classed as contemporaries of Beethoven,
+yet the latter was also their predecessor. Of Schubert we shall speak
+presently. As regards Weber, it should be remembered that before he
+had written his sonata in C (Op. 24) Beethoven had already published
+"Les Adieux" (Op. 81A). The individuality of the composer of _Die
+Freischütz_ was, however, so strong, that we meet with no direct
+traces of the influence of Beethoven in his pianoforte music.
+
+The Weber sonatas have been described by Dr. P. Spitta as "fantasias
+in sonata-form," and this admirably expresses the character of these
+works. Weber followed the custom of his day in writing sonatas, but it
+seems as though he would have accomplished still greater things had he
+given full rein to his imagination, and allowed subject-matter to
+determine form. Like his great contemporary, of whom we have next to
+speak, Weber, in spite of Vogler's teaching, was not a strong
+contrapuntist; he relied chiefly upon melody, harmonic effects, and
+strong contrasts. His romantic themes, his picturesque colouring,
+enchant the ear, and the poetry and passion of his pianoforte music,
+both intensified by grand technique, stir one's soul to its very
+depths; yet the works are of the fantasia, rather than of the sonata
+order. We have the letter rather than the true spirit of a sonata.
+Place side by side Weber's Sonata in A flat (the greatest of the four)
+and Beethoven's D minor or "Appassionata," and the difference will be
+at once felt. In the latter there is a latent power which is wanting
+in the former. It seems as if one could never sound the depths of
+Beethoven's music: fresh study reveals new beauties, new details; the
+relation of the parts to the whole (not only of the sections of a
+movement, but of the movements _inter se_), and, therefore, the unity
+of the whole becomes more evident. We must not be understood to mean
+that Weber worked without plan, or even careful thought; but merely,
+that the organic structure of his sonatas is far less closely knit
+than in those of the Bonn master; there is contrast rather than
+concatenation of ideas, outward show rather than inner substance. The
+slow movements (with exception of those of the 1st and 2nd Sonatas,
+which have somewhat of a dramatic character) and Finales are
+satisfactory, _per se_, as music: the former have charm, refinement;
+the latter, elegance, piquancy, brilliancy. Now, in these sonatas,
+the opening movements seem like the commencement of some tragedy: in
+No. 2 there is nobility mixed with pathos; in No. 3, fierce passion;
+and in No. 4, still passion, albeit of a tenderer, more melancholy
+kind. But in the Finales it is as though we had passed from the
+tragedy of the stage to the melodrama, or frivolity of the
+drawing-room; they offer, it is true, strong contrast, yet not of the
+right sort, not that to which Beethoven has accustomed us.
+
+Throughout the four sonatas we detect the hand of a great pianist. In
+the first, the element of virtuosity predominates; the first and,
+especially, the last movement (the so-called Perpetuum mobile) are
+show pieces, though of a high order. In the other sonatas the same
+element exists, and yet it seldom obtrudes itself; the composer is
+merely using, to the full, the rich means at his command to express
+his luxuriant and poetical thoughts. In his writing for the instrument
+Weber recalls Dussek,--the Dussek of the "Retour à Paris" and
+"Invocation" sonatas. The earlier master was also a great pianist, and
+filled with the spirit of romance; still he lacked the force and fire
+of Weber. Then, again, Dussek, in early manhood, passed through the
+classical crucible, whereas Weber was born and bred very much _à la
+Bohémienne_; he developed from within rather than from without. It is
+easier to criticise than to create. If we cannot place the sonatas of
+Weber on the same high level as those of Beethoven, we may at least
+say that they take very high rank; also, that in the hands of a great
+pianist they are certain to produce a powerful impression.
+
+
+II. Schubert
+
+The other great contemporary of Beethoven was Franz Schubert, born in
+1797, the year in which the former published his Sonata in E flat (Op.
+7). Then, again, Schubert's earliest pianoforte sonata was composed in
+February 1815, while Beethoven's Sonata in A (Op. 101) was produced at
+a concert only one year later (16th February 1816). It is well to
+remember these dates, by which we perceive that Beethoven had written
+twenty-seven of his thirty-two sonatas before Schubert commenced
+composing works of this kind. But though here and there the influence
+of the Bonn master may be felt in Schubert, the individuality of the
+latter was so strong, that we regard him as an independent
+contemporary. The influence of Haydn and Mozart, _plus_ his own mighty
+genius, seem almost sufficient to account for Schubert's music. The
+new edition of the composer's works published by Messrs. Breitkopf &
+Härtel contains fifteen sonatas for pianoforte solo. The first four--
+
+No. 1, in E (1815),
+No. 2, in C (1815),
+No. 3, in A flat (1817), and
+No. 4, in E minor (1817),
+
+had hitherto only been known by name.
+
+In following the career of a great composer, his first efforts,
+however humble, however incomplete, are of interest; but from a purely
+musical point of view the Minuets of Nos. 2 and 3 are the most
+attractive portions of these sonatas; we catch in them glimpses of
+that freshness and romantic beauty which characterise Schubert's later
+productions.
+
+In moments of strong inspiration, Schubert worked wonders, yet the
+lack of regular and severe study often makes itself felt. Though
+colouring may enhance counterpoint, it will not serve as a substitute
+for it. Then there is, at times, monotony of rhythm; and this, to a
+great extent, was the result of little practice in the art "of
+combining melodies."
+
+While on the subject of Schubert's failings, we may as well complete
+the catalogue. In the later sonatas we meet with diffuseness; and
+sometimes a stroke of genius is followed by music which, at any rate
+for Schubert, is commonplace. It seems presumption to weigh the
+composer in critical balances, and to find him wanting; but he stands
+here side by side with Beethoven, and the contrast between the two men
+forces itself on our notice. Both were richly endowed by nature. By
+training, and the power of self-criticism which the latter brings with
+it, Beethoven was able to make the most of his gifts; Schubert, on the
+other hand, by the very lavish display which he sometimes made,
+actually weakened them. There is no page of musical history more
+touching than the one which records how the composer, after having
+written wonderful songs, grand symphonies, and other works too
+numerous to mention, made arrangements to study with S. Sechter, one
+of the most eminent theorists of the day. The composer paid the latter
+a visit on the 4th November 1828; but within a fortnight, Schubert was
+no longer in the land of the living. When too late, he seems to have
+made the discovery which, perhaps, his very wealth of inspiration had
+hidden from him up to that moment, namely, that discipline strengthens
+genius. One may point out faults in Schubert's art-works, yet his
+melodies and harmonies are so bewitching, his music altogether so full
+of spontaneity and inspiration, that for the time being one is
+spellbound. Schumann was fairly right when he described Schubert's
+lengths as "heavenly."
+
+Three more sonatas were produced in the year 1817, the first in the
+unusual key of B major; and here we find a marked advance in
+conception and execution. It opens with an Allegro, the total effect
+of which, however, is not satisfactory; the principal theme has
+dramatic power, and what follows has lyrical charm, but the
+development section is disappointing. The Adagio seems like an
+arrangement of a lovely symphonic movement; the orchestra, and not the
+pianoforte, must have been in the composer's mind when he penned it.
+The lively Scherzo, with its quiet Trio, is a little gem. The
+clear-cut, concise form of such movements saved Schubert from all
+danger of diffuseness; and in them, as Mozart remarked to the Emperor
+Joseph, who complained of the number of notes in his opera, _Die
+Entführung_, there are "just as many as are necessary." The sonata in
+A minor (Op. 164), which consists of three movements, is short and
+delightful from beginning to end. In the opening Allegro the second
+subject occurs, by way of exception, in the major key of the
+submediant. There is much to admire in the 3rd, in E flat, especially
+the Minuet and Trio; yet the music is not pure Schubert. About six
+years elapsed between this and the next sonata, in A minor (1823).
+Schubert had already written his B minor Symphony, and though the
+first two movements of the sonata will not compare with those of the
+former in loftiness of conception, there is a certain kinship between
+the two works. In both there are fitful gusts of passion, a feeling of
+awe, and a tone of sadness which tells of disappointed hopes, of lost
+illusions. The Finale, though fine, stands on a lower level. During
+the years 1825-26, Schubert wrote, besides one in A major (Op. 120),
+three magnificent sonatas: one in A minor, dedicated to the Archduke
+Rudolph (Op. 42), another in D (Op. 53), and a third in G (Op. 78). In
+these three works we have the composer's ripest efforts. The first
+movement of the 1st, in A minor, is well-nigh perfect. That opening
+phrase--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+haunts one like a sad dream; and the development section, long,
+though not monotonous, is full of it. Without sacrificing his
+individuality, Schubert has here caught something of Beethoven's
+peculiar method of treating a theme,--that is, of evolving new phrases
+from its various sections. The coda, again, has penetrating power, and
+the fierce concluding phrase sounds like the passionate resistance of
+a proud artist to the stern degrees of fate. The tender melody and
+delicate variations of the Andante, the bold Scherzo, with its soft
+Trio, and the energetic Finale are all exceedingly interesting; yet
+they do not affect us like the first movement, in which lies not only
+the majesty, but the mystery of genius. The sonata in D has a vigorous
+opening Allegro,--a long, lovely, slow movement,--a crisp Scherzo, but
+a peculiar Finale, one which Schumann qualifies as comical
+(possirlich). The sonata in G contains some of the composer's most
+charming, characteristic music. The opening _moderato e cantabile_ is
+a tone-poem of touching pathos. The sad principal theme is supported
+by such soft, tender harmonies, that its very sadness charms. In the
+development section it assumes a different character. Melancholy gives
+place to passion, at times fierce; then calm returns. The coda is one
+of the most fascinating ever penned by Schubert. The slow movement and
+Menuetto form worthy companions; but with the Finale the composer
+breaks the spell. Schumann says: "Keep away from it; it has no
+imagination, no enigma to solve."
+
+The last three sonatas (in C minor, A, and B flat) were composed in
+September 1828, not three months before the death of the composer. In
+the opening theme of No. 2, determination and confidence are
+expressed, while in the Scherzo and Rondo there is even sunshine,
+though now and again black clouds flit across the scene. But in the
+Adagio, and in all the movements of the other two sonatas, the mood is
+either one of sadness, more or less intense, dark despair, or fierce
+frenzy. Music can express both joy and sorrow, though the latter seems
+more congenial to it. Mournful strains are an echo, as it were, of the
+"still, sad music of humanity." Grief, too, sharpens the imagination;
+and music produced under its influence stirs a sensitive soul more
+powerfully than the brightest, merriest sounds. But these three
+sonatas, though they contain wonderful thoughts and some of Schubert's
+grandest, and most delicate harmonic colouring, fall short of
+perfection. They are too long, not because they cover so many pages,
+but because there is a lack of balance; at times, indeed, the composer
+seems to lose all sense of proportion. Then, again, the weakness of
+Schubert in the art of development is specially felt; the noble
+themes, on the whole, lose rather than gain by the loose, monotonous,
+and, in some places, even trivial treatment to which they are
+subjected. And what is more fatal than a lack of gradation of
+interest? In a truly great work of art, be it poem, tragedy, sonata,
+or symphony, the author carries his readers or audience along with
+him from one point to another,--he gives no time for rest or
+reflection; and when he has worked them up to the highest pitch, he
+stops, and there is an awakening, as it were, from some wonderful
+dream. If afterwards the work be analysed, the pains with which it was
+built up can be traced; the powerful effect which it produced will be
+found due, not alone to the creative power, the imagination of the
+author, but also to his dialectic skill and to his critical faculty.
