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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/17074-8.txt b/17074-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..810566a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6889 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. Shedlock + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pianoforte Sonata + Its Origin and Development + +Author: J.S. Shedlock + +Release Date: November 16, 2005 [EBook #17074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIANOFORTE SONATA *** + + + + +Produced by John Hagerson, Charles Aldarondo, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +THE + +PIANOFORTE SONATA + +ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT + +BY + +J.S. SHEDLOCK, B.A. + +[Illustration: MONUMENT OF BERNARDO PASQUINI IN THE CHURCH OF SAN +LORENZO IN LUCINA ROME + +SKETCHED BY STRITCH HUTTON] + +METHUEN & CO. +36 ESSEX STREET, W.C. +LONDON + + + + +CONTENTS + +CHAP. PAGE + + I. INTRODUCTORY 1 + + II. JOHANN KUHNAU 38 + + III. BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU 71 + + IV. EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES 82 + + V. HAYDN AND MOZART 111 + + VI. PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN 130 + + VII. LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN 160 + +VIII. TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN 192 + + IX. SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT 207 + + X. THE SONATA IN ENGLAND 221 + + XI. MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC. 235 + + INDEX 241 + + + + +PREFACE + + +This little volume is entitled "The Pianoforte Sonata: its Origin and +Development." Some of the early sonatas mentioned in it were, however, +written for instruments of the jack or tangent kind. Even Beethoven's +sonatas up to Op. 27, inclusive, were published for "Clavicembalo o +Pianoforte." The Germans have the convenient generic term "Clavier," +which includes the old and the new instruments with hammer action; +hence, they speak of a _Clavier Sonate_ written, say, by Kuhnau, in +the seventeenth, or of one by Brahms in the nineteenth, century. + +The term "Piano e Forte" is, however, to be found in letters of a +musical instrument maker named Paliarino, written, as we learn from +the valuable article "Pianoforte," contributed by Mr. Hipkins to Sir +George Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, already in the +year 1598, and addressed to Alfonso II., Duke of Modena. The earliest +sonata for a keyed instrument mentioned in this volume was published +in 1695; and to avoid what seems an unnecessary distinction, I have +used the term "Pianoforte Sonata" for that sonata and for some other +works which followed, and which are usually and properly termed +"Harpsichord Sonatas." + +I have to acknowledge kind assistance received from Mr. A.W. Hutton, +Mr. F.G. Edwards, and Mr. E. Van der Straeten. And I also beg to thank +Mr. W. Barclay Squire and Mr. A. Hughes-Hughes for courteous help at +the British Museum; likewise Dr. Kopfermann, chief librarian of the +musical section of the Berlin Royal Library. + +J.S. SHEDLOCK. + +LONDON, 1895. + + + + +THE PIANOFORTE SONATA + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +In history we find certain names associated with great movements: +Luther with the Reformation, or Garibaldi with the liberation of +Italy. Luther certainly posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg +his famous Theses, and burnt the Papal Bull at the gates of that city; +yet before Luther there lived men, such as the scholar Erasmus, who +have been appropriately named Reformers before the Reformation. So, +too, Cavour's cautious policy paved the way for Garibaldi's brilliant +victories. Once again, Leonardo da Vinci is named as the inventor of +chiaroscuro, yet he was preceded by Fra Filippo Lippi. And in similar +manner, in music, certain men are associated with certain forms. +Haydn, for example, is called the father of the quartet; close +investigation, however, would show that he was only a link, and +certainly not the first one in a long evolution. So, too, with the +sonata. The present volume is, however, specially concerned with the +_clavier_ or pianoforte sonata; and for that we have a convenient +starting-point--the Sonata in B flat of Kuhnau, published in 1695. The +date is easy to remember, for in that same year died England's +greatest musician, Henry Purcell. + +Before studying the history of the pianoforte sonata, even in outline, +it is essential that something should be said about the early history +of the _sonata_. That term appears first to have been used in +contradistinction to _cantata_: the one was a piece _sounded_ +(_suonata_, from _sonando_) by instruments; the other, one _sung_ by +voices. The form of these early sonatas (as they appear in Giovanni +Gabrieli's works towards the close of the sixteenth century) was +vague; yet, in spite of light imitations, the basis was harmonic, +rather than contrapuntal. They were among the first fruits of the +Renaissance in Italy. But soon there came about a process of +differentiation. Praetorius, in his _Syntagma musicum_, published at +Wolfenbüttel in 1619, distinguishes between the _sonata_ and the +_canzona_. Speaking generally, from the one seems to have come the +sonata proper; from the other, the suite. During the whole of the +eighteenth century there was a continual intercrossing of these two +species; it is no easy matter, therefore, to trace the early stages of +development of each separately. + +Marpurg, in his description of various kinds of pieces in his +_Clavierstücke_, published at Berlin in 1762, says: "Sonatas are +pieces in three or four movements, marked merely _Allegro_, _Adagio_, +_Presto_, etc., although in character they may be really an +_Allemande_, _Courante_, and _Gigue_." Corelli, as will be mentioned +later on, gave dance titles in addition to Allegro, Adagio, etc. +Marpurg also states that "when the middle movement is in slow time it +is not always in the key of the first and last movements." This, +again, shows intercrossing. The genuine suite consisted of several +dance movements (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue) all in the +same key. But we find occasionally in suites, a Fugue or Fuguetta, or +even an Aria or Adagio; and in name, at any rate, one dance movement +has formed part of the sonata since the time of Emanuel Bach. + +In 1611, Banchieri, an Olivetan monk, published at Venice his +_L'Organo suonarino_, a work "useful and necessary to +organists,"--thus runs the title-page. At the end of the volume there +are some pieces, vocal and instrumental (a Concerto for soprano or +tenor, with organ, a Fantasia, Ricercata, etc.), among which are to be +found two _sonatas_, the one entitled, "Prima Sonata, doppio +soggietto," the other "Seconda Sonata, soggietto triplicato." They are +written out in open score of four staves, with mezzo-soprano, alto, +tenor, and bass clefs. To show how the sonatas of those days differed +both in form and contents from the sonata of our century, the first of +the above-mentioned is given in short score. It will, probably, remind +readers of "the first (_i.e._ sonatas) that my (_i.e._ Dr. Burney) +musical inquiries have discovered, viz., some sonatas by Francesco +Turini, which consisted of only a single movement, in fugue and +imitation throughout." + +[Music illustration] + +Turini was organist of Brescia Cathedral, and in 1624 published +_Madrigali a una, due, tre voci, con alcune Sonate e a tre, Ven. +1624_. Between Turini, also Carlo Farina, who published violin +sonatas at Dresden in 1628, and Corelli (_b._ 1653), who brought out +his first work in 1683, one name of great importance is Giovanni +Legrenzi. + +In the eighth volume of Dr. Burney's musical extracts there are two +sonatas, _a tre, a due violini e violone_, by Legrenzi (opera ottava, +1677). The first is in B flat. It commences with a movement in common +time entitled _La Benivoglia_. + +[Music illustration] + +An Adagio in G minor (only six bars) is followed by an Allegro in D +minor, six-eight time, closing on a major chord; then eight bars +common time in B flat (no heading); and, finally, a Presto +(three-four) commencing in G minor and closing in B flat. None of the +movements is in binary form. + +The 2nd Sonata, in D, has five short movements. No. 1 has an opening +of thirty-seven bars in common time, fugato. There is a modulation in +the ninth bar to the dominant, and, later on, a return to the opening +theme and key; in the intervening space, however, in spite of +modulation, the principal key is not altogether avoided. + +Sonatas of various kinds by Legrenzi appeared between 1655 and 1677. +Then there were the "Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale ouero Sonate da +Camera, etc.," of Gio. Maria Bononcini, father of Battista Bononcini, +the famous rival of Handel, published at Bologna in 1669, and the +sonatas of Gio. Battista Vitali (Bologna, 1677). Giambatista Bassani +of Bologna, although his junior by birth, was the violin master of the +great Corelli. His sonatas only appeared after those of his +illustrious pupil, yet may have been composed before. Of the twelve in +Op. 5, most have many short movements; some, indeed, are so short as +to be scarcely deserving of the name. + +By the time of Arcangelo Corelli, who, as mentioned, published his +first work (Op. 1, twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass) in 1683, +sonatas answered to the definition given by Mattheson in his _Das neu +eröffnete Orchester_ (1713), in which they are said to consist of +alternate Adagio and Allegro. J.G. Walther, again, in his dictionary +of music,[1] which appeared at Leipzig in 1732, describes a sonata as +a "grave artistic composition for instruments, especially violins." +The idea of grouping movements was already in vogue in the sixteenth +century. Morley in his _Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical +Music_, printed in 1597, speaks of the desirableness of _alternating_ +Pavans and Galliards, the one being "a kind of staid musick ordained +for grave dancing," and the other "a lighter and more stirring kind of +dancing." Contrast was obtained, too, not only by difference in the +character, but also, in the measure of the music; the former was in +common, the latter in triple time. + +With regard to the grouping of movements, Corelli's sonatas show +several varieties. The usual number, however, was four, and the order +generally--slow, fast, slow, fast. Among the forty-eight (Op. 1, 2, 3, +and 4, published 1685, 1690, 1694, and 1700 respectively) we find the +majority in four movements, in the order given above[2]; of the twelve +in Op. 3, no less than eleven have four movements, but-- + +No. 1 (in F) has Grave, Allegro, Vivace, Allegro. +No. 6 (in G), Vivace, Grave, Allegro, Allegro. +No. 10 (in A minor), Vivace, Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. + +There are, however, eight sonatas consisting of _three movements_; and +as this, a century later, became the normal number, we will give the +list:-- + +Op. 1, No. 7 (in C) Allegro, Grave, Allegro. + (Middle movement begins in + A minor, but ends in C.) + +Op. 2, No. 2 (in D minor) Allemanda (Adagio) + Corrente (Allegro), Giga + (Allegro). + +Op. 2, No. 6 (in G minor) Allemanda (Largo), Corrente, + Giga. + +Op. 2, No. 9 (F sharp minor) Allemanda (Largo). + Tempo di Sarabanda (Largo). + Giga (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 8 (D minor) Preludio (Grave). + Allemanda (Allegro). + Sarabanda (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 10 (G) Preludio[3] (Adagio) and Allegro. + Adagio and Grave (E minor). + Tempo di Gavotta (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 11 (C minor) Preludio (Largo). + Corrente (Allegro). + Allemanda (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 12 (B minor) Preludio (Largo). + Allemanda (Presto). + Giga (Allegro). + +It is interesting to note that each of the two sonatas (Op. 1, No. 7, +and Op. 4, No. 10), most in keeping with its title of sonata, has the +middle movement in a relative key. Op. 1, No. 7, begins with an +Allegro in common time; and the short Grave is followed by a light +Allegro in six-eight time. The first movement, with its marked return +to the principal key, is very interesting in the matter of form. The +other sonatas with suite titles have all their movements in the same +key. Locatelli in his _XII Sonate_ for flute, published early in the +eighteenth century, has in the first: Andante, Adagio, Presto; also +Nos. 3, 5, etc. So, too, in Tartini's Sonatas (Op. 1) there are also +some in three (No. 3, etc.). But Emanuel Bach commenced with that +number, to which, with few and unimportant exceptions, he remained +faithful; likewise to the slow movement dividing the two quick ones. +The three-movement form used by J.S. Bach for his concertos and +sonatas no doubt considerably influenced his son. But already, in +1668, Diderich Becker, in his _Musikalische Frülings-Früchte_, wrote +sonatas for violins, etc. and _continuo_, in three movements. (No. 10, +Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. Again, Sonata No. 19 opens with a movement +in common time, most probably an Allegro; then comes an Adagio, and, +lastly, a movement in six-four, most probably quick _tempo_.) These +sonatas of Becker _a 3_, _4_ or _5_, with _basso continuo_, are +unfortunately only printed in parts. As a connecting link between the +Gabrielis and Corelli, and more particularly as a forerunner of +Kuhnau, Becker is of immense importance. We are concerned with the +clavier sonata, otherwise we should certainly devote more space to +this composer. We have been able to trace back sonatas by German +composers to Becker (1668), and by Italian composers to Legrenzi +(1655); those of Gabrieli and Banchieri, as short pieces, not a group +of movements, are not taken into account. Now, of earlier history, we +do know that Hans Leo. von Hasler, said to have been born at Nuremberg +in 1564, studied first with his father, but afterwards at Venice, and +for a whole year under A. Gabrieli. Italian and German art are thus +intimately connected; but what each gave to, or received from, the +other with regard to the sonata seems impossible to determine. The +Becker sonatas appeared at Hamburg, and surely E. Bach must have been +acquainted with them. Becker in his preface mentions another Hamburg +musician--a certain Johann Schop--who did much for the cause of +instrumental music. Schop, it appears, published concertos for various +instruments already in the year 1644. And there was still another work +of importance published at Amsterdam, very early in the eighteenth +century, by the famous violinist and composer G. Torelli, which must +have been known to E. Bach. It is entitled "Six Sonates ou Concerts à +4, 5, e 6 Parties," and of these, five have three movements (Allegro, +Adagio, and Allegro). + +Corelli was the founder of a school of violin composers, of which +Geminiani,[4] Locatelli,[5] Veracini,[6] and Tartini[7] were the most +distinguished representatives; the first two were actually pupils of +the master. In the sonatas of these men there is an advance in two +directions: sonata-form[8] is in process of evolution from binary +form, _i.e._ the second half of the first section is filled with +subject-matter of more definite character; the bars of modulation and +development are growing in number and importance; and the principal +theme appears as the commencement of a recapitulation. We should like +to say that _binary_ is changing into _ternary_ form; unfortunately, +however, the latter term is used for a different kind of movement. To +speak of a movement in sonata-form, containing three sections +(exposition, development, and recapitulation) as in binary form, seems +a decided misnomer. + +The violinists just mentioned were the last great writers of sonatas +in Italy. Emanuel Bach arose during the first half of the eighteenth +century, and, henceforth, Germany took the lead; Bach was followed by +Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The influence of the Corelli[9] school +was felt in Germany and also in England. Sonatas were published by +Veracini at Dresden in 1721, and by Tartini and Locatelli at Amsterdam +before 1740. Again Veracini was for a time solo violinist to the +Elector of Dresden (1720-23); Tartini lived for three years at Prague +(1723-26), while Locatelli, during the first half of the eighteenth +century, made frequent journeys throughout Germany. Emanuel Bach, the +real founder of the modern pianoforte sonata, must have been +influenced by their works. + +In a history of the development of the sonata generally, those of +Corelli would occupy an important place, for in them we find not only +fugal and dance forms, but also hints of sonata-form. + +Dr. Parry, in his article on "Sonata" in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary +of Music and Musicians_, has named the Corrente of Corelli's 5th +Sonata in Op. 4 as offering "nearly a miniature of modern binary +form." The well-known Giga Allegro of the 9th Sonata (Op. 5), and the +Allemanda Allegro of the 10th Concerto in C, also present remarkable +foreshadowings. + +Handel, however, furnishes a very striking illustration-- + +In the six "Sonatas or Trios for two Hoboys with a thorough bass for +the harpsichord," said to have been composed already in 1696, we find +quick movements in binary form. In some, the first section offers both +a first and a second subject, while in the second section, after +modulation, there is a return to the opening theme, though quite at +the close of that section. A brief description of one will make the +form clearer. The second Allegro of No. 4 (in F) has two sections. The +first, which ends in the dominant key (C), contains forty-six bars. +The opening theme begins thus:-- + +[Music illustration: _a_] + +At the twenty-ninth bar, a passage leads to the second theme-- + +[Music illustration: _b_] + +This second theme is, in a measure, evolved from the first. In any +case, it is of subordinate character; and it differs slightly as given +by first or second oboe, whereas the principal theme appears in +exactly the same manner for both instruments. + +The second section opens with developments of _b_, and modulation from +C major to D minor; _a_ also is developed, the music passing from the +last-named key back to the opening one. There is a full close in that +key, and then modulation to F. The remaining twenty-two bars give the +first section in condensed form: first and second subjects and +coda.[10] + +It would be interesting to trace the influences acting on the youth +Handel at the time when he wrote these sonatas. Most probably they +were Johann Philipp Krieger's[11] sonatas for violins and bass; N.A. +Strungk's sonatas published at Dresden in 1691; and more especially +Agostino Steffani's "Sonate da Camera" for two violins, alto, and +bass, published in 1683. An opera by the last-named, which appeared at +Hanover in 1699, has an "Air de Ballet," which contains the first +notes of "Let the bright Seraphim"; besides, it is known that Handel +culled ideas and "conveyed" notes from works of other composers; also, +that he turned them to the best account. + +In the same year in which Corelli published his Op. 1 (1683), Domenico +Scarlatti, the famous harpsichord player, was probably born; in the +history of development his name is the principal one of importance +between Corelli and Emanuel Bach. In the matter of technique he +rendered signal service, but, for the moment, we are concerned with +his contribution towards development. Scarlatti does not seem to have +ever considered the sonata in the sense of a work consisting of +several contrasting movements; all of his are of only one movement. +The title "sonata" as applied to his pieces is, therefore, misleading. +Whether the term was actually used by the composer himself seems +doubtful. The first thirty of the sixty Scarlatti sonatas published by +Breitkopf & Härtel appeared during the lifetime of the composer at +Madrid. They are dedicated to John the Just, King of Portugal, and are +merely entitled + + _Essercizi per Gravicembalo._ + +In editions of the eighteenth century the composer's pieces are styled +Lessons or Suites. However, twelve published by J. Johnson, London, +are described on the title-page as _Sonatas modernas_. + +From the earliest days of instrumental music dance tunes were divided +into two sections. The process of evolution is interesting. In the +earliest specimens, such as the _Branle_ given in the Orchésographie +of Thoinot Arbeau, we find both sections in the same key, and there is +only one theme. The movement towards the dominant note in this +_Branle_ may be regarded as a latent modulation. In time the first +section was developed, and the latent modulation became real; then, +after certain intermediate stages, the custom was established of +passing from the principal to the dominant key (or, in a minor piece, +to the relative major or dominant minor), in which the first section +closed. But in Corelli,[12] and even in Scarlatti,[13] we find, +occasionally, a return to an earlier stage (_i.e._ a first section +ending in the same key in which it commenced). In most of his pieces +Scarlatti modulates to the dominant; in minor, to the relative major. +Some exceptions deserve mention. In the Breitkopf & Härtel collection, +No. 26, in A major, passes to the minor key of the dominant; and No. +11, in C minor, modulates to the minor key of the dominant, but the +section closes in the major key of the dominant. + +Scarlatti's sonatas consist, then, of one movement in binary form of +the early type. Only in a few of these pieces is there a definite +second subject; in none, a return to the opening theme. [Music +illustration] In No. 26 there is just a return to the first bar (see +second section, bar 11), but the previous ten bars show no modulation, +and one can scarcely speak of thematic development. After the few bars +of development and modulation, in some cases, the second section is +found to consist merely of a repetition of some part of the first +section, the key being tonic instead of dominant. This is, +practically, embryonic sonata-form. The tonic and dominant portions of +the first section are becoming differentiated; but the landmark, +_i.e._ the return to the opening theme in the second section which +divides binary from sonata form, is, in Scarlatti, non-existent. His +first sections often consist of a principal theme and passages, also +phrases indirectly connected with the opening one; sometimes of a +chain of short phrases more or less evolved from the opening thought +(see Nos. 1, 21, 29). (These and the numbers which follow refer to the +Breitkopf & Härtel edition of sixty Scarlatti sonatas.) The composer +often passes through the minor key of the dominant (in the first +section) before arriving at the major; sometimes the major is +introduced only late in the section (Nos. 7, 17, etc.), or minor +remains (No. 26). We meet with a similar proceeding in Beethoven. +Minor pieces often pass to the dominant minor, but end in major +(_i.e._, first section). In Scarlatti there is, for the most part, no +second subject, but frequently (Nos. 5, 7, 9, etc.) a concluding +phrase which can, at times, be traced to the opening theme. Sonata 6, +in F, shows a second subject of a certain independence. The best +examples are to be found in Nos. 24 and 29 (in A and E); in these the +character of the second subject differs from that of the first, and it +is also in a minor key, which offers still another contrast. + +And now a word or two respecting Scarlatti's method of development. He +alters figures (Nos. 12 and 54), extends them (Nos. 9 and 54), but +often merely repeats passages on the same degrees as those of the +first section, or on different ones. He makes use of imitation (Nos. 7 +and 36). Sometimes he evolves a phrase from a motive (No. 11). In No. +19 the development assumes a certain importance. It commences, not, as +in most cases, with the opening theme or figure of the first section, +but with a group of semiquaver notes which appears later in that +section. In No. 20 Scarlatti preserves the rhythm, but with total +change of notes (No. 20)-- + +[Music illustration] + +The same number gives another interesting specimen of change of +rhythm. In No. 48 he picks out an unimportant group of notes, and +works it by imitation and sequence. There are some interesting +specimens of development in the thirty sonatas printed from +manuscripts in the possession of Lord Viscount Fitzwilliam by Robert +Birchall. Scarlatti's development bars are seldom many in number. + +After modulation and development, the music slides, as it were, into +some phrase from the first section,[14] and allowance being made on +account of difference of key (there the music was passing, or had +passed from tonic; here it is returning to that key), the rest is more +or less a repetition of the first section. _More or less_: sometimes +the repetition is literal; at other times there is considerable +deviation; and shortenings are frequent. With regard to style of +writing for the clavier--a few canonic imitations excepted--there is +no real polyphony. Most of the sonatas are in only two parts. The +composer revels in rapid passages (runs, broken chords, simple and +compound), wide leaps, difficult octaves, crossing of hands, and, of +course, short shakes innumerable. Domenico Scarlatti was indeed one of +the most renowned _virtuosi_ on the clavier. Handel met him at Rome in +1708, and Cardinal Ottoboni persuaded them to compete with each other. +We are told that upon the harpsichord the victory was doubtful, but +upon the organ, Scarlatti himself confessed the superiority of his +rival.[15] + +Johann Kuhnau published a sonata for clavier in 1695, and this was +followed up by a set of seven sonatas ("Frische Früchte") in 1696, and +a few years later (1700) by the seven "Bible" Sonatas. That he was the +first composer who wrote a sonata for the clavier is a point which +cannot be overlooked, and in the evolution of the sonata he occupies +an interesting position. In the "Frische Früchte" there is, as Dr. +C.H. Parry truly remarks in his excellent article "Sonata" in Sir G. +Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, an awakening sense of the +relation and balance of keys; but in the "Bible" Sonatas the form and +order of the movements is entirely determined by the Bible stories. As +specimens of programme-music they are altogether remarkable, and will, +later on, be described in detail; they do not, however, come within +the regular line of development. It was, of course, natural that such +a new departure should attract the notice of John Sebastian Bach, who +was Kuhnau's immediate successor as cantor of St. Thomas' School, +Leipzig, and Spitta, in his life of Bach, refers to that composer's +_Capriccio sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo_, and +reminds us that "Kuhnau as well as so many others had some influence +on Bach." Of course, among the "so many others," Froberger's name--as +we shall see later on from Kuhnau's preface--deserves a prominent +place. In addition to what Kuhnau says, Mattheson has recorded that +"Froberger could depict whole histories on the clavier, giving a +representation of the persons present and taking part in them, with +all their natural characters." When writing the Capriccio above named, +Spitta believes that Bach was specially influenced by the last of the +"Bible" Sonatas (we may perhaps add that Spitta tells us that Bach +was intimately acquainted with Kuhnau). He indeed says: "We might +doubt the early origin of the Capriccio if its evident 'dependence' on +Kuhnau did not solve the mystery." Then, again, in a Sonata in D by +Bach, published in the Bach Gesellschaft edition, Spitta calls +attention to the opening subject in D, and does not hesitate to +declare that "it is constructed on the pattern of a particular part of +the story of Jacob's marriage" (the 3rd of the "Bible" Sonatas). His +description of the Bach sonata would, doubtless, have attracted more +notice but for the fact that copies of the Kuhnau sonatas were +extremely rare; they were, we believe, never reprinted since the +commencement of the eighteenth century. The first two have now been +published by Messrs Novello & Co. The Kuhnau influence on Bach seems, +however, to have been of short duration; for, after these juvenile +attempts, as Spitta observes, "he never again returned to this branch +of music in the whole course of a long artistic career extending over +nearly fifty years." The fugue form absorbed nearly the whole +attention of that master; and the idea of programme-music remained in +abeyance until Beethoven revived it a century later.[16] Emanuel Bach +inherited some of his father's genius, and he may instinctively have +felt the utter hopelessness of following directly in his footsteps. +J.S. Bach had exhausted the possibilities of the fugue form. It was +perhaps fortunate for Emanuel Bach that, while still young, he left +his father's house. After residing for a few years at +Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he entered the service of Frederick the Great; +and at the court of that monarch he came, at any rate, directly under +Italian influence. + +An interesting link between Kuhnau and E. Bach is Mattheson, who +published at Hamburg in 1713 a sonata dedicated to the one who can +best play it (_derjenigen Persohn gewidmet, die sie am besten spielen +wird_). The work itself not being available, the following description +of it by J. Faisst (_Caecilia_, vol. 25, p. 157) may prove +interesting:--"It (_i.e._ the sonata) consists of only one movement, +which, considering its evidently intentional wealth of technique, +might be named a Toccata. But in form this one movement clearly +belongs to the sonata order, and, in fact, holds a middle place +between the tendencies towards sonata-form (the term taken in the +narrower sense of form of one single movement) noticeable in Kuhnau, +and the more developed shape which this form has assumed within recent +times. We have here three sections. In the opening one, the theme, +after its first exposition in the key of G, forms the basis of various +passages, and then appears in the key of the dominant, followed again +by passages of larger extent and richer contents; finally, in +abbreviated form, it reappears in the tonic. The second section +commences in the parallel key, E minor, with passages which recall +those of the first section, and continues with the theme in the same +key; afterwards theme and passages are developed through the keys of A +minor, C major, G major, D major and B minor; in the last, in which +the theme occurs, there is a full close. As third section the first is +taken _Da Capo_." It is evident from a remark made by Mattheson in his +_Der volkommene Capellmeister_, which appeared at Hamburg in 1739, +that some of the sonatas written during the transition period, between +Corelli and E. Bach, are lost, or, at any rate, have not been +discovered.[17] Mattheson says: "During the last years successful +attempts have been made to write sonatas for the clavier (formerly +they were for violins or instruments of that kind); still, up to now, +they have not the right form, and are capable of being touched (_i.e._ +played) rather than of touching: they aim at the movement of fingers +rather than of hearts."