+It is all very well to talk of great works as the fruits of hot
+inspiration and not cold intellect. A masterpiece is the outcome of
+both; the one provides the material, the other shapes it. Schubert was
+an inspired composer, but most of his works, especially those of large
+compass, show that he was mastered by moods, not that he was master of
+them. It may be said that many who can appreciate beautiful music have
+not the bump of intellect strongly developed, and would not therefore
+be affected by any such shortcomings; that they would simply enjoy the
+music. That is very likely, but here we are analysing and comparing;
+and neither the beauty nor even grandeur of the music, nor the effect
+which it might produce on certain minds, concerns us. There are many
+persons who have had no technical training, but who possess a true
+sense of order, proportion, and gradation; and such instinctively feel
+that Schubert's sonatas, in spite of their many striking qualities,
+are not so great as those of Beethoven. We have referred more than
+once to the Popular Concert catalogue, which is a very fair
+thermometer of public taste. One can see how seldom the Schubert
+sonatas are performed in comparison with those of his great
+contemporary. But to refer specially to the three last sonatas now
+under notice. The one in B flat (No. 3) was played by Mr. Leonard
+Borwick, it is true, on the 3rd February 1894, but the previous date
+of performance was 16th January 1882. No. 2, in A, was last given in
+1882, and No. 1 has not been heard since 1879.
+
+The Allegro of the C minor sonata opens with a bold theme, and an
+energetic transition passage leads to the dominant of the relative
+major key. Of the soft second theme Schubert seems so fond, that he is
+loth to quit it; he repeats it in varied form, and still after that,
+it is heard in minor. This unnecessarily lengthens the exposition
+section, which, in addition, has the repeat mark. The development
+section is rather vague, but the coda is impressive: the long
+descending phrase and the sad repeated minor chords at the close
+suggest exhaustion after fierce conflict. The theme of the Adagio, in
+A flat, partly inspired by Beethoven, is noble, and full of tender,
+regretful feeling; the opening and close of the movement are the
+finest portions. The Minuet and Trio are effective, but the final
+Allegro is hopelessly long, and by no means equal to the rest of the
+work.
+
+The first movement of the sonata in A has a characteristic principal
+theme, and one in the dominant key of bewitching beauty. The coda
+gives a last reminiscence of the opening theme; but its almost defiant
+character has vanished away; for it is now played pianissimo.
+Schubert, in the importance of his codas, recalls Beethoven; each,
+however, made it serve a different purpose. The latter, at any rate in
+his Allegro movements, gathers together his strength, as if for one
+last, supreme effort. Schubert, on the other hand, seems rather as if
+his strength were spent, and as if he could only give a faint echo of
+his leading theme. The coda of the first movement of the sonata in A
+minor (Op. 42) offers, however, one striking exception. The Andantino
+and Scherzo of the A sonata are well-nigh perfect, but the Rondo, in
+spite of much that is charming, is of inferior quality and of
+irritating length. The 3rd sonata, in B flat, the last of the series,
+the _sonate-testament_, as Von Lenz said of Beethoven's Op. 111, has
+wonderful moments, yet it contains also lengths which even Schumann
+would scarcely have ventured to style "heavenly." We refer
+particularly to the first and last movements; the Andante and Scherzo
+are beyond criticism.
+
+These sonatas were written as Schubert was about to enter the Valley
+of the Shadow of Death. His spirit was still strong, but his flesh
+must have been weak. To turn away from them on account of any
+imperfections, would be to lose some of Schubert's loftiest thoughts,
+some of his choicest tone-painting.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT
+
+
+After Beethoven, the first composer of note was Robert Schumann, one
+of the founders of the so-called romantic school. In one of his
+letters he refers to Beethoven's choral symphony "as the turning-point
+from the classical to the romantic period." By reading, Schumann had
+cultivated his imagination, but his musical training was irregular;
+and, indeed, when he first commenced composing, practically _nil_. If
+his soul was stirred by some poem, or tale, or by remembrance of some
+dear friend, he sought to express his thoughts and feelings, and on
+the spur of the moment. In a letter he writes: "I have been all the
+week at the piano, composing, writing, laughing, and crying, all at
+once. You will find this state of things nicely described in my Op.
+20, the 'Grosse Humoreske,' which is already at the printer's. You see
+how quickly I always work now. I get an idea, write it down, and have
+it printed; that's what I like. Twelve sheets composed in a week!" And
+thus short-tone poems, or a long piece, such as the "Humoreske," of
+irregular form, were the result. Now that was not the way in which he
+composed his two sonatas. He was two years, off and on, at work on the
+first, in F sharp minor (Op. 11), and eight on the other, in G minor
+(Op. 22). One may therefore conclude that the fetters of form were a
+source of trouble to him. And he can scarcely have felt very
+enthusiastic over his task; in 1839, after both sonatas were
+completed, he declared that "although from time to time fine specimens
+of the sonata species made their appearance, and, probably, would
+continue to do so, it seemed as if that form of composition had run
+its appointed course."
+
+Of the two sonatas, the one in F sharp minor is the more interesting.
+The Aria is a movement of exquisite simplicity and tenderness, and the
+Scherzo, with its _Intermezzo alla burla_, has life and character. But
+the Allegro, which follows the poetical introduction, and the Finale
+are patchy, and at times laboured. It must not, however, be supposed
+that they are uninteresting. The music has poetry and passion, and the
+strong passages atone for the weak ones. There were composers at that
+time who could produce sonatas more correct in form, and more logical
+in treatment, yet not one who could have written music so filled with
+the spirit of romance.
+
+The Sonata in G minor resembles its predecessor both in its strong and
+its weak points. Considered, however, as a whole, it is less warm,
+less intense. It is unnecessary to describe the two works in detail,
+for they must be familiar to all musicians, and especially pianists. A
+sympathetic rendering of them will always give pleasure; but in a
+history of evolution they are of comparatively small moment. It is
+interesting to compare them with the Fantasia in C (Op. 17), a work in
+which Schumann displayed the full power of his genius.
+
+Chopin was another composer whose spirit moved uneasily within the
+limits of the sonata. The first which he wrote (we do not reckon the
+posthumous one in C minor)--the one in B flat minor--is an impressive
+work. There is a certain rugged power in the opening movement, and the
+Scherzo is passionate, and its Trio tender. The picturesque March owes
+much of its effect to its colouring and contrasts; while the
+extraordinary Finale sounds weird and uncanny. In the hands of a great
+interpreter the music makes a powerful appeal; yet as a sonata it is
+not really great. It lacks organic development, unity. The Sonata in B
+minor, though attractive to pianists, is an inferior work. The first
+movement, with exception of its melodious second theme, is dry, and
+the Finale belongs to the _bravoura_ order of piece. The Scherzo is
+light and graceful. The slow movement is the most poetical of the
+four, though spun out at too great length. The real Chopin is to be
+found in his nocturnes, mazurkas, and ballads, not in his sonatas.
+
+Among modern sonatas, the three by Brahms (C, Op. 1; F sharp minor,
+Op. 2; and F minor, Op. 5) claim special notice. With the exception of
+the Liszt Sonata in B minor, which, whatever its musical value, at
+least opens up "new paths" in the matter of form, the Brahms sonatas
+are the only ones since Schumann which distinctly demand detailed
+notice. The composer followed ordinary Beethoven lines; with exception
+of the Intermezzo of the 3rd Sonata, the number and order of movement
+resemble those of many a Beethoven sonata; while there is enlargement,
+not change in the matter of form. Brahms studied the special means by
+which his great predecessor, in some instances, sought to accentuate
+the unity between various sections of a sonata; he steeped his soul in
+the romantic music of Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Schumann, and,
+in addition, trained his intellect to grasp the mysteries of
+counterpoint, and to perceive the freer modern uses to which it was
+put by the classical masters. Brahms' early acquaintance with Liszt
+opened up to him, too, the resources of modern technique. And thus,
+possessing individuality of his own, in addition to these inheritances
+and acquirements, Brahms wrote sonatas, which, though in the main on
+old lines, are no mere imitations, pale reflexes of his predecessors.
+
+The 1st Sonata, in C (Op. 1), has for its opening theme one which has
+been said to resemble the opening theme of Beethoven's Op. 106. It
+will be well to look on this picture (Beethoven)--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+and on this (Brahms)--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+There is resemblance in the matter of rhythm, but the up-beat in
+Beethoven constitutes a marked difference; and, besides, the
+succession of notes differs in each case. Brahms's theme, already at
+the eighth bar, recommences in a key a tone lower; a similar
+proceeding, by the way, is to be found in Beethoven's Sonata in G (Op.
+31, No 1). After a few points of imitation, and digression through
+various keys, we meet with a new theme in A minor, the soft, tender
+character of which contrasts well with the bold opening one. But unity
+amid diversity is Brahms' aim; and here the contrast does not prevent
+a certain kinship between them--one, however, which can be felt rather
+than explained.[105] Of another pianissimo phrase, still in A minor,
+much use is afterwards made. The prominence given in the exposition
+section to the subject-matter styled "secondary," and still more so in
+the development section, is peculiar; this feature had certainly not
+been copied from Beethoven, who, as a rule, made his first theme of
+first importance. Brahms concludes his exposition section in the
+opening key of the movement,--a return to early methods; Beethoven
+adopted a similar course in the first movement of his Op. 53. Brahms'
+development section is comparatively short. Of counterpoint we get a
+good illustration in the combinations of both first and second themes;
+of colour, in the presentation of the mournful minor theme in the
+major key; and of originality, in the bars leading to the
+recapitulation. In this last instance, the idea of gradually drawing
+closer together the members of a phrase was borrowed from Beethoven,
+but not the manner in which it is carried out. In the earlier master
+it often stands out as a special feature; here we have, besides,
+counter rhythm, and ambiguous modulation. When the principal theme
+returns, it is clothed first with subdominant, then with tonic minor
+harmony. The movement concludes with a vigorous coda evolved from the
+opening theme. Five bars from the end, the first two bars of that
+theme are given out in their original form; and then, as if repetition
+were not sufficient, a thematic cadence is added, in which the notes
+are given in loud tones, in augmented form, and, in addition, with
+slackened _tempo_ (_largamente_). The slow movement (Andante) was, we
+believe, one of Brahms' earliest efforts at composition; it is said to
+have been written by him at the age of fourteen. It consists of a
+theme with variations; and the former is based on an old German
+Minnelied. The words of the folk song are written beneath the notes,
+as if to put the listener into the right mood.[106] We need not dwell
+on the variations, in which Beethoven and Schubert are the prevailing
+influences, though not to any alarming extent. The music is by no
+means difficult; for Brahms, indeed, remarkably easy. The movement
+opens in C minor, but closes in C major. A Scherzo follows (E minor,
+six-eight time; Allegro molto e con fuoco); it has a trio in C major.
+The Scherzo, with its varied rhythm, is full of life; the Trio,
+interesting in harmony, and also in the matter of rhythm. The Finale
+(another Allegro con fuoco; the young composer has mounted his fiery
+Pegasus) opens in C, in nine-eight time, thus--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+a metamorphosis, in fact, of the opening theme of the sonata. And
+later on we have a similar re-presentation of subject-matter from the
+first movement. This Finale is musically and technically attractive,
+yet scarcely on the same high level as the first movement. But the age
+of the composer must be taken into consideration; for quite a young
+man, it is a wonderful production.
+
+The 2nd Sonata (Op. 2) is in F sharp minor. The Allegro non troppo ma
+energico is a movement which in its subject-material breathes the
+spirit of Chopin: the weird, stormy opening in the principal key may
+claim kinship with the opening of the Polish composer's "Polonaise" in
+the same key; while a certain strain in the melodious second subject
+brings to one's mind a Chopin Nocturne, also in F sharp minor; in
+neither case, however, is there anything amounting to plagiarism. The
+exposition section is not repeated. The development is clever, though,
+perhaps, somewhat formal. Again here, the secondary theme occupies,
+apparently, chief attention; but it is supported by a bass evolved
+from a principal motive. And in transition passages of the exposition,
+and also in the recapitulation section and coda--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+in one or other shape, makes itself heard; so that, though outwardly
+subordinate, its function is important: it binds together various
+portions of the movement, and thus promotes union. The Andante which
+follows, consists, as in the 1st Sonata, of a theme with variations.
+There is nothing novel either in the theme or its mode of treatment.
+Certain chords, cadences, figures, suggest Schubert--an idol whom
+Brahms has never ceased to worship; and, in one place, the three
+staves, and a few passages, show the influence of Liszt, the pianist
+_par excellence_ of the days in which this sonata was written; but the
+movement has, in addition to romantic charm, individuality. It
+commences in B minor; then after a short expressive passage in major,
+an arpeggio chord leads directly to the Scherzo; the following shows
+the outward connection between the two movements--
+
+[Music illustration: Commencement of Andante theme.]
+
+[Music illustration: Scherzo.]
+
+This bright, clever Scherzo, with its soft Schubertian trio, need not
+detain us. The final Allegro is preceded by a short introduction, in
+which the chief theme and other material of the Finale are set forth.
+The connection between this and the earlier movements of the sonata is
+not evident, like the one, for instance, already noticed, between the
+Andante and the Scherzo; with research, and possibly some imagination,
+relationship might, however, be traced. We are far from asserting that
+movements of a sonata ought to be visibly connected; after all, the
+true bond of union must be a spiritual one. But if an attempt be made
+in that direction, surely the opening and closing movements are those
+which, by preference, should be selected. In his Op. 28 Beethoven
+seems to have evolved the themes of all four movements from the first;
+in Op. 106 and Op. 109, connection is clear between the first and last
+movements. Such an experiment was safe in the hands of Beethoven, and
+Brahms has never allowed it to become a mannerism; but second-rate
+composers, and superficial listeners run the danger of mistaking the
+shadow for the substance. To this matter we shall, however, soon
+return. Many references have been made to the composers who have
+influenced Brahms, yet we cannot resist naming one more. The opening
+section of this Allegro Finale reminds one more than once of the
+corresponding section in Clementi's fine Sonata in B minor. The music
+of this concluding movement is clever.
+
+The 3rd sonata (Op. 5) is in F minor. The Allegro opens with a wild,
+sinister theme, and one which even casts a shadow over the calm,
+hope-inspiring strains afterwards heard in the orthodox key of the
+relative major. The tender melodies and soft chromatic colouring which
+fill the remainder of the exposition section show strong feeling for
+contrast. Again, storm and stress alternate with comparative calm in
+the development section. The Andante expressivo bears the following
+superscription:--
+
+    Der Abend dämmert, das Mondlicht scheint
+    Da sind zwei Herzen in Liebe vereint
+    Und halten sich selig umfangen.
+
+    --_Sternau_.
+
+And it offers a delightful tone-picture. The moon "o'er heaven's clear
+azure spreading her sacred light," the calm of evening, and happy,
+though ever-sighing, lovers: 'tis a scene to tempt poet, painter, and
+musician. The last, however, seems to have greatest advantage; music
+by imitation and association can describe scenes of nature; and it can
+paint, for are not its harmonies colours? But the musician can do what
+is possible to neither poet nor painter,--he can make a direct appeal
+to the emotions in their own language. The soft, dreamy coda--which,
+with its Andante molto, its Adagio, and widened-out closing cadence,
+seems to indicate the unwillingness of the lovers to part--has
+Schubert colouring and charm. The reminiscence, at the commencement of
+this movement, of the middle movement of the "Pathétique" cannot fail
+to attract attention. Then, again, the opening of the Scherzo[107]--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+sounds familiar. It must surely have been this movement in which
+someone pointed out to the composer a reminiscence of Mendelssohn.
+"Anyone can find that out," was the rough-and-ready reply of Brahms.
+But if Mendelssohn be the prevailing influence in the Scherzo,
+Schubert has his turn in the Trio. The fourth movement is an
+Intermezzo, entitled "Rückblick" (Retrospect). The opening phrase, and
+indeed the whole of the short movement, carries us back to the picture
+of the lovers. Some change has taken place: have the lovers grown
+cold? or has death divided them? The themes are now sad, and clothed
+in minor harmonies. The Finale, perhaps, shows skill rather than
+inspiration; with regard to some of the subject-matter, it is, like
+the previous movement, also retrospective.
+
+Liszt's sonata in B minor, dedicated to Robert Schumann, was evidently
+written under the special influence of Beethoven's later
+sonatas,--perhaps more particularly the one in A flat, Op. 110. There
+is by no means unanimity of opinion among musicians with regard to
+Liszt's merit as a composer; some consider that his genius has not yet
+been properly recognised; others, that he will not for a moment bear
+comparison with any one of the great masters who preceded him, and who
+wrote for the pianoforte. Among his works which have specially given
+rise to discussion stands this B minor Sonata, which has proved a
+stumbling-block, both on account of its form and its contents. It
+would simplify matters if the one could be discussed without the
+other; this, however, is not possible.
+
+We have hitherto considered the sonata of three movements as typical,
+and from that type Liszt's work differs; yet not "so widely, as on a
+first hearing or reading may appear." Thus wrote Mr. C.A. Barry in a
+remarkably interesting analysis of the sonata which he prepared some
+years back for Mr. Oscar Beringer. He remarks further: "All the
+leading characteristics of a sonata in three movements are here fully
+maintained within the scope of a single movement, or, to speak more
+precisely, an uninterrupted succession of several changes of _tempo_,
+thus constituting a more complete organism than can be attained by
+three distinct and independent movements."
+
+The idea of passing from one movement to another without break dates
+from Emanuel Bach, nay, earlier, from Kuhnau; and Beethoven
+occasionally adopted it, and with striking effect. The wretched habit
+at concerts of applauding between the movements of a sonata
+establishes a break where--at any rate in certain sonatas of
+Beethoven--the composer certainly imagined an _uninterrupted_
+succession. The second movement of the "Appassionata" breaks off with
+an arpeggio chord of diminished seventh, and the Finale starts on the
+same chord. Yet surely after the final tonic chord of the opening
+Allegro there should be no break, but only a brief pause. A _fermata_
+in the middle of a movement does not constitute a break, neither need
+it at the end. In Beethoven's sonatas we find many movements,
+outwardly independent, yet inwardly connected; those of the D minor
+and F minor may be named by way of illustration. The composer,
+however, in one or two of his works, revived, to some extent, the plan
+adopted in the suites of early times, of evolving various movements
+from one theme. Such outward connection may help to strengthen a bond
+of union already existing, but it will not establish it. The question,
+then, of Liszt's "more complete organism" depends, after all, on the
+contents of the music. So, too, when, in addition to uninterrupted
+succession, Liszt makes the one theme of the slow introduction the
+source whence he derives the principal part of his tone-picture,
+everything depends on the quality and latent power of this fertilising
+germ. Discussion of form _per se_ is an impossibility. This Liszt
+sonata stands, however, as a bold attempt to modify a form which, as
+we have seen, Schumann thought exhausted (was it for that reason that
+Liszt dedicated the work to him?), and one in which so many soulless
+compositions were written during the second quarter of the present
+century. "La sonate," says Charles Soullier in his _Nouveau
+Dictionnaire de Musique Illustré_ "est morte avec le dix-huitième
+siècle qui en a tant produit." Is Liszt's sonata a Phoenix rising from
+its ashes? Shall we be able to say "La sonate est morte! Vive la
+sonate!" Time will tell. Hitherto Liszt's work has not borne fruit.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE SONATA IN ENGLAND
+
+
+In previous chapters we have been occupied with Italy and Germany.
+Without reference to those countries a history of the pianoforte
+sonata would be impossible. Italy was the land of its birth; Germany,
+that of its growth, and, apparently, highest development. During the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries England furnished notable
+composers for the harpsichord. William Byrd and Dr. John Bull are not
+only among the earliest, but at the time in which they flourished,
+they were the greatest who wrote for a keyboard instrument. At the
+beginning of the seventeenth century English music was indeed in a
+prosperous state; it was admired at home, and its merits were
+acknowledged abroad. H. Peacham, in his _Compleat Gentleman_,
+published in the reign of James I., says of Byrd: "For motets and
+musicke of piety, devotion, as well as for the honour of our nation,
+as the merit of the man, I preferre above all others our Phoenix, Mr
+William Byrd, whom in that kind I know not whether any may equall. I
+am sure none excell, even by the judgement of France and Italy, who
+are very sparing in their commendation of strangers, in regard of that
+conceipt they hold of themselves. His 'Cantiones Sacrae,' as also his
+'Gradualia,' are mere angelicall and divine; and being of himselfe
+naturally disposed to gravity and piety his veine is not so much for
+light madrigals or canzonets; yet his 'Virginella,' and some others in
+his first set, cannot be mended by the first Italian of them all."
+Then at the end of the seventeenth century came Purcell, a genius who
+seemed likely to raise English music still higher in the estimation of
+foreign musicians. But, alas! he departed ere his powers were matured;
+by his death English art sustained a grievous loss, and from that time
+declined. The history of instrumental music during the eighteenth
+century is dull, and, so far as the pianoforte sonata is concerned, of
+little or no importance. Nevertheless, a brief survey of that century
+will be attempted, after which reference will be made to a few sonata
+composers of the century now drawing to a close. Just as we referred
+to the sonatas for strings and harpsichord before commencing the
+history of the clavier-sonata proper, so here a few remarks will be
+made concerning the sonata before Dr. T.A. Arne--the first composer,
+so far as we can trace, who wrote a work of that kind for the
+harpsichord alone.
+
+In 1683 appeared Purcell's Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass,
+the very same year in which Corelli published _his_ "Twelve Sonatas"
+(Op. 1). In his preface, Purcell frankly admits that "he has
+faithfully endeavoured a just imitation of the most famed Italian
+masters." Sir J. Hawkins supposes that "the sonatas of Bassani,[108]
+and perhaps of some other of the Italians, were the models after which
+he formed them." In our introductory chapter we mentioned the sonatas
+("a due, trè, quattro, e cinque stromenti") by Vitali (1677); and of
+these, Mr. J.A. Fuller-Maitland, in his preface to the Purcell Society
+edition of the "Twelve Sonatas" of 1683, remarks that "it is difficult
+to resist the conclusion that these were the Englishman's models."
+Vitali undoubtedly exerted strong influence; yet Purcell himself
+describes his "Book of Sonatas" as "a just imitation of the most fam'd
+Italian Masters." These sonatas of 1683, also the ten which appeared
+after his death (among which is to be found No. 9, called the "Golden
+Sonata") in 1697, are of great importance and interest in the history
+of English music, but there is no new departure in them; this, at any
+rate in the earlier ones of 1683, is fully acknowledged by the
+composer.
+
+In 1695, John Ravenscroft, a descendant, possibly, of Thomas
+Ravenscroft, published at Rome, sonatas for "violini, e violine, o
+arciliuto, col basso per l'organo" Opera prima, but they were mere
+imitations of Corelli.[109] In 1728 a certain John Humphries published
+by subscription "Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass"; and
+Hawkins, in his _History_, excites curiosity by declaring that they
+are "of a very original cast"; he adds, however, "in respect that they
+are in a style somewhat above that of the common popular airs and
+country dance tunes, the delight of the vulgar, and greatly beneath
+what might be expected from the studies of a person not at all
+acquainted with the graces and elegancies of the Italians in their
+compositions for instruments. To this it must be attributed that the
+sonatas of Humphries were the common practice of such small
+proficients in harmony as in his time were used to recreate themselves
+with music at alehouse clubs and places of vulgar resort in the
+villages adjacent to London; of these there were formerly many, in
+which sixpence, at most, was the price of admission." We have quoted
+this passage at length, because it indirectly confirms our statement
+concerning English music of this period. If Hawkins had had anything
+better to talk about, he would not have wasted space on the music of
+alehouses and "places of vulgar resort." It may, however, be asked
+whether Hawkins' report of Humphries' music is trustworthy. Now,
+although the sonatas offer nothing of special interest, we may
+certainly venture to say that one does not hear such well-written
+melodious strains in or near alehouses of the present day. The sonatas
+consist, for the most part, of four short movements. First, a slow
+introduction, then an Allegro somewhat in the Corelli style. An
+Adagio, often very short, separates this from the final movement, an
+Allegro in binary form, a Minuet, or a Gigue. This "Humphries" musical
+landmark is the only one we have to offer our readers between Purcell
+and Dr. Arne. But before proceeding to notice the sonatas of the
+latter, let us say something, if not of English music, yet of music in
+England during the first half of the eighteenth century.