[18] + +A little later than Mattheson (_i.e._ in 1721), Pier Giuseppo Sandoni, +husband of the famous vocalist Cuzzoni, published at London "Sonate +per il Cembalo," dedicated to the Duchess of Pembroke. No. 1, in D +minor, has three movements, an Allemande, Largo, and Giga Presto; they +are all short, and in two sections; and, as a rule, the writing is in +two parts. No. 2, in F, opens with an Allegro of peculiar form. It +has four sections, each of which is repeated; the first (seven bars) +modulates to the key of C, closing thus-- + +[Music illustration] + +The second section (also consisting of seven bars) soon modulates to D +minor, closing in that key in a manner similar to the first. The third +section (ten bars) consists of modulation and slight development, and +closes in A minor. The fourth section (fifteen bars) passes by means +of broken chords (in imitation of the last bar of the previous +section) through various keys, ending in the same fashion as the first +section, only, by way probably of intensification at the end, there +are seven instead of four quaver chords; the section, of course, ends +in F. This movement in the matter of form offers an interesting link +between Kuhnau and E. Bach. The second movement is a minuet, with +variations; it certainly has a beginning, but seems endless. The 3rd +Sonata, in A, resembles No. 1 in form, also in grouping of movements. + +And in addition to the sonata of Mattheson, the Sei Sonatine per +Violino e Cembalo, di Georgio Philippo Telemann, published at +Amsterdam in 1721, will give us an approximate idea of the clavier +sonata between Kuhnau and Emanuel Bach. Each number, by the way, is +headed--title-page notwithstanding--a sonata. No. 1, in A major, +consists of four movements, Adagio, Allegro, Largo, Allegro, and all +the four are in binary form. The second is naturally the most +important; the others are very short and simple. In this Allegro, +besides the allusion in the dominant key to the theme at the opening +of the second section there is a return to it, after modulation, in +the principal key. Some of the other sonatas are longer, but No. 1 +represents, roughly, the other five as to form and contents. No. 6, in +F, by the way, has only three movements: Vivace, Cantabile, and +Presto. + +The "Sonate per Gravicembalo, novamente composte," published by +Giovanni Battista Pescetti in 1739, deserve notice, since they +appeared three years before the six sonatas dedicated by Emanuel Bach +to Frederick the Great. They are nine in number. In style of writing, +order, and character of movements, they bear the stamp of the period +in which they were written. Most of the movements in binary form are +of the intermediate type, _i.e._ they have the principal theme in the +dominant at the beginning of the exposition section, and again, later +on, in the principal key. There is considerable variety in the order +and number of movements. No. 1, for instance, has an Adagio, an +Allegro, and a Menuett with variations. No. 2, in D, has four +movements: Andante, Adagio, Allegro, Giga; the short Adagio is in D +minor. No. 3, in G minor: Presto and A Tempo Giusto (a dignified +fugue). The influence of Handel is strong, also that of Scarlatti. +Bars such as the following-- + +[Music illustration] + +foreshadow, in a curious manner, the _Alberti_ bass. + +A great number of clavier sonatas were written about the time during +which Emanuel Bach flourished: his first sonatas appeared in 1742, his +last in 1787. An interesting collection of no less than seventy-two +sonatas (sixty-seven by various composers; five anonymous), issued in +twelve parts, under the title _Oeuvres mêlées_ (twelve books, each +containing six sonatas), was published by Haffner at Würzburg, +somewhere between 1760 and 1767. And another collection of symphonies +and sonatas, principally by Saxon composers, was published at Leipzig +in 1762 under the title _Musikalisches Magazin_. We will give the +names of some of the chief composers, with titles of their works, +adding a few other details. It is difficult in some cases to ascertain +the year of publication; and it is practically impossible to say when +the sonatas were actually composed:-- + + BACH, Wilh. Friedemann. Sei sonate, No. 1,[19] D + major (Dresden, 1745). Sonata in C (published in Litolff's + _Maîtres du Clavecin_), and others in D and G (autographs), + and in F, A, and B flat (manuscripts). + + BACH, Joh. Ernst. Two sonatas (in _Oeuvres + mêlées_). + + NICHELMANN, Christoph. Sei brevi sonate, etc., Op. + 2; Nuremberg (between 1745-1756). + + HASSE. Two sonatas in E flat and B flat + (manuscript; on one is the date of 1754). Two sonatas, one + in D minor (only one Lento movement); the other in D major + (only one Allegro movement in old binary form). These are + both in the Leipzig collection named above. + + BENDA, Georg. Sei sonate (Berlin, 1757). Sonatas in + G, C minor, and G, also seven sonatinas (Vermischte + Clavierstücke, Gotha, 1780). + + WAGENSEIL, Georg. Sonata (_Oeuvres mêlées_). Six + sonatas for the harpsichord (with accompaniment for a + violin).[20] Opera prima. (A. Hummel, London.) + + SCHAFFRATH, Christoph.[21] Six sonates, Op. 2 + (published by Haffner, Nuremberg, 1754). + + MOZART, Leopold. Three sonatas (_Oeuvres mêlées_). + + MÜTHEL, Joh. Gottfr. Three sonatas, etc. (Haffner, + Nuremberg, about 1753); three sonatas (autograph). + + UMSTATT, Joseph.[22] One sonata (_Oeuvres mêlées_). + Sonata consisting of only a Minuetto, Trio, and Gigue + (Leipzig collection). And the two Italians-- + + GALUPPI. Sonate per cembalo (London); and + + PARADIES, P. Domenico. Twelve sonate di + gravicembalo (London). + + GRÉTRY, Belgian composer (1741-1813), wrote "Six + sonates pour le clavecin" (1768), to which, unfortunately, + we have not been able to gain access. + +From the two collections, etc., may be gathered many facts of +interest. First, as regards the number and character of movements in a +sonata. Emanuel Bach kept, for the most part, to three: two fast +movements, divided by a slow one.[23] In the second of his Leipzig +collections (1780), there are two with only two movements (Nos. 2 and +3; a few bars connecting the two movements of No. 3). But among other +composers there are many examples; in some sonatas, the first movement +is a slow one; in others, both movements are quick, in which case the +second one is frequently a minuet.[24] All twelve sonatas of Paradies +have only two movements. + +Of sonatas in three movements, some commence with a slow movement +followed by two quick movements.[25] (In one instance, in E. Bach's +sonatas, the 1st Collection, No. 2, in F, we even find two slow +movements followed by a quick one, Andante, Larghetto, Allegro assai.) +But the greater number had the usual order:--Allegro or Allegretto, +Andante or Adagio, and Allegro or Presto. Thus Hasse, Nichelmann, +Benda, and other composers. Now in E. Bach's Würtemberg sonatas we +found all three movements were in the same key, and there are similar +cases in Hasse, Fried. Bach, Joh. Ernst Bach, etc.; but for the most +part, the middle (slow) movement was in some nearly related key; in a +sonata commencing in major--in the relative, or tonic minor, or minor +under-dominant; and even (as in a sonata by Adlgasser) in the +upper-dominant. Joh. C.F. Bach, in one instance, selected the minor +key of the upper-dominant, and there are examples of more remote keys +(E. Bach, Coll. of 1780, No. 1). With sonatas commencing in minor, the +key selected for the middle movement was generally the relative major +of the under-dominant, or that of the tonic; sometimes even tonic +major. A very extraordinary example of a remote key is to be met with +in Bach's Collection of 1779, No. 3: his opening movement is B minor, +but his middle one, G minor.[26] + +It should be mentioned with regard to sonatas in three movements +commencing in a minor key, that the last generally (in works of this +period) remains and ends in minor. In modern sonatas the major is +often found, at any rate before the close (see Beethoven, Op. 10, No. +1, etc.). + +Baldassare Galuppi, born in 1706 on the island of Burano, near Venice, +was a pupil of Lotti's. Two sets of six "Sonate per il cembalo" of +his were published in London. We cannot give the date, but may state +that a sonata of his in manuscript bears the date 1754 (whether of +copy or composition is uncertain; anyhow, the year given acts as +limit). The variety in the number of the movements of the published +sonatas (one has four, some have three, some two, while No. 2 of the +first set has only one) points to a period of transition. This alone, +apart from the freshness and charm of the music, entitles them to +notice. Much of the writing is thin (only two parts), and, +technically, the music far less interesting than the Scarlatti pieces. +Some of the phrases and figures, and the occasional employment of the +Alberti bass, tell, however, of the new era soon about to be +inaugurated by Haydn. There is one little feature in the 1st Sonata of +the first set which may be mentioned. In the second section of the +Adagio (a movement in binary form) of that sonata, the theme appears, +as usual then, at the beginning of the second section, and, later on, +reappears in the principal key, but it starts on the fourth, instead +of the eighth quaver of the bar. + +There was great variety in the order of movements. Sometimes a slow +movement was followed by two quick movements;[27] and the third +movement was frequently a minuet. The quick movement sometimes came in +the middle (Galuppi, Sonata in B flat), sometimes at the beginning +(E. Bach, Coll. 1781, No. 3), sometimes at the end (E. Bach, Coll. +1779, No. 2). Then, again, sometimes all, but frequently two of the +three movements, were connected, _i.e._ the one passed to the other +without break. + +So much for sonatas in two or three movements. But among the _Oeuvres +mêlées_ there are no less than twenty which have four movements--some +in the old order: slow, fast, slow, fast; others in a new order: +Allegro, Andante or Adagio, Minuet, and Allegro or Presto.[28] Thus +Wagenseil,[29] Houpfeld, J.E. Bach, Hengsberger, and Kehl. Sometimes +(as in Seyfert and Goldberg) the Minuet came immediately after the +Allegro[30] (see Beethoven chapter with regard to position of Minuet +or Scherzo in his sonatas). In a sonata by Schaffrath, the opening +Allegro is followed by a Fugue. Again (in Spitz, Zach, and Fischer) +the following order is found: Allegro, Andante, Allegro, Minuet. In +Fischer all the movements are in one key; only the Trio of the Minuet +is in the tonic minor. In Spitz the Andante is in the under-dominant, +the other movements being in the principal key. In Zach the Andante is +in the minor tonic, and the third movement in the upper-dominant. It +is well to notice that _in none of these four-movement sonatas are the +movements connected_. The same thing is to be observed in Beethoven, +with exception, perhaps, of Op. 110. In the _Oeuvres mêlées_ there is +only one instance of a sonata in _five_ movements by Umstatt. It +consists of an Allegro, Adagio (in the dominant), Fugue Allegro (in +the relative of dominant), a Minuet in the principal key, with Trio in +relative minor; and, finally, a Presto. By way of contrast, we may +recall the two sonatas of Hasse, in one movement, already mentioned, +and also the last of Emanuel Bach's six sonatas of 1760. + +The works of many of the composers named in connection with +differences in the number and order of movements are forgotten; and, +in some cases, indeed, their names are not even thought worthy of a +place in musical dictionaries. Yet these variations are of great +moment in the history of development. And this for a double reason. +First, many of the works must have been known to E. Bach, and yet he +seems to have remained, up to the last, faithful to the three-movement +plan. One or two of his sonatas have only two movements, none, +however, has four. Secondly, the experiment of extending the number to +more than three, practically passed unheeded by Dussek, Clementi, +Mozart,[31] Haydn,[32] and by all the composers of importance until +Beethoven. The last-named commenced with sonatas in four movements; +but, as will be seen in a later chapter, he afterwards became partial +to the scheme of three movements. + +Let us now consider, and quite briefly, movements in binary form; +again, in this matter, some instructive facts will be gathered from +the works of Bach's contemporaries. As in Scarlatti, so here we find +the first of the two sections into which such a movement is divided, +ending in one case[33] in the tonic, but, as a rule, in the dominant. +There is, however, an instance of the close in the under-dominant +(Müthel, No. 2 of the Sonatas of 1780), and in E. Bach, in the +relative minor of the under-dominant (Sonatas of 1780, No. 3, Finale). +In a minor key, the first section closed either in the key of the +relative major, or that of the dominant minor[34]--much more +frequently the former. + +Now, in proportion as the second part of the first section grew more +definite, so also did the approach to it. Everyone knows the pause so +frequently to be found in Haydn and Mozart, on the dominant of the +dominant, _i.e._ if the key of the piece were C-- + +[Music illustration] + +It is instructive to compare the less formal methods of approaching +the new key in E. Bach and his contemporary Paradies; with them it was +generally by means of a half-close. It must be remembered that E. Bach +frequently has a movement quite on Scarlatti lines, _i.e._ without a +definite second subject;[35] also that the second subject in Bach's +time was, as a rule, of secondary importance. But, curiously, in the +Finale of a sonata written by Leopold Mozart (father of the great +genius), after a half cadence on the dominant of the dominant, _tempo_ +and measure change (from Presto two-four, to Andante three-four, the +latter remaining until the end of the first section), and the same +occurs in the recapitulation section; by this means the second theme +was made specially prominent. In a sonata of Scarlatti's, in D, +commencing + +[Music illustration] + +there is a definite second subject in, by the way, the minor key of +the dominant, and it is divided from the first by two bars in common +time (a descending scale and a shake on a semibreve). And then again, +in No. 12 of the "Libro de XII. Sonatas Modernas para Clavicordio," +the second subject is divided from the first by two bars of common +time (the piece is in Scarlatti's favourite measure, three-eight), an +ascending scale and a shake. There are clear examples of a second +subject, besides E. Bach, in Eberlin, Fleischer, J.C. Bach, and J.C.F. +Bach. Yet even in Haydn's sonatas one cannot always speak of a second +subject. The further history of the development of the contents of the +second half of the first section shows, as it were, a struggle between +two ideals. One was _kinship_, _i.e._ the endeavour to present the +secondary matter in strong relationship to the opening one (the +opening notes or bars of a real second subject were, indeed, +frequently the same, allowance being made, of course, for difference +of key); the other was _contrast_, _i.e._ the endeavour to obtain +variety. Haydn was more affected by the first; Mozart by the second. +In Beethoven the two are happily combined. It is important to notice +the closing bars of many first sections of the period of which we are +speaking. For instance, in E. Bach, the first movement of the sonata +in each of the Collections of 1781 and 1783 has a concluding theme +(as in the sonata of Scarlatti, and frequently evolved from the +opening theme). Though in the complementary key, it cannot count as +"the second subject." It appears after the complementary key has been +ushered in by one cadence, and after having apparently run its course, +it has been wound up by another. Then, again, the portion between the +cadences just mentioned is at times filled with a true theme, so that +the concluding one, like the cave of Abraham's field of Machpelah, is +in reality an appendency. _Sometimes there are several_: the +enlargement of the exposition section by Beethoven, and still more +modern composers, so that it contains sometimes three, and even more +themes, is practically an exposition section on Scarlatti lines, only +on a larger scale: the figure has become a phrase, mere connecting +passages have acquired organic meaning. The second section of +Scarlatti's movement in binary form contained a few bars of +development and modulation. Then a return was made to the opening key +of the piece, _but never to the opening theme_; and in that key a +portion more or less great, more or less varied, according to +circumstances, was repeated. That return to the opening theme is, as +we have already said, the landmark which divides binary from sonata +form. + +In sonatas of the middle of the eighteenth century the modulation +section (in a major key) ended in various ways,--on the dominant +chord (of the principal key), on the tonic chord of the relative +minor, the under-dominant, or even on the tonic itself of the +principal key. Later on, Haydn and Mozart kept, for the most part, to +the dominant chord. Beethoven, on account of the distant, and often +abrupt, modulations of his middle sections, generally marked the +approach to the recapitulation by clear, and often prolonged, dominant +harmony; sometimes, however, the return of the principal theme comes +as a surprise. The recapitulation always remained more or less +faithful to the exposition. It is interesting to note how little the +character and contents of the recapitulation section have been +affected in modern times by the growth of the development section. In +the matter of balance the two sections of movements in binary form are +more satisfactory than the two sections (two, so far as outward +division is concerned) of modern sonatas. The grain of mustard-seed in +the parable grew into a tree, and so, likewise, have the few bars of +modulation of early days grown into an important section. However +difficult to determine the exact moment at which a movement in +sonata-form really ceased to be binary, there seems no doubt that that +moment has now passed. We have already noted when the change +commenced. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +JOHANN KUHNAU + + +This remarkable musician was born, April 1660,[36] at Geysing, where +his grandfather, who, on account of his religious opinions, had been +forced to leave Bohemia, had settled. Already in his ninth year young +Kuhnau showed gifts for science and art. He had a pleasing voice, and +first studied under Salomon Krügner, and afterwards under Christian +Kittel,[37] organist of the Elector at Dresden. His next teachers were +his brother Andreas Kuhnau, Alexander Hering,[38] and Vincenzo +Albrici. In 1680 the plague broke out at Dresden, and Kuhnau returned +to his parents. He then went to Zittau with a certain Erhard Titius, +who had been _Praefectus_ at the Kreuzschule, Dresden, and received +help from the court organist, Moritz Edelmann, also from the +"celebrated" Weise. A motet of Kuhnau's was given at Zittau under his +direction. After the death of Titius, Kuhnau resided for a time in the +house of J.J. von Hartig, judge at Zittau. In 1682 he went to Leipzig, +where D. Scherzer endeavoured to obtain for him the post of organist +at St. Thomas'; Kühnel, however, was appointed. The latter died in +1684, and was succeeded by Kuhnau, who in 1700 also became cantor of +St. Thomas'. He devoted much of his time to jurisprudence. Among other +things, he wrote a curious satire, entitled _Der musikalische +Quacksalber_, published in 1700. There remain in manuscript, +_Tractatus de tetrachordo_ and _Introductio ad compositionem +musicalem_. Kuhnau had many pupils; we know of two who afterwards +became distinguished men. The one was Christoph Graupner (1683-1760), +who in 1710 became capellmeister at Darmstadt. In 1722, on the death +of Kuhnau, Graupner,[39] who had been prize scholar under him, +presented his testimonials, was examined, and seemed likely to become +cantor as his teacher's successor. Meanwhile, however, John Sebastian +Bach offered himself as candidate, and as Dr. Pepusch before Handel at +Cannons in 1710, so did Graupner retire before his great rival. +Mattheson, in his _Ehren-Pforte_ (p. 410), tells us that "as a +composer for the clavier, Graupner may rank as one of the best of his +time." He wrote suites and sonatas for clavier. Johann Friedrich Fasch +(1688-1758 or 9), the second pupil, soon after leaving Leipzig, where +he had enjoyed Kuhnau's instruction from 1701-7, went to Italy, and on +his return studied for a short time with Graupner. Fasch then filled +various posts, until in 1722 (the very year indeed of Kuhnau's death) +he became capellmeister at Anhalt Zerbst, where he remained until his +death. His son, Carl Friedrich Christian, was the founder of the +Berlin _Singakademie_. In 1756 Emanuel Bach had something to do with +Fasch's appointment as clavecinist to Frederick the Great. The father, +who was then seventy years of age, and who, like old Sebastian Bach, +lived with the fear of God before his eyes, opposed the wish of his +son to enter the service of the infidel king. Emanuel, who wished the +younger Fasch to come to Berlin, wrote to the father to say "that in +the land over which Frederick the Great ruled, one could believe what +one liked; that the king himself was certainly not religious, but on +that very account esteemed everyone alike." Bach offered to take young +Fasch into his house, and to preserve him as much as possible from +temptation. With regard to Graupner, it would be interesting to know +whether in any of his sonatas (the autographs of which are, we +believe, at Darmstadt) he worked at all on Kuhnau's lines. And with +regard to Fasch, one would like to know whether he ever conversed with +Emanuel Bach about his father, who taught him theory, and about Johann +Kuhnau, his father's renowned teacher. It is from such by-paths of +history that one sometimes learns more than from statements showing +how son descended from sire, and how pupils were directly influenced +by their teachers. + +But it is as a musician that we are now concerned with Kuhnau, and, in +the first place, as the composer of the earliest known sonata for the +clavier. In 1695 he published at Leipzig-- + +"Sieben Partien aus dem Re, Mi, Fa, oder Terzia minore eines jedweden +Toni, benebenst einer _Sonata_ aus dem B. Denen Liebhabern dieses +Instrumenten zu gar besondern Vergnügen aufgesetzet." That is-- + +Seven Partitas based on the Re, Mi, Fa, or minor third of each mode, +together with a Sonata in B flat, for the especial gratification of +lovers of this instrument. + +With respect to this sonata, Kuhnau remarks in his preface: "I have +added at the end a Sonata in B flat, which will please amateurs; for +why should not such things be attempted on the clavier as well as on +other instruments?" In such modest fashion was ushered into the world +the first sonata for clavier, or, at any rate, the earliest with which +we are acquainted.[40] + +Mattheson, in _Das neu eröffnete Orchester_ (1713), speaks about the +_revival_ of clavier sonatas, so that it is not quite certain whether +that B flat Sonata was actually the first.[41] During the seventeenth +century, sonatas were written for various instruments, with a figured +bass for the cembalo. + +It will, of course, be interesting to trace the influences acting upon +Kuhnau. They were of two kinds: the one, Italian; the other, German. +Corelli deserves first mention; and next, the Italian organist and +composer, Vincenzo Albrici,[42] capellmeister to the Elector of Saxony +from 1664-88, and afterwards organist of St. Thomas', Leipzig, who is +known to have encouraged Kuhnau when young, and to have helped him to +learn the Italian language. But German influence must also have been +strong. Of Froberger special mention will be made later on. There was +one man, Diderich Becker, who published sonatas for violins and bass +already in 1668, and these, if we mistake not, must have been well +known to Kuhnau. Apart from the character of the music, the title of +the work, _Musikalische Frülings Früchte_, and the religious style of +the preface, remind one of Kuhnau's "Frische Früchte," also of his +preface to the "Bible" Sonatas. It is curious to find the quaint +expression "unintelligent birds" used first by Becker, and afterwards +by Kuhnau. + +Let us describe briefly the above-mentioned B flat Sonata. The first +movement is in common time, but the composer gave it no heading. It is +generally supposed (Becker, Rimbault, Pauer) to be an Allegro; +_moderato_ might well be added, for the stately, Handelian-like (the +anachronism must be excused) music will scarcely bear a rapid _tempo_. +The movement opens with an eight-bar phrase, closing on the dominant. +Then the music, evolved from previous material, passes rapidly through +various related keys. After this modulation section there is a cadence +to F major, and in this, the dominant key, something like a new +subject appears, though it is closely allied to the first. A return is +soon made to the principal key, but there is no repetition of the +opening theme. After a cadence ending on the tonic (B flat), and two +coda-like bars, comes a fugal movement, still in the same key. The +vigorous subject, the well-contrasted counterpoint, the interesting +episodes, and many attractive details help one to forget the monotony +of key so prevalent in the days in which this sonata was written. +This, and indeed other fugues of Kuhnau show strong foreshadowings of +Handel and Bach; of this matter, however, more anon. The counterpoint +to the third entry of the subject is evolved from the opening subject +of the sonata. The third movement consists of a fine Adagio in E flat, +in the key of the subdominant and in three-four time. Then follows a +short Allegro in three-four time, of polyphonic character. At the +close of the movement Kuhnau has written the opening chords of the +first movement with the words _Da Capo_. A similar indication is to be +found in one of the "Frische Früchte" Sonatas. This repetition, also +the third movement leading directly to the fourth, and the thematic +connection mentioned above, would seem to show that the composer +regarded the various sections of his sonata as parts of a whole. + +In addition, Kuhnau wrote thirteen sonatas. The "Frische Clavier +Früchte," or "Sieben Suonaten von guter Invention u. Manier auf dem +Clavier zu spielen," were published in 1696, and later editions in +1710 and 1724. In a quaint preface the composer tells us that in +naming his "Fresh Fruits" "sonatas," he kept in mind all kinds of +_inventiones_ and changes (Veränderungen) by which so-called sonatas +are superior to mere partitas. Already a century before this preface +was written, Praetorius had distinguished between two classes of +instrumental music: the one, grave; the other, gay. The composer has +also a word to say about the graces or ornaments, the "sugar which +sweetens the fruits." In modern reprints of Kuhnau the sugar is +sometimes forgotten.[43] These "Frische Früchte" were followed by six +"Bible" Sonatas in 1700. The former, both as regards form and +contents, are remarkable. Kuhnau was a man of deeper thought and +loftier conception than Emanuel Bach, but he was fettered by fugal +forms,[44] and was fighting against them much in the same spirit in +which Beethoven, a century later, fought against sonata-form, in the +most general sense of that term. Beethoven was not only the more +gifted, but he profited by the experiments of his predecessors, and he +enjoyed the advantage of a vastly improved technique; Haydn, Mozart, +Clementi, and others were the stepping-stones by which he rose to +higher things. Kuhnau's attempts at sonata writing were bold, often +rugged; and his experiments in programme-music, extraordinary. The +latter were soon forgotten, while the clever, clear-formed sonatas of +Emanuel Bach served as a gratification to the age in which he lived, +and as guides to the composers who followed him. The "Frische +Früchte," standing between Corelli and Emanuel Bach, are of interest. +The fugal element is still strong; and we find, not so much the smooth +style of Corelli as the vigorous style of Froberger and other +composers of North Germany. In character of subject-matter and in form +there is decided advance as compared with the B flat Sonata. Kuhnau +still seems rather limited in figures, and therefore repeats +himself;[45] then again his movements do not always show gradation of +interest. Their order and number are, indeed, perplexing, and not +always satisfactory. The 2nd Sonata, in D, for instance, commences +with a fine Allegro, followed first by a short Adagio, commencing in +the relative minor, and intermixed with short presto passages, and +then by a lively movement in six-eight time. These three would form an +admirable sonata, yet the composer does not end here. There is still +another short Adagio, and a concluding movement; and in spite of some +fine passages, these appendages form a decided anti-climax. Similar +instances are to be found in the other sonatas. + +Now for a few words concerning their form. Some of the opening +movements (for instance, those of Nos. 1, 2) are practically based on +fugue-form, with which, by the way, sonata-form is allied. + +The first movement of No. 4, in C minor, is of interest, both in its +resemblances to, and differences from, modern sonata-form. It has +_four_ sections:-- + + _a._ Eleven bars, beginning and ending in C minor, and + containing a characteristic theme. + + _b._ Eleven bars, beginning in E flat (_i.e._ relative major + of opening key) and closing in G minor (_i.e._ key of minor + dominant). It contains a theme rhythmically allied to the + principal theme. _This section is repeated._ + + _c._ Nine-and-a-half bars, opening in C minor, and passing + to, and closing in E flat. It contains imitative passages + evolved from the principal theme. + + _d._ Exact repetition of first section, only with a close on + the major chord. + +The last movement of the 6th Sonata, in B flat, offers a still more +striking resemblance to sonata-form; the various sections are better +balanced; the middle or development section (with its close strettos) +is particularly noticeable; also the recapitulation, which is not +literal, as in the above example. The slow movements--occasionally +very short--follow no particular plan. The fugal element is always +more or less present, but some of the other movements have somewhat of +a suite character; No. 6, indeed, opens with a _Ciaccona_. There is a +certain formality about Kuhnau's music, and, for reasons already +mentioned, he is occasionally monotonous. But there is an independent +spirit running through his sonatas, and a desire to escape from the +trammels of tradition which are quite refreshing. And there is a +nobility in the style and skill in the workmanship which remind us of +the great Bach. There are, indeed, resemblances to Bach, also to +Handel. Scheibe, in his _Critischer Musikus_, mentions Kuhnau, in +conjunction with Keiser, Telemann, and Handel, as one of the greatest +composers of the eighteenth century. The mention of Kuhnau together +with Handel deserves note. The constant discoveries which are being +made of Handel's indebtedness to other composers suggest the thought +that perhaps Kuhnau was also laid under contribution. No one, we +think, can hear the "Bible" Sonatas without coming to the conclusion +that Handel was acquainted with the works of his illustrious +predecessor. We will just place side by side three passages from the +"Bible" Sonatas of Kuhnau with three from a harpsichord suite of +Handel-- + +[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 2. KUHNAU.] + +[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Ouverture. +HANDEL.] + +[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU.] + +[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille. +HANDEL.] + +[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU.] + +[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille. +HANDEL.] + +It should be noticed that the three Handel quotations are all from the +same suite. We do not mean to infer that the above passages from +Handel are plagiarisms, but merely that the Kuhnau music was, +unconsciously, in his mind when he wrote them. + +C.F. Becker, in his _Hausmusik in Deutschland_, has suggested that +these sonatas were known also to Mozart, and begs us to look on this +picture, the opening of a Vivace movement in Kuhnau's 6th Sonata:-- + +[Music illustration] + +and on this, from _The Magic Flute_:-- + +[Music illustration] + +Faisst, however, justly observes that though the harmonic basis is the +same in both, with Kuhnau the under-part is melody, whereas with +Mozart it is the reverse. He also accuses Becker--and justly, as +readers may see by turning to the passage in the _Zauberflöte_--of not +having represented the passage quite honestly. Reminiscence hunters +need to be very careful. + +In these sonatas, as compared with the one in B flat, the thematic +material is of greater importance; and so, too, in the slow movements +the writing is simpler and more melodious. + +The rapid rate at which they were composed deserves mention. Kuhnau +seems to have had the ready pen of a Schubert. In the preface to these +"Frische Früchte" he says: "I wrote these seven sonatas straight off, +though attending at the same time to my duties (he was _juris +practicus_, also organist of St. Thomas'), so that each day one was +completed. Thus, this work, which I commenced on the Monday of one +week, was brought to an end by the Monday of the following week." + +Kuhnau's second (and, so far as we know, last) set of sonatas bears +the following title:-- + +Musikalische Vorstellung +Einiger +Biblischer Historien +In 6 Sonaten +Auf dem Klavier zu spielen +Allen Liebhabern zum Vergnügen +Verfüget +von +Johann