+
+Of the influence of Corelli we have already made mention. That
+influence was materially strengthened by the two celebrated
+violinist-composers, Veracini and Geminiani, who came to London in
+1714; the former only paid a short visit; the latter made England his
+home. Then a greater composer than the two just mentioned had already
+arrived in London; this was Handel, whose Rinaldo had been produced
+with wonderful success on the 24th February 1710. The genius of Handel
+triumphed over all rivals, whether English or foreign, for well-nigh
+half a century; and this fact alone explains the decline of English
+art. But there was another strong influence which specially affected
+harpsichord music: the Lessons of Domenico Scarlatti had made their
+way throughout Europe. Thomas Roseingrave, who went to Italy in 1710,
+became acquainted with the composer, and on his return pleaded the
+cause of the Italian with an enthusiasm similar to that displayed a
+century later by Samuel Wesley for Scarlatti's great contemporary,
+J.S. Bach. Roseingrave edited "Forty-two Suites of Lessons for the
+Harpsichord" by Scarlatti. Still another Italian influence may be
+mentioned. "On the day," says Burney in his _History of Music_, "when
+Handel's Coronation Anthem was rehearsed at Westminster Abbey (1727)
+San Martini's[110] twelve sonatas were advertised." But Handel and
+Scarlatti make up the history of harpsichord music in England during
+the first half of the eighteenth century. Burney expressly states that
+"the Lessons of the one and the Suites of the other were the only good
+music for keyed instruments."
+
+Thomas Augustine Arne (1710-78) is principally known as a writer of
+operas and incidental music to plays, but he also wrote organ
+concertos, and sonatas for the harpsichord. The latter, entitled
+"VIII. Sonatas or Lessons for the Harpsichord," probably appeared
+somewhere about 1750. With this double title it is, of course,
+impossible to regard them as serious sonatas. No. 8, for instance,
+consists merely of a Minuet with variations! No. 1 opens with an
+Andante in binary form, while two bars of Adagio lead to another
+Allegro of similar structure. No. 2 is of a similar kind. The binary
+form is of the later type, _i.e._ there is a return to the principal
+theme in the second section. No. 3 opens with a Prelude, and a note
+states that "in this and other Preludes, which are meant as extempore
+touches before the Lesson begins, neither the composer nor performer
+are oblig'd to a Strictness of Tune." The pleasing Allegro which
+follows shows the influence of Scarlatti-Handel. The sonata concludes
+with an attractive Minuet and variations. No. 5, with its graceful
+Gavotta, and No. 7 might be performed occasionally. Arne's sonatas, if
+not great, contain some neat, melodious writing.
+
+The second half of the century still offers poor results so far as
+national music is concerned. We have spoken of Handel and Scarlatti;
+but, after them, music in England again fell under foreign rule. In
+the very year of Handel's death, John Christian Bach arrived in
+London, which he made his home until his death in 1782. During that
+period the sonatas of Mozart and Haydn became known; and the two
+visits of the latter to England in 1791-92 and 1794-95 gave greater
+lustre to his name, and rendered his style still more popular. And all
+this foreign influence (strong inasmuch as Haydn and Mozart belonged
+to a school with which J.C. Bach was in sympathy) is reflected in the
+English music of the period. John Burton published, in 1766, "Ten
+Sonatas for the Harpsichord," which are of interest. Some of the
+writing recalls Scarlatti, but there are also many touches of harmony
+and melody which tell of later times. The introduction of the Alberti
+bass is one clear sign of a post-Scarlatti period. Burton paid a visit
+to Germany in 1752, and was, we presume, acquainted with Emanuel
+Bach's compositions. We may also name six sonatas by I. Worgan, M.B.,
+published in 1769. At the head of No. 5, the composer remarks: "Lest
+the consecutive fifths at the beginning of the theme of this movement
+should escape the critic, the author here apprizes him of them." They
+are as follows:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The critic of those days must have been very dull if he required such
+assistance, and his ear very sensitive if offended by such
+consecutives as these. Lastly, we may give the name of a lady, Miss
+Barthélémon,[111] whose interesting Sonata in G (Op. 3) was dedicated
+to Haydn.
+
+In the early part of the nineteenth century, John Field, whose
+nocturnes are still played and admired, wrote three sonatas (Op. 1),
+and dedicated them to Muzio Clementi, his teacher. No. 1 is in E flat;
+No. 2, in A; and No. 3, in C minor. They all consist of only two
+movements (No. 1, Allegro and Rondo; No. 2, Allegro and Allegro
+Vivace; No. 3, Allegro and Allegretto). In the first two sonatas the
+two movements are in the same key; in the last, the first movement is
+in C minor, the second, in C major. The Rondo of No. 1 contains
+foreshadowings of Chopin. Field's music, generally, is old-fashioned,
+and not worth revival; none, indeed, of his sonatas have ever been
+played at the Monday Popular Concerts.
+
+Samuel Wesley[112] wrote three sonatas (Op. 3), likewise eight,
+dedicated to the Hon. Daynes Barrington, yet we fear that not one of
+them would prove acceptable at the present day. One looks in vain for
+the name of Wesley in the Popular Concert Catalogue. Cipriani Potter
+(1792-1871) deserves a word of mention. Beethoven, writing to Ries, in
+London, in 1818, says: "Potter has visited me several times; he seems
+to be a good man, and has talent for composition." His Sonata in C
+(Op. 1, dedicated to Mrs. Brymer Belcher) consists of three movements:
+an Allegro non troppo with a Haydnish theme--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+an attractive Adagio, and a dainty and pleasing Rondo pastorale. The
+influence of Beethoven and Clementi is great; the individuality of
+Potter, small. But the sonata is thoroughly well written, and--at any
+rate as an educational piece--the Rondo deserves reprinting.
+
+Sir G.A. Macfarren composed three sonatas for the pianoforte. No. 3,
+in G minor, dedicated to Miss Agnes Zimmermann, is a work which
+presents several features of interest. In the first long movement (an
+Allegro moderato) there is no repeat. The exposition section really
+contains three subjects: an opening one in the principal key, a second
+in D flat, and a third in the orthodox key of the relative major. The
+development section, in which there is some solid counterpoint, is
+decidedly clever; much use is made in it of the second subject
+mentioned above. The Andante is a movement of simple structure. A
+brisk Scherzo, in the making of which Weber and Schumann seem to have
+lent a helping hand, leads to a long Finale,--the last, but by no
+means the most successful of the four movements. We have just spoken
+of influences; Weber may be said to have presided at the birth of the
+opening Allegro, and Mendelssohn at that of the Finale. The appearance
+in the Finale of the D flat theme from the Allegro deserves note. This
+sonata may not be an inspired work, yet it has many excellent
+qualities.
+
+Of Sir Sterndale Bennett's two sonatas, the 1st, in F minor (Op. 13,
+dedicated to Mendelssohn), commences with a long movement (Moderato
+expressivo), in which there are traces of the master to whom it is
+dedicated; it is followed by a clever Scherzo and Trio, a melodious
+Serenata, and a weak Presto agitato. The first, second, and last
+movements are in F minor, the third in F major. Schumann, in a brief
+notice of the work, describes it as excellent. The sonata (Op. 46)
+entitled "The Maid of Orleans" commences with an Andante pastorale in
+A flat, above which are written the following lines from Act iv. Scene
+1 of Schiller's play, _Die Jungfrau von Orleans_:--
+
+    "Schuldlos trieb ich meine Lämmer
+    Auf des stillen Berges Höh."
+
+    "In innocence I led my sheep
+    Adown the mountain's silent steep."
+
+The movement is graceful and pleasing. Then follows an Allegro
+marziale:--
+
+    "Den Feldruf hör ich mächtig zu mir dringen
+    Das Schlactross steigt, und die Trompeten klingen."
+
+    Prologue: Scene 4.
+
+    "The clanging trumpets sound, the chargers rear,
+    And the loud war cry thunders in mine ear."
+
+Then an "In Prison" section with suitable superscription--
+
+    "Höre mich, Gott, in meiner höchsten Noth," etc.
+
+    Act v. Scene 2.
+
+    "Hear me, O God, in mine extremity."
+
+Lastly, a Finale--
+
+    "Kurz ist das Schmerz, und ewig ist die Freude."
+
+    Act v. Scene 14.
+
+    "Brief is the sorrow, endless is the joy."
+
+The title and the various superscriptions naturally cause the sonata
+to be ranked as programme-music, but of a very simple kind. It is easy
+to suggest pastoral scenes: a few pedal notes, a certain simplicity of
+melody, and a few realistic touches expressive of the waving of
+branches of trees, or the meandering of a brook, and the thing is
+accomplished.
+
+Dr. C.H. Parry is an English composer whose name has of late been much
+before the public. He has written works both secular and sacred for
+our important provincial festivals; also chamber music, songs, etc.;
+and all his music shows mastery of form, skill in the art of
+development, and eclectic taste. For the present, we are, however,
+concerned merely with his sonatas. Like Brahms, he at first composed
+pianoforte sonatas: No. 1, in F; No. 2, in A minor and major. Brahms
+made a third attempt, but the two just mentioned are all that are
+known to us of Dr. Parry's. No. 1 opens with a non troppo Allegro, a
+smooth movement of somewhat pastoral character; the music, also the
+writing for the instrument, remind one occasionally of Stephen Heller.
+A bright, though formal Scherzo, with a well-contrasted Trio in the
+key of the submediant, is followed by a melodious Andante and a
+graceful, showy Allegretto.
+
+No. 2 has an introductory movement marked _maestoso_; it is divided
+into three sections. The first opens with a phrase of dramatic
+character; the second, in the remote key of G sharp minor, contains
+two short, expressive, Schumannish themes treated in imitation; the
+third has passages leading back to the opening key and phrase. The
+Allegro grazioso which follows is a compact little movement; in form
+it is orthodox, yet there is no repeat to the exposition section. The
+influence of Heller is still felt, but also that of Schumann. Grace
+rather than power distinguishes the Adagio con sentimento, in the key
+of C sharp minor. The Scherzo is clever and effective, and the
+Allegretto cantabile, though the last, is scarcely the best of the
+four movements.
+
+A manuscript Sonata in D flat (Op. 20) by Dr. C.V. Stanford, another
+prominent composer of our day, was produced at the Popular Concerts
+(4th February 1884). It consists of an Adagio leading to an Allegro
+moderato. Then follows an Intermezzo in the key of the relative minor.
+An Adagio (F major) leads to the Allegro Finale in D flat major. It is
+thus noticed in the _Musical Times_ of March 1884:--"Some listeners
+have professed to perceive in the work a deliberate intention to
+violate the established laws of form, but we confess that to us no
+such design is apparent. In matters of detail, Mr. Stanford shows
+himself an independent thinker, but in all essentials his newest work
+is as classical in outline as could possibly be desired. The opening
+Adagio is exceedingly impressive, and the succeeding Allegro moderato
+is worked out with splendid mastery of the subject-matter, the general
+effect being that of a lofty design carried into execution by a
+thoroughly experienced hand. The succeeding Allegro grazioso, a
+modified kind of Scherzo, is vigorous, and the final Allegro commodo,
+with its excellent first subject, seems scarcely less important than
+the first movement."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC.
+
+
+Some mention, however brief, must be made of various sonatas written
+by other contemporaries of the four composers discussed in the last
+chapter. After Beethoven, the only work which, from an evolution point
+of view, really claims notice is one by Liszt. All other sonatas are
+written on classical lines with more or less of modern colouring. Even
+M. Vincent d'Indy, one of the advanced French school of composers, has
+written a "Petite Sonate dans la forme classique."
+
+Moscheles, in Germany, and Kalkbrenner, in France: these were once
+names of note. Their music is often clever and brilliant, but, to
+modern tastes, dry and old-fashioned; much of it, too, is superficial.
+
+Among still more modern works may be named those of Stephen Heller,
+Raff, Rubinstein, Bargiel, and Grieg. The sonatas of Heller are
+failures, so far as the name sonata means anything. He was not a
+composer _de longue haleine_, and his opening and closing movements
+are dull and tedious; some of the middle movements--as, for example,
+the two middle ones of the Sonata in C major--are, however, charming.
+Bargiel's Sonata in C major (Op. 34) is written somewhat in "Heller"
+style, but it is stronger, and, consequently, more interesting than
+any of that composer's.
+
+Raff and Rubinstein both wrote pianoforte sonatas, but these do not
+form prominent features in their art-work.
+
+Grieg's one Sonata in E minor (Op. 7) is a charming, clever
+composition; yet as it was with Chopin, so is it with this composer:
+his smallest works are his greatest.
+
+Of duet sonatas there is little more to do than to mention the
+principal ones. In the evolution of the sonata they are of little or
+no moment. Some, however, are highly attractive. It would be
+interesting to know who wrote the first sonata for four hands, but the
+point is not an easy one to settle. Jahn, speaking of Mozart's duets,
+remarks that "pianoforte music for two performers was then far from
+having attained the popularity which it now possesses, especially
+among amateurs." We imagine that the
+
+Sonate
+à Quatre mains sur un Clavecin
+Composé
+par
+J.C. Bach
+----
+à Amsterdam
+chez J. Schnitt Marchand de Musique
+dans le Warmoes-straat
+
+was one of, if not the earliest. The part for the second clavier is
+printed under that of the first. The sonata consists of only two
+movements: an Allegro and a Rondo. The general style and treatment of
+the two instruments reminds one of Mozart, but the music is crude in
+comparison. Here is the commencement of the theme of the first
+movement--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+The duet sonatas of Mozart are full of charm and skill, and will ever
+be pleasing to young and old. Dussek has written some delightful
+works, and Hummel's Op. 92, in A flat, is certainly one of the best
+pieces of music he ever wrote. Schubert's two sonatas (B flat, Op. 30;
+C, Op. 140) are very different in character: the one is smooth and
+agreeable; the other contains some of the noblest music ever penned by
+the composer.
+
+Sonatinas are almost always written for educational purposes. No
+description, no analysis of such works, is necessary; only a list of
+the best. The "Twelve Sonatinas for the Harpsichord or Pianoforte, for
+the use of Scholars" (Op. 12), by James Hook (1746-1827), father of
+the well-known humorist, Theodore Hook, deserve honourable mention.
+Each number contains only two short movements; they are well written,
+and, though old, not dry. Joseph Bottomley, another English composer
+(1786-?), also wrote twelve sonatinas for the pianoforte.
+
+Those of Clementi and Dussek seem destined to perennial life. The
+former composed twelve (Op. 36, 37, and 38), the latter six (Op. 20);
+and then, of course, of higher musical interest are the sonatinas of
+Beethoven (two) and Hermann Goetz (two). From an educational point of
+view, however, these are perhaps not of equal value with many others
+of inferior quality; but they are full of character and charm. Kuhlau
+(1786-1832), on whose name Beethoven wrote the well-known Canon, "Kuhl
+nicht lau," composed sonatas which, owing to their fresh, melodious
+character and skilful writing, justly take high rank. Op. 20, 55, 59,
+60, and 88 have all been edited by Dr. H. Riemann. Among still more
+modern composers may be mentioned: Reinecke, whose three sonatinas
+(Op. 47), six sonatinas with "the right-hand part within the compass
+of five fingers" (Op. 127A), and (Op. 136) the "Six Miniature Sonatas"
+(another term for sonatinas) have given satisfaction to teachers, and
+enjoyment to many young pupils; also Cornelius Gurlitt, who has proved
+a prolific worker in this department of musical literature. His six
+sonatinas (Op. 121) and the duet sonatas (Op. 124,--really sonatinas)
+are exceedingly useful, and justly popular. Besides these, he has
+issued two series of progressive sonatinas: some by Diabelli, Pleyel,
+Steibelt, etc.; some from his own pen. Koehler's three sonatinas
+(without octaves), A. Loeschhorn's instructive sonatinas, E. Pauer's
+National Sonatinas (Ireland, Wales, Italy, etc.), and Xaver
+Scharwenka's two sonatinas are likewise of value.
+
+Among various strange works written under the title of sonata we may
+count certain programme pieces. Thus, John Christian Bach, or "Mr.
+Bach," as he is named on the title-page, published a sonata "qui
+represente La Bataille de Rosbach," and an _N.B._ adds: "Dans cette
+Sonate La Musique vous montre le Comencement d'une Bataille le feu des
+Cannons et Mousqueterie L'Ataque de la Cavalerie et les L'Amendations
+des Blessées." This work consists of one movement (Allegro) in
+sonata-form. Except for the title, and the words "Canonade" and "Feu
+des Mousqueteries," it would be difficult to guess the subject. The
+music, which may be described as a study in the Alberti bass, is
+decidedly more correct in form than the French of the title-page.
+Then, again, Dussek composed a "Characteristic Sonata" describing "The
+Naval Battle and Total Defeat of the Grand Dutch Fleet by Admiral
+Duncan on the 11th of October 1797." But he was engaged in a much more
+suitable task when he wrote music _expressing the feelings_ of the
+unfortunate Marie Antoinette.
+
+There are three sonatas composed by A. Quintin Buée.[113] No. 3 is
+"for two performers on one instrument." In the last movement, the
+first performer is "Le Français," and he rattles along with the
+popular tune "Ça ira," while the second, "The Englishman," steadily
+plays his national air, "Rule Britannia"; towards the close, _fors
+fuat_, "God save the King" and "Ça ira" are combined.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ALBERTI, 109, 112.
+
+Alberti Bass, 26, 30, 33 (note), 109, 110, 239.
+
+Albrici V. 39,
+  influence on Kuhnau, 42.
+
+Ambros A.W. Pasquini, 73.
+
+Arbeau T. Orchésographie, 15 and 16.
+
+Arne T.A. 222, 225; _Sonatas_: 226, 227.
+
+
+BACH C.P.E. 9, 12, 29 and (note), 31, 32, 87, 219, 228;
+  _Sonatas_: "Frederick," 25, 85-91,
+    Würtemberg, 85, 92, 93, 115,
+    "Reprisen," 85, 94-100,
+    Töplitz, 93 and 94,
+    "Leichte," 100, 161 (note),
+    three-movement, 175,
+    Leipzig Collections, 85, 101-7;
+  Beethoven, 86, 105, 106,
+    Dr. Bülow, 96-8,
+    Fasch, 40,
+    Haydn, 93, 114, 115, 125,
+    Kuhnau, 22, 24,
+    Marpurg's _Clavierstücke_, 91 and 92,
+    Neefe, 161-3.
+
+Bach J.C. 28 (note), 35, 227, 239;
+  _Sonatas_: 107, 108, 236.
+
+Bach J.C.F. 29, 35, 106.
+
+Bach J.E. 26, 29.
+
+Bach, J.S. 9, 14 (note), 229 (note);
+  Organ Concerto, 76,
+    sonata attributed to, 89 (note),
+    Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues, 160 and 161,
+    and fugue-form, 91;
+  Beethoven, 182-5,
+    Kuhnau, 20, 21, 48, 87,
+    Rust, 152.
+
+Bach W.F. 29;
+  _Sonatas_: 26, 108.
+
+Banchieri, 10;
+  _L'Organo suonarino_ (with sonata) 3-5.
+
+Banister H.C. Life of Macfarren, 140.
+
+Bargiel, 235;
+  _Sonata_: 236.
+
+Barry C.A. 218.
+
+Barthélémon Miss, 229 and (note).
+
+Bassani G. 7, 223 and (note).
+
+Becker D. 10;
+  _Sonatas_: 43.
+
+Becker C.F. Hausmusik in Deutschlande, 49-50.
+
+Beethoven L. v. 29, 31 and (note), 32, 33, 35, 45, 125, 194, 219;
+  Reminiscences, 133-140, 167, 168,
+    patrons and friends, 168-171,
+    programme-music, 21,
+    opus numbers, 112, 113,
+    connection and number of movements, 106 and 107, 171,
+    poetic basis, 178, 185-191,
+    exposition section, 36,
+    approach to recapitulation, 37,
+    key of second subject, 177,
+    the "repeat," 178, 179,
+    Codas and Introductions, 179-181,
+    central thought, 182,
+    disorganisation, 191;
+  _Sonatas_: (Op. 111), 57, 116, 174-6;
+    table, 164-5;
+    two-, 174-6,
+    three-, 172-3,
+    four-movement, 173-4,
+    sonatinas, 238;
+  Symphony in C, 102, 103,
+    "Eroica," 135,
+    sketches, 171-2,
+    theme of Op. 106, 210, 211;
+  Bach C.P.E. 86, 87,
+    Bach J.S. 160, 182-5,
+    Brahms, 210, 211,
+    Haydn, 166, 167,
+    Kuhlau, 238,
+    Kuhnau, 57,
+    Neefe, 161-3,
+    Potter, 230,
+    Scarlatti, 17,
+    Schindler, 186-8, 190,
+    Weber, 192, 195-198.
+
+Benda G. 28, 83 and (note);
+  _Clavierstücke_, 84;
+  _Sonatas_: 27.
+
+Bennett S. _Sonatas_: 231-32.
+
+Beringer O. 218.
+
+Birchall R. 18, 145 (note).
+
+Bitter C.H. 85, 92, 94 (note);
+  E. Bach, 97 and 98.
+
+Böhm G. _Chorale_, 54, 131.
+
+Bononcini B. 6.
+
+Bononcini G.M. 6.
+
+Borwick L. 205.
+
+Bottomley J. sonatinas, 238.
+
+Brahms J. 120;
+  _Sonatas_: 209-18.
+  Chopin, 214,
+    Clementi, 216,
+    Liszt, 210, 214,
+    Mendelssohn, 217,
+    Schubert, 214.
+
+Bossard, 42 (note).
+
+Buée A.Q. _Sonatas_: 239, 240 and (note).
+
+Bull Dr. 221.
+
+Bülow Dr. H. v. and E. Bach's sonatas, 96-8, 160.
+
+Burney Dr. 4,
+  Musical Extracts, 6.
+
+Burton J. _Sonatas_: 228.
+
+Buxtehude, 131;
+  Suites, 51 and 52.
+
+Byrd W. 221, 222.
+
+
+CARLYLE, his "Frederick the Great," 83 (note).
+
+Chopin F. 229;
+  _Sonatas_: 209.
+
+Clementi, M. 33, 45, 119 (note), 130;
+  _Sonatas_: 131, 132-42,
+    sonatinas, 238;
+  Beethoven, 131, 133, 134,
+    Field, 229,
+    Macfarren, 140,
+    Mozart, 132, 133,
+    Potter, 230,
+    Scarlatti, 135.
+
+Corelli A. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 42, 45, 46, 74, 77
+  (note), 79, 87, 224.
+
+Cramer J.B. 108, 146, 192, 193 and (note).
+
+
+DANNREUTHER E. 133.
+
+Davidson J.W. 149.
+
+Dussek J.L. 33, 197, 237, 239;
+  Letters to publishers, 142-5;
+  _Sonatas_: 146-7, 148,'
+    _Le Retour à Paris_, 149,
+    _Plus Ultra_, 150,
+    sonatinas, 238.
+  Macfarren, 151-2,
+    Mendelssohn, 147,
+    Tomaschek, 145-6,
+    Woelfl, 149.
+
+
+FAISST J. 50,
+  Analysis of a Mattheson Sonata, 22-3.
+
+Farina C. 6.
+
+Fasch J.F. 40.
+
+Fasch C.F.C. and E. Bach, 40, 41.
+
+Ferdinand, Prince Louis, death of 144, 145 (note).
+
+Fétis F.J. 27, 38, 240 (note),
+  extract from _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, 72-3.
+
+Field J. _Sonatas_: 229.
+
+Forkel, Letter from E. Bach to, 93-4, 96, 97.
+
+Frederick the Great, 22, 40, 41, 82, 83 (note), 85, 88.
+
+Frescobaldi, 71 (note).
+
+Froberger J.J. 20, 42, 46, 51, 52.