Kuhnauen. + +That is-- + +Musical Representation +of some +Bible Stories +In 6 Sonatas +To be performed on the Clavier +For the gratification of amateurs +Arranged +by +Johann Kuhnau. + +Kuhnau was not the originator of programme-music. In the so-called +_Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book_,[46] in the Fitzwilliam Library, there +is a Fantasia by John Munday, who died 1630, in which there is given a +description of weather both fair and foul. Again, Froberger, who died +in 1667, is said to have been able, _on the clavier_, to describe +incidents, ideas, and feelings; there is, indeed, in existence a +battle-piece of his. And then Buxtehude (_d._ 1707) wrote a set of +seven Suites for clavier, in which he is said to have represented the +nature and characteristics of the planets; these are, unfortunately, +lost. With Froberger's music, at any rate, Kuhnau was familiar. In a +long preface to these Bible stories, the composer refers to the +subject of programme-music. He reminds us how from ancient times +musicians have tried to rival the masters of rhetoric, sculpture, and +painting in terms of their own art. And he expressly refers to +programme pieces, and even to sonatas by the "distinguished +Froberger[47] and other excellent composers." The essence of his long, +elaborate, and, at times, somewhat confused argument (it must be +remembered that he was discussing a very difficult subject; and, also, +that he was the first to write about it) is as follows:--He believes +music capable by itself of producing wonderful effects, but in special +cases, requiring the assistance of words. Music, he tells us, can +express sadness or joy; for that no words are necessary. When, +however, some individual--as in his sonatas--is referred to, words +become essential, _i.e._ if one is to distinguish between the +lamentation of a sad Hezekiah, a weeping Peter, or a mourning +Jeremiah. In other language, words are necessary to render the emotion +definite. Kuhnau gives a quaint illustration of the absolute necessity +of words in certain cases; and that illustration is of particular +interest, inasmuch as it points to still earlier, and possibly, +clavier sonatas. "I remember," says our author, "hearing a few years +ago a sonata composed by a celebrated Chur-Fürst capellmeister, to +which he had given the title, 'La Medica.' After--so far as I can +recall--describing the whines of the patient and of his relations, the +running of the latter to the doctor, the pouring forth of their +sorrow, there came, finally, a Gigue, under which stood the words, +'The patient is progressing favourably, but has not quite recovered +his health.' At this some mocked, and were of opinion that, had it +been in his power, the author might well have depicted the joy at a +perfect recovery. So far, however, as I could judge, there was good +reason for adding words to the music. The sonata commenced in D minor; +in the Gigue there was constant modulation towards G minor. At the +final close, in D, the ear was not satisfied, and expected the closing +cadence in G." In this wise was the partial recovery expressed in +tones, and explained in words. + +Except for the unmistakable seriousness of the author, this +description might be taken as a joke, just as in one of the "Bible" +Sonatas the deceit of Jacob is expressed by a deceptive cadence; but +such extreme examples serve to emphasise the author's declaration +that, at times, words are indispensable. Before noticing the sonatas +themselves, one more quotation in reference to the same subject must +be made from this interesting preface. The humblest scholar, Kuhnau +tells us, knows the rule forbidding consecutive perfect consonances, +and he speaks of certain strict _censores_ who expose the clumsiness +of _musical poets_ who have refused to be bound by that rule. "But," +says Kuhnau, in lawyer-like language: "_Cessante ratione prohibitionis +cessat ipsa prohibitio_." The term _musical poets_ (the italics are +ours) is a remarkable one; Kuhnau himself, of course, was one of them. + +Philipp Spitta, in his _Life of J.S. Bach_, devotes one short +paragraph to the Bible stories, and gives one or two brief quotations +from the second; but they certainly deserve a longer notice. + +The 1st Sonata is entitled "The Fight between David and Goliath." It +opens with a bold section, intended, as we learn from a +superscription, to represent _the bravado of Goliath_. The giant's +characteristic theme, on which the whole section is built, is as +follows:-- + +[Music illustration] + +Then follows a section in A minor. A Chorale represents the prayer to +God of the terrified Israelites, while the palpitating quaver +accompaniment stands for the terror which seized them at sight of the +giant; the harmonies are very striking. This Chorale setting should be +compared with one by Bach (Spitta's _Life of Bach_, English edition, +vol. i. p. 216), said to owe its existence to the influence of Georg +Böhm, organist at Lüneburg at the commencement of the eighteenth +century. Next comes a little pastoral movement (C major, three-four +time) expressive of David's courage and of his confidence in God. Then +a tone-picture is given of the encounter; the heavy tread of the +Philistine is heard in the bass, while semiquaver passages, evolved +from a figure in the preceding movement, evidently portray the +spirited youth. One realistic bar scarcely needs the explanation given +by Kuhnau that it is the slinging of the stone which smote the +Philistine in his forehead; and the same may be said of the "Goliath +falls" in the following bar:-- + +[Music illustration: Il combáttere frà l'uno e l'altro, e la loro +contésa. Vien tirata la selce colla frombola nella fronte del +gigante. Casca Goliath.] + +This section, limited to sixteen bars, is not only an early, but a +notable specimen of programme-music; it is realistic, but not in the +least ridiculous. Rapid passages with points of imitation tell of the +flight of the Philistines. A bright movement (still in C) bears the +superscription, "The joy of the Israelites at their victory"; in it +there is an allusion to the pastoral movement. Maidens then advance, +with timbrels and instruments of music, to meet the victor, and the +sonata concludes with a stately Minuet, similar in character to the +Minuet in the Overture to Handel's _Samson_; the people are dancing +and singing for joy. + +The 2nd Sonata presents to us a very different picture. Here we have +the melancholy of Saul driven away by means of music. There are a few +realistic effects, such as the paroxysms of madness of Saul, and the +casting of the javelin; but the subject is one which readily lends +itself to real musical treatment. The music of the 1st Sonata was +principally objective; here, however, it is principally subjective. In +the first part of the work the music depicts, now the sadness, now the +rage of the monarch. The opening is worthy of Bach, and presents, +indeed, a foreshadowing of the opening of the 16th Prelude of the +"Well-tempered Clavier." Spitta mentions the fine fugue, with the +subject standing for the melancholy, the counter-subject for the +madness of the king; and he justly remarks that these two images of +Saul "contain the poetical germ of a truly musical development." The +"dimly brooding" theme of the fugue brings to one's mind the "Kyrie +eleison" fugue of Mozart's _Requiem_; also the theme of the Allegro of +Beethoven's Sonata in C minor (Op. 111), notwithstanding the fact that +Kuhnau's is slow and sad, but Beethoven's, fast and fiery. Here is the +first half of the former-- + +[Music illustration] + +Let not our readers be deceived by the word "fugue." The movement is +no mere formal scholastic piece of writing such as one might expect; +the preluding of David on his harp, the "javelin" episode, the +paroxysms of rage give to it rather the character of a free fantasia. +One word with regard to the paroxysm passages. We quoted above a +sentence from the preface respecting the violation of the rule +respecting consecutive consonances by certain "poet musicians." +Kuhnau, under this plural mask, was, as we have mentioned, certainly +referring to himself, for in another part of the preface he specially +calls attention to the consecutive fifths by which he depicts the +disordered mind of King Saul. This first movement, opening in G minor, +ends on the chord of G major. We now come to a movement (B flat) +entitled "The Refreshing Melody from David's Harp." The following is +part of David's soothing theme:-- + +[Music illustration] + +At first it is not heard in its entirety. The sweet singer of Israel +plays it, or sometimes only the first two bars, in various keys, and +with varied harmonisation, as if watching the king and trying the +effect on him of different modulations. Besides in the principal key, +it appears several times, and in succession, in the relative minor, +then in the minor key of the supertonic. The key of the subdominant +enters with refreshing effect; after that, a return is made to the +principal key, which continues until the close of the movement. +Between each delivery of the theme, occur passages similar to the +following:-- + +[Music illustration] + +as if to denote the restlessness of the king. And as the character of +the music, especially towards the close, suggests _piano_ and +_pianissimo_, it would seem as though intended to express the gradual +healing power of the music. As a piece of abstract music, the movement +appears long, but not if the dramatic situation be kept well in mind. +At length the sounds of the harp cease, and a closing, peaceful, and +dignified movement in G minor tells of Saul's now tranquil state of +mind. + +The 3rd Sonata, entitled "The Marriage of Jacob," opens with a +delightful Gigue; over it stands the superscription, "The joy of the +family of Laban at the arrival of their relation Jacob." The beginning +of the second section has, as usual, the subject inverted. The music +is gay and sparkling. Then comes a section illustrative of Jacob's +seven years' service for a wife. The music expresses effort and +fatigue, but by way of musical contrast sprightly bars intervene from +time to time, to represent happy moments when the lovers meet. Further +on we have the bridal-song of the companions of Rachel: a short, +quaint, and delicate movement in minor and in triple time. It +commences thus:-- + +[Music illustration] + +A short section follows, full of rapid semiquaver passages and points +of imitation (such a mode of procedure is frequently adopted by the +composer); and then comes a sudden change in the character of the +music. No _tempo_ is marked, but, evidently, it must not be rapid. It +is a tone-picture of the deception practised by Laban upon Jacob when +he substituted Leah in place of Rachel. At first, it is a free +recitative. A quotation of a few bars will give a good idea of the +extraordinary harmonies and rhythmical figures:-- + +[Music illustration] + +And again-- + +[Music illustration] + +The Fugue, short and vigorous, has a characteristic theme:-- + +[Music illustration] + +A new section expresses Jacob's happiness until he discovers the +deceit practised on him. The exact moment of displeasure is indicated +by a superscription; the latter, however, was scarcely necessary--the +notes speak for themselves. For there are reminiscences of the Laban +recitative, of the fugue theme, and also (in augmentation) of the +counter-subject. This is, indeed, an early instance of the employment +of representative themes. The composer then naïvely orders the section +descriptive of the wedding festivities to be repeated, to illustrate +the second marriage of Jacob with the beloved Rachel. + +The 4th Sonata deals with Hezekiah's mortal sickness and recovery. It +is shorter than the preceding ones, and of simpler structure. It opens +with slow, sad music: the prophet of God has summoned the king to +prepare for death. His ardent prayer to heaven is naturally expressed +by a well-known Chorale, supported by most effective polyphonic +harmony. After a short thematic working of a figure from the Chorale, +the latter is submitted to fresh treatment: the movement (in six-four +time) somewhat resembles the old Corrente. The sonata concludes with a +lively movement in binary form. It is intended to depict the king's +joy at his recovery. There are a few bars _adagio_ in each section: +Hezekiah recalls the past. This is the only one of the sonatas which, +as abstract music, would be satisfactory without any programme. + +No. 5 is entitled "Gideon, the Saviour of Israel." From a musical +point of view it is the least interesting of the set, yet it contains +some curious programme effects. It will be remembered that a sign +from heaven was given to Gideon: the fleece was to be covered with +dew, but the ground to remain dry; the next night, however, the order +of things was reversed. Kuhnau expresses the latter by giving a theme +in _contrary motion_. This may almost be described as punning in +music. The composer, however, meant it seriously; from the tone of his +preface, and the narration, with comments, which he has prefixed to +each sonata, in addition to the explanatory words over the music +itself, it is clear that his aim was to elucidate and intensify the +Bible stories by means of his art. He was a man, apparently, of deep +religious belief. + +The battle-picture is a curiosity, but, as music, of little value. The +flight of the Midianites is depicted in the following primitive +manner:-- + +[Music illustration] + +The 6th (and last) Sonata bears the title, "The Tomb of Jacob." We +have, at first, mournful music: the sons of the Patriarch are standing +round the deathbed. At length Jacob dies, and they "ponder over the +consequences of the sad event." A quiet, expressive theme + +[Music illustration] + +is then treated fugally, and with marked effect. Then comes the +journey from Egypt to the land of Canaan. The bass, progressing in +quavers, expresses motion. From time to time a curious syncopated +semiquaver figure is heard in the upper part: it may be intended to +represent sobbing. The following quotation, including one of these +"sobbing" passages, will give a good idea of the character of this +section-- + +[Music illustration] + +A short, solemn phrase is headed, "The Burial of Israel." Then a +finely worked-out fugal section depicts the great grief of the +bystanders. It is in four parts, but in one place the addition of a +fifth part and stretto treatment render the feeling of grief more +intense. A peaceful closing section in the major key and in triple +time expresses the consoled minds of the survivors. + +From this _résumé_ of these "Bible" Sonatas, it will be seen that they +have nothing in common with the ordinary sonata of the time in which +they were written. They were bold attempts at programme-music; and, +as we have already said, the form is entirely determined by the +subject-matter. + +In the old edition of these "Bible" Sonatas, in addition to the +preface of which we have made mention, Kuhnau has related the Bible +stories in his own characteristic language. We give a translation of +the first two, as specimens. + + +I. _The Combat between David and Goliath_ + +The portrait given in Scripture of great Goliath is something quite +uncommon: a monster of nature appears, a giant, tall as a tree. Six +ells will not suffice to measure his length; the high helmet of brass +which he wears on his head makes him appear still taller; and the +scaly coat of mail, the greaves of brass placed about his legs, +together with the enormously heavy shield which he carries, also his +strong spear, tipped with iron, like unto a weaver's beam, +sufficiently show that he is of mighty strength, and that all these +exceedingly heavy loads do not inconvenience him in the slightest. If +the mere description of this man creates fear, how much greater will +not the terror of the poor Israelites be when the living image of this +their enemy appears before them. For he stands before them in his +brazen armour, rivalling the sun in brilliancy, makes with the +rustling of his armour a terrible din, and snorts and bellows as if he +would devour them at one mouthful; his words sound in their ears like +dreadful thunder. He holds in contempt his enemies and their equipage, +and demands that a hero be sent out to him from their camp; this +combat is to show whose shoulders shall bear the yoke of bondage. By +this means he imagines that the sceptre will soon pass from the +Israelites to the Philistines. But a miracle is about to happen! When +courage fails all the heroes of Israel, when the giant has only to +show himself, to cause them to flee, when, also, the terrible warrior +continues, according to his custom, to pour contempt on the enemy, +David, a slim, courageous stripling, a simple shepherd-boy, then +appears, and offers to fight the bully. He is accused of rashness. +This, however, troubles David but little; he adheres firmly to his +heroic resolution, and seeks audience of King Saul. By God's help, he +had fought with a bear and a lion who had taken from him a lamb, had +snatched the prey from the jaws of these cruel beasts, and, further, +had slain them. Thus he hoped would end the struggle with this bear +and lion of a Philistine. Strongly relying upon God, he advances +towards the powerful giant, with a sling, and with some specially +selected pebbles. Then the Philistines think to themselves, "Now will +the great hero blow away the enemy like a speck of dust, or kill him +as he would a fly." All at once Goliath becomes terrible in his rage, +and raves, uttering frightful oaths at David, declaring that he is +treated as if he were a dog, and that David comes to him with +shepherd's staff, and not with weapons worthy of a warrior. David, +however, is fearless. He relies on his God, and prophesies to the +enemy that, though without sword, spear, or shield, he will cast +Goliath to the ground; that he will cut off his head, and leave his +carcase as food for birds and wild beasts. Hereupon David rushes at +the Philistine, wounds him in the forehead with a sharp stone cast +from his sling, so that Goliath falls to the ground. Before he has +time to rise, David, making use of his opportunity, slays him with his +own sword, and bears away from the field of battle, the hewn-off head +as a trophy of victory. As formerly the Israelites fled before the +snorting and stamping of the great Goliath, so now flee the +Philistines in consequence of the victory of young David. Thus they +give opportunity to the Israelites to pursue them, and to fill the +roads with the corpses of the slain fugitives. It is easy to imagine +how great must have been the joy of the victorious Hebrews. In proof +of it, we learn how women came forth from the cities of Judea, with +drum, fiddle, and other musical instruments, to meet the victors, and +sang alternately: "Saul hath slain his thousands, but David his ten +thousands." + +Thus the sonata expresses-- + +1. The stamping and defying of Goliath. + +2. The terror of the Israelites, and their prayer to God at sight of +the terrible enemy. + +3. The courage of David, his desire to humble the pride of the giant, +and his childlike trust in God. + +4. The contest of words between David and Goliath, and the contest +itself, in which Goliath is wounded in the forehead by a stone, so +that he falls to the ground and is slain. + +5. The flight of the Philistines, and how they are pursued by the +Israelites, and slain by the sword. + +6. The exultation of the Israelites over their victory. + +7. The praise of David, sung by the women in alternate choirs. + +8. And, finally, the general joy, expressing itself in hearty dancing +and leaping. + + +II. _David curing Saul by means of Music_ + +Among the heavy blows dealt to us at times by God, for holy reasons, +are to be counted bodily sicknesses. Of these one can in a real sense +say that they cause pain. Hence the invention of that physician of +Padua was by no means ridiculous, who thus represented in +picture-form, over his house-door, the various sicknesses: a man +attacked by many dogs and gesticulating wildly, through pain. To each +of these dogs was given a name, and each acted accordingly. The dog, +Gout, was biting the man's foot; the dog, Pleurisy, his loins; Stone, +his kidneys; Colic, his belly, and so on. Finally, a great sheep-dog, +representing daily fever, had thrown the man to the ground. The +inventor could easily have known (for that he did not require any +special experience) that sicknesses act upon men in a manner not less +gentle. By the exercise of patience, pain can at length be conquered, +although the soul, so intimately combined with the body, must feel it +not a little. But when the soul is attacked by sickness, patience +always gives way; for bodily, cannot in any way be compared with +mental, suffering. Inner anguish shows itself in restless gestures. +Scripture takes us into a lazaretto of such afflicted persons. Among +others, we meet with a royal and singular patient. Saul is his name. +Of him we read: "The spirit of the Lord departed from Saul, and he was +vexed by an evil spirit from the Lord." Where God is absent, and the +Evil One present, there must dwell all manner of evil. The hateful +aspect of this man in his paroxysms of pain can readily be imagined. +His eyes turn the wrong way, and sparks of fire, so to speak, dart out +one after the other; his face is so disfigured, that human features +can scarce be recognised; his heart casts forth, as it were, a wild, +stormy sea of foam. Distrust, jealousy, envy, hatred, and fear burst +forth from him. Especially does the javelin, constantly flying from +his hand, show that his heart rages fiercely with anger. To sum up: +his soul-sickness is so great that the marks of hellish tortures can +be clearly traced. At lucid intervals (_lucidis intervallis_) or quiet +hours, the tortured king realises his indescribable evil; and he +therefore seeks after a man who can cure him. But under such +extraordinary circumstances can help be hoped for? From human arts, +Saul could not expect any salvation. But God sometimes works wonders +among men. So he sends to him a noble musician, the excellent David, +and puts uncommon power into his harp-playing. For when Saul, so to +speak, is sweating in the hot bath of sadness, and David plays only +one little piece, the king is at once refreshed, and brought into a +state of repose. + +Thus the sonata represents-- + +1. Saul's sadness and madness. + +2. David's refreshing harp-playing, and + +3. Tranquillity restored to the king's mind. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU + + +In the year 1637 was born at Massa de Valnevola (Tuscany) Bernardo +Pasquini,[48] who is said to have been one of the most distinguished +performers on the organ and also the harpsichord. He studied under +Loreto Vittori and Antonio Cesti, but his real master was evidently +Palestrina, whose scores young Bernardo studied with fervent zeal. He +was appointed organist of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, and, according +to the monument erected to his memory by his nephew, Bernardo +Ricordati, and his pupil, Bernardo Gaffi, in the church of San Lorenzo +in Lucina of that city, the composer was for a time in the service of +Battista, Prince Borghese. The inscription runs thus:-- + +"D.O.M. + +"Bernardo Pasquino Hetrusco e Massa Vallis Nevolæ Liberianæ Basilicæ +S.P.Q.R. Organedo viro probitate vitæ et moris lepore laudatissimo qui +Excell. Jo. Bap. Burghesii Sulmonensium Principis clientela et +munificentia honestatus musicis modulis apud omnes fere Europæ +Principes nominis gloriam adeptus anno sal. MDCCX. die XXII. Novembris +S. Ceciliæ sacro ab Humanis excessit ut cujus virtutes et studia +prosecutus fuerat in terris felicius imitaretur in coelis. Bernardus +Gaffi discipulus et Bernardus Ricordati ex sorore nepos præceptori et +avunculo amantissimo moerentes monumentum posuere. Vixit annos LXXII. +menses XI. dies XIV." + +Pasquini enjoyed reputation as a dramatic composer, and the success of +an opera of his performed at the Teatro Capranica, Rome, during the +festivities in honour of Queen Christina of Sweden (1679), is +specially noted; or, according to Mendel, he wrote two successful +operas, one for the opening of the Teatro Capranica, and a second for +the festivals. He also wrote an oratorio: _La Sete di Christo_. +Pasquini died in the year 1710. + +But, it will be asked, Why is he mentioned in a book which is +concerned with the sonata? It is known that he was a skilful performer +on the harpsichord, and some Toccatas and Suites of his appear to have +been published in a collection of clavier music at Amsterdam in 1704. +Fétis, in his _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, even states that +he wrote sonatas for _gravicembalo_. Here are his words:-- + +"Landsberg possédait un recueil manuscrit original de pièces d'orgue +de Pasquini, dont j'ai extrait deux toccates, composées en 1697. Ce +manuscrit est indiqué d'une manière inexacte dans le catalogue de la +bibliothèque de ce professeur (Berlin, 1859) de cette manière: +Pasquini (Bernardo) _Sonate pei Gravicembalo_ (libro prezioso). Volume +grosso _E scritto di suo (sua) mano in questo libro_. Ce même +catalogue indiqué aussi de Bernard Pasquini: _Saggi di +contrapunto_--Anno 1695. Volume forte. _E scritto di suo (sua) mano in +questo libro_. Malheureusement ces précieux ouvrages sont passés en +Amérique avec toute la bibliothèque musicale du professeur Landsberg." + +Whether these precious volumes actually went to America seems +doubtful. Anyhow both volumes are now safely housed in the Berlin +Royal Library. It may be mentioned that the first contains no real +sonata: its contents consist principally of suites, toccatas, +variations, and fugues. + +In the story of Italian instrumental music, Pasquini is little more +than a name. The fourth volume of A.W. Ambros' _History of Music_ +concludes thus:--"So ist uns von dem gerühmten Meister nichts +geblieben, als seine Name u. seine stolze Grabschrift in San Lorenzo +in Lucina." (Thus of the famous master (_i.e._ Pasquini) nothing +remains except his name and his proud monument in San Lorenzo in +Lucina). The writer of the article "D. Scarlatti," in Sir George +Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, remarks that the famous +harpsichord player and composer "has been called a pupil of Bernardo +Pasquini." But he considers this "most improbable, seeing that +Pasquini was of the school of Palestrina, and wrote entirely in the +contrapuntal style, whereas Domenico Scarlatti's chief interest is +that he was the first composer who studied the peculiar +characteristics of the free style of the harpsichord." + +Of Pasquini as a performer on the harpsichord, Mattheson relates "how +on his visit to Rome he found Corelli playing the violin, Pasquini the +harpsichord, and Gattani the lute, all in the orchestra of the +Opera-house." And, once more, in the notice of Pasquini in the same +dictionary, we are informed that the composer "exercised a certain +influence on German musicians." In C.F. Weitzmann's _Geschichte des +Clavierspiels_ there is an interesting reference to some Toccatas of +Pasquini published in "Toccates et suites pour le clavecin de MM. +Pasquini, Paglietti et Gaspard Kerle, Amsterdam, Roger, 1704." A +Toccata was published (most probably one of those in the above work) +by I. Walsh in his + +Second Collection +of +Toccates, Vollentarys and Fugues +made on purpose for the +Organ and Harpsichord +Compos'd by +Pasquini, Polietti +and others +The most Eminent Foreign Authors. + +Of Polietti,[49] court organist at Vienna before J.S. Bach was born, +Emil Naumann has, by the way, given an interesting account in an +article "Ein bisher unbekannt gebliebener Vorgänger Seb. Bach's unter +den Italienern" (_Neue Berl. Mus.-Ztg._ Jahrgang 29). The Toccatas of +Pasquini, published by Roger, and a so-called "Sonata,"[50] printed by +Weitzmann in the work just referred to, constitute, we believe, all +that has hitherto appeared in print of this composer. + +And yet surely Pasquini may lay claim to a place in the history of +instrumental music and the sonata, for he not only wrote suites, but +also sonatas for the harpsichord, or, to be quite exact, for two +harpsichords. Some, at any rate, of his music is to be found in the +British Museum. There are three volumes (Add. MSS. 31,501-3). On the +fly-leaf of the first is written:-- + +"Ad Usum Bernardi Felicij Ricordati de Baggiano in Etruria." + +Then comes in pencil a note probably made when the volumes came into +the possession of the British Museum:-- + +"These are original MSS. by the hand of Bernardo Pasquini, 1637-1710, +the greatest organist of Italy in the second half of the 17th century, +and written for his nephew B. Ricordati. They are the only MSS. of +Pasquini known to be in Europe. This vol. is dated at the end, Dec. +3, 1704; at the beginning, May 6, 1703." + +And now for its contents. The first piece is a short suite,[51] +consisting of a Tastata (the old term for Prelude), a Corrente and an +Aria; and it shows that Pasquini could write homophonic as well as +polyphonic music. Then follows a piece in the key of D major, headed + + "A due Cembali, 1704, Bernardo Pasquini," + +which consists of three movements. First one commencing with chords, +after which, fugal imitation. Next we have a fugal movement, like the +preceding one, in common time; lastly, one in six-eight time. All +three movements are in the same key. The part for each cembalo is +written on a separate stave, the one below the other. Only the bass +notes are written, and the upper parts are indicated by figures. But +this will be clearer presently, for we shall give one or more +illustrations. At the close of the six-eight movement is written +_fine_, and on the following page another piece begins in C major, +marked merely 2a, commencing thus:-- + +[Music illustration] + +This theme reminds one of Bach's Adagio from the 2nd Organ Concerto-- + +[Music illustration] + +or even Handel's "Along the Monster Atheist strode."[52] The movements +of this second piece are similar in structure and character to those +of the first. Next we have a piece of lighter character in two +movements, and, apparently, for one cembalo: there is, of course, only +one bass part (figured). At the commencement is merely marked _Basso +continuo_. The following piece is headed 3a Sonata (3rd Sonata). It is +in the key of D minor, and it has three movements, all in the same +key. Now, as all the pieces for _two cembali_ in the volume after this +are marked as sonatas, coupled with the fact that before this 3rd +Sonata there are two pieces for two cembali, the latter of which is +marked 2a (second), we may conclude that these two are also sonatas. +The piece for one cembalo between the 2nd and 3rd Sonatas is, as we +have remarked, of lighter character, and was possibly considered a +suite. After the 3rd Sonata comes a fourth, then a _Basso continuo_ +(containing, however, by exception, more than one suite), and so on, +alternately, until the 14th Sonata is reached. Then follows the last +piece in the volume. The superscription, "For one _or_ two +cembali,"[53] leads us to believe that the preceding _Basso continuo_ +numbers were intended for one cembalo. It should be stated that +movements in binary form are rare among the sonatas, frequent among +the _Basso continuo_ pieces,--another reason for considering the +latter suites. + +The structure of the 3rd Sonata[54] is extremely simple. The first, +probably an Allegro moderato, opens with a bold characteristic phrase, +which is repeated in the second bar by the second cembalo; points of +imitation, in fact, continue throughout the movement. At the seventh +bar there is modulation to the dominant, and at the ninth, to the +subdominant, in which the opening theme recurs. A stately antiphonal +passage leads back to the principal key, and the movement concludes +with a cadence such as we find in many a work of Bach's or Handel's. +The Adagio opens with short phrases for each instrument alternately. A +new subject in the relative major is treated in imitative fashion. +After a return to the opening theme, also an allusion to the second +theme, a new figure is introduced, but the movement soon comes to a +close. This slow movement brings to one's mind "The Lord is a Man of +War," and the major section of the duet, "Thou in Thy Mercy," in +Handel's _Israel in Egypt_. The third movement, in structure, much +resembles the first; the music is broad and vigorous. The closing bars +suggest the stringendo passage and presto bars in the coda of the +Scherzo of the "Choral Symphony." Of course it is disappointing to +have only the bass parts for each instrument. The volume, as we have +already stated, was for the use of Ricordati, and probably the uncle +and nephew performed these sonatas together. Musicians will be able to +write out the figured basses, and thus form some idea of the music. +The figures are an outline of what was in the composer's mind; but +these basses, like those of Bach and Handel, so simple, so clear to +the composers who penned them, will always remain more or less a _crux +criticorum_. It will be noticed that the three movements, as in some +of Corelli's sonatas, are all in the same key. + +We now give the opening bars of the three movements of the piece for +one or two cembali:-- + +[Music illustration] + +All the other sonatas are more or less after the pattern of the one +given. The other two volumes contain suites, airs with variations, +arias, and a quantity of short figured basses, apparently as studies. + +Before closing this short chapter we will add a word or two about +Italian music for the harpsichord at the beginning of the eighteenth +century. A recent writer remarks that "Domenico Scarlatti seems to +spring full-armed into the view of history." But his father, the +renowned opera-writer, Alessandro Scarlatti, wrote music for the +harpsichord, also his pupil, Gaëtano Grieco, who succeeded him as +Professor at the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo (Naples) in +1717. The influence of the master can be clearly traced in the music +of the pupil; and, if one may judge from the simpler character of +Grieco's music[55] as compared with that of D. Scarlatti, he, too, was +a predecessor. Grieco is said to have been born about 1680; D. +Scarlatti was born in 1683; but this, of course, decides nothing as to +the dates of their compositions. The harpsichord music of G. Grieco +has both character and charm, and it is indeed strange that none of +his pieces have been included either in the _Trésor des Pianistes_, +the _Maîtres du Clavecin_, or Pauer's Collections of old music. + +This chapter is headed: "A Contemporary of Kuhnau." The latter +published all his known sonatas by the year 1700, while the dates +assigned to the Pasquini sonata volume are, as we have seen, 1703-4. +But at that time Pasquini was over sixty years of age; it is therefore +more than probable that he was really the predecessor of the German +master as a writer of clavier sonatas. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES + + +Carl Phillip Emanuel, third son of J.S. Bach, was born at Weimar, 8th +or 14th March, 1714, and died at Hamburg, 14th December, 1788. He +studied composition and clavier-playing with his father. His brother, +Wilhelm Friedemann, his senior by four years, went through a similar +course, but learnt, in addition, the violin under J.G. Graun. +Emanuel's attention, however, was concentrated on the one instrument; +and to this we probably owe the numerous clavier sonatas which he +wrote, and which paved the way for those of Haydn, Mozart, and +Beethoven. In his twenty-first year (1735) Emanuel left his father's +house in order to study jurisprudence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder; three +years later, however, he went to Berlin, and as cembalist entered the +service of Frederick the Great (1740).[56] Already in his father's +house, the young student saw and heard many distinguished musicians; +he himself has told us that no musician of any note passed through +Leipzig without seeking an opportunity to meet his father, so famed as +composer and as performer on the organ and clavier. And again, +afterwards, at the Court of Prussia, he came into contact with the +most notable composers and performers of his day. From among these may +be singled out C.H. Graun (composer of the "Tod Jesu") and Georg +Benda.[57] Graun was already in the service of Frederick when the +latter was only Crown Prince.[58] It would be interesting to learn the +special influences acting upon Emanuel before he published his first +set of sonatas in 1742, but this is scarcely possible. The collection +of symphonies[59] or sonatas published at Leipzig in 1762, mentioned +in our introductory chapter, gives, however, some idea of the music +of that period; and it is possible that many of the numbers were +written before Emanuel Bach published his first works. The "Sammlung +Vermischte Clavierstücke für geübte und ungeübte Spieler," by Georg +Benda, may also be mentioned; it is of great interest, especially the +Sonata in C minor. The character of the music and style of writing for +the instrument constantly remind one of Emanuel Bach. Benda, born in +1721, joined the King of Prussia's Band in 1742, and soon became known +as an experienced performer on the harpsichord. Unfortunately it is +impossible to ascertain the dates of composition of the various pieces +of this collection, and thus to find out whether Benda was an imitator +of Bach or _vice versâ_; the collection itself was only published at +Gotha in 1780. + +The Italian taste in music which prevailed at the Prussian Court[60] +had undoubtedly a marked influence on Bach, and one for good. The +severe counterpoint of the North German school and the suave melody of +the Sunny South blended together with happy results. + +It is customary to speak _en bloc_ of Emanuel Bach's sonatas; if, +however, the earlier be compared with some of the later ones, +interesting differences may be detected, and developments traced. But +the composer's artistic career, unfortunately, does not show a steady, +regular advance such as we find in J.S. Bach or Beethoven. C.H. +Bitter, his biographer and enthusiastic admirer, has to confess that +he was a practical man, and that he wrote at times to please pupils +and amateurs; while, occasionally, his aim may have been pecuniary +gain. + +Of his early period, we shall notice the "Sei Sonate per Cembalo," +dedicated to Frederick II. of Prussia (1742), and the Würtemberg +Sonatas, published in 1745. Of his middle period, the "Sechs Sonaten +fürs Clavier mit veränderten Reprisen," Berlin, 1760, and the "Sechs +leichte Sonaten," Leipzig, 1766. And of his latter period, the six +collections of "Sonaten für Kenner u. Liebhaber," published at Leipzig +between 1779 and 1787. With regard, however, to the last-named, it +must be remembered that some are of a comparatively early date. Thus +the 3rd Sonata of the 3rd Collection, one of the finest of Bach's +works, was composed in 1763, while the collection itself only appeared +in 1781. But a table of dates will be given further on. + +If some of the best sonatas written after 1760 be compared with those +of 1742, there will be found in the later works more character in the +subject-matter, also movements of greater length. Practice, too, had +improved the composer's style of writing. The later Bach did not +return to the principal theme in such a crude, nay, lawless, fashion +as the following:-- + +[Music illustration: (Frederick) Sonata 1. First Movement.] + +In these "Frederick" Sonatas there is as yet no tendency to enharmonic +and other surprise modulation such as Bach afterwards displayed. Then +as to technique, we find here octaves and large chords comparatively +rare,[61] while scale passages are more restricted. Like Beethoven, +Emanuel Bach seized hold of additional notes to the keyboard. In 1742 +his highest and lowest notes, apparently, were-- + +[Music illustration] + +but afterwards-- + +[Music illustration] + +In the introductory chapter we noted the change with regard to the +number of movements of a sonata which took place between 1683, when +Corelli published his first sonatas, and 1740, when E. Bach composed +his first set. Instances were given of sonatas in three movements by +Corelli, but with that composer _four_ was the normal number; with E. +Bach, _three_. This change came about in great measure through the +concerto. From E. Bach, we are able to show the links in the chain of +development: Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; but though between +Kuhnau, the first writer of sonatas for the clavier, and Bach, B. +Pasquini wrote, as mentioned in the last chapter, sonatas in three +movements, yet we have no knowledge that Bach was acquainted with +them. Kuhnau, in fact, however interesting a phenomenon in the musical +firmament, is not necessary to explain the appearance of Bach. Joh. +Sebastian Bach was undoubtedly acquainted with the "Bible" Sonatas. He +must have admired them, but he may have been afraid of the freedom of +form which they displayed, and of their tendency to programme-music; +and perhaps he did not speak of them to his sons, lest they should be +led astray. For, as we have already mentioned, Sebastian Bach seems to +have yielded for a moment to the Kuhnau influence, but, if we may +judge from his subsequent art-work, he did not feel satisfied that it +was a good one. + +In 1742, E. Bach dedicated the six sonatas (composed in 1740) to +Frederick the Great. The title-page runs thus:-- + +Sei Sonate +per Cembalo +che all' Augusta Maestà +di +Frederico II. +Rè di Prussia +D.D.D. +l'Autore +Carlo Filippo Emanuele Bach +Musico di Camera di S.M. +Alle spese di Balth. Schmid +in Norimberga. + +And in the obsequious dedication, the composer describes them as works +"debolissimo Talento mio." As Bach's earliest published sonatas, they +are, for our purpose, of special interest. Their order is as +follows:-- + +Sonata 1, in F Poco Allegro, Andante, Vivace. + " 2, " B flat Vivace, Adagio, Allegro assai. + " 3, " E Poco Allegro, Adagio, Presto. + " 4, " C minor Allegro, Adagio, Presto. + " 5, " C Poco Allegro, Andante, Allegro assai. + " 6, " A Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. + +The first and last movements of all six are in binary form. In the +five major sonatas, the first sections close in the key of the +dominant, and in the one minor sonata (No. 4), in the relative major. +The opening movement of each sonata is in early sonata-form: the +second section starts with the principal theme, or a brief allusion +to it; but then, after a short development with modulation, there is a +return to the principal key and to the principal theme.[62] The final +movements, on the other hand, are of the usual _suite_ order. Of +interest and, indeed, of importance in our history of development are +the contents of the first section of the opening movements. In some of +the Scarlatti sonatas (see No. 56) there is to be found a fairly +definite second subject in the dominant key, or, in the case of a +minor piece, in the dominant minor or relative major. Here the process +of differentiation is continued; in the 2nd Sonata the contrast +between the two subjects is specially marked. We give the opening bar +of each-- + +[Music illustration] + +In most of the developments the composer steers clear of the principal +key, so that at the return of the principal theme it may appear fresh. +To such a method, since Beethoven, we are quite accustomed; but it is +curious how little attention--even with the example of E. Bach before +him--Haydn paid to such an effective means of contrast in some of his +early sonatas. In Bach's No. 6, in A, the development assumes unusual +magnitude; it is even longer than the first section. And it is not +only long, but interesting. One passage, of which we quote a portion, +has rather a modern appearance:[63]-- + +[Music illustration] + +The return of the principal theme is preceded by an unexpected entry +of the opening bars in B minor,--a first sign of that humour which +afterwards formed so prominent a feature in Bach's music. And the +theme itself, after the opening notes, is dealt with in original +fashion. + +The middle movements of Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 6 are in the key of the +relative minor; that of No. 1 is in the tonic minor, and that of No. 4 +(C minor), in the relative major. No. 1, twice interrupted by a +recitative (upper part and figured bass),[64] is dignified, yet +tender, and, in form, original. The Adagio, in C sharp minor, of No. 3 +is a movement of singular charm; it is based on imitation, but, though +old in style, it breathes something of the new spirit, or rather--for +there is nothing new under the sun--of the old Florentine spirit which +freed music for a time from the fetters of polyphony. The genius of +Johann Sebastian Bach gained the victory over form, and, in fact, +exhausted fugue-form. It is in the clever, but dry fugues of some of +his contemporaries and, especially, successors, that one can feel the +absolute necessity for a new departure. This Adagio is, as it were, a +delicate remembrance, and one not unmixed with sadness, of the +composer's immortal parent. + +The light, lively final movements need no description. All the music +of these sonatas is written in two or three parts or voices; +occasionally there are chord passages in which for the moment the +number is increased. We have dwelt somewhat in detail on this work, as +it appears to be little known. + +There is a sonata in the key of D major, published in the 3rd +Collection (1763) of Marpurg's _Clavierstücke_ (p. 10), by E. Bach, +which was written in the same year (1740), but earlier than the +"Frederick" Sonatas. C.H. Bitter remarks that if the year of +composition were not known, it would certainly pass as a much later +work. The first movement reminds one of Beethoven's terse, bold style. +Bitter refers to the freedom with which the thoughts are expressed, to +the melodious character of the Andante, and to the humour of the +Finale. He might also have referred to the style of writing for the +instrument, which suggests a later date. + +In 1745 (?) appeared the Würtemberg Sonatas (so called because they +were dedicated to Bach's pupil, the _Duca di Wirtemberg e Teckh_, as +he is named on the title-page of the original edition). These sonatas +are marked as Opera seconda. They were offered by the composer to the +Duke in recognition of the many favours shown to him "at the time when +I had the honour of giving you lessons in music at Berlin."[65] Of +these sonatas we have only been able to have access to the two +preserved in the British Museum; the others are probably of similar +character. + +No. 1, in E flat, opens with an Adagio, followed by an Allegro assai +(E flat), and then by a Menuet alternato and Trio, both in E flat, and +with the former _da capo_. The first and second movements are in old +binary form; the Allegro shows the influence of D. Scarlatti. The +Minuet is fresh and pleasing. It is evident, taking E. Bach himself +as standard, that this is a suite rather than a sonata. + +No. 2, in B flat, is of similar character and construction. Both +sonatas are old in form, but more modern in their subject-material and +style of writing than those dedicated to the King of Prussia. In the +latter there is a solidity not to be found here; in its place we have +lightness, almost merriment; they were written, one would almost +think, expressly for the amusement of the Duke. The rapid semi-quaver +passages (as in No. 1) and the crossing of hands (as in No. 2) tell in +no undecided manner of the influence of Scarlatti. The exceedingly +light and graceful Minuets remind one of the kinship between the +composer and Haydn. + +In a letter to Forkel, dated 10th February 1775, Bach writes as +follows:-- + +"Die 2 Sonaten, welche Ihren Beyfall vorzüglich haben, sind die +einzigen von dieser Art, die ich je gemacht habe. Sie gehören zu der, +aus dem H-moll, die ich Ihnen mitschickte, zu der aus dem B, die Sie +nun auch haben, u. zu 2en aus der Hafner-Würtembergischen Sammlung, u. +sind alle 6 anno 1743, im Töplitzer Bade von mir, der ich damahls sehr +gicht-brüchig war, auf einem Claviacord mit der kurzen Octav +verfertiget."[66] + +It would be interesting to know the two sonatas belonging to this +period, "the only ones of the kind that I have ever written." In the +catalogue of musical remains of E. Bach, published two years after his +death, the opening bars are given of a Sonata in B minor (see above +letter) written at Töplitz in 1743-- + +[Music illustration] + +This, surely, must be the one mentioned in the above letter. + +In 1760, Bach published six sonatas with varied repeats (_mit +veränderten Reprisen_), dedicated to Princess Amelia of Prussia. In +the preface the composer remarks that "nowadays change or repetition +is indispensable." He complains that some players will not play the +notes as written, even the first time; and again, that players, if the +changing on repetition is left to them, make alterations unsuitable to +the character of the music. These sonatas are of great historic +interest. This preface, also the evident necessity for additional +(inner part) notes at times, especially in the slow movements of E. +Bach and other composers of that day, make one feel that, as it now +stands, much of Bach's music is a dead letter. Here we are face to +face with a question which in a kindred matter has given rise to much +controversy. If the music is to produce its proper effect, something +must be done. To that (in the case of Emanuel Bach's sonatas) all +reasonable musicians must agree. Yet not, perhaps, as to what that +something should be. According to certain authorities, only additions +should be made which are strictly in keeping with the spirit of the +age in which the music was written. Some, on the other hand, would +bring the music up to date; they think it better to clothe +eighteenth-century music in nineteenth-century dress, than to ask +musicians with nineteenth-century ears to listen to patched-up +eighteenth-century music. The second plan would not be approved by +musicians who hold the classical masters in veneration; with a little +modification, the first one, however, ought to meet with general +acceptance. We may write in keeping with the spirit of a past age, but +the music must now be played on an instrument of different character, +compass, and quality of tone; so surely in making additions (and, so +far as certain ornaments are concerned, alterations) these things +ought to be taken into consideration. A certain latitude should, +therefore, be allowed to the transcriber; hard-and-fast rules in such +a delicate task are impossible. The late Dr. Bülow edited six of +Emanuel Bach's sonatas,[67] and though he was well acquainted with the +composer's style of writing, his anxious desire to present the music +in the most favourable light sometimes led him to make changes of +which even lenient judges would not approve. The matter is an +interesting one, and we may therefore venture to refer somewhat in +detail to one passage. In the 3rd Sonata (F minor) of the 3rd +Collection, the passage-- + +[Music illustration] + +has been changed by Bülow: he has altered the C flat in the second +half of the first bar into a C natural, thus smoothing down the hard +progression to the key of B flat minor. Now this very passage had +already, nearly a hundred years previously, attracted the notice of +Forkel, who admitted that, apart from the context, it jarred against +his musical feeling. But he had thought over the composer's intention +in writing that sonata, and had come to the conclusion that, in the +opening Allegro, Bach wished to express indignation.[68] He therefore +asks: "Are the hard, rough, passionate expressions of an angry and +indignant man beautiful?" In this case, Forkel was of opinion that the +hard modulation was a faithful record of what the composer wished to +express.[69] The natural order of history seems inverted here. One +would have expected Forkel to look upon the music from an abstract, +but Bülow from a poetical point of view. C.H. Bitter--also on purely +musical grounds--condemns Bülow's alterations. He says:--"Even +weaknesses of great masters, among which the passages in question are +not to be counted, still more so, special peculiarities, should be +left untouched. What would become of Beethoven, if each generation of +musicians, according to individual judgment, arrogated to itself the +right, here and there, of expunging hardnesses, smoothing down +peculiarities, and softening even sharp points with which, from time +to time, we come into unpleasant contact? Works of art must be +accepted as they are." + +The first part of Bitter's argument is sound; but, unfortunately for +the last, the writer in his life of Emanuel Bach and his brothers +insists on the necessity of _not_ accepting Emanuel's clavier works +_as they are_. + +He quotes a passage from the Andante of the 4th Sonata of the second +set of the "Reprisen Sonaten," and comes to the natural conclusion +that it was only an outline requiring filling up. + +With all his faults, one cannot but admire the spirit in which Bülow +worked. He felt the greatness of the old masters, regretted the +limited means which they had at their command, also the stenographic +system in which they were accustomed to express their thoughts; and he +sought, therefore, to make use of modern means, and thereby was +naturally tempted to introduce modern effects. The restoration of the +old masters is a difficult and delicate task, and in most cases, one +may add, a thankless one. In the matter of transcription, however, it +is important to distinguish between a Bülow and a Tausig: the one +displayed the intelligence of an artist; the other, the +thoughtlessness of a _virtuoso_. + +But what, it may be asked, is the character of the changes made by +Bach? The matter is of interest; by examining these sonatas, we get +some idea of the difference between letter and spirit. However, from +what we have said above, a mere imitation of these changes, in playing +Bach's music, would, in its turn, be letter rather than spirit. + +As a rule the bass remains the same, though plain crotchets may become +quavers, as in extract from Sonata 1 given below, or notes turned into +broken octaves-- + +[Music illustration] + +or, at times, some very slight alteration may occur, such as-- + +[Music illustration] + +In the upper parts the changes are similar to those found in the +variations of Haydn and Mozart. An illustration will be better than +any explanation, and we accordingly give a brief extract from the 1st +Sonata: first the five bars of the Allegretto, as at the opening, then +as they are changed-- + +[Music illustration] + +The publication of the set of six Leipzig collections of sonatas, +etc., commenced in 1779; but thirteen years previously, the composer +had published a set of "Sechs Leichte Clavier Sonaten," and these, in +one or two respects, are curious. The opening movement of No. 6 has no +double bars, and, therefore, no repeat of the first section. And +again, it has a coda pausing on the dominant chord and followed by an +Andantino. This second movement, peculiar in form and modulation, ends +on the dominant of F, leading directly to the Presto. + +The opening of the Larghetto of No. 2-- + +[Music illustration] + +was probably the prototype of many a theme of the classical masters. + +The works by which Emanuel Bach is best known are the six collections +of sonatas, rondos, and fantasias published at Leipzig between +1779-1787. The composer died in 1788. The 1st Collection (1779) bears +the title "Sechs Claviersonaten für Kenner und Liebhaber," and, in +fact, contains six sonatas. But "nebst einigen Rondos" (together with +some Rondos) was already added to the title-page of the 2nd and 3rd +Collections; and to the remaining ones, the still further addition of +"Freye Fantasien." + +For the sake of reference, the list of sonatas is subjoined-- + + Coll. +(1779) 1 Sonata in C 1773 Hamburg. + " " " F 1758 Berlin. + " " " B minor 1774 Hamburg. + " " " A (Bülow No. 3) 1765 Potsdam. + " " " F 1772 Hamburg. + " " " G (Bülow No. 4) 1765 Potsdam. +(1780) 2 " " G 1774 Hamburg. + " " " F 1780 Hamburg. + " " " A (Bülow No. 2) 1780 Hamburg. +(1781) 3 " " A minor 1774 Hamburg. + " " " D minor (Bülow No. 5) 1766 Potsdam. + " " " F minor (Bülow No. 1) 1763 Berlin. +(1783) 4 " " G 1781 Hamburg. + " " " E minor 1765 Berlin. +(1785) 5 " " E minor 1784 Hamburg. + " " " B flat 1784 Hamburg. +(1787) 6 " " D 1785 Hamburg. + " " " E minor 1785 Hamburg. + +Without copious musical examples, an analysis of these eighteen +sonatas would prove heavy reading. It will, therefore, be easier for +the writer, and certainly pleasanter for his readers, to give a +somewhat "freye Fantasia" description of them, laying emphasis +naturally on points connected with the special purpose in view.[70] + +In the matter of tonality there are some curiosities. When Beethoven's +1st Symphony appeared, the opening bars of the introduction became +stumbling-stones to the pedagogues of that day. The work was, without +doubt, in the key of C major; yet, instead of opening with the tonic +chord of that key, the composer led up to it through the keys of the +subdominant, relative minor, and dominant. No wonder that such a +proceeding surprised conventional minds, and that the critics warned +Beethoven of the danger of "going his own way." But his predecessor, +Emanuel Bach, had also strayed from the pedagogic path, a narrow one, +yet, in the end, leading to destruction. In the first book (1779), the +5th Sonata (as shown by the whole of the movement, with exception of +the two opening bars) is in the key of F major, yet the first bar is +in C minor (minor key of the dominant) and the second, in D minor +(relative minor of the principal key). + +[Music illustration] + +There were, no doubt, respecters of tonality also in Emanuel Bach's +day, to whom such free measures must have seemed foolhardy. While +composing this sonata Bach was, apparently, in daring mood. The slow +middle movement in D minor opens with an inversion of the dominant +ninth, and the Finale in F thus-- + +[Music illustration] + +Of the character of the first section of movements in binary form we +have already spoken in the introductory chapter. + +In the matter of development, the Bach sonatas are in one respect +particularly striking; the composer seems to have resolutely turned +away from the fugal style, and in so doing probably found himself +somewhat hampered. Like the early Florentine reformers, Bach was +breaking with the past, and with a mightier past than the one on which +the Florentines turned their back; like them, he, too, was occupied +with a new form. Not the music itself of the first operas, but the +spirit which prompted them, is what we now admire; in E. Bach, +too,--especially when viewed in the light of subsequent history,--we +at times take the will for the deed. + +We meet with much the same kinds of development as in Scarlatti: +phrases or passages taken bodily from the first section and repeated +on different degrees of the scale, extensions of phrases, and +passage-writing based on some figure from the exposition, etc. The +short development section of the Sonata in G (Collection No. 6) offers +examples of the three methods of development just mentioned. Bach, +like Scarlatti, was a master of his instrument, and even when--as was +said of Mendelssohn--he had nothing particular to say, he always +managed to say that little well. E. Bach has already much to suffer in +the inevitable comparison with Beethoven; and the fact that we have +the full message of the one, but not of the other, no doubt +accentuates the difference. + +In many ways Bach reminds one of Beethoven. There are unexpected +fortes and pianos, unexpected crescendos and diminuendos. Of such, the +noble Larghetto in F minor of the Sonata in F (Collection 1779, No. 2) +offers, indeed, several fine examples. Particularly would we notice +the passage just before the return of the opening theme; it begins +_ff_, but there is a gradual decrease to _pp_; the latter seems +somewhat before its time, and therefore surprises. Then, again, we +meet with out-of-the-way modulations. Bach was extremely fond of +enharmonic transitions,[71] and the same can be said of Beethoven in +both his early and his late works. The means employed by the two +composers may be the same, but the effect is, of course, always more +striking in Beethoven, whose thoughts were deeper, and whose means of +expressing them were in every way more extended. And once again, in +some of the forms of melody, in figures and passages, traces can be +found of connection between the two masters. To our thinking the bond +of union between E. Bach and Beethoven is stronger than the +oft-mentioned one between the early master and Haydn: Haydn was +practically Bach's pupil; Beethoven, his spiritual heir. This it is +which gives interest to any outward resemblances which may be +detected, not the resemblances themselves. + +In Bach's six sonatas of 1742 the movements are detached. But the +opening movement (an Andante in sonata form) of the 2nd Sonata of the +Leipzig Collection of 1779 ends with a few bars in canonic form (and +with quaint Bebung effect), leading without break to the following +Larghetto. The next sonata also connects the second with the third +movement. In the above case the change was merely from the key of +tonic major to that of minor; but here the movement is in G minor, and +an enharmonic modulation leads to the dominant of B minor, key of the +final movement. The sonata begins in B minor, and the choice of the +remote key of G minor for the middle movement is somewhat curious. +Sonata No. 4 connects first and second movements; and the third is +evidently meant to follow without pause. It must, however be +remembered that the majority of the Leipzig sonatas do not have the +various movements thus connected. It therefore seems to have been an +experiment rather than a settled plan. Examples of the connection of +movements are also to be found in Nichelmann and J.C.F. Bach. The same +thing may be seen in some of Haydn's sonatas (Nos. 18, 22, etc.), +while Beethoven offers a remarkable instance in his sonata, Op. 57. + +The 1st Sonata of the 2nd Collection passes from the first to the +second movement (Allegretto, G minor; Larghetto, F sharp minor) in a +curious manner, by enharmonic means. The last bar has-- + +[Music illustration] + +The quotation is in abbreviated form. The second chord would, of +course, be taken at first as dominant minor ninth on G. The 1st Sonata +of the 4th Collection is not striking as music, and certainly not of +sufficient importance to justify serious inquiry into the peculiar +order of keys for the three movements (G, G minor, and E major). + +With regard to the number of movements, all except two of the eighteen +sonatas have three; the second and third of the 2nd Collection have +only two. + +John Christian Bach, or the "London" Bach, as he was called, dedicated +his fifth work, consisting of six sonatas "Pour le clavecin ou +pianoforte," to Ernst, Duke of Mecklenburg. This cannot have been +before 1759, as that was the year in which the composer came to +London. He describes himself on the title-page as--"Maître de Musique +de S.M. la Reine d'Angleterre." These sonatas, as we learn from the +dedication, were written for the "amusement" of the Duke. The first, +third, and fourth have each only two movements. They remind us less of +E. Bach than of Haydn's early style. There is some very fresh, +pleasing writing in them. No. 5 has some excellent practising +passages, and perhaps the following-- + +[Music illustration] + +may have suggested to Cramer his first study. The middle movement of +No. 6 is a vigorous double Fugue; the whole sonata is, indeed, one of +the finest of the set. + +A Sonata in D, by Wilhelm Friedmann Bach, is commented on by Dr. Parry +in his "Sonata" dictionary article. There is another one in C major, a +fresh and vigorous example of a musician whose powers were never fully +developed. + +The sonatas of Pietro Domenico Paradies (_b._ 1710), a contemporary of +E. Bach, are of interest. They were published in London by John +Johnson, and bear the title, "Sonate di gravicembalo dedicate a sua +altezza reale la principessa da Pier Domenico Paradies Napolitano." +The edition bears no date; but the right of printing and selling +granted by George II. bears the date November 28, 1754. A second +edition was published at Amsterdam in 1770. The sonatas are twelve in +number, and consist of only two movements of various character: some +have an Allegro or Presto, followed by a Presto, Allegro, or Gigue; +and sometimes (as in Nos. 9 and 11) the second movement is an Andante. +In other sonatas the first movement is in slow time. These +two-movement sonatas would seem to form an intermediate stage between +Scarlatti and Emanuel Bach. As a matter of fact, however, the latter, +as we have seen, had published clavier sonatas in three movements long +before the appearance of those of Paradies. In some of the movements +in binary form Paradies shows an advance on Scarlatti (see Nos. 1 and +10), for in the second section there is a return, after modulation, to +the principal theme. Some have the theme in the dominant key at the +commencement of that section, others not. Thus we see various stages +represented in these sonatas. The music is delightfully fresh, and, +from a technical point of view, interesting. The influence of +Scarlatti both in letter and spirit is strongly felt. In some of the +movements (_cf._ first movement of No. 8 and of No. 12) there is a +feature which Paradies did not inherit from Scarlatti, _i.e._ the +so-called Alberti bass. Of such a bass Scarlatti gives only slight +hints. Alberti, said to have been its inventor, was a contemporary of +Paradies, and the latter may have learnt the trick from him: there are +many examples of its use. In Alberti, "VIII Sonate Opera Prima,"[72] +the opening Allegro of No. 2 has it in forty-four of the forty-six +bars of which it consists, and, besides, each section is repeated. +That convenient form of accompaniment soon came into vogue. It occurs +frequently in the sonatas and concertos of J.C. Bach and Haydn, but it +is in the works of second-rate composers that one sees the full use, +or rather abuse, made of it. No. 8 of the Paradies sonatas is +particularly attractive, and the second movement forms a not +unpleasant reminiscence of Handel's so-called "Harmonious Blacksmith" +variations. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +HAYDN AND MOZART + + +I.--Haydn + +This composer, to whom is given the name of "father of the symphony +and the quartet," was born at Rohrau, a small Austrian village on the +Leitha, in the night between 31st March and 1st April 1732. At a very +early age the boy's sweet voice attracted the notice of G. Reuter, +capellmeister of St. Stephen's, Vienna, and for many years he sang in +the cathedral choir. In 1749 he was dismissed, the alleged cause being +a practical joke played by him on one of his fellow-choristers. He +was, as Sir G. Grove relates in his article "Haydn" in the _Dictionary +of Music and Musicians_, thrown upon the world "with an empty purse, a +keen appetite, and no friends." Haydn took up his abode in an attic in +the old Michaelerhaus. But it chanced that Metastasio lived in the +same building, and the famous poet took an interest in the penniless +composer, and, among other things, taught him Italian. Metastasio was +extremely fond of music, and we know from his letters that the flowing +compositions of his countrymen delighted him more than the learned +music of Germany. Then Haydn made the acquaintance of Porpora, who +gave him instruction in composition and in the art of singing. And he +is also supposed to have studied the works of San Martini, an Italian +composer in the service of Prince Esterhazy. In addition, Italian +music was much played and much admired in Vienna. Emanuel Bach also, +as we have seen, came under Italian influence, but not until he had +finished his studies under his father's guidance. Once more, we may +conclude that Haydn, before he commenced writing clavier sonatas, had +made acquaintance with those of Paradies and of Alberti. These early +Italian influences should be noted, for one is apt to think rather of +the young composer as plodding through Fux's "Gradus" and playing +Emanuel Bach's sonatas on his "little worm-eaten clavier." During his +last years Haydn told his friend Griesinger that he had diligently +studied Emanuel Bach, and that he owed very much to him. From the +painter Dies, in his biographical notice of the master, we also learn +how fond he was of playing Emanuel Bach's sonatas. And this influence +was undoubtedly not only a strong, but a lasting one; in 1788, the +year in which E. Bach died, Haydn wrote to Artaria, begging the latter +to send him that master's last two works for clavier. + +In reference to Haydn, musicians are apt to speak merely of his +sonatas, whereas those of Beethoven are generally described by their +key, or their opus number; or as belonging to one of the three +periods into which that master's art-work is usually divided. There is +good reason for this difference. Haydn's sonatas are not of equal +importance with those of his successor; and then some are +old-fashioned, others second-rate. Beethoven's sonatas are by no means +all of equal merit, yet there is not one but has some feature, whether +of form, or development, or technique, by which it may be +distinguished. And yet a close and careful study of Haydn's sonatas +will show that he, too, had his periods of apprenticeship, mastery, +and maturity. Let not our readers take alarm. We are not going to +analyse his thirty-five sonatas, or to enter into minute details. But +we shall try, by selecting some of the most characteristic works, to +show how the master commenced, continued, and concluded. + +The earliest of the published sonatas,[73] No. 1 (33), is somewhat of +a curiosity. It consists of four movements: an Allegro in G major; a +Minuetto and Trio, G major and minor; an Adagio in G minor; and an +Allegro molto in G major. It is the only sonata of Haydn's which +contains four movements. The plaintive Trio and the Scarlatti-like +Finale are attractive. + +In the year 1774, J.J. Hummel, at Amsterdam, published six sonatas, +the last three of which appear to have been originally written for +pianoforte and violin;[74] and in 1776 six more were printed by +Longman & Broderip as Op. 14. These may serve as specimens of Haydn's +early style; and in them, by the way, the composer was accused of +imitating, nay, caricaturing, E. Bach. + +In the _European Magazine_ for October 1784 there appeared an account +of Joseph Haydn, "a celebrated composer of music," in which occurs the +following:-- + +"Amongst the number of professors who wrote against our rising author +was Philipp Emanuel Bach of Hamburgh (formerly of Berlin); and the +only notice Haydn took of their scurrility and abuse was to publish +lessons written in imitation of the several styles of his enemies, in +which their peculiarities were so closely copied, and their extraneous +passages (particularly those of Bach of Hamburgh) so inimitably +burlesqued, that they all felt the poignancy of his musical wit, +confessed its truth, and were silent." + +Further on the writer mentions the sonatas of Ops. 13 and 14 as +"expressly composed in order to ridicule Bach of Hamburgh"; nay, he +points to the second part of the second sonata in Op. 13 and the whole +of the third sonata in the same work by way of special illustration. + +There are many resemblances to E. Bach in Haydn,--notes wide apart, +pause bars, surprise modulations, etc.,--and this is not more +extraordinary than to find resemblances between Mozart and Beethoven; +but the charge of caricature seems unfair. Besides, it is scarcely +likely that Haydn, who owed so much to Bach, would have done any such +thing. It must be remembered that at the date of the _European +Magazine_ in question, E. Bach had not yet published any of the six +Leipzig Collections ("Sonaten für Kenner," etc.), by which he is best +known at the present day. + +Of the six sonatas, Op. 13, the first three are Nos. 8 (26), 9 (27), +10 (28) in Pohl's thematic catalogue (_Joseph Haydn_, vol. ii.). The +other three have not been reprinted in modern collections. In the +first three the keys and order of movements are as follow:-- + + No. 1. Allegro moderato in C; Adagio, F; Finale, Presto. + + No. 2. Allegro moderato in E; Andante, E minor; Finale, + Tempo di Menuetto. + + No. 3. Allegro moderato in F; Larghetto, E minor; Presto. + +These sonatas are interesting as music, and the workmanship is +skilful. If one can get over the thinness of the part-writing, +especially in the slow movements, there is much to enjoy in them. The +style of movement--Tempo di Menuetto--in No. 2 recalls Emanuel Bach's +"Würtemberg" sonatas of 1745. + +Here are the numbers of the sonatas of Op. 14: 11 (20), 12 (21), 13 +(22), 14 (23), 15 (24), 16 (25). And here are the keys and movements-- + + No. 1. Allegro con brio in G; Minuetto, G; Trio, G minor; + Presto. + + No. 2. Allegro moderato in E flat; Minuetto, E flat; Trio, E + flat minor; Presto. + + No. 3. Moderato in F; Adagio, B flat; Tempo di Menuetto. + + No. 4. Allegro in A; Adagio; Tempo di Minuetto con + Variazione. + + No. 5. Moderato in E; Presto. + + No. 6. Allegro moderato in B minor; Tempo di Minuetto; + Presto. + +During the eighteenth century, both in Italy and Germany, sonatas in +two movements were common, but with Haydn the reduction in No. 5 +probably was made on practical, and not artistic grounds. Schindler +once asked Beethoven why he had only two movements to his Sonata in C +minor (Op. 111), and the master replied--probably with a twinkle in +his eye--that he had not had time for a third. + +If these sonatas of 1776 be compared with earlier ones (1767), an +immense improvement in the development sections will be observed. In +the earliest but one of the master's sonatas--No. 2 (30)--the whole of +the middle section is in the principal key. No. 4 (Op. 14) has all +three movements connected,--a plan, as we have already seen, adopted +by E. Bach in some of his sonatas. The sonata in question is in the +key of A major. The Allegro ends with an arpeggio dominant chord, and +still in the same bar follows the dominant chord of the relative key +of F sharp minor, leading directly to the Adagio; this movement, in +its turn, closes on the dominant chord of A, the key, of course, of +the final movement (Tempo di Minuetto con Variazioni). + +In 1780 six sonatas were published by Artaria, and dedicated to the +sisters Franziska and Marianne v. Auenbrugger. They are Nos. 20 (1), +21-24 (10-13), and 7 (14). No. 20 (1) is a bright little work. No. 21 +(10) (C sharp minor) opens with an interesting movement.[75] The +sonata ends with a beautiful Menuetto and Trio, in which the composer +comes very near to Beethoven. The middle movement is a Scherzando, and +thereby hangs a little tale. No. 24 (13) commences with the same +theme. When Haydn sent the sonatas to his publisher he called +attention to this resemblance, and, in fact, requested that it should +be mentioned on the inner side of the title-page. And he added: "I +could, of course, have chosen a hundred other ideas in place of this +one; but in order not to run any risk of blame on account of this +intentional trifle (which the critics, and especially my enemies, will +regard in a bad light), I make this _avertissement_. Or please add +some note of a similar kind, otherwise it may prove detrimental to the +sale." No. 22 (11) has an opening Allegro in Haydn's brightest +manner. The short Largo is quaint and expressive; the _ff_ chord of +the Neapolitan sixth is of fine effect. The movement ends on the +dominant chord, and thus leads without break to the lively Presto +Finale. The concluding movement of the next sonata displays a +crispness and vigour which remind one of Haydn's great successor. +Already in connection with these six sonatas have we mentioned +Beethoven. And from this period onwards the kinship between the two +composers becomes more evident. Haydn, however, did not, like +Beethoven, rise steadily higher and higher; great moments came, as it +were, by fits and starts. He wrote in season and out of season; _nulla +dies sine linea_ seems to have been his motto. With Beethoven, a later +work, unless it be one of his few _pièces d'occasion_, means a fuller +revelation of his genius. + +We will now pass on to the latest period, represented by two great +sonatas, both in the key of E flat. The one was written for the +composer's friend and patron, Frau v. Genziger. The opening Allegro +shows earnest, deep feeling, while at the close of the recapitulation +Haydn makes us feel the full power of his genius; the passage +irresistibly recalls moments in the first movement of the +"Appassionata"; those stately reiterated chords, those solemn pauses, +have a touch of mystery about them. It is interesting to see how the +second theme is evolved from the principal subject of the movement; by +a slight modification the character of the music is quite changed; +what was stately is now light and graceful. The Adagio cantabile is +one of the purest examples of a style of music which has become a +thing of the past. The full and sustained tone of modern instruments +has rendered unnecessary those turns, arpeggios, and numerous +ornaments with which the composers of the last century tried to make +amends for the fleeting tones of their harpsichords and clavichords. +Haydn and Mozart were skilful in this art of embellishment, though +sometimes it was unduly profuse; this Adagio of Haydn's is a model of +sobriety. The bold minor section, which Frau v. Genziger, by the way, +found rather troublesome to play, offers an effective contrast to the +major. A graceful Tempo di Menuetto brings the work to an effective +close. The other Sonata in E flat[76] is much more difficult to play. +The writing is fuller, and it contains passages which even a modern +pianist need not disdain. It is really strange that the sonata is not +sometimes heard at the Popular Concerts. In the opening Allegro the +exposition section contains more than the two orthodox themes, and the +development section assumes considerable magnitude; the latter is +full of clever details and bold modulations. The key of the Adagio is +E major, but this is of course the enharmonic equivalent of F flat. +Brahms, in his last Sonata for Violoncello and Pianoforte in F, has +the slow movement in F sharp. This has been spoken of as a novelty, +yet Haydn, as we see, had already made the experiment; and similar +instances may be found in Schubert and Beethoven, though not in their +pianoforte sonatas. The Finale Presto reminds one by the style of +writing, and by a certain quaint humour, of Emanuel Bach; but there +are some bold touches--_sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, prolongation +of phrases, long dwelling on one harmony, etc.--which anticipate +Beethoven. Traces of the past, foreshadowings of the future; these are +familiar facts in evolution. + + +II.--Mozart + +Before Mozart had reached the age of twenty he wrote six sonatas for a +certain Baron Dürnitz, who, by the way, forgot to send the promised +payment in return. Of these, Otto Jahn remarks that "their healthy +freshness and finished form entitle them still to be considered as the +best foundation for a musical education." Freshness is indeed the best +term to describe both the thematic material and the developments. Four +of them (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5) consist of the usual three movements; +No. 4 commences with a long Adagio in two sections, each of which is +repeated. Two graceful Minuets (the second taking the place of a Trio) +follow, and the third movement is an Allegro in sonata-form. No. 6 has +for its second movement a Rondeau en Polonaise, and for its third, a +Theme with variations. The Rondo of No. 3 (in B flat) is unusually +long; it contains two episodes, one in the relative minor, the other +in the subdominant. The next three sonatas (in C, A minor, and D) are +of greater importance. They are all said to have been written at +Mannheim. The first was most probably the one mentioned in a letter of +1777 written by Mozart to his father. He describes a public concert +given on the 22nd of October, and says: "Then I played alone the last +Sonata in D, then my Concerto in B flat, then a Fugue in C minor, and +a splendid Sonata in C major out of my own head, with a Rondo at the +end." The "last Sonata in D" was the last of the set of six noticed +above. In reference to the Sonata in C, the expression "out of my own +head" would seem to indicate that it had not at that time been written +out. Mozart was right to speak of the work as "splendid." The bold +opening subject, the well-contrasted second theme, the short but +masterly development, the original leading back to the principal +subject, and the many variations in the recapitulation section, fully +justify his qualification. The slow movement is full of charm, and the +Rondo, with its elaborate middle section, is of the highest interest. +The 2nd Sonata, in A minor, is, next to the one in C minor, Mozart's +finest effort in this department of musical literature. And there is a +story connected with it. Capellmeister Cannabich's eldest daughter +Rosa had captivated the young composer; he wrote to his father about +her, and described her as "a pretty, charming girl," and added, "she +has a staid manner and a great deal of sense for her age (the young +lady was only thirteen); she speaks but little, and when she does +speak, it is with grace and amiability." On the very next day after +his arrival in Mannheim he began to write this sonata for her. The +Allegro was finished in one day. Young Danner, the violinist, asked +him about the Andante, and Mozart replied: "I mean to make it exactly +like Mdlle. Rose herself." This was the picture to which he worked. +One of Beethoven's finest sonatas, the C sharp minor, was inspired by +a beautiful girl: a strong appeal to the emotions calls forth a +composer's best powers. Mozart's first movement was written on 31st +October, and the Rondo on 8th November. The Allegro maestoso presents +many points of interest. The opening theme with its dotted motive is +prominent throughout the movement; the transition passage to the key +of the relative major is based on it, and so is the coda to the +exposition section. Again, in the development and recapitulation +sections it forms a striking feature, while in the final coda it is +intensified by reiteration of the dotted figure, and also by the rise +from the dominant to the tonic. The slow movement, with its expressive +themes, graceful ornamentation, and bold middle section, was not +surpassed by Mozart even in his C minor Sonata. The Presto closes the +work in worthy manner; it forms a contrast to the first movement, and +yet is allied to it in sentiment. The passionate outburst at the +close, with the repeated E's, seems almost a reminiscence of the +Allegro theme. There are two features in the development section of +that movement which point to Beethoven: the one is the augmentation in +the seventh bar of the quaver figure in the two preceding bars; the +other, the phrase containing the shake which is evolved from an +earlier one by curtailment of its first note. The 3rd Sonata, though +in many ways attractive, will not bear comparison with the other two. +In 1779, at Vienna, Mozart composed, among other sonatas, the +beautiful one in A major,--the first example, perhaps, of a sonata +commencing with a theme and variations. This first movement is very +charming, but the gem of the work is the delicate Menuetto; the Trio +speaks in tender, regretful tones of some happy past. The Alla Turca +is lively, but not far removed from the commonplace. + +From among the symphonies of Mozart, the three (in G minor, E flat, +and C) which he wrote in 1788 stand out with special prominence; and +so, from the sonatas, do the three in A minor (1778), C minor (1784), +and F (1788). In the first, as regards the writing, virtuosity +asserts itself, and in the third, contrapuntal skill; but in the +second, the greatness of music makes us forget the means by which that +greatness is achieved. The Sonatas in A minor and F are wonderful +productions, yet they stand a little lower than the C minor. The +nobility and earnestness of the last-named give it a place near to +Beethoven's best sonatas. We might say equal, were it not that the +writing for the instrument is comparatively thin; however noble the +ideas, they are but inadequately expressed. This C minor Sonata is +remarkable for its originality, simplicity, and unity; Mozart +possessed qualities which mark creative art of the highest kind. In +writing some of his pianoforte sonatas, he had the public, or pupils, +more or less in his mind; and though he did not become a mere +sonata-maker, like some of his contemporaries, his whole soul was not +always in his work; of this the inequalities in his music give +evidence. In some movements (especially the closing ones) of the +sonatas, the subject-matter is often trivial, and the passage-writing +commonplace. The silkworm produces its smooth, regular ball of silk +without effort, and in like manner Mozart could turn out Allegros, +Rondos, sets of variations _à discretion_. The Sonata in C minor, to +our thinking, is the only one in which he was entirely absorbed in his +art; the only one in which the ideal is never marred by the real. The +last movement is no mere Rondo, but one which stands in close +relationship to the opening Allegro; they both have the same tragic +spirit; both seem the outpouring of a soul battling with fate. The +slow movement reveals Mozart's gift of melody and graceful +ornamentation, yet beneath the latter runs a vein of earnestness; the +theme of the middle section expresses subdued sadness. The affinity +between this work and Beethoven's sonata (Op. 10, No. 1) in the same +key is very striking. + +Mozart composed his C minor Sonata towards the end of the year 1784. +The C minor Fantasia, which precedes it in some editions, was not +written until the middle of 1785. The two, however, were published +together by Mozart himself. It is impossible to consider this a new +experiment in sonata-form, as regards grouping of movements; the unity +of character and feeling between Fantasia and Sonata no doubt led to +their juxtaposition. The Fantasia is practically complete in itself; +so too is the Sonata. The two are printed separately in Breitkopf & +Härtel's edition of Mozart's works. + +Haydn and Mozart represent an important stage in sonata history: they +stand midway between Emanuel Bach and Beethoven. It is usual to look +upon Bach as the founder, Haydn and Mozart as the builders-up, and +Beethoven as the perfecter of the sonata edifice. Such a summing-up is +useful in that it points to important landmarks in the evolution of +the sonata; yet it is only a rough-and-ready one. Bach was something +more than a founder, while Beethoven, to say the least, shook the +foundations of the edifice. Haydn and Mozart would seem to be fairly +described, for traces of scaffolding are all too evident in their +works, yet they found the building already raised. Some of it, +however, appeared to them in rococo style, and so they gradually +rebuilt. And they not only altered, but enlarged and strengthened. Of +rebuilding and alteration, their slow movements and finales give +evidence; and of enlargement, all the three sections of movements in +so-called sonata-form. Their subject-matter, as it grew in importance, +grew in compass. This in itself, of course, enlarged the exposition +section; but the transition passage from first to second theme, and +the rounding-off of the section, both grew in proportion. The joints, +too, of the structure were strengthened: the half cadence no longer +sufficed to divide first from second subject, or, after development, +to return to the principal theme; then, again, the wider scope of the +development itself demanded more striking harmonies, more forcible +figuration, and more varied cadences. + +The subject-matter, we have said, became more important; it differed +also in character. The themes of Emanuel Bach, for the most part, seem +to be evolved from harmonic progressions and groupings of notes; those +of his successors, rather the source whence springs melody and +figuration. The one uttered broken phrases; the others, complete +musical sentences. Italian fashion prevailed during the second half +of the eighteenth century much as it did in the first. The simple +charm and warmth of the music of the violin-composers had penetrated +the contrapuntal crust which covered Emanuel Bach's heart; and the +feeling that he could never hope to rival his father must have +rendered him all the more willing to yield to it. But the influence of +his father could not be wholly cast aside, and Emanuel was, as it +were, drawn in opposite directions; it is really wonderful what he +actually achieved. True lovers of John Sebastian Bach know well that +his music, though of a contrapuntal character, is by no means dry; but +the formal aspect of it must have made its mark on the son ere he +could feel the power, and realise the splendour of his father's +genius. + +Haydn and Mozart, on the other hand, were born and bred in the very +midst of Italian music. Of Haydn's early days we have already spoken, +and those of Mozart were not unsimilar. Otto Jahn, in his life of that +composer, says of the father Leopold, that "his ideas were firmly +rooted in the traditions of Italian music"; so firmly, indeed, that he +could not appreciate the mild innovations of a Gluck. This paternal +influence was deepened, besides, by Mozart's early visits to Italy. + +Then, again, so far as we can make out, the clavier compositions of +John Sebastian Bach, and, especially the "Well-tempered Clavier," were +unknown both to Haydn and Mozart in their days of childhood and early +manhood. What a difference in the case of Beethoven, who, it will be +remembered, could play the greater number of the forty-eight Preludes +and Fugues before he was twelve years of age! The beauty of Italian +music not only impressed Haydn and Mozart, but kindled their creative +faculties; while its simple, rhythmical character probably aided them +materially in giving utterance to their thoughts and feelings. Nature +had bestowed on them in rich measure the gift of melody, and they soon +began to compose. + +Emanuel Bach, we have said, was drawn in two opposite directions. +Haydn and Mozart, though they were spared this dual influence, had, +however, to face a difficulty. They found a form ready to hand, yet +one which, as we have attempted to show, required modifications of +various kinds. The former had to make the old fit in with the new; but +the latter, the new with the old. Hence their inspiration was +handicapped. They were to some extent constructing as well as +creating; and then their sense of order, balance, and proportion was +so strong, that they often turned out movements more remarkable for +their clearness of form than for the strength of their contents. + +Mozart profited by Haydn's early attempts, and his best sonatas are +vastly superior to most of Haydn's. After Mozart's death, and even for +some years before, Haydn seemed to have caught much of the spirit of +the younger composer. He showed this especially in his London +symphonies, but also in one or two of his later sonatas. "This mutual +reaction," says Jahn, "so generously acknowledged by both musicians, +must be taken into account in forming a judgment on them." + +Haydn, though fully conscious of his own powers, practically +acknowledged the superiority of his brother-artist. On learning of +Mozart's death, he exclaimed: "Posterity will not see such talent for +a century to come!"--a prophecy which, at the time it was uttered, +seemed likely of fulfilment. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN + + +I. Muzio Clementi + +Muzio Clementi, born at Rome in 1752, was brought to England by +Alderman Beckford, father of the author of _Vathek_, and at Fonthill +Abbey he had leisure to study the works of Handel, John Sebastian +Bach, Emanuel Bach, Domenico Scarlatti, and Paradies. Clementi, like +Scarlatti, was a _virtuoso_; but although both indulged largely in +technical display, they were true and intelligent artists. In +Scarlatti, the balance between his musical ideas and the form in which +they were presented was almost perfect; in Clementi, virtuosity often +gained the ascendency over virtue. With the latter, however, as indeed +with E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and many other composers, the necessity +of earning a living, and therefore of writing for "long" ears, mixed +with the love of fame, produced works which, like the old Eden tree, +contained both good and evil. To judge such great men really fairly, +the chaff ought to be separated from the wheat; and the chaff ought +to be thoroughly removed, even at the risk of sometimes losing a +portion of wheat. + +To the true lover of music, choice selections are more precious than +complete collections; the latter are, of course, necessary to those +whose business it is to study the rise and development of the various +composers. The pianoforte sonatas of Mozart, Haydn, Dussek, and +Clementi might be reduced to very moderate compass. To suggest that +any one of Beethoven's thirty-two should be removed out of its place +would now sound flat blasphemy; but art progresses, and some even now +are falling into oblivion. The catalogue of music performed at the +Popular Concerts during the history of the past thirty-five years +shows pretty clearly which sonatas of Beethoven are likely to live +long, and which not. But to return to Clementi. He published his first +three sonatas (Op. 2, Nos. 1-3) in 1770, the year in which Beethoven +was born; and the influence which he exerted over that master was +considerable. In Beethoven's library were to be found many sonatas of +Clementi, and the master's predilection for them is well known. The +world seldom renders full justice to men who prepared the way for +greater than themselves; Pachelbel, Böhm, and Buxtehude, the immediate +predecessors of Bach, and, again, Emanuel Bach, to whom Haydn was so +indebted, and whose works were undoubtedly studied by Beethoven, are +notable examples. This is, of course, perfectly natural: the best only +survives; but musicians who take serious interest in their art ought, +from time to time, to look back and see how much was accomplished and +suggested by men who, in comparison with their mighty contemporaries +and successors, are legitimately ranked as second-rate. Among such, +Clementi holds high place. Beethoven over-shadowed the Italian +composer; but the harsh judgment expressed by Mozart[77] has +contributed not a little, we imagine, to the indifference now shown to +the Clementi sonatas.[78] The judgment was a severe one; but Otto Jahn +relates how Clementi told his pupil Berger that, "at the period of +which Mozart writes, he devoted his attention to brilliant execution, +and in particular to double runs and extemporised passages." And, +again, Berger himself was of opinion that the sonata selected for +performance by Clementi at the memorable contest with Mozart in +presence of the Emperor Joseph the Second (December 1781), was +decidedly inferior to his earlier compositions of the same kind. The +sonata in question was the one in B flat (B. & H., No. 61; Holle, No. +37), of which the opening theme commences in the same manner as the +Allegro of the Overture to the _Magic Flute_. Mozart suffered much +from the predominant Italian influence at court, and the "like all +the Italians" in the letter just mentioned shows, to say the least, a +bitter spirit. But the letter was a private one, probably hastily +written. The judgment expressed was formed from an inferior work; in +any case, it must not be taken too seriously. Mozart, by the way, was +not the only composer who failed to render justice to his +contemporaries. + +Clementi's sonatas may be roughly divided into three classes. Some he +wrote merely for the display of technique, while some were composed +for educational purposes. But there remain others in which his heart +and soul were engaged, and in these he reaches a very high level. Our +classification is a rough one, for often in those which we consider +his best, there is plenty of showy technique. With the exception of +Mozart's sonata in C minor, and Haydn's "Genziger" and "London" +sonatas, both in E flat, also some of Rust's, of which we shall soon +have something to say, there are, to our thinking, none which in +spirit come nearer to Beethoven than some of Clementi's. Mr. E. +Dannreuther, in his article on the composer in Sir George Grove's +_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, justly remarks "that a judicious +selection from his entire works would prove a boon." + +In order to trace the relationship between Clementi and Beethoven, it +may be well to state that Clementi in 1783 had published up to Op. 11 +(Sonata and Toccata; the Toccata, by the way, is not included in the +Breitkopf & Härtel edition; it appeared first, we believe, together +with the sonata, in a London edition. Beethoven's first sonatas (Op. +2) appeared only in 1796).[79] By 1802, Clementi had published up to +Op. 40; in which year Beethoven composed two of the three sonatas, Op. +31, Nos. 1-3. Between 1820-21 appeared Clementi's sonata, Op. 46 +(dedicated to Kalkbrenner), and the last set of three sonatas in +(including the "Didone Abbandonata") Op. 50. Beethoven's sonata in E +(Op. 109) appeared in November 1821. Thus Clementi at first influenced +Beethoven, but, later on, the reverse must have been the case. + +Breitkopf & Härtel have published sixty-four sonatas of Clementi; and +of these, sixty-three are to be found in the Holle edition.