+
+Fuller-Maitland J.A. 51 (note), 223.
+
+
+GABRIELI A. 10.
+
+Gabrieli G. 2, 10.
+
+Gaffi B. pupil of Pasquini, 71.
+
+Galuppi, 27, 29, 30 and (note) 31.
+
+Gasparini, pupil of Pasquini, 77 (note).
+
+Geminiani, 11, 225.
+
+Gluck, 28 (note).
+
+Goethe, 191.
+
+Goetz H. 238.
+
+Graun C.H. 83.
+
+Graun J.G. 82.
+
+Graupner Chr. 39 ff.
+
+Grétry, 27.
+
+Grieco G. 80.
+
+Grieg E. 235-6.
+
+Grove Sir G. 20, 27 (note), 73, 111, 133, 145.
+
+Gurlitt C. 238.
+
+
+HANDEL G.F. 13, 14, 19, 26, 40, 57;
+  Kuhnau 48-9.
+
+Hasler H.L. 10.
+
+Hasse J.A. 28, 29, 84 (note);
+  _Sonatas_: 27, 32.
+
+Hawkins Sir J. 223 ff.
+
+Haydn J. 1, 37, 45, 87, 99, 164, 182, 228;
+  New era, 30,
+    anecdote, 117,
+    programme-music, 185,
+    European magazine, 114, 115,
+    father of symphony, 111,
+    "In Native Worth," 167,
+    number and connection of movements, 33 and (note), 106,
+    introductory slow movement, 138,
+    three-movement form, 174,
+    approach to dominant section, 34,
+    second subject, 35,
+    codas, 179, 189;
+  _Sonatas_: 113, 115-20;
+  Bach C.P.E. 93,
+    Beethoven, 166, 167,
+    Metastasio, 111,
+    Porpora, 112.
+
+Heller S. 233, 235-6.
+
+Hering A. 38.
+
+Hook J. sonatinas, 237.
+
+Hook T. 237.
+
+Hummel J.N. 192, 194 (Op. 92), 237.
+
+Humphries J. 224.
+
+
+IKEN Dr. C. Beethoven, 188-9.
+
+Indy, Vincent d', 235.
+
+
+JAHN Otto, 120, 129, 132, 236.
+
+
+KALKBRENNER F.W.M. 134, 192, 235.
+
+Keiser, 48.
+
+Kittel C. 38 and (notes).
+
+Krieger J.P. 14 and (note).
+
+Krügner S. 38 and (note).
+
+Kühnel, 39.
+
+Kuhnau A. 38 and (note).
+
+Kuhnau J. 10, 22, 38, 219;
+  Writings and pupils, 39-41,
+    German and Italian influences, 42,
+    Bible Stories, 65-70,
+    Seven Partitas, 41,
+    Preface to Bible Sonatas, 52-4;
+  _Sonatas_: (B flat), 43-4,
+    _Frische Clavier Früchte_, 44-50,
+    "Bible," 19-21, 45, 46 (note), 48-9, 51, 54-65.
+
+
+LEGRENZI G. 10;
+  _Sonatas_: 6.
+
+Le Trésor des Pianistes, 45 (note), 80, 94 (note).
+
+Liszt F. 235;
+  Beethoven, 176
+  _Sonata_: 210 and 218-20.
+
+Locatelli 11, 12;
+  _Sonatas_: 9.
+
+Loeschhorn A. sonatinas, 239.
+
+Lotti, teacher of Galuppi, 29, 77 (note).
+
+
+MACFARREN SIR G.A. 140;
+  _Sonatas_: 230 and 231;
+    Dussek, 151 and 152.
+
+Marpurg, 2, 3.
+
+Martini San, 112, 226.
+
+Mattheson, 7, 20, 23, 38 (note), 39 (note), 40 and (note), 42;
+  Pasquini 74;
+  _Sonata_: 22-3.
+
+Matthisson, the poet, 157.
+
+Mendel, 27, 72.
+
+Mendelssohn F. 151 (note), 231;
+  Dussek, 147.
+
+Morley, 7.
+
+Moscheles I. 235.
+
+Mozart L. 34;
+  _Sonatas_: 27.
+
+Mozart W.A. 33, 34, 35, 37, 45, 87, 99, 169;
+  Italian influence, 126-127,
+    Op. 1, 33 (note),
+    Requiem, 57,
+    duets, 236 and 237;
+  _Sonatas_: 120-5;
+  Beethoven, 160-1,
+    Clementi, 132,
+    Haydn, 127-9,
+    Kuhnau, 49.
+
+Müthel J.G. 27, 28 (note), 33, 90 (note).
+
+
+NEEFE C.G. _Sonatas_: 161-3.
+
+Nichelmann C. 27, 28, 106.
+
+
+PALESTRINA, 71, 73.
+
+Paradies P.D. 27, 28, 108-110.
+
+Parry Dr. C.H. 13, 20, 108;
+  _Sonatas_: 232 and 233.
+
+Pasquini B. (_see frontispiece by S. Hutton_), 14 (note), 74;
+  His monument, 71-2;
+  Operas and oratorio, 72,
+    Toccatas and Suites, 72, 74-5,
+    music in Berlin Library, 73,
+    in British Museum, 75;
+  _Sonatas_: 76-80;
+  Fétis, 72-3,
+    Handel, 77 (note),
+    Kuhnau, 81.
+
+Pasquini E. 71 (note).
+
+Pauer E. 43, 80, 189 (note);
+  sonatinas, 239.
+
+Pescetti G.B. _Sonatas_: 25-6.
+
+Pleyel, 239.
+
+Poglietti, 74 and (note).
+
+Potter C. _Sonata_: 130.
+
+Prieger Dr. E. 153, 159, 193 (note).
+
+Prout Prof. E. 147.
+
+Purcell H. 2;
+  _Sonatas_: 222-4.
+
+
+RAFF J. 235, 236.
+
+Ravenscroft J. 224.
+
+Ravenscroft R. 224.
+
+Reinecke C. 238.
+
+Riemann Dr. H. 27 (note), 185, 238.
+
+Rimbault Dr. 43.
+
+Rochlitz F. 141.
+
+Rockstro, 77 (note).
+
+Rubinstein A. 235, 236.
+
+Rudolph, Archduke, 165, 170, 201.
+
+Rust Dr. W. 153 and (note).
+
+Rust F.W. 152 ff.
+
+Rust J.L.A. 152.
+
+
+SANDONI P.G. _Sonatas_: 23-4.
+
+Scarlatti A. 77 (note), 80.
+
+Scarlatti D. 36, 73-4, 77 (note), 80, 89, 226;
+  _Sonatas_: 15, 16-19;
+  Bach C.P.E. 92 and 93,
+    Paradies, 109.
+
+Schaffrath C. 27 and (note), 31.
+
+Scharwenka X. 239.
+
+Scheibe J.A. _Critischer Musikus_, 48.
+
+Schindler A. 140 (note), 141, 142, 172, 173, 189;
+  Conversations with Beethoven, 186-8, 190.
+
+Schop J. 10, 11.
+
+Schubert F. 120, 195;
+  _Sonatas_: 198-206, 237.
+
+Schumann R. 152, 200, 202, 206;
+  Fantasia, 209;
+  _Sonatas_: 208-9;
+  Beethoven, 207.
+
+Sherard J. 223 (note).
+
+Shakespeare, 190, 191.
+
+Schoelcher V. Life of Handel, 19 (note), 77 (note).
+
+Spenser H. 191.
+
+Spitta Dr. P. 20, 21, 54, 57, 195.
+
+Squire W.B. 51 (note).
+
+Stanford Dr. C.V. _Sonata_: 233-4.
+
+Steffani A. 77 (note);
+  _Sonatas_: 14.
+
+Steibelt D. 192, 193 (note);
+  sonatinas, 239;
+  Beethoven, 194.
+
+
+TARTINI G. 9, 11 (note);
+  _Sonatas_: 12.
+
+Telemann G.P. 48;
+  _Sonatas_: 24-5,
+     sonatinas, 89 (note).
+
+Tomaschek, account of Dussek's playing, 145-6.
+
+Turini F. 5-6;
+  _Sonatas_, 4.
+
+
+UMSTATT J. 27 and (note), 32.
+
+
+VERACINI, 11 and (note), 12, 225.
+
+Vitali G.B. 7, 223.
+
+Vogler, Abbé, 195, 196.
+
+
+WAGENSEIL G. 31 and (note), 174;
+  _Sonatas_: 27.
+
+Weber C.M. v. 192;
+  _Sonatas_: 194-8.
+
+Weber M.M. v. 194.
+
+Weitzmann C.F. _Geschichte des Clavierspiels_, 74,
+  Pasquini, 75.
+
+Wesley S. 226;
+  _Sonatas_: 229-30.
+
+Woelfl J. 174, 192;
+  _Ne Plus Ultra_ Sonata: 149-50, 193 (note);
+  Beethoven, 194.
+
+Worgan I. _Sonatas_: 228.
+
+
+ZACH, 31, 32.
+
+Zimmermann Miss A. 230.
+
+
+MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _Musikalisches Lexicon oder musikalische Bibliothek._
+
+[2] Among the four-movement sonatas of Op. 1, No. 6 (in B minor) has
+the peculiar order: Grave, Largo, Adagio, Allegro.
+
+[3] The Preludio Adagio only consists of four chords, or two bars; the
+Adagio, again, only consists of four bars. The sonata, therefore, may
+be considered as of three movements.
+
+[4] 1680-1762.
+
+[5] 1693-1764.
+
+[6] 1685-1750 (Veracini is regarded as of the Corelli school, yet it
+should not be forgotten that his uncle, Antonio Veracini, is said to
+have published "Sonate a tre, due violini e violone, o arciliuto col
+basso continuo per l'organo" at Florence, already in 1662).
+
+[7] 1692-1770.
+
+[8] It is important to distinguish between _sonata_ and _sonata-form_.
+The first movement of a modern sonata is usually in sonata-form; but
+there are sonatas (Beethoven, Op. 26, etc.) which contain no such
+movement. Sonata-form, as will be shown later on, has been evolved
+from old binary form. By _sonata_ is understood merely a group of
+movements; hence objection may certainly be taken to the term as
+applied to the one-movement pieces of Dom. Scarlatti, which are not
+even in sonata-form.
+
+[9] It must be remembered that Corelli spent some time in Germany
+between 1680 and 1683, the latter being the year of publication of his
+first sonatas at Rome.
+
+[10] In J.S. Bach's 2nd Sonata for Flauto traverso and Cembalo (third
+movement) there is a return to the opening theme in the second
+section; also in the Presto of the sonata for two violins and figured
+bass we have an example very similar to the "Hoboy" sonata of Handel.
+
+[11] Krieger, by the way, studied under Bernardo Pasquini at Rome.
+
+[12] Cf. Corelli: Corrente in 10th Sonata of Op. 2; also Allemande and
+Giga of the next sonata.
+
+[13] Cf. Scarlatti: No. 10 of the sixty sonatas published by Breitkopf
+& Härtel.
+
+[14] When there is clearly a second subject, that of course offers the
+point of return. (See Nos. 24 and 39.)
+
+[15] See V. Schoelcher's _Life of Handel_, p. 23.
+
+[16] See, however, chapter on the predecessors of Beethoven.
+
+[17] See ch. iii. on Pasquini.
+
+[18] "Seit einigen Jahren hat man angefangen, Sonaten für's Clavier
+(da sie sonst nur für Violinen u. dgl. gehören) mit gutem Beifall zu
+setzen; bisher haben sie noch die rechte Gestalt nicht, und wollen
+mehr gerührt werden, als rühren, das ist, sie zielen mehr auf die
+Bewegung der Finger als der Herzen."
+
+[19] The public did not support the undertaking, and the other five
+never appeared.
+
+[20] The copy in the British Museum has no violin part, which was
+probably unimportant.
+
+[21] Emanuel Bach's predecessor as clavecinist at the Prussian Court.