[80] + +The three sonatas, Op. 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (25, 26, 27), have only two +movements, and are principally remarkable for their showy +technique.[81] + +Clementi, of course, was well acquainted with Scarlatti's music, yet +it would perhaps be difficult to point out any direct influence of the +one over the other. In the next three sonatas, Op. 9, Nos. 4, 5, 6 +(11, 28, 12), the first and third are most interesting. In the second, +Clementi indulges in his favourite passages of thirds, sixths, and +octaves; there is, indeed, a Presto movement, a _moto perpetuo_ for +the right hand, in octaves, which, if taken up to time, would tax even +pianists of the present day. The 1st sonata may be noticed for its +bold chords, and its _sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, which sound +Beethovenish. The 3rd sonata reminds us in many ways of the Bonn +master. In the opening Allegro there is a sighing figure-- + +[Music illustration] + +which plays an important part throughout the movement, and therefore +gives a marked character to it. In the development section the bold +contrasts, the powerful chords, the sighing figure in augmentation, +all point to Beethoven. And, curiously enough, the principal theme, +which now appears in major (the sonata is in G minor), reminds one +very strongly of the "Eroica"-- + +[Music illustration] + +It is worth noticing that the "sighing figure" may be traced in the +other two movements of the sonata. The next sonata, No. 10 (44), has +three movements, all in the same key; the Trio of the Minuet is in the +key of the subdominant. In the first movement may be noticed the +extension of a phrase by repetition (_pp_) of its last two notes, a +feature often to be met with in Beethoven (see, for instance, the +first movement of the "Appassionata," development section). + +The piano phrase in the Rondo of No. 11 (45), before the organ point +and the pause bar, is striking. No. 14 (2) is interesting. The broken +octaves at the end of the exposition section, and the return by +ellipsis to the principal theme, call to mind passages in Beethoven's +Op. 22 and Op. 109. Sonata No. 16 (4) has a delightful first movement; +the evolution of the second subject from the first deserves attention. +In No. 18 (51) there is one point to notice. The key of the first +movement is in F, but the principal theme in the recapitulation +section appears in E flat; the second theme, however, according to +rule, in the tonic. + +Sonata No. 19 (52), in F minor, demands more than a passing word. Our +readers will, perhaps, be tired of our noticing foreshadowings of +Beethoven, yet we must add others here. We can assure them, however, +or rather those who are not familiar with Clementi's sonatas, that the +passages to which we call attention only form a small proportion of +those to which we might refer. The first movement (Allegro agitato) is +concise; there is no padding. Every bar of the exposition section may +be termed thematic. The second subject, in the orthodox relative +major, is evolved from the principal theme. And the latter descends, +but the former ascends--a true Beethoven contrast. The coda to the +first section, with its working of a thematic figure in augmentation, +forms a striking feature. At the close of the development section a +long dignified dominant passage seems a preparation for the return of +the principal theme, but the composer has a surprise; after a pause +bar, the _second_ theme appears, and in A flat. A modulation soon +leads back to F minor, and quite in Beethoven fashion-- + +[Music illustration] + +and the exposition coda is repeated in extended form. In the next +movement (Largo e sostenuto) sombre tones still prevail; the key is +that of the dominant minor. There is evident kinship between the first +and last movements; of this the opening bar of the former and the +closing bars of the latter offer signal proof. + +In No. 23 (43) at the end of the last movement, an organ point reminds +us that the full intentions of the composer are not recorded. Thus, in +Clementi's early sonatas at any rate, the interpreter, as in E. +Bach's works, was expected to make additions. In No. 26 (7) the +opening of the theme of the Arietta recalls, and in no vague manner, +the opening of the Finale of Beethoven's Septet. No. 34 (8) is an +excellent sonata; there is considerable freedom in the recapitulation +section. In No. 39 (35) Clementi returns to an old form of sonata: +there are only two movements, a Larghetto and Tempo di Minuetto, and +both in the same key. With sonata No. 41 (32), the first of two +published as Op. 34, Clementi breaks new ground. The idea of +incorporating the subject-matter of an introductory slow movement had +already occurred to Haydn,[82] but Clementi goes to greater lengths. +(It must not be forgotten that Beethoven's "Sonate Pathétique," Op. +13, appeared in 1799; possibly, before Clementi's.) From the opening +characteristic subject of the Largo is evolved the principal subject +of the Allegro _con fuoco_, and there is also relationship between it +and the second subject. In the unusually long development section, a +dramatic passage, evolved from the concluding bars of the Largo, leads +to a slow section in which the opening notes of the Largo are given +out in loud tones, and in the unexpected key of C major (the three +repeated _sforzando_ crotchets remind one of the "fate" notes in the C +minor Symphony); and when the Tempo primo is resumed, the + +[Music illustration] + +also reminds one of + +[Music illustration] + +in the same movement of the above-mentioned Symphony. Then, again, in +an important coda the theme is given out in modified, yet intensified +form. In the Finale of the sonata the Largo still makes its influence +felt. Exception may perhaps be taken to the length of the first +movement, and to the prominence throughout the work, of the principal +key; but the evident desire of the composer to express something which +was inwardly moving him gives great interest to the music. + +The sonata in B minor, Op. 40, is one of Clementi's most finished +productions. The name of Beethoven must again be mentioned; for depth +of meaning, boldness, style of development, and gradation of interest, +the music comes within measurable distance of the greater master. Not +only is there no padding, but here the technique serves a higher +purpose than that of display; there are no formal successions of +thirds, sixths, or octaves, no empty bravoura passages. The long +development section of the first movement, with its bold contrasts, +its varied presentation of thematic material, its peculiar mode of +dealing with fragments of a theme, and its long dwelling on dominant +harmony previous to the return of the principal theme,--all these +things remind one of Beethoven. This movement is followed by a Largo +(_mesto e patetico_) leading to the final Allegro. These two are +intimately connected; and, moreover, the latter includes reminiscences +from the introductory Adagio. After a brief reference to the Largo, +the movement concludes with a passionate Presto coda. In Mr. +Banister's _Life of Macfarren_ we learn that the latter considered the +B minor of Clementi "one of the finest sonatas ever written"; and many +musicians will, probably, agree with him. + +Of the three last sonatas (Op. 50, Nos. 1, 2, and 3), it must be +remembered that when they appeared Beethoven had published up to Op. +106, and possibly Op. 109. If, then, in some of the earlier Clementi +sonatas we spoke of his influence on Beethoven, it is just the reverse +here. Nevertheless, of these sonatas which must have been known to +that master, one may have led him to think again of the idea of +revealing the poetic basis of his sonatas.[83] Clementi gives the +title, "Didone Abbandonata: Scena Tragica" to his work. The +introductory Largo is _sostenuto e patetico_, while the Allegro which +follows bears the superscription, _deliberando e meditando_; the +Adagio is _dolente_; and the Allegro Finale, _agitato e con +disperazione_. The music expresses throughout the sorrow and despair +of the forsaken queen, while certain wild passages (as for example the +coda of the first Allegro) tell also of her anger. This Allegro is an +admirably sustained movement, and, at moments, the composer rises to +the height of his argument. It is interesting, too, from a technical +point of view, for there is no empty display. Whatever degree of +inspiration may be accorded to the music, it will surely be +acknowledged that the composer was full of his theme; that all his +powers of head and heart were engaged in the task of illustration. +This "Dido" sonata, of course, suffers if compared with those of +Clementi's great contemporary; and some of the writing is formal and +old-fashioned, and, at times, too thin to attract the sympathy or to +excite the interest of pianists of the present day, who enjoy the +richer inheritance of Beethoven, the romantic tone-pictures of +Schumann and Brahms, the fascinating miniatures of Chopin, and the +clever glitter of Liszt. Still it does not deserve utter oblivion. +Hear what Fr. Rochlitz says of it in the _Allg. Mus. Zeit._: "It (the +sonata) is indeed a tragic scene, one so clearly thought out and so +definitely expressed, that it is by no means difficult--not only in +each movement, but in its various divisions--to follow literally the +course of changing feeling which is here developed." + +Schindler, with regard to the work, also remarks as follows: "Who +understands nowadays how to interpret this musical soul-picture +(written unfortunately in old stereotyped sonata-form!)? At best, +glancing hastily over it, a pianist carelessly remarks that the +poetical contents of this sonata are only expressed in the title." And +again: "In the year 1827, at Baden, near Vienna, Clementi gave me +details respecting the contents and interpretation of this tone-poem. +A new edition of the work by J. André of Offenbach enabled me to +insert a preface with the explanations of the veteran master."[84] And +further, as a tone-picture expressing states of the soul, he knows "of +no other work entitled sonata more worthy of a place beside those of +Beethoven." + + +II. Johann Ludwig Dussek + +This composer comes next to Clementi, in order of time, and, we may +add, of merit. His natural gifts really exceeded those of Clementi; +but the latter made a deep study of his art, and also of the +pianoforte, to which, indeed, like Chopin, he devoted his whole +attention. Dussek was fond of ease and pleasure, and never developed +his powers to the full. It may be noted that both these celebrated +pianists were connected with English music-publishing houses. Clementi +prospered, though not in his first undertaking with Longman & +Broderip; but Dussek was unsuccessful, and left England, so it is +said, to avoid his creditors. There is, indeed, a letter written by +Dussek from Hamburg, dated 12th June, 1801, to Clementi, and apart +from the curious spectacle of these two pianists in commercial +correspondence with each other, the letter is of interest, in that it +belongs to a period of Dussek's life concerning the details of which +there is some uncertainty.[85] Dussek, it may be mentioned, does not +ever appear to have returned to London. In 1803 he became attached to +Prince Louis Ferdinand, to whom he offered advice in pianoforte +playing and composition. There is another letter extant of Dussek's +written in the same year in which that Prince fell on the battlefield +of Saalfeld (13th October, 1806), and this also we will give, as we +believe, like the one above, it has never been published.[86] The +catalogue of Dussek's works, in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary of Music +and Musicians_, mentions three quartets for strings (Op. 60: in G, B +flat, and E flat), most probably the works referred to in the second +letter. + +Dussek, born in the year 1761, studied first with his father J.J. +Dussek, and in his twenty-second year received further instruction +from Emanuel Bach; he soon enjoyed great fame as an executant. +Tomaschek, himself a pianist of note, thus speaks of him in his +autobiography:-- + +"There was, in fact, something magical about the way in which Dussek, +with all his charming grace of manner, through his wonderful touch, +extorted from the instrument delicious and at the same time emphatic +tones. His fingers were like a company of ten singers, endowed with +equal executive powers, and able to produce with the utmost perfection +whatever their director could require. I never saw the Prague public +so enchanted as they were on this occasion by Dussek's splendid +playing. His fine declamatory style, especially in _cantabile_ +phrases, stands as the ideal for every artistic performance--something +which no other pianist has since reached." + +The above quotation refers to a concert given at Prague in 1804. + +There is, unfortunately, great confusion in the opus numbers of +Dussek's works; and, moreover, it is difficult, if not impossible, to +give the dates either of composition or publication. Breitkopf & +Härtel have published more than fifty sonatas, but we shall only refer +to some of the more important ones. Dussek, like all the prominent +composers of his time, not even excepting Haydn and Mozart, wrote +music on a practical, rather than on a poetical basis; one of the +letters given above acknowledges this in very frank terms. But to +Dussek's credit be it said, his least valuable works are masterpieces +as compared with those which the sonata-makers, Steibelt, Cramer, and +others, fabricated by the hundred. In Dussek we find great charm and +refinement, while the writing for the instrument is often highly +attractive; but the art of developing themes was certainly not his +strong point. That he was at times careless or indifferent may be seen +from such a bar as the following (Op. 47, No. 1, Litolff ed.; Adagio, +bar 9):-- + +[Music illustration] + +The bar before the return of the principal theme in the Allegro of the +sonata in E flat (Op. 75) furnishes another instance. Again, in the +Allegro of the sonata in A flat, known as "Le Retour à Paris," there +is a passage (commencing fifteen bars before the end of the exposition +section) which, with slight alteration, might have been materially +improved. + +Of the early sonatas, Op. 10, No. 2, in G minor, is an interesting +work. It consists of two well-contrasted movements: an Adagio in +binary, and a Vivace in sonata form. Of the Presto of Op. 10, No. 3, +Professor Prout, in his interesting article, _Dussek's Pianoforte +Sonatas_,[87] says: "Both the first and second principal subjects +remind us irresistibly of that composer (Mendelssohn), while the +phrase at the conclusion of the first part, repeated at the end of the +movement, is almost identical with a well-known passage in the first +movement of the 'Scotch Symphony.' Is the coincidence accidental, or +did Mendelssohn know the sonata, and was he unconsciously influenced +by it?" + +In his three last sonatas (Op. 70, 75, and 77), Dussek rises to a very +high level; he was undoubtedly influenced by the earnestness of +Beethoven, the chivalric spirit of Weber, and the poetry of Schubert. +A new era had set in. These three composers were neither the _fools_ +of princes nor the servants of the public: they were in the world, yet +not of it. They looked upon their art as a sacred thing; and most +probably the shallowness of much of the music produced in such +abundance towards the close of the eighteenth century spurred them on +to higher efforts. Dussek had lived an irregular, aimless sort of +life; he had wandered from one country to another, and had acquired +the ephemeral fame of the _virtuoso_. Perhaps he was a disappointed +man; there is a tinge of sadness about these last sonatas which +supports such a view. Perhaps a feeling that his life was ebbing away +made him serious: his music now shows no trifling. Explain it as you +may, Dussek's three last contributions to sonata literature rank +amongst the best of his day; and the indifference now shown to +them--so far, at least, as the concert platform is concerned--is proof +of ignorance, or bad taste. We say ignorance, because the rising +generation has few, if any, opportunities of hearing this composer's +music. It is eighteen years since his Op. 70 was given at the Popular +Concerts; while twenty-three and twenty-nine years have passed since +Op. 75 and Op. 77 have been played there. + +The sonata in A flat, entitled "Le Retour à Paris," is known in +England as "Plus Ultra," and in an old edition it is dedicated to "Non +plus Ultra." The latter was meant for Woelfl, a famous pianist and +contemporary. His music is now forgotten, and his name is principally +remembered in connection with Beethoven; like the latter, his talent +for improvisation was great. The late J.W. Davidson, in his long and +interesting preface to Brewer & Co.'s edition of Dussek's A flat +sonata, leads us to believe that Dussek's publisher, and not the +composer himself, was responsible for the change of title to "Plus +Ultra." The opus number, too, was changed from 70 to 71. The following +story is also told by Davidson in a preface contributed by him to the +Brewer edition of the Woelfl sonata:--"Who will play it?" asked the +publisher (Well), looking through the music of the composer. "I vill +it blay," replied Woelfl. "Yes, but you won't buy the copies. No one +but yourself or Dussek can play the Allegro, and I doubt if either of +you can play the variations." Woelfl, however, sitting down before an +old harpsichord, convinced the publisher of his error. "What shall we +call it?" asked Well. "Call it 'Ne plus Ultra,'" said Woelfl, rubbing +his hands with joy, and adding, "Now shall we see if Herr von Esch +vill more blay, or Herr Bomdembo make de variation." + +Dussek's "Plus Ultra" (Op. 70) is justly admired; the music is fine, +and in the matter of technique, setting aside a few sensational +passages[88] in Woelfl's sonata, which his very long fingers enabled +him to execute with comparative ease, far surpassed the earlier work. +It must appear strange to many musicians who do not possess a copy of +Woelfl's sonata, that, in any mention of the rivalry between the two +composers, no reference is made to Woelfl's sonata beyond the title. +An examination of the latter, however, would soon solve the mystery. +The plain fact is this: both the music and even the technique are now +absolutely uninteresting. The sonata, in the key of F major, commences +with a brief introductory Adagio, followed by a long, tedious Allegro +abounding in passages of thirds. A brief Andante comes between this +Allegro and the Finale, consisting of flimsy variations on the popular +melody "Life let us Cherish." In a book of small compass such as the +present one, we only wish to dwell upon matters of interest. For some +particular purpose Woelfl's sonatas might possibly prove of importance +and even interest; but not here. The "Non plus Ultra," so far as we +are concerned, may serve to remind us that Woelfl once lived; while +the rest of his music, like some incidents in his life, may be +consigned to oblivion. We cannot say that we have read all his +sonatas, but enough of them, we believe, to judge, generally, of their +contents. + +Professor Macfarren's opinion of Dussek, as composer for the +pianoforte, in the _Imperial Dictionary of Biography_, is so +excellent, that we cannot perhaps do better than quote his words:-- + +"The immense amount of Dussek's compositions for the pianoforte have +by no means equal merit; many of them were written for the mere object +of sale, still more for the purpose of tuition, and some with the +design of executive display. Of those which were produced, however, in +the true spirit of art, expressing the composer's feelings in his own +unrestrained ideas, there exist quite enough to stamp him one of the +first composers for his instrument; and while these are indispensable +in the complete library of the pianist, they are above value to the +student in the development of his mechanism and the formation of his +style. A strong characteristic of the composer is his almost redundant +profusion of ideas;[89] but his rich fecundity of invention is greatly +counterbalanced by diffuseness of design, resulting from the want of +that power of condensation by means of which greater interest is often +given to less beautiful matter." + +And then, again, in an analysis of a Dussek Quintet, he remarks that +in that composer's works we may trace "not only the origin of many of +the most beautiful effects with which later writers have been +accredited, but some of the identical ideas by which these very +writers have made their way into popularity." + + +III. Friedrich Wilhelm Rust + +During the years 1744-45 a young man named Johann Ludwig Anton Rust +went to Leipzig to study jurisprudence and philosophy. But he was also +musical, and played the violin at performances given under the +direction of J.S. Bach. On returning to his home at Wörlitz, Rust +tried to inspire those around him with enthusiasm for the music of +Bach. With his younger brother, Friedrich Wilhelm, he was, at any +rate, successful; for the latter, already at the age of thirteen, was +able to play by heart the whole of the "Well-tempered Clavier." Later +on, young Friedrich went to Halle to study law, and there not only +made the acquaintance of Friedemann Bach, but, in return for attending +to the correspondence of that gifted musician, he received from him +instruction in composition, organ and clavier playing. Afterwards, at +Potsdam, he continued his clavier studies under Emanuel Bach. Surely a +finer training never fell to the lot of any pupil. Schumann recommends +young musicians to make Bach their daily bread; and of that, Rust must +have had full weight. But the list of his teachers is not yet +exhausted; he went to Italy in 1765, and studied the violin under +Tartini. Rust composed operas, cantatas, concertos, and sonatas for +violin,[90] and for pianoforte; the last-named, of which he wrote +eight, now concern us. + +The earliest, entitled "Sonata Erotica," was composed in 1775; this +work, however, was not published until the year 1888 (edited by his +grandson, Dr. Wilhelm Rust,[91] late cantor of St. Thomas'). It is the +first of a series of works extraordinary in many ways--in form, +subject-matter, developments, and technique. With regard to the +last-named, there is something to say, and it had better be said at +once. Dr. E. Prieger, in his interesting pamphlet, _F.W. Rust: Ein +Vorgänger Beethovens_, remarks as follows:--"While the grandson, full +of enthusiasm, threw his whole soul into the creations of his +ancestor, he gave a reflection, in his edition, of the pictures which +had been vividly formed in his mind." To accomplish this he has +strengthened the writing, and, in some cases, _modernised_ it. Dr. +Prieger, who has seen some, if not all of the autographs, has assured +us that "these additions only concern the exterior, and do not affect +the fundamental, character of the work." This statement is, to a +certain extent, satisfactory, and we receive it thankfully. But a +great deal of the writing is far ahead of the age in which it was +written; it reminds one now of Weber, now of Schumann. Why, one may +ask, did not the editor indicate the additions in smaller notes? Then +it would have been possible to see exactly what the elder Rust had +written, and what the younger Rust had added. At present one can only +marvel at some of the writing, and long to know how much of it really +belongs to the composer. It appears that Rust, as editor of his +grandfather's work, had some intention of describing his editions, +etc., but death, which frequently prevents the best intentioned plans, +intervened. + +The "Sonata Erotica" is noticeable, generally, for its charm, poetry, +and spontaneity. The first movement, an Allegro moderato, is in +sonata-form. The second, in the key of the relative minor, entitled +Fantasie, has in it more of the spirit of Beethoven than of Emanuel +Bach. The Finale is in rondo form; the middle section consists of a +playful Duettino, containing free imitations. + +The next sonata (1777), in D flat, opens with a graceful Allegretto, +and closes with a Tempo di Minuetto, which, for the most part, points +backward rather than forward. The slow movement, Adagio sostenuto, is, +however, of a higher order than either of these. It has Beethovenish +breadth and dignity, yet lacks the power of the Bonn master: those +magic touches by which the latter makes us feel his genius, and +secures gradation of interest up to the very close of a movement. This +Adagio, however, were the date of its composition unknown, might pass +for a very clever imitation of Beethoven's style. + +In 1784, Rust wrote two sonatas, one in F sharp minor, the other in B +flat minor. The latter consists of three movements, and the music, +especially in the Adagio in E flat minor, bears traces of the great +Bach; still there are passages which sound more modern even in this +very Adagio, which points so clearly to him as the source of +inspiration. The modern element, however, admits of explanation, for +Haydn and Mozart, at the time in which the sonata was written, had +appeared in the musical firmament. But in the works we are about to +mention, the composer suggests Beethoven, Weber, and even Schumann. In +writing about Clementi, we were compelled frequently, and at the risk +of wearying our readers, to call attention to foreshadowings of both +the letter and spirit of Beethoven. The cases of Clementi and Rust, +however, are not quite parallel. With the former it was mere +foreshadowing; with exception of a few passages in which there was +note resemblance between the two composers, the music still bore +traces of Clementi's mode of thought and style of writing. But with +Rust, there are moments in which it is really difficult to believe +that the music belongs to a pre-Beethoven period. + +The sonata[92] in D minor (1788) opens with a vigorous yet dignified +Allegro; the graceful Adagio is of eighteenth century type; it is in +the key of the relative major, but closes on the dominant chord of D +minor, leading without break to a final Allegro, full of interesting +details. The movement concludes with an impressive _poco adagio_ coda, +in which Rust makes use of the principal theme of the opening +movement. We will venture on one quotation, although a few bars, +separated from the context, may convey only a feeble impression-- + +[Music illustration] + +The sonata in D major, composed six years later, opens with an +interesting Allegro. The second movement, in B minor, bears the +superscription "Wehklage" (Lamentation). Rust's eldest son, a talented +youth, who was studying at Halle University, was drowned in the river +Saale, 23rd March 1794. Matthisson, the "Adelaide" poet, sent to the +disconsolate father a poem entitled "Todtenkranz für ein Kind," to +which Rust sketched music, and on that sketch is based this pathetic +movement, which sounds like some tone-poem of the nineteenth century. +Here is the impressive coda:-- + +[Music illustration] + +There follows a dainty, old-fashioned Minuet, and a curious movement +entitled "Schwermuth und Frohsinn" (Melancholy and Mirth);[93] though +after the "Wehklage" these make little impression. + +During four years (1792-96), Rust was occupied with a sonata in C +minor and major. The work is a remarkable one. It opens with an +energetic Recitativo in C minor, interrupted for a few bars by an +Arioso Adagio in C major. Then comes a Lento in six-four time based on +the celebrated Marlbrook song, a dignified movement containing, among +other canonic imitations, one in the ninth. It leads by means of a +_stringendo_ bar to a brilliant Allegro con brio, a movement of which +both the music and the technique remind one of Beethoven's bravoura +style. A second section of the sonata commences with the recitative +phrase of the opening of the work, only in A minor. This leads to a +highly characteristic Andante, which Dr. Rust, the editor, in a +preface to the published sonata, likens to the "mighty procession" in +Lenau's _Faust_. The Finale consists of an animated Allegro, with a +clever fugato by way of episode; there is still an Allegro maestoso, +which, except for its length and the fact that it contains a middle +section, Cantabile e religioso, we should call a long coda. The whole, +evidently programme-music, is a sonata worked out somewhat on Kuhnau +lines. + +Now, was Beethoven acquainted with Rust's music? Dr. Prieger, in the +pamphlet mentioned above, remarks as follows:--"During the years +1807-27 Wilhelm Karl Rust (_b._ 1787, _d._ 1855), the youngest son of +our master, was in Vienna, and had the good fortune to make the +acquaintance of Beethoven, who was pleased with his playing, and +recommended him as teacher. Among Rust's lady pupils were Baroness +Dorothea Ertmann and Maximiliane Brentano, both of whom belonged to +Beethoven's most intimate circle of friends, and had been honoured by +having works dedicated to them. The younger Rust was gifted with an +extraordinary memory, and therefore it seems more than probable that +he occasionally performed some of his father's works in that circle. +On the other hand, we have Beethoven's energetic nature holding aloof +from anything which might influence his own individuality." + +There, in a few words, is the answer to our question. And it is about +the only one we can ever hope to obtain. Rust was altogether a +remarkable phenomenon, a musician born, as it were, out of due time. +If Beethoven, as seems quite possible, was acquainted with his music, +then Rust exerted an influence over the master quite equal to that of +Clementi. It almost seems as if we ought to say, greater. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN + + +Bach's forty-eight Preludes and Fugues and Beethoven's thirty-two +Sonatas tower above all other works written for the pianoforte; they +were aptly described by the late Dr. Hans v. Bülow, the one as the +Old, the other as the New Testament of musical literature. Each fresh +study of them reveals new points of interest, new beauties; they are +rich mines which it is impossible to exhaust. Bach seemed to have +revealed all the possibilities of fugue-form; and the history of the +last seventy years almost leads one to imagine that Beethoven was the +last of the great sonata writers. To this matter, however, we will +presently return. In speaking of the various composers from Kuhnau +onwards, we have tried to show the special, also the earliest, +influences acting on them; and we shall still pursue the same course +with regard to Beethoven. When he went to Vienna in 1792 he found +himself in the very centre of the musical world. Haydn, though past +sixty years of age, was at the zenith of his fame; and Beethoven, for +a time, studied under him. Mozart had died in the previous year, so +his name was still in everybody's mouth. The early works of Beethoven +give strong evidence of the influence exerted over him by these two +composers. Then Prince Lichnowsky, the friend and pupil of Mozart, and +Baron van Swieten, the patron and friend of both Haydn and Mozart, +were among the earliest to take notice of the rising genius and to +invite him to their musical _matinées_ and _soirées_; and one can +easily guess what kind of music was performed on those occasions. But +the little story of Beethoven remaining at van Swieten's house, after +the guests had departed, in order to "send his host to bed with half a +dozen of Bach's Fugues by way of _Abendsegen_" reminds us of another +strong, and still earlier, influence. At Bonn, under the guidance of +his master, Christian Gottlob Neefe, Beethoven was so well-grounded in +the "Well-tempered Clavier," that already, at the age of twelve, he +could play nearly the whole of it. But, if we are not mistaken, he +also made early acquaintanceship with the sonatas of Emanuel Bach. For +in 1773 Neefe published "Zwölf Klavier-Sonaten," which were dedicated +to the composer just named. In the preface he says: "Since the period +in which you, dearest Herr Capellmeister, presented to the public your +masterly sonatas, worked out, too, with true taste, scarcely anything +of a characteristic nature has appeared for this instrument.[94] Most +composers have been occupied in writing Symphonies, Trios, Quartets, +etc. And if now and then they have turned their attention to the +clavier, the greater number of the pieces have been provided with an +accompaniment, often of an extremely arbitrary kind, for the violin; +so that they are as suitable for any other instrument as for the +clavier." Then, later on, Neefe acknowledges how much instruction and +how much pleasure he has received from the theoretical and practical +works of E. Bach (we seem to be reading over again the terms in which +Haydn expressed himself towards Bach). May we, then, not conclude that +young Beethoven's attention was attracted to these "masterly sonatas," +and also to those of his teacher Neefe? This is scarcely the moment to +describe the Neefe sonatas.[95] In connection, however, with +Beethoven, one or two points must be noticed. In the third of the +three sonatas which Beethoven composed at the age of eleven, the last +movement is entitled: Scherzando allegro ma non troppo, and twice in +Neefe do we come across the heading, Allegro e scherzando (first set, +No. 5, last movement; and second set, No. 1, also last movement). +Then, again, No. 2 of the second set opens with a brief introductory +Adagio, one, by the way, to some extent connected with the Allegro +which follows. In the 2nd of the above-mentioned Beethoven sonatas +(the one in F minor) there is also a slow introduction; the young +master, no mere imitator, anticipates his own "Sonate Pathétique," and +repeats it in the body of the Allegro movement. Lastly, no one, we +believe, can compare the Neefe variations with those of Beethoven in +the 3rd sonata (in A) without coming to the conclusion that the pupil +had diligently studied his teacher's compositions, which, we may add, +were thoroughly sound, full of pleasing _cantabile_ writing, and, at +times, not lacking in boldness. Let us venture on one quotation of +only four bars from Sonata 1, in G, of the second set of six: it is +the opening of a short Adagio connecting the Allegro with an Allegro e +scherzando-- + +[Music illustration] + +The enharmonic modulation from the second to the third bar reminds one +of E. Bach, who was so fond of such changes; also of a similar one in +the "Pathétique." + +Beethoven wrote thirty-two sonatas, and in the following table the +opus number of each work is given, also the date of its publication; +some have a title, and the greater number a dedication:-- + +Sonata Published Dedicated to + +Op. 2 No. 1 (F minor) 1796. Haydn. + " No. 2 (A) " " + " No. 3 (C) " " +Op. 7 (E flat) 1797. Countess Babette Keglevics. +Op. 10 No. 1 (C minor) 1798. Countess Browne. + " No. 2 (F) " " + " No. 3 (D) " " +Op. 13 (C minor, "Sonate + Pathétique") 1799. Prince Charles Lichnowsky. +Op. 14 No. 1 (E) " Baroness Braun. + " No. 2 (G) " " +Op. 22 (B flat) 1802. Count Browne. +Op. 26 (A flat) " Prince Charles Lichnowsky. +Op. 27 No. 1 (E flat) " Princess Liechtenstein. + " No. 2 (C sharp minor) " Countess Giulietta Guicciardi. +Op. 28 (D) " Joseph de Sonnenfels. +Op. 31 No. 1 (G) 1803. + " No. 2 (D minor) " + " No. 3 (E flat) 1804. +Op. 49 No. 1 (G minor) 1805. + " No. 2 (G) " +Op. 53 (C) " Count Waldstein. +Op. 54 (F) 1806. +Op. 57 (F minor) 1807. Count Brunswick. +Op. 78 (F sharp) 1810. Countess Theresa of Brunswick. +Op. 79 (G) " +Op. 81A (E flat; "Das Lebewohl, + die Abwesenheit, + das Wiedersehn") 1811. Archduke Rudolph. +Op. 90 (E minor) 1815. Count Moritz Lichnowsky. +Op. 101 (A) 1817. Baroness Dorothea Ertmann. +Op. 106 (B flat) 1819. Archduke Rudolph. +Op. 109 (E) 1821. Maximiliane Brentano. +Op. 110 (A flat) 1822. +Op. 111 (C minor) 1823. Archduke Rudolph. + +The autograph of the last sonata does not bear any dedication, but, +from a letter of Beethoven (1st June, 1823) to the Archduke, it is +evident that it was intended for the latter.[96] + +The fanciful name of "Moonlight" to Op. 27 (No. 2), the appropriate +publisher's title of Op. 57, and the poetical superscriptions of Op. +81A, have, without doubt, helped those sonatas towards their +popularity. It does not always happen that the most popular works of a +man are his best; but these in question justly rank among Beethoven's +finest productions. The last five sonatas are wonderful tone-poems; +yet, with the exception, perhaps, of Op. 110, in A flat, as regards +perfection of form and unity of conception, not one equals Op. 27 (No. +2), Op. 31 (No. 2), and Op. 57. Apart from any æsthetic +considerations, the digital difficulties of the last five sonatas +prevent their becoming common property. The brilliant technique of Op. +53 has proved a special attraction to pianists, and it has therefore +become widely known. With this one sonata Beethoven proved his +superiority, even in the matter of virtuosity, over the best pianists +of his day. + +In order to be able to enter fully into the spirit of the music of +great composers, it is necessary to know the history of their lives. +Beethoven's is fairly well known. But it may be worth while to refer, +briefly, to the principal men and women to whom the master dedicated +his pianoforte sonatas. + +Of the thirty-two, as will be seen from the above table, eight have no +dedication. + +In the year 1792 Beethoven left Bonn and went to Vienna. There he +studied counterpoint under Haydn, yet the lessons proved +unsatisfactory. But the fame and influence of the veteran master no +doubt prompted the young artist to dedicate to him the three sonatas, +Op. 2. The title-page of the oldest Vienna edition runs thus:-- + +Trois Sonates pour le Clavecin Piano-forte composées +et dediées +A Mr. Joseph Haydn Docteur en musique par +Louis van Beethoven. + +There was perhaps more of sarcasm than respect in the "Docteur en +musique"; Beethoven is related to have said that he had taken some +lessons from Haydn, but had never learnt anything from him. +Nevertheless he paid heed to his teacher's music. There are in the +sonatas one or two reminiscences of Haydn, which seem to us curious +enough to merit quotation. One occurs in the sonata in C minor (Op. +10, No. 1). We give the passage (transposed) from Haydn, and the one +from Beethoven:-- + +[Music illustration: "Letter V," Pohl, No. 58.[97] HAYDN.] + +[Music illustration: Op. 10, No. 1. BEETHOVEN.] + +And another-- + +[Music illustration: "In Native Worth" (_Creation_). HAYDN.] + +[Music illustration: Op. 31, No. 1. BEETHOVEN.] + +While speaking of reminiscences, a curious one may be mentioned. The +theme of the slow movement of Beethoven's sonata in A (Op. 2, No. 2) +strongly resembles the theme of the slow movement of his own Trio in B +flat (Op. 97):-- + +[Music illustration: Op. 2, No. 2.] + +[Music illustration: Trio, Op. 97. _Andante._] + +In Op. 111, again, the second subject of the Allegro recalls a phrase +in the Presto of the Sonata in C sharp minor. + +Haydn, as the most illustrious composer of that day, stands first; but +the next name worthy of mention is Count Waldstein, a young nobleman +who had been a guide, philosopher, and friend to Beethoven during the +Bonn days. The well-known entry in the young musician's Album just +before his departure for Vienna shows in what high esteem he was held +by Waldstein. Count Ferdinand Waldstein died in 1823. + +Prince Charles Lichnowsky was one of the composer's earliest patrons +after the latter had settled in Vienna. The Prince, descended from an +old Polish family, was born in 1758, and, consequently, was, by twelve +years, Beethoven's senior. He lived mostly in Vienna. In 1789 he +invited Mozart to accompany him to Berlin; and the King's proposal to +name the latter his capellmeister is supposed to have been suggested +by the Prince. Lichnowsky was also a pupil of Mozart's. His wife, +Princess of Thun, was famous for her beauty, her kindly disposition, +and for her skill as a musician. Beethoven had not been twelve months +in Vienna when he was offered rooms in the Prince's house. It was +there that the pianoforte sonatas Op. 2 were first played by their +author in presence of Haydn. Beethoven remained in this house until +1800. In 1799 the "Sonate Pathétique" was dedicated to the Prince, and +in the following year the latter settled on him a yearly pension of +600 florins. In the year 1806 there was a rupture between the two +friends. At the time of the battle of Jena, Beethoven was at the seat +of Prince Lichnowsky at Troppau, in Silesia, where some French +officers were quartered. The independent artist refused to play to +them, and when the Prince pressed the request, Beethoven got angry, +started the same evening for Vienna, and,--anger still burning in his +breast,--on his arrival home, he shattered a bust of his patron. The +composer's refusal to play to the French officers was grounded on his +hatred to Napoleon, who had just won the battle of Jena. Beethoven, +however, became reconciled with the Prince before the death of the +latter in 1814. It should be mentioned that Beethoven's first +published work, the three pianoforte Trios, was dedicated to Prince +Lichnowsky. + +The Archduke Rudolph (1788-1831) was one of the master's warmest +friends, and one of his most devoted admirers. His uncle was Max +Franz, Elector of Cologne, to whose chapel both Beethoven and his +father had belonged. The Archduke was the son of Leopold of Tuscany +and Maria Louisa of Spain; his aunt was Marie Antoinette, and his +grandmother the famous Maria Theresa. He is supposed to have made the +acquaintance of Beethoven during the winter of 1803-4, and then to +have become his pupil. The pianoforte part of the Triple Concerto (Op. +58), commenced in 1804, and published in 1807, is said to have been +written for him. + +Concerning the Countess Giulietta Guicciardi, for whom Beethoven +entertained a hopeless passion, and the Countess Theresa of Brunswick, +to whom he is said to have been secretly engaged for some years, there +is no necessity to enter into detail. Everyone has probably heard of +the famous love-letters, and of the discussion as to which of these +two they were addressed. Maximiliane Brentano was a niece of the +famous Bettine Brentano. + +The Baroness Ertmann was an excellent performer on the pianoforte, and +is said to have been unrivalled as an interpreter of Beethoven's +music. Mendelssohn met her at Rome in 1831, and in a letter describes +her playing of the C sharp minor and D minor Sonatas. + +We must now turn to the sonatas, yet neither for the purpose of +analysis nor of admiration. We shall briefly discuss how far Beethoven +worked on the lines established by his predecessors, and how far he +modified them. And, naturally, the question of music on a poetic basis +will be touched upon. + +The number of movements of which Beethoven's sonatas consist varies +considerably: some have two, some three, others four. The three very +early sonatas dedicated to Maximilian, Archbishop of Cologne, have +only three movements (the second opens with a brief Larghetto, which, +however, really forms part of the first movement). But the four +Sonatas Op. 2 (Nos. 1, 2 and 3) and Op. 7 all have four movements--an +Allegro, a slow movement, a Scherzo or Minuet and Trio, and a final +Allegro or Rondo. There are examples in later sonatas of similar +grouping; but it is an undeniable fact that in some of his greatest +sonatas--Op. 31 (No. 2), Op. 27 (No. 2), Op. 53, Op. 57--he reverts to +the three-movement sonata so faithfully adhered to by Emanuel Bach, +Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi. And there is evidence that the omission +of the Minuet or Scherzo in Op. 10 (Nos. 1 and 2), in Op. 13, and in +others named above, was the result of reflection and not caprice. + +Among sketches for the Sonatas, Op. 10, Beethoven writes: "Zu den +neuen Sonaten ganz kürze Menuetten" (to the new sonatas quite short +Minuets); and also, a little further on, "Die Menuetten zu den Sonaten +ins künftige nicht länger als von 16 bis 24 Takte" (in future the +Minuets to the sonatas not to exceed from 16 to 24 bars). Then, again, +there are two sketches for a movement of the Minuet or Scherzo kind, +which were almost certainly intended for the Sonata No. 1 in C minor. +One of these was afterwards completed, and has been published in the +Supplement to Breitkopf & Härtel's edition of Beethoven's works. Both +these were finally rejected, yet Beethoven made still another attempt. +There is a sketch for an "Intermezzo zur Sonate aus C moll," and at +the end of the music the composer writes: "durchaus so ohne Trio, nur +ein Stück" (exactly thus without Trio, only one piece). So the Minuets +were to be short; then the limit of length is prescribed; and, lastly, +an Intermezzo _without_ Trio is planned. The composer proposed, but +his [Greek: daimôn] disposed; the Sonata in C minor finally appeared +in print with only an Adagio between the two quick movements. + +Schindler, in reference to the proposal made by Hoffmeister to +Beethoven to edit a new edition of his pianoforte works, tells us that +had that project been carried out, the master, in order to get a +nearer approach to unity, would have reduced some of his earlier +sonatas from four movements to three. And he adds: "He would most +certainly have cut out the Scherzo Allegro from the highly pathetic +sonata for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 30, No. 2; the first and third +have only three movements), a movement in complete opposition to the +character of the whole. He always objected to this movement, and, for +the reason just assigned, advised that it should be omitted. Had the +scheme been carried out, a small number of Scherzos, Allegros and +Menuets would have been 'dismissed.' In our circle, however, +objections were raised against this proposal; for among these +Scherzos, etc., each of us had his favourite, and did not like the +idea of its being removed from the place which it had long occupied. +The master, however, pointed to the three-movement sonatas--Op. 10 in +C minor, Op. 13, Op. 14, Op. 31 (Nos. 1 and 2), Op. 57, and others. +The last sonatas--Op. 106 and Op. 110--which contain more than three +movements must be judged in quite a different manner" (_Life of +Beethoven_, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 215-16). + +Schindler's statements have sometimes been called in question; the +above, however, bears on it the stamp of truth. + +But how came it to pass that Beethoven's first four sonatas--Op. 2 +(Nos. 1, 2, and 3) and Op. 7--have four movements? That is a question +easier to ask than to answer. Schindler's remark that he followed +custom is difficult to understand. In our introductory chapter we +spoke of twenty sonatas containing four movements written probably +about the middle of the eighteenth century, also of one of Wagenseil's +for clavier with violin accompaniment; yet among the known sonatas of +that period, these form a minority. Woelfl's Sonata in B flat (Op. 15) +has four movements: Allegro, Andante, Scherzo Allegro, and Finale +(theme and variations), but that work appeared shortly after +Beethoven's Op. 2. + +Even Haydn, who is said to have introduced the Minuet into the +Symphony, remained faithful to the three-movement form of sonata. +Beethoven, however, wrote six sonatas consisting of two movements. +This change in the direction of simplicity is striking, for in his +quartets the composer became more and more complex. It seems as if he +were merely intent on exhibiting strong contrast of mood: agitation +and repose, or fierce passion followed by heavenly calm; we are +referring especially to the Sonata in E minor (Op. 90) and to the one +in C minor (Op. 111). The two sonatas of Op. 49--really sonatinas +written for educational purposes--may be dismissed; also Op. 54, in +the composition of which the head rather than the heart of the master +was engaged. Even Op. 78, in F sharp, in spite of the Countess of +Brunswick, to whom it was dedicated, does not seem the outcome of +strong emotion; and therefore we do not take it now into +consideration. The two sonatas (Op. 90 and 111) mentioned above are +strong tone-poems, and the master having apparently said all that he +had to say, stopped. The story, already related, about having no time +to complete Op. 111 must not be taken seriously. Nevertheless, we do +not for one moment imagine that Beethoven was thus reducing the number +of movements, in accordance with some preconceived scheme. + +The D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) and the F minor (Op. 57) sonatas, not to +speak of others, form the apotheosis of the sonata in three movements +as established, though not invented, by Emanuel Bach. To say that +Beethoven was the perfecter of the sonata is true, but it is scarcely +the whole truth. The E minor appears a first great step in the process +of dissolution; the C minor, a second. They were great steps, because +they were those of a very great man. The experiments as to number of +movements of which we spoke in our introductory chapter were +interesting; and with regard to the number, and also the position of +the Minuet before or after the slow movement, those experiments +acquired additional interest, inasmuch as Beethoven seems for a time +to have been affected by them. The two works named are, however, of +the highest importance; in them, if we are not mistaken, are to be +found the first signs of the disappearance, as it were, of the sonata +of three movements, and, perhaps, of the sonata itself, into the +"imperceptible." After Op. 90 Beethoven wrote sonatas in four +movements, but that does not affect the argument, neither does the +fact, that after Beethoven are to be found several remarkable sonatas +with the same number. The process of evolution of the sonata was +gradual; so also will be that of its dissolution. The title of +"sonata" given by Beethoven to his Op. 90 and Op. 111 does not affect +the music one jot; under any other name it would sound as well. You +might call the "Choral Symphony" a Divertimento, and the title would +be considered inappropriate; or a Polonaise, and the name would be +scouted as ridiculous; but the music would still remain great and +glorious. Yet taking into consideration the meaning of the term +"sonata" as understood by Emanuel Bach, Haydn, and Beethoven himself, +it can scarcely be the right one for these tone-poems in two sections. +The sonata-form of the first movement in each case may have suggested +the title. The two early sonatas Op. 27 (Nos. 1 and 2) are both styled +sonata, but with the addition _quasi una fantasia_. And in neither +case was the first movement in sonata-form; the one in E flat does not +even contain such a movement. There are other signs of the process of +disintegration in the later sonatas. Op. 109, in E, is peculiar as +regards the form of the movements of which it is composed; and the +fugues of Op. 101, 106, and 109--a return, by the way, to the +past--show at least an unsettled state of mind. The sonata in A flat +(Op. 110) was probably the germ whence sprang the sonata in B minor of +Liszt--a work of which we shall soon have to speak. + +Beethoven departed from the custom of his predecessors Haydn and +Mozart, and the general practice of sonata-writers before him, in the +matter of tonality. In a movement in sonata-form the rule was for the +second subject to be in the dominant key in the exposition section, +and in the tonic in the recapitulation section, if the key of the +piece was major; but if minor, in the relative major or dominant minor +in the exposition, and in the tonic major or minor in the +recapitulation. Thus, if the key were C major, the second subject +would be first in G major, afterwards in C major; if the key were C +minor, first in E flat major, or G minor, afterwards in C minor or +major. In a minor movement the second subject is found more often in +the relative major than in the dominant minor. The first and third +movements of Beethoven's Sonata in D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) illustrate +the latter; in each case the second subject is in A minor. + +In major keys, besides that of the dominant, Beethoven chose the +mediant (E) in his sonata in C (Op. 53); and in the recapitulation it +occurs first in the sub-mediant (A), and only afterwards, in varied +form, in the orthodox tonic. Then in the B flat sonata (Op. 106) the +second subject occurs in the sub-mediant (G). In the last sonata in C +minor, the second subject is neither in the relative major, nor in the +dominant minor, but in the major key of the sub-mediant. Once again, +in the sonata in D major (Op. 10, No. 3) a second theme is introduced +in the key of the relative minor before the dominant section is +reached. With regard, indeed, to the number of themes and order of +keys, some other movements of the Beethoven sonatas show departures +from the orthodox rules. + +In the important matter of the repeat of the first section of a +movement in sonata-form, we find the master, for the most part, +adhering to the custom delivered unto him by his predecessors. And yet +there were two strong reasons why he might have been tempted to depart +from it. The repetition was a survival from the old dance movements in +binary form. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mozart not only repeated, but +introduced various kinds of ornaments, and even harmonic changes; and +they expected performers to do the same. Beethoven, however, allowed +no such licence--one, indeed, which in the hands of ordinary pianists +would be calculated to spoil rather than to improve the music. Part, +then, of the _raison d'être_ of the repeat ceased to exist. But a +still stronger temptation to suppress it must have been the +_programme_ or _picture_ which Beethoven had in his mind when he +composed. The repeat, now become almost an empty form, must have +proved at times a fetter to his imagination. In many ways he was bold; +but in this matter strangely conservative. It was only in the sonata +in F minor, Op. 57, that he first ventured to omit the repeat. It is +not to be found in the opening movements of Op. 90 or Op. 110, yet in +his last sonata (Op. 111) the composer almost seems as if he wished to +atone for his previous sins of omission. He had evidently not settled +the question one way or the other; but the fact that in three of his +most poetical works he departed from custom, deserves note. Before his +time the repeat, like the laws of the Medes and Persians, seemed +irrevocably fixed. + +Beethoven added important introductions or codas, or even both, to +some of the movements of his sonatas. Codas are to be found in the +sonatas both of Haydn and Mozart, but not introductory movements; the +idea of the latter, however, did not originate with Beethoven. The +Grave which opens the "Pathétique" (Op. 13) does not merely throw the +listener into the right mood for the Allegro, but the opening phrase-- + +[Music illustration] + +is afterwards made use of in the development section-- + +[Music illustration] + +and, later on, it occurs in double augmentation. + +The _maestoso_ which ushers in the Allegro of the last sonata contains +foreshadowings which are better felt than explained. + +At times the codas of Haydn are interesting,--as, for example, the one +at the end of the first movement of his "Genziger" Sonata in E +flat,--yet they do not present the thematic material in any new or +striking light. With Beethoven it is different. In the Sonata in E +flat (Op. 7) not only is there contrapuntal working, but the principal +theme, just at the close, is, as it were, rounded off, completed. +Similar treatment may be seen in the first movement of the Sonata in D +(Op. 10, No. 3) (here the effect is intensified by contrary motion); +also in the Allegro of Op. 13, and other sonatas; the opening movement +of Op. 57 offers a striking illustration. + +The coda to the first movement of the "Waldstein" Sonata (Op. 53) is +on a most elaborate scale: it is almost as long as the development +section. In the latter, only fragments of the principal theme had been +worked, but in the coda it appears in complete form; fierce chords +seem to retard its progress, and a sinking, syncopated figure is +opposed to it, counteracting its rising, expanding nature. But it +works its way onward and upward, until, as if exhausted by the effort, +two descending scales lead to a quiet delivery of the second theme, +which had not been heard during the development section. Then +principal theme is given for the last time; it has overcome all +obstacles, and proclaims its victory in loud and powerful chords. The +Presto which closes the "Appassionata" (Op. 57) is one of Beethoven's +grandest codas, and all the more wonderful in that it follows a +movement of intense storm and stress. It is a coda, not merely to the +last movement, but to the whole work: it recalls the first, as well as +the third movement. The coda of the first movement of the C minor +Symphony displays similar intensity; there, however, we have an +expression of strong will; here, one of savage despair. The coda of +the first movement of the "Adieux" Sonata (Op. 81A) is another +memorable ending. The farewell notes sound sad in the opening Adagio, +while in the Allegro which follows they are again plaintive, or else +agitated. But in the coda, though still sad, they express a certain +tenderness, and the lingering of friends loth to part. Whatever the +special meaning of the music, the point which we here wish to +emphasise is, that the coda presents thematic material, already amply +developed, in quite a new light. + +In the matter of structure, Beethoven may be said, in the main, to +have followed Haydn and Mozart, but the effect of his music is, +nevertheless, very different. By overlapping of phrases; by very +moderate use of full closes; by making passages of transition +thoroughly thematic; by affinity and yet strong contrast between his +principal and second themes; by a more organic system of development; +by these and other means Beethoven surpassed his predecessors in power +of continuity, intensity, and unity. Then, again, his conception of +tonality was broader, and his harmonies were more varied; the fuller, +richer tone of the pianoforte of his day influenced the character of +his melodies; while the consequent progress of technique, as +exhibited in the works of some of his immediate predecessors and +contemporaries, enabled him to present his thoughts with greater +variety and more striking effect than was possible to either Haydn or +Mozart. + +Once more, Beethoven seemed to be elaborating some central thought; +Haydn and Mozart (with few exceptions), to be deftly weaving together +thoughts so as to obtain pleasing contrasts. In a similar manner, the +first and last movements of a sonata with Beethoven are of kindred +mood, though perhaps of different degree. Haydn and Mozart seem again +to be aiming at contrast; after a dignified opening Allegro and a +soft, graceful slow movement, they frequently wind up with a Finale of +which the chief characteristics are humour, playfulness, and +merriment, so that the listener may part company from them in a +pleasant frame of mind. + +We have been comparing the composer, and to his advantage, with Haydn +and Mozart. But the latter, however, sometimes come within near reach +of the former; and had the means at their disposal been similar, they +might possibly have equalled him. And, on the other hand, Beethoven's +inspiration was sometimes at a comparatively low ebb. Speaking +generally, however, the comparison, we believe, stands good. + +John Sebastian Bach devoted the greater part of his life to the art of +developing themes. His skill was wonderful, and so, too,--considering +the restrictions of the fugue-form,--was the imagination which he +displayed. In Beethoven the old master seems to live again, only under +new and more favourable conditions. Bach was brought up in the way of +the fugue, Beethoven of the sonata; and, it may be added, from these, +respectively, neither ever departed. From early youth onward, our +composer was a deep student of Bach, and assimilated some of his +predecessor's methods. One special feature of Beethoven's mode of +development was to take a few notes, or sometimes merely a figure, +from his theme, and to expand them into a phrase; as, for instance, in +the opening movement of the sonata in C minor (Op. 10, No. 1), in +which + +[Music illustration] + +forms the material for the closing phrase of the exposition section. +And the opening figure of the Finale of the same sonata is employed in +a similar manner at the commencement of the second section of the +movement. The Rondo of Op. 10, No. 3, furnishes good illustrations. +Now let us turn to Bach. In the 13th Fugue of the "Well-tempered +Clavier," the closing notes of the subject + +[Music illustration] + +are expanded, commencing at bar twenty-four, into a melodious phrase. +Also in the Prelude which follows (No. 14) + +[Music illustration] becomes [Music illustration] + +And some magnificent examples might be culled from the noble Preludes +in E flat and B flat minor (Book 1, Nos. 8 and 22). Again, another +special feature of Beethoven is the extension of a phrase by +repetition of the last clause,--a method too familiar to need +quotation. But let us give one illustration from Bach (Book 1, Fugue +6)-- + +[Music illustration] + +The 8th Prelude of Book I has been already mentioned to illustrate one +point, but there are other Beethovenisms in it. + +These comparisons must not be misunderstood; study of Bach +strengthened Beethoven's genius. We are not speaking of bald +imitation, not even of conscious imitation. He not only received the +message of the old master, as a child, but while he was a child; and +that no doubt helped him more than all the works of his predecessors +from Emanuel Bach upwards. It appealed to him strongly, because it was +based on nature. Bach's Fugues are living organisms; they are +expansions of some central thought. Development reveals the latent +power, the latent meaning of the themes; were it merely artificial, no +matter how skilful, it would be letter, not spirit. A clever +contrapuntist once conceived the bold idea of competing with Bach; he +wrote a series of Preludes and Fugues in all the keys, and displayed +wonderful skill in all the arts of counterpoint, canon, and fugue, +while in the matter of elaborate combinations he actually surpassed +Bach (we refer here only to the "Well-tempered Clavier"). But the +result was failure; the laborious work was wasted. Klengel had +mistaken the means for the end; he had worked as a mathematician, not +as a musician. Beethoven felt the true secret of Bach's greatness, and +his own genius taught him how to profit by it. Next to the necessity +of having something of importance to say, something which development +will enhance, the great lesson which Beethoven learnt from Bach was +unity in variety, the "highest law in all artistic creation," as Dr. +H. Riemann well remarks in his _Catechism of Musical Æsthetics_. + +Very many, probably the greater number, of Beethoven's sonatas rest +upon some poetic basis. Bombet, in his _Life of Haydn_, tells us how +that composer sometimes "imagined a little romance, which might +furnish him with musical sentiments and colours"; and the titles which +he gave to many of his symphonies certainly support that statement. At +other times the romance was already to hand, as in the case of the +32nd sonata, which was inspired by Haydn's dear friend, Frau von +Genziger. Of the poetic basis underlying some of Beethoven's sonatas +we have fair knowledge. Schindler, in the second edition of his +_Biography of Beethoven_, gives a few extracts from the Conversation +Books (Conversations Hefte), in which, on account of the master's +deafness, questions or answers were written down by those holding +conversation with him. Beethoven read, and, of course, replied _viva +voce_. We have not, it is true, his words, yet it is possible, at +times, to gather their purport from the context. For instance, there +is a conversation (or rather one half of it) recorded, which took +place in 1823 between the composer and Schindler. The latter says: "Do +you remember how I ventured a few years ago to play over to you the +Sonata Op. 14?--now everything is clear." The next entry runs +thus:--"I still feel the pain in my hand." A footnote explains that +after Schindler had played the opening section of the first movement, +Beethoven struck him somewhat roughly on the hand, pushed him from the +stool, and, placing himself on it, played and _explained_ the sonata. +Then Schindler says: "Two principles also in the middle section of +'Pathétique,'" as if the teacher had called upon him to give +illustrations from other sonatas of what he had explained concerning +Op. 14. But there is another record of a conversation which took place +between Beethoven and Schindler in the very month (March, 1827) in +which the composer died. "As you feel well to-day," says the disciple, +"we can continue our talk concerning the poetic basis ("wieder etwas +poetisiren") of the Trio in B flat." And after some remarks about +Aristotle's views of tragedy, and about the _Medea_ of Euripides, we +come across the following:--"But why _everywhere_ a superscription? In +many movements of the sonatas and symphonies, where feeling and one's +own imagination might dictate, such a heading would do harm. Music +ought not, and cannot, on all occasions give a definite direction to +feeling." Beethoven must have been alluding to some scheme of his for +indicating the nature of the contents of his works, and its boldness +seems to have astonished Schindler. It is possible that Beethoven, +conscious that his end was not far distant, carried away by the +enthusiasm of the moment, and desirous of giving all possible help to +the right understanding of his music, went far beyond the modest lines +by which he was guided when writing his "Pastoral" Symphony.