+
+[22] This name is not in Mendel, Riemann, Grove, nor Brown. Fétis,
+however, mentions him as Joseph Umstadt, _maître de chapelle_ of Count
+Brühl, at Dresden, about the middle of the eighteenth century, and as
+composer of _Parthien_, and of six sonatas for the clavecin.
+
+[23] See, however, the early Würtemberg sonatas.
+
+[24] Examples to be found in Rolle, Müthel, and Joh. Chr. Bach, etc.
+
+[25] Gluck's six sonatas for two violins and a thorough bass,
+published by J. Simpson, London (probably about the time when Gluck
+was in London, since he is named on title-page "Composer to the
+Opera"), have three movements: slow, fast, fast,--the last generally a
+Minuet.
+
+[26] E. Bach did some strange things. One of his sonatas (Coll. of
+1783, No. 1) has the first movement in G major, the second in G minor,
+and the third in E major.
+
+[27] Galuppi, No. 4, first set: Adagio, Spiritoso, Giga Allegro.
+
+[28] Sometimes the last movement was a Tempo di Menuetto, a Polonaise,
+or even a Fugue.
+
+[29] Wagenseil's Op. 1, Sonatas with violin accompaniment. No. 4, in
+C, has Allegro, Minuetto, Andante, and Allegro assai.
+
+[30] As this experiment of Seyfert and Goldberg, in connection with
+Beethoven, is of special interest, we may add that Goldberg has all
+the movements in the same key, but Seyfert has both the Trio of the
+Minuet, and the Andante in the under-dominant. This occurs in two of
+his sonatas; in both, the opening key is major.
+
+[31] There is, however, one curious exception. The first of the two
+"Sonates pour le clavecin, qui peuvent se jouer avec l'Accompagnement
+de Violon, dédiées à Madame Victoire de France, par J.G. Wolfgang
+Mozart de Salzbourg, agé de sept ans," published at Paris as Op. 1,
+has _four_ movements: an Allegro in C (with, by the way, an Alberti
+bass from beginning to end, except at the minor chord with organ point
+near the close of each section, the place for the extemporised
+cadenza), an Andante in F (Alberti bass from beginning to end), a
+first and second Menuet, and an Allegro molto, of course, in C. The
+brief dedication to Op. 1 is signed:--"Votre très humble, très
+obéissant et très petit Serviteur, J.G. Wolfgang Mozart."
+
+[32] There is one exception: a sonata in G major, one of his earliest.
+See chapter on Haydn and Mozart.
+
+[33] Scheibe; a return for the moment to a practice which was once of
+usual occurrence.
+
+[34] Mention has been made in this chapter of a first section in a
+minor piece of Scarlatti's ending in the _major_ key of the dominant.
+
+[35] In the Sonatas of 1781, for instance, the first movement of No.
+2, in F, has a definite second subject, but that is scarcely the case
+with the first movement of No. 3, in F minor.
+
+[36] This is the date given by Mattheson. In some dictionaries we find
+1667; this, however, seems to be an error, for that would only make
+Kuhnau fifteen years of age when he became candidate for the post of
+organist of St. Thomas'. Fétis, who gives the later date (1667),
+states that in 1684 Kuhnau became organist of St. Thomas', but adds:
+"Quoiqu'il ne fût agé que de dix-sept ans."
+
+[37] This Kittel must surely have been father or uncle of Johann
+Christian Kittel, Bach's last pupil.
+
+[38] Mattheson, in his _Grundlage einer Ehren-Pforte_, published at
+Hamburg in 1740, complains that the names of Salomon Krügner,
+Christian Kittel, A. Kuhnau, and Hering are not to be found in the
+musical dictionaries. The first and third have not, even now, a place.
+
+[39] In a letter written by Graupner to Mattheson, the former, after
+mentioning that he studied the clavier and also composition under
+Kuhnau, says:--"Weil ich mich auch bei Kuhnau, als Notist, von
+selbsten ambot, u. eine gute Zeit für ihn schrieb, gab nur solches
+gewünschte Gelegenheit, viel gutes zu sehen, u. wo etwa ein Zweifel
+enstund, um mündlichen Bericht zu bitten, wie dieses oder jenes zu
+verstehen?" ("As I offered myself as copyist to Kuhnau, and wrote some
+long time for him, such a wished-for opportunity enabled me to study
+much good (music), and, whenever a doubt arose to learn by word of
+mouth how this or that was to be understood.")
+
+[40] In the _Dictionnaire de Musique_ by Bossard (2nd ed. 1705) no
+mention is made under the article "Sonata" of one for the clavier, and
+yet the above had been published ten years previously.
+
+[41] See also next chapter.
+
+[42] Nearly the whole of this composer's works are said to have been
+destroyed at the bombardment of Dresden in 1760.
+
+[43] The sonata is given in _Le Trésor des Pianistes_ with the
+ornaments, yet even there more than a dozen have been omitted.
+
+[44] The clavier by its very nature tended towards polyphony; the
+violin towards monody. And, besides, Kuhnau prided himself on the
+fugal character of his sonatas.
+
+[45] Even in the later "Bible" Sonatas, figures from these sonatas
+recur.
+
+[46] Cf. _The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book_, edited by J.A.
+Fuller-Maitland and W. Barclay Squire (Breitkopf & Härtel).
+
+[47] Johann Jakob Froberger died in 1667.
+
+[48] Meyer thinks he was probably the son of Ercole Pasquini, born
+about 1580, and predecessor of Frescobaldi at St. Peter's.
+
+[49] Weitzmann and other writers, in referring to the work published
+at Amsterdam, spell the name Paglietti; it should, however, be
+Polietti or Poglietti.
+
+[50] This piece was printed from a manuscript in the British Museum,
+which bears no such title. Judging, however, from the title of the
+_libro prezioso_ mentioned on p. 71 [Transcriber's Note: p. 73], that
+name may originally have been given to it.
+
+[51] The suite is printed in the _Pasquini-Grieco Album_ by Messrs.
+Novello.
+
+[52] Pasquini was no doubt one of the many composers who influenced
+Handel. When the latter visited Italy before he came to London in
+1710, he made the acquaintance of the two Scarlattis (Alessandro and
+Domenico), Corelli, and other famous musicians at Rome; of Lotti and
+Steffani at Venice; and surely at Naples he must have known Pasquini,
+whose name, however, is not to be found either in Schoelcher or
+Rockstro. Only Gasparini, who was a pupil of Pasquini's, is mentioned
+by the former.
+
+[53] "Si puo fare a Due Cembali."
+
+[54] See the _Novello Album_.
+
+[55] See the _Novello Album_.
+
+[56] The post was offered to Bach in 1738, while Frederick was as yet
+Crown Prince, but he only entered on his duties in 1740.
+
+[57] The four sons of Hans Georg Benda (Franz, Johann, Georg, and
+Joseph) were excellent musicians, and all members of the band of
+Frederick the Great. Georg, the third son, composer of _Ariadne_ and
+_Medea_, two _duodramas_ which attracted the attention of Mozart, was,
+however, the most remarkable.
+
+[58] Cf. Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_, vol. iv. p. 134:--"Graun,
+one of the best judges living, is likewise off to Italy, gathering
+singers."
+
+[59] The symphonies appear to be three-movement overtures transcribed
+for clavier. As a rule, the pieces marked as symphonies in this
+collection have no double bars, and, consequently, no repeat in the
+first movement. A "symphony" of Emanuel Bach is, however, marked as a
+"sonata" in the _Six Lessons for the Harpsichord_, published in London
+during the eighteenth century.
+
+[60] The king was extremely fond of Hasse's music, but this composer,
+though German by birth, was thoroughly Italian by training.
+
+[61] Yet, curiously, there is no chord in the later sonatas so large
+as the two on page 29 (6th Sonata)--
+
+[Music illustration] and [Music illustration]
+
+which, of course, are played in arpeggio.
+
+[62] Excepting in the fifth, which, by the way, was, for a long time,
+considered to be the composition of J.S. Bach, and was published as
+such by J.C. Westphal & Co. This return to the opening theme is to be
+found already in the sonatinas for violin and cembalo by G.P. Telemann
+published at Amsterdam in 1718. See Allegro of No. 1, in A; the main
+theme is given as usual in the key of the dominant at the beginning of
+the second section. Then after a modulation to the key of the relative
+minor, a return is made to the opening key and the opening theme.
+
+[63] Similar passages are to be found in the opening Vivace of J.G.
+Müthel's 2nd Sonata in G. He was a pupil of J.S. Bach, and either a
+pupil or close follower of E. Bach. His six published sonatas are of
+great musical interest; in his wide sweeping arpeggios and other
+florid passages he shows an advance on E. Bach. His 2nd Arioso with
+twelve variations is worth the notice of pianists in search of
+something unfamiliar. There are features in the music--and of these
+the character of the theme is not least--which remind one strongly of
+Beethoven's 32 C minor variations.
+
+[64] A recitative is also to be found in a Müller sonata.
+
+[65] "In tempo in cui ebbi l'onore di darle Lezzione di Musica in
+Berlino."
+
+[66] "The two sonatas, which met with your special approval, are the
+only ones of this kind which I have ever composed. They are connected
+with the one in B minor, which I sent to you, with the one in B flat,
+which you now have also, and with two out of the Hafner-Würtemberg
+Collection; and all six were composed on a Claviacord with the short
+octave, at the Töplitz baths, when I was suffering from a severe
+attack of gout."
+
+A series of six sonatas by E. Bach is in the _Trésor des Pianistes_,
+and is said to have been published at Nuremberg in 1744; the work is
+also dedicated to the Duke of Würtemberg, and the Opus number (2) is
+also given to it. There is mention of these sonatas in Bitter's
+biography of J.S. Bach's sons, but not of the others.
+
+[67] Sechs ausgewählte Sonaten für Klavier allem von Carl Philipp
+Emanuel Bach bearbeitet und mit einem Vorwort herausgegeben von Hans
+von Bülow (Peters, Leipzig).
+
+[68] In like manner he feels in the Andante, _reflection_, and in the
+final Andantino, _melancholy consolation_.
+
+[69] _Leipziger Mus. Almanack_, 1783.
+
+[70] The number of sonatas in each collection grew gradually smaller:
+first six, then three, lastly two. The dates of composition in the
+last column of above table may be studied with advantage: a later date
+of publication does not necessarily imply a more advanced work. Thus,
+of the three fine sonatas in the 3rd Collection (all of which are
+included in the Bülow selection), one was written eighteen, another
+fifteen, and the third (though first in order of reckoning), seven
+years before the date of publication (1781).
+
+[71] See particularly the Sonata in G (collection of 1783).
+
+[72] All of these consist of two movements; in the first, both
+movements are marked Andante.
+
+[73] For the benefit of readers who may not possess Pohl's _J. Haydn_,
+we insert in brackets, after the Pohl numbers, those of the Holle
+edition.
+
+[74] Cf. C.F. Pohl's _J. Haydn_, vol. ii. p. 311. They are in the keys
+of D, E flat, and A, and are interesting. The Tempo di Menuetto of the
+second presents a strict canon in the octave. In the last, too, there
+is a curious canon.
+
+[75] The treble of the tenth bar of the second section has been
+frequently printed a third too high.
+
+[76] This Sonata in E flat (Op. 78) was dedicated to Mrs. Bartolozzi,
+wife of the famous engraver, and to her Haydn also dedicated one in C
+major, marked as Op. 79,--a bright, clever and showy work, in which
+the influence of Clementi is sensibly felt. The development section of
+the opening Allegro, together with the return to the principal theme,
+is interesting. The Adagio, in the key of the subdominant, is one of
+Haydn's best, while the final movement (Allegro molto) is full of life
+and humour.
+
+[77] "Clementi is a charlatan, _like all the Italians_" (Letter to his
+sister, June 7, 1783).
+
+[78] It is thirty-five years since the fine one in B minor was
+performed at the Popular Concerts; and eighteen, since a Clementi
+sonata has appeared on a Popular Concert programme.
+
+[79] The three Sonatas in E flat, F minor, and D, dedicated to
+Maximilian Frederick, Elector of Cologne, and published at Speyer in
+1783, are not here taken into account.
+
+[80] In mentioning any of them we shall first give the Breitkopf &
+Härtel numbers and then the Holle numbers in brackets, so that either
+edition may be referred to.
+
+[81] At the time of their production Dussek was not born, Hummel was
+still a child, and Beethoven an infant "mewling and puking in the
+nurse's arms," if, indeed, the Beethovens were able to afford the
+luxury of a nurse. Even Emanuel Bach had not published any of his
+Leipzig Collections, neither had Haydn written his best sonatas. As
+Clementi was not only the survivor of Beethoven, but also his
+predecessor, a reminder as to the state of the sonata world, when
+Clementi first entered it, is not wholly unnecessary.
+
+[82] London Symphony in E flat, No. 8 (No. 1 in Breitkopf & Härtel
+_Catalogue_).
+
+[83] See p. 187 concerning Beethoven's conversation with Schindler.
+
+[84] Schindler, _Biography of Beethoven_, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 223-4.
+
+[85]
+
+HAMBURGH, _June 12, 1801._
+
+MR. CLEMENTI, MON CHER CLEMENTI,--
+
+J'ai reçu avec un extrême plaisir votre lettre, aussi que
+_L'Autoscript_ dans celle de ma femme, je suis extremement touché du
+désir que vous témoignez de me revoir à Londres, mais etant une fois
+dans le Continent je ne puis résister au désir de faire une visite à
+mon Père, d'autant plus qui je Lui ai déja écrit que je viendrai pour
+Sure le voir cette eteé, je sçais par Ses lettres qu'il attend ce
+moment comme la plus grande, et peut-être, la dernière jouissance de
+sa Vie; tromper dans une pareille attente un Viellard de 70 ans, ce
+serait anticiper sur sa mort, d'ailleurs en arrivant en Angleterre
+tout de suite je ne ferais également que manger mon argent, ou bien
+celui de ma femme jusqu'à l'hiver prochain, aussi ma resolution est
+prise de faire le Voyage de la Boheme; voire en passant Dresde, Prague
+et Vienne, ou je sçais que je puis gagner de quoi me defrayer de tout
+mon voyage, et au dela: et de revenir a Londres vers le Novembre, vous
+pouvez compter ladessus, mais surtout sur le plaisir que j'aurai de
+revoir et d'embrasser un ami tel que vous--Mardi prochain part d'ici
+pour Londres un commis de Mr. Parish _un des premiers Banquiers d'ici_
+qui vous remetra en mains propres, par un de vos associés, mes trois
+nouvelles Sonates,--je suis occupé a metre au net. Les trois
+Concertinos qui vous recevrez aussi dans une quinzaine au plus tard,
+dont j'espere qui vous serez assez content, etant le meilleur ouvrage
+que j'ai jamais fait _in the Selling Way_, adieu mon cher Clementi,
+Les oreilles doivent souvent vous tinter, car je parle constamment de
+vous a tout le monde, car tout le monde aime qu'on leur parle de leurs
+connaissances, or vous êtes de la connaissance de tout le monde,
+adieu.
+
+Votre ami,
+
+DUSSEK.
+
+MESSRS LONGMAN, CLEMENTI, & CO., GENTELMEN AND FRIENDS,--
+
+I beg you would do your possible to send to me the two grand
+instruments immediately, for the two Gentelmen whom I have persuaded
+to purchase them after they have heard my own, are very impatient
+about it, and I am afraid if I do not receive a decided Answer from
+you about it or the _connoisement_, wich I may Show them, they will be
+induced to Buy some of their German Instruments as they are pretty
+well influenced by the Capel Master of this Town who is a tolerable
+great As in Music and an illnatured Antianglomane, besides I expect it
+as the means to make my Journey to Bohemia, therefore I hope you will
+be so good, and make the greatest Speed you can--you will see by the
+above that I intend to be in London about November Next, when I will
+be very happy to settle with you what may Balance in our account and
+to continue faithfull to our agreement.
+
+Believe me,
+
+Gentelmen and Friends,
+
+Yours faithfully,
+
+DUSSEK.
+
+You have no Idea how many proposals I have received from London about
+my Compositions, some of them will make you Laugh.
+
+[86]
+
+AT THE GENERAL QUARTERS OF THE PRUSSIAN ARMY IN SAXONY, _the 4th 8ber
+1806_.
+
+DEAR SIR,--
+
+I have lately composed three Quartettos for two Violins, Tenor and
+Violoncello, and confess to you that I think this work above all that
+I have composed, they are neither in the Stile of Mozart, or Haydn,
+nor that of Pleyel, they are in the Stile of Dussek and I will hope
+make some noise in the Musical World--the Price for the Propriety of
+them in Britain is 60 guineas, wich I think highly moderate
+considering the scarcity of good new Quartettos--I have particularly
+chosen you Sir for the publication of this work, because I allways
+found you very reasonable in the few Business I have had the pleasure
+to make with you, and as my Contract with Clementi & Co. finishes the
+4th November this year, I should be very glad to continue with you the
+publication of all my Works in futur--These Quartettos are for you a
+publication so advantagous that I have not the least doubt but you
+will make the Bargain of them, since there is such a long time that
+nothing has been published of my composition--I wish them to appear
+about the middle of January, and to be dedicated _to His Royal
+Highness the Prince Louis of Prussia_ with whom I am at this moment at
+the Army against the French--If you wish to write to me, give the
+letter to the Gentelmen who shall deliver to you the quartettos--I beg
+You to give my best greetings to Mr. Crassier, Sheener, Tonkinson and
+all Those that remember me, and believe me,
+
+Your very obedient Servant,
+
+and sincere friend,
+
+DUSSEK,
+
+Privy Secretary to His Royal H^s. the Prince Louis of Prussia.
+
+The above letter is addressed to Mr. Birchal, Music Seller, New Bond
+Street, London.
+
+[87] _Musical Times_, September and October 1877.
+
+[88] Here is one, in the 8th Variation--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+[89] Mendelssohn, too, complained that Dussek was a prodigal.
+
+[90] The one in D minor has often been performed at the Popular
+Concerts.
+
+[91] 1822-1892.
+
+[92] The original title is: "Sonata per il Cembalo ò Fortepiano di
+F.W. Rust, 1788."
+
+[93] It is curious to note that in the supplement of the Breitkopf &
+Härtel edition of Beethoven's works there are two little pieces
+entitled "Lustig und Traurig."
+
+[94] E. Bach published six easy clavier sonatas in 1765, but Neefe
+probably refers to earlier and more important works.
+
+[95] Besides those mentioned, he published in 1774 six new sonatas,
+also variations on the theme "Kunz fand einst einen armen Mann."
+
+[96] "As your Royal Highness seemed to be pleased with the sonata in C
+minor, I thought it would not appear too bold to surprise you with the
+dedication of it."
+
+[97] The opening theme of that same symphony--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+recalls, curiously, the last movement of Beethoven's 8th Symphony; and
+still more so in the form in which he first sketched it--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+[98] Schindler, by the way, relates in his _Biography of Beethoven_
+(3rd ed. 2nd Part, p. 212) that, already in 1816, when there was a
+proposal made by Hoffmeister to Beethoven to issue a new edition of
+his pianoforte music, the master conceived the intention of indicating
+the poetic idea ("Poetische Idee") underlying his various works. And
+the biographer adds: "This term (_i.e. poetic idea_) belongs to
+Beethoven's epoch, and was used by him as frequently as was, for
+example, the expression 'poetic contents' by others--in opposition to
+works which only offer an harmonic and rhythmic play of tones. Writers
+on æsthetics of our day declaim against the latter term; _with_ good
+reason, if it refer to programme-music; _without_ reason, if they
+extend their negation to all Beethoven's music, and deny its poetic
+contents. Whence that tendency, which so frequently manifests itself,
+and that strong desire to give pictorial explanations, especially of
+the Beethoven symphonies and sonatas, if they contained nothing but a
+well-ordered harmonic and rhythmic play of tones, and if they--or, at
+least, some of them--were not based on some special idea? What other
+composer creates this almost irresistible desire?"
+
+[99] Mr. E. Pauer, in his preface to Ernst von Elterlein's
+_Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas explained for the lovers of the
+musical art_,--a valuable and interesting book,--remarks: "Herr von
+Elterlein's design is not so much to describe the beauties of
+Beethoven's sonatas, as to direct the performer's attention to these
+beauties, and to point out the _leading and characteristic features of
+each separate piece_" (the italics are ours).
+
+[100] The Finale of a Sonata in A flat by Cramer, one of three
+dedicated to Haydn, is said to have suggested to Beethoven the Finale
+of _his_ Sonata in A flat (Op. 26). Dr. Erich Prieger, who has
+recently published a facsimile of the autograph of Beethoven's sonata,
+in his preface quotes some passages from the Cramer Finale, which
+certainly seem to show that the Bonn master was to some extent
+influenced by his predecessor. Here is the second of the three
+passages quoted:--
+
+[Music illustration]
+
+[101] Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" Sonata would have long been forgotten
+but for Dussek's "Plus Ultra." See chapter on "Predecessors of
+Beethoven."
+
+[102] In Steibelt's two sonatas (Op. 62), for instance, the airs "If a
+body meet a body," "Jesse Macpharlane," and "La Chrantreuse"
+[Transcriber's Note: So in original, perhaps should be "Chartreuse"]
+are introduced. In his Op. 40 we also find "The Caledonian Beauty,"
+"The Maid of Selma," "'Twas within a mile of Edinbro' town," and "Life
+let us cherish." Woelfl's sonatas (Op. 35, 38) also contain Scotch
+airs, and his "Ne plus Ultra" has variations on "Life let us cherish."
+
+[103] 1773-1853, court organist at Heldburghausen.
+
+[104] 1766-1826, court organist at Freising.
+
+[105] Notice, in each case, the falling interval in the second and
+fourth bar.
+
+[106] Verstohlen geht der Mond auf, blau, blau Blümelein, etc.
+
+[107] The long arpeggio leading up to the first note is omitted.
+
+[108] In the British Museum copy the "XII. Sonate da Chiesa, Opera
+Quinta" of Bassani are bound up with "Sonate a Tre" by Giacomo
+Sherard. In plain English, the latter composer was a certain James
+Sherard, an apothecary by profession. The Bassani sonatas here
+mentioned were published at Amsterdam. Hawkins tells us that "an
+ordinary judge, not knowing that they were the work of another, might
+mistake them for compositions of Corelli." The first violin book has
+the following entry:--"Mr. Sherard was an apothecary in Crutched
+Friars about the year 1735, performed well on the violin, was very
+intimate with Handel and other Masters." This copy, which possibly
+belonged to Sherard, contains also the following, written apparently
+by the person into whose hands the book passed:--"Wm. Salter, surgeon
+and apothecary, Whitechapel High Street." The various sonatas, too,
+are marked in pencil--some as _good_; others, _very good_. The date,
+1789, is also given--the year, probably, in which the volumes became
+the property of W. Salter.
+
+[109] These sonatas were afterwards published at Amsterdam as
+Corelli's, being marked as his Opera Settima. On the title-page was
+written "Si crede che Siano State Composte di Arcangelo Corelli avanti
+le sue altre Opere."
+
+[110] See chapter on Haydn.
+
+[111] She was surely the daughter of François Hippolite Barthélémon
+(son of a Frenchman and of an Irish lady), who was on intimate terms
+with Haydn, to whom the sonata above mentioned is dedicated.
+
+[112] Samuel Wesley (1766-1837), nephew of the Rev. John Wesley, was a
+gifted musician, and is specially remembered for his enthusiastic
+admiration of John Sebastian Bach. The letters which he wrote to
+Benjamin Jacob on the subject of his favourite author were published
+by his daughter in 1875. He also, in conjunction with C.F. Horn,
+published an edition of Bach's "Wohltemperirtes Clavier."
+
+[113] He is described on the title-page as "formerly Composer to
+several Cathedral Churches in France." Buée's name is neither in Fétis
+nor the Pougin Supplément.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. Shedlock
+
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