[98] But +let us return to the conversation. + +"Good!" says Schindler, "then you will next set about writing an +_angry_ sonata?" Beethoven would seem to have declared even that +possible, for Schindler continues: "Oh! I have no doubt you will +accomplish that, and I rejoice in anticipation." And, then, as if +remembering that his master was an invalid, and that it would not be +right to excite him by prolonging the argument, he added, probably in +a half-jocular manner: "Your housekeeper must do her part, and first +put you into a towering passion." The above extracts show pretty +clearly that the poetic basis of his music was a subject which +Beethoven took pleasure in discussing with his friends. Beethoven's +back was, however, at once up if he found others pushing the matter +too far. Of this we will give an instance. In the year 1782 Dr. +Christian Müller of Bremen organised concerts among the members of his +family, and, already at the beginning of the nineteenth century, +Beethoven's name figured on the programmes. A friend of the family, +Dr. Carl Iken, who took part in the musical proceedings, was an ardent +admirer of Beethoven's music, and he ventured to draw up explanations +and picture-programmes of the master's works; and these were read out +before the performances of the works in question. It seems, indeed, +that he was the first who felt impelled to give utterance to the +poetical feelings aroused by Beethoven's music. Dr. Iken's intentions +were of the best, and he may often have succeeded in throwing his +audience into the right mood. A poetical programme, if not too +fantastic, would often prove of better effect than the most skilful of +analyses. These "Iken" programmes so delighted Dr. Müller that he sent +several of them to the master at Vienna. Beethoven read, but his anger +was stirred. He sent for Schindler, and dictated a letter to Dr. +Müller. It was a friendly but energetic protest against such treatment +of his or anyone else's music. He drew attention to the erroneous +opinions to which it would give birth. _If explanations were needed_, +he declared, _let them be limited to the general characteristics of +the compositions_,[99] which it would not be difficult for cultured +musicians to furnish. Thus relates Schindler, and there seems no +reason to doubt his word. It is to be hoped that Dr. Müller's letter +will one day be discovered. It was not the plan to which Beethoven +objected, but the manner in which it was carried out. + +Before quitting this subject, let us refer to one or two sonatas +concerning which there are well authenticated utterances of the +master. Schindler once asked him for the key to the Sonatas in D minor +(Op. 31, No. 2) and F minor ("Appassionata"), and Beethoven replied: +"Read Shakespeare's _Tempest_." The reply was laconic. Beethoven, no +doubt, could have furnished further details, but he abstained from so +doing, and in this he was perfectly justified. Then Schindler, growing +bold, ventured a further question: "What did the master intend to +express by the Largo of the Sonata in D (Op. 10, No. 3)?" And the +latter replied that everyone felt that this Largo described the +condition of the soul of a melancholy man, with various nuances of +light and shade. Beethoven's quiet, dignified utterances deserve +special attention in these days of programme-music. It is perhaps well +that he did not carry out his idea of furnishing the clue to the +poetic idea underlying his sonatas. It would, of course, have been +highly interesting to know the sources of his inspirations, but it is +terrible to think of the consequences which would have ensued. +Composers would have imitated him, and those lacking genius would have +made themselves and their art ridiculous. Berlioz went to extremes, +but his genius saved him; and Schumann, a true poet, though inclined +to superscriptions, kept within very reasonable lines. + +It was undoubtedly this poetic basis that so affected the form of +Beethoven's sonatas. The little romances by which Haydn spurred his +imagination were as children's tales compared with the deep thoughts, +the tragic events, and the masterpieces of Plato, Shakespeare, and +Goethe, which in Beethoven sharpened feeling and intensified thought. +The great sonatas of Beethoven are not mere cunningly-devised pieces, +not mere mood-painting; they are real, living dramas. + +In aiming at a higher organisation, he actually became a disorganiser. +"All things are growing or decaying," says Herbert Spencer. And in +Beethoven, so far as sonata and sonata-form are concerned, we seem, as +it were, to perceive the beginning of a period of decay. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN + + +I. Weber + +The two greatest contemporaries of Beethoven were, undoubtedly, Carl +Maria von Weber and Franz Schubert, and both wrote pianoforte sonatas. +Many other composers of that period--some of them possessed of +considerable talent--devoted themselves to that branch of musical +literature: Steibelt (1764-1823), Woelfl (1772-1812), J.B. Cramer +(1771-1858), J.N. Hummel (1778-1837), F.W.M. Kalkbrenner (1788-1849), +and others. Of these, the first three may be named sonata-makers. The +number which they produced is positively alarming; but it is some +consolation to think that a knowledge of their works is not of +essential importance. Steibelt's sonata in E flat (dedicated to Mme. +Buonaparte) was given once at the Popular Concerts in 1860, and +Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" sonata, several times between 1859 and 1873; +not one, however, of the 105 said to have been written by J.B. Cramer +has ever been heard there.[100] Most of these works justly merit the +oblivion into which they have fallen; some are quite second, or even +third rate; others were written merely as show pieces,[101] and are +now, of course, utterly out of date; and many were written for +educational purposes, or to suit popular taste (sonatas containing +variations on national and favourite airs, light rondos, etc.).[102] + +Cramer's studies have achieved world-wide reputation, and, as music, +they are often interesting. Also in his sonatas are to be found many +serious, well-written movements; musical taste has, however, so +changed since the rise of the romantic school, that it is doubtful +whether they would be now acceptable even as teaching pieces. + +Hummel's few sonatas have suffered at the hand of time; but, though +the music be mechanical, and therefore cold, there is much to interest +pianists in the two sonatas in F sharp minor (Op. 81) and D major (Op. +106). These were written after the composer's appointment at Weimar in +1820. His two early sonatas (Op. 13, in E flat, and Op. 20, dedicated +to Haydn) are not easy, yet not so difficult as the two just +mentioned. + +Steibelt and Woelfl both measured themselves with Beethoven in the art +of improvisation. The former was so ignominiously defeated that he +never ventured to meet his rival again. Woelfl, however, fared better. +With his long fingers he could accomplish wonders on the instrument; +but only so far as technique was concerned did he surpass Beethoven. + +Carl Maria v. Weber (1786-1826) in early youth studied the pianoforte +under two able court organists, J.P. Heuschkel[103] and J.N. +Kalcher,[104] both of whom he always held in grateful remembrance. +Under the direction of the latter he wrote some pianoforte sonatas, +which, according to the statement of his son and biographer, M.M. v. +Weber, were accidentally destroyed. Later on he studied under Vogler +and other masters. He became a famous pianist, and at Berlin, in 1812, +composed his 1st Sonata in C (Op. 24). No. 2, in A flat (Op. 39), was +commenced at Prague in 1814, and completed at Berlin in 1816. No. 3, +in D minor (Op. 49), was also written at Berlin, and in the same year. +No. 4, in E minor (Op. 70), occupied the composer between the years +1819 and 1822; it was written at Hosterwitz, near Dresden, during the +time he was at work on his opera _Euryanthe_. + +Weber and Schubert are both classed as contemporaries of Beethoven, +yet the latter was also their predecessor. Of Schubert we shall speak +presently. As regards Weber, it should be remembered that before he +had written his sonata in C (Op. 24) Beethoven had already published +"Les Adieux" (Op. 81A). The individuality of the composer of _Die +Freischütz_ was, however, so strong, that we meet with no direct +traces of the influence of Beethoven in his pianoforte music. + +The Weber sonatas have been described by Dr. P. Spitta as "fantasias +in sonata-form," and this admirably expresses the character of these +works. Weber followed the custom of his day in writing sonatas, but it +seems as though he would have accomplished still greater things had he +given full rein to his imagination, and allowed subject-matter to +determine form. Like his great contemporary, of whom we have next to +speak, Weber, in spite of Vogler's teaching, was not a strong +contrapuntist; he relied chiefly upon melody, harmonic effects, and +strong contrasts. His romantic themes, his picturesque colouring, +enchant the ear, and the poetry and passion of his pianoforte music, +both intensified by grand technique, stir one's soul to its very +depths; yet the works are of the fantasia, rather than of the sonata +order. We have the letter rather than the true spirit of a sonata. +Place side by side Weber's Sonata in A flat (the greatest of the four) +and Beethoven's D minor or "Appassionata," and the difference will be +at once felt. In the latter there is a latent power which is wanting +in the former. It seems as if one could never sound the depths of +Beethoven's music: fresh study reveals new beauties, new details; the +relation of the parts to the whole (not only of the sections of a +movement, but of the movements _inter se_), and, therefore, the unity +of the whole becomes more evident. We must not be understood to mean +that Weber worked without plan, or even careful thought; but merely, +that the organic structure of his sonatas is far less closely knit +than in those of the Bonn master; there is contrast rather than +concatenation of ideas, outward show rather than inner substance. The +slow movements (with exception of those of the 1st and 2nd Sonatas, +which have somewhat of a dramatic character) and Finales are +satisfactory, _per se_, as music: the former have charm, refinement; +the latter, elegance, piquancy, brilliancy. Now, in these sonatas, +the opening movements seem like the commencement of some tragedy: in +No. 2 there is nobility mixed with pathos; in No. 3, fierce passion; +and in No. 4, still passion, albeit of a tenderer, more melancholy +kind. But in the Finales it is as though we had passed from the +tragedy of the stage to the melodrama, or frivolity of the +drawing-room; they offer, it is true, strong contrast, yet not of the +right sort, not that to which Beethoven has accustomed us. + +Throughout the four sonatas we detect the hand of a great pianist. In +the first, the element of virtuosity predominates; the first and, +especially, the last movement (the so-called Perpetuum mobile) are +show pieces, though of a high order. In the other sonatas the same +element exists, and yet it seldom obtrudes itself; the composer is +merely using, to the full, the rich means at his command to express +his luxuriant and poetical thoughts. In his writing for the instrument +Weber recalls Dussek,--the Dussek of the "Retour à Paris" and +"Invocation" sonatas. The earlier master was also a great pianist, and +filled with the spirit of romance; still he lacked the force and fire +of Weber. Then, again, Dussek, in early manhood, passed through the +classical crucible, whereas Weber was born and bred very much _à la +Bohémienne_; he developed from within rather than from without. It is +easier to criticise than to create. If we cannot place the sonatas of +Weber on the same high level as those of Beethoven, we may at least +say that they take very high rank; also, that in the hands of a great +pianist they are certain to produce a powerful impression. + + +II. Schubert + +The other great contemporary of Beethoven was Franz Schubert, born in +1797, the year in which the former published his Sonata in E flat (Op. +7). Then, again, Schubert's earliest pianoforte sonata was composed in +February 1815, while Beethoven's Sonata in A (Op. 101) was produced at +a concert only one year later (16th February 1816). It is well to +remember these dates, by which we perceive that Beethoven had written +twenty-seven of his thirty-two sonatas before Schubert commenced +composing works of this kind. But though here and there the influence +of the Bonn master may be felt in Schubert, the individuality of the +latter was so strong, that we regard him as an independent +contemporary. The influence of Haydn and Mozart, _plus_ his own mighty +genius, seem almost sufficient to account for Schubert's music. The +new edition of the composer's works published by Messrs. Breitkopf & +Härtel contains fifteen sonatas for pianoforte solo. The first four-- + +No. 1, in E (1815), +No. 2, in C (1815), +No. 3, in A flat (1817), and +No. 4, in E minor (1817), + +had hitherto only been known by name. + +In following the career of a great composer, his first efforts, +however humble, however incomplete, are of interest; but from a purely +musical point of view the Minuets of Nos. 2 and 3 are the most +attractive portions of these sonatas; we catch in them glimpses of +that freshness and romantic beauty which characterise Schubert's later +productions. + +In moments of strong inspiration, Schubert worked wonders, yet the +lack of regular and severe study often makes itself felt. Though +colouring may enhance counterpoint, it will not serve as a substitute +for it. Then there is, at times, monotony of rhythm; and this, to a +great extent, was the result of little practice in the art "of +combining melodies." + +While on the subject of Schubert's failings, we may as well complete +the catalogue. In the later sonatas we meet with diffuseness; and +sometimes a stroke of genius is followed by music which, at any rate +for Schubert, is commonplace. It seems presumption to weigh the +composer in critical balances, and to find him wanting; but he stands +here side by side with Beethoven, and the contrast between the two men +forces itself on our notice. Both were richly endowed by nature. By +training, and the power of self-criticism which the latter brings with +it, Beethoven was able to make the most of his gifts; Schubert, on the +other hand, by the very lavish display which he sometimes made, +actually weakened them. There is no page of musical history more +touching than the one which records how the composer, after having +written wonderful songs, grand symphonies, and other works too +numerous to mention, made arrangements to study with S. Sechter, one +of the most eminent theorists of the day. The composer paid the latter +a visit on the 4th November 1828; but within a fortnight, Schubert was +no longer in the land of the living. When too late, he seems to have +made the discovery which, perhaps, his very wealth of inspiration had +hidden from him up to that moment, namely, that discipline strengthens +genius. One may point out faults in Schubert's art-works, yet his +melodies and harmonies are so bewitching, his music altogether so full +of spontaneity and inspiration, that for the time being one is +spellbound. Schumann was fairly right when he described Schubert's +lengths as "heavenly." + +Three more sonatas were produced in the year 1817, the first in the +unusual key of B major; and here we find a marked advance in +conception and execution. It opens with an Allegro, the total effect +of which, however, is not satisfactory; the principal theme has +dramatic power, and what follows has lyrical charm, but the +development section is disappointing. The Adagio seems like an +arrangement of a lovely symphonic movement; the orchestra, and not the +pianoforte, must have been in the composer's mind when he penned it. +The lively Scherzo, with its quiet Trio, is a little gem. The +clear-cut, concise form of such movements saved Schubert from all +danger of diffuseness; and in them, as Mozart remarked to the Emperor +Joseph, who complained of the number of notes in his opera, _Die +Entführung_, there are "just as many as are necessary." The sonata in +A minor (Op. 164), which consists of three movements, is short and +delightful from beginning to end. In the opening Allegro the second +subject occurs, by way of exception, in the major key of the +submediant. There is much to admire in the 3rd, in E flat, especially +the Minuet and Trio; yet the music is not pure Schubert. About six +years elapsed between this and the next sonata, in A minor (1823). +Schubert had already written his B minor Symphony, and though the +first two movements of the sonata will not compare with those of the +former in loftiness of conception, there is a certain kinship between +the two works. In both there are fitful gusts of passion, a feeling of +awe, and a tone of sadness which tells of disappointed hopes, of lost +illusions. The Finale, though fine, stands on a lower level. During +the years 1825-26, Schubert wrote, besides one in A major (Op. 120), +three magnificent sonatas: one in A minor, dedicated to the Archduke +Rudolph (Op. 42), another in D (Op. 53), and a third in G (Op. 78). In +these three works we have the composer's ripest efforts. The first +movement of the 1st, in A minor, is well-nigh perfect. That opening +phrase-- + +[Music illustration] + +haunts one like a sad dream; and the development section, long, +though not monotonous, is full of it. Without sacrificing his +individuality, Schubert has here caught something of Beethoven's +peculiar method of treating a theme,--that is, of evolving new phrases +from its various sections. The coda, again, has penetrating power, and +the fierce concluding phrase sounds like the passionate resistance of +a proud artist to the stern degrees of fate. The tender melody and +delicate variations of the Andante, the bold Scherzo, with its soft +Trio, and the energetic Finale are all exceedingly interesting; yet +they do not affect us like the first movement, in which lies not only +the majesty, but the mystery of genius. The sonata in D has a vigorous +opening Allegro,--a long, lovely, slow movement,--a crisp Scherzo, but +a peculiar Finale, one which Schumann qualifies as comical +(possirlich). The sonata in G contains some of the composer's most +charming, characteristic music. The opening _moderato e cantabile_ is +a tone-poem of touching pathos. The sad principal theme is supported +by such soft, tender harmonies, that its very sadness charms. In the +development section it assumes a different character. Melancholy gives +place to passion, at times fierce; then calm returns. The coda is one +of the most fascinating ever penned by Schubert. The slow movement and +Menuetto form worthy companions; but with the Finale the composer +breaks the spell. Schumann says: "Keep away from it; it has no +imagination, no enigma to solve." + +The last three sonatas (in C minor, A, and B flat) were composed in +September 1828, not three months before the death of the composer. In +the opening theme of No. 2, determination and confidence are +expressed, while in the Scherzo and Rondo there is even sunshine, +though now and again black clouds flit across the scene. But in the +Adagio, and in all the movements of the other two sonatas, the mood is +either one of sadness, more or less intense, dark despair, or fierce +frenzy. Music can express both joy and sorrow, though the latter seems +more congenial to it. Mournful strains are an echo, as it were, of the +"still, sad music of humanity." Grief, too, sharpens the imagination; +and music produced under its influence stirs a sensitive soul more +powerfully than the brightest, merriest sounds. But these three +sonatas, though they contain wonderful thoughts and some of Schubert's +grandest, and most delicate harmonic colouring, fall short of +perfection. They are too long, not because they cover so many pages, +but because there is a lack of balance; at times, indeed, the composer +seems to lose all sense of proportion. Then, again, the weakness of +Schubert in the art of development is specially felt; the noble +themes, on the whole, lose rather than gain by the loose, monotonous, +and, in some places, even trivial treatment to which they are +subjected. And what is more fatal than a lack of gradation of +interest? In a truly great work of art, be it poem, tragedy, sonata, +or symphony, the author carries his readers or audience along with +him from one point to another,--he gives no time for rest or +reflection; and when he has worked them up to the highest pitch, he +stops, and there is an awakening, as it were, from some wonderful +dream. If afterwards the work be analysed, the pains with which it was +built up can be traced; the powerful effect which it produced will be +found due, not alone to the creative power, the imagination of the +author, but also to his dialectic skill and to his critical faculty. +It is all very well to talk of great works as the fruits of hot +inspiration and not cold intellect. A masterpiece is the outcome of +both; the one provides the material, the other shapes it. Schubert was +an inspired composer, but most of his works, especially those of large +compass, show that he was mastered by moods, not that he was master of +them. It may be said that many who can appreciate beautiful music have +not the bump of intellect strongly developed, and would not therefore +be affected by any such shortcomings; that they would simply enjoy the +music. That is very likely, but here we are analysing and comparing; +and neither the beauty nor even grandeur of the music, nor the effect +which it might produce on certain minds, concerns us. There are many +persons who have had no technical training, but who possess a true +sense of order, proportion, and gradation; and such instinctively feel +that Schubert's sonatas, in spite of their many striking qualities, +are not so great as those of Beethoven. We have referred more than +once to the Popular Concert catalogue, which is a very fair +thermometer of public taste. One can see how seldom the Schubert +sonatas are performed in comparison with those of his great +contemporary. But to refer specially to the three last sonatas now +under notice. The one in B flat (No. 3) was played by Mr. Leonard +Borwick, it is true, on the 3rd February 1894, but the previous date +of performance was 16th January 1882. No. 2, in A, was last given in +1882, and No. 1 has not been heard since 1879. + +The Allegro of the C minor sonata opens with a bold theme, and an +energetic transition passage leads to the dominant of the relative +major key. Of the soft second theme Schubert seems so fond, that he is +loth to quit it; he repeats it in varied form, and still after that, +it is heard in minor. This unnecessarily lengthens the exposition +section, which, in addition, has the repeat mark. The development +section is rather vague, but the coda is impressive: the long +descending phrase and the sad repeated minor chords at the close +suggest exhaustion after fierce conflict. The theme of the Adagio, in +A flat, partly inspired by Beethoven, is noble, and full of tender, +regretful feeling; the opening and close of the movement are the +finest portions. The Minuet and Trio are effective, but the final +Allegro is hopelessly long, and by no means equal to the rest of the +work. + +The first movement of the sonata in A has a characteristic principal +theme, and one in the dominant key of bewitching beauty. The coda +gives a last reminiscence of the opening theme; but its almost defiant +character has vanished away; for it is now played pianissimo. +Schubert, in the importance of his codas, recalls Beethoven; each, +however, made it serve a different purpose. The latter, at any rate in +his Allegro movements, gathers together his strength, as if for one +last, supreme effort. Schubert, on the other hand, seems rather as if +his strength were spent, and as if he could only give a faint echo of +his leading theme. The coda of the first movement of the sonata in A +minor (Op. 42) offers, however, one striking exception. The Andantino +and Scherzo of the A sonata are well-nigh perfect, but the Rondo, in +spite of much that is charming, is of inferior quality and of +irritating length. The 3rd sonata, in B flat, the last of the series, +the _sonate-testament_, as Von Lenz said of Beethoven's Op. 111, has +wonderful moments, yet it contains also lengths which even Schumann +would scarcely have ventured to style "heavenly." We refer +particularly to the first and last movements; the Andante and Scherzo +are beyond criticism. + +These sonatas were written as Schubert was about to enter the Valley +of the Shadow of Death. His spirit was still strong, but his flesh +must have been weak. To turn away from them on account of any +imperfections, would be to lose some of Schubert's loftiest thoughts, +some of his choicest tone-painting. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT + + +After Beethoven, the first composer of note was Robert Schumann, one +of the founders of the so-called romantic school. In one of his +letters he refers to Beethoven's choral symphony "as the turning-point +from the classical to the romantic period." By reading, Schumann had +cultivated his imagination, but his musical training was irregular; +and, indeed, when he first commenced composing, practically _nil_. If +his soul was stirred by some poem, or tale, or by remembrance of some +dear friend, he sought to express his thoughts and feelings, and on +the spur of the moment. In a letter he writes: "I have been all the +week at the piano, composing, writing, laughing, and crying, all at +once. You will find this state of things nicely described in my Op. +20, the 'Grosse Humoreske,' which is already at the printer's. You see +how quickly I always work now. I get an idea, write it down, and have +it printed; that's what I like. Twelve sheets composed in a week!" And +thus short-tone poems, or a long piece, such as the "Humoreske," of +irregular form, were the result. Now that was not the way in which he +composed his two sonatas. He was two years, off and on, at work on the +first, in F sharp minor (Op. 11), and eight on the other, in G minor +(Op. 22). One may therefore conclude that the fetters of form were a +source of trouble to him. And he can scarcely have felt very +enthusiastic over his task; in 1839, after both sonatas were +completed, he declared that "although from time to time fine specimens +of the sonata species made their appearance, and, probably, would +continue to do so, it seemed as if that form of composition had run +its appointed course." + +Of the two sonatas, the one in F sharp minor is the more interesting. +The Aria is a movement of exquisite simplicity and tenderness, and the +Scherzo, with its _Intermezzo alla burla_, has life and character. But +the Allegro, which follows the poetical introduction, and the Finale +are patchy, and at times laboured. It must not, however, be supposed +that they are uninteresting. The music has poetry and passion, and the +strong passages atone for the weak ones. There were composers at that +time who could produce sonatas more correct in form, and more logical +in treatment, yet not one who could have written music so filled with +the spirit of romance. + +The Sonata in G minor resembles its predecessor both in its strong and +its weak points. Considered, however, as a whole, it is less warm, +less intense. It is unnecessary to describe the two works in detail, +for they must be familiar to all musicians, and especially pianists. A +sympathetic rendering of them will always give pleasure; but in a +history of evolution they are of comparatively small moment. It is +interesting to compare them with the Fantasia in C (Op. 17), a work in +which Schumann displayed the full power of his genius. + +Chopin was another composer whose spirit moved uneasily within the +limits of the sonata. The first which he wrote (we do not reckon the +posthumous one in C minor)--the one in B flat minor--is an impressive +work. There is a certain rugged power in the opening movement, and the +Scherzo is passionate, and its Trio tender. The picturesque March owes +much of its effect to its colouring and contrasts; while the +extraordinary Finale sounds weird and uncanny. In the hands of a great +interpreter the music makes a powerful appeal; yet as a sonata it is +not really great. It lacks organic development, unity. The Sonata in B +minor, though attractive to pianists, is an inferior work. The first +movement, with exception of its melodious second theme, is dry, and +the Finale belongs to the _bravoura_ order of piece. The Scherzo is +light and graceful. The slow movement is the most poetical of the +four, though spun out at too great length. The real Chopin is to be +found in his nocturnes, mazurkas, and ballads, not in his sonatas. + +Among modern sonatas, the three by Brahms (C, Op. 1; F sharp minor, +Op. 2; and F minor, Op. 5) claim special notice. With the exception of +the Liszt Sonata in B minor, which, whatever its musical value, at +least opens up "new paths" in the matter of form, the Brahms sonatas +are the only ones since Schumann which distinctly demand detailed +notice. The composer followed ordinary Beethoven lines; with exception +of the Intermezzo of the 3rd Sonata, the number and order of movement +resemble those of many a Beethoven sonata; while there is enlargement, +not change in the matter of form. Brahms studied the special means by +which his great predecessor, in some instances, sought to accentuate +the unity between various sections of a sonata; he steeped his soul in +the romantic music of Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Schumann, and, +in addition, trained his intellect to grasp the mysteries of +counterpoint, and to perceive the freer modern uses to which it was +put by the classical masters. Brahms' early acquaintance with Liszt +opened up to him, too, the resources of modern technique. And thus, +possessing individuality of his own, in addition to these inheritances +and acquirements, Brahms wrote sonatas, which, though in the main on +old lines, are no mere imitations, pale reflexes of his predecessors. + +The 1st Sonata, in C (Op. 1), has for its opening theme one which has +been said to resemble the opening theme of Beethoven's Op. 106. It +will be well to look on this picture (Beethoven)-- + +[Music illustration] + +and on this (Brahms)-- + +[Music illustration] + +There is resemblance in the matter of rhythm, but the up-beat in +Beethoven constitutes a marked difference; and, besides, the +succession of notes differs in each case. Brahms's theme, already at +the eighth bar, recommences in a key a tone lower; a similar +proceeding, by the way, is to be found in Beethoven's Sonata in G (Op. +31, No 1). After a few points of imitation, and digression through +various keys, we meet with a new theme in A minor, the soft, tender +character of which contrasts well with the bold opening one. But unity +amid diversity is Brahms' aim; and here the contrast does not prevent +a certain kinship between them--one, however, which can be felt rather +than explained.[105] Of another pianissimo phrase, still in A minor, +much use is afterwards made. The prominence given in the exposition +section to the subject-matter styled "secondary," and still more so in +the development section, is peculiar; this feature had certainly not +been copied from Beethoven, who, as a rule, made his first theme of +first importance. Brahms concludes his exposition section in the +opening key of the movement,--a return to early methods; Beethoven +adopted a similar course in the first movement of his Op. 53. Brahms' +development section is comparatively short. Of counterpoint we get a +good illustration in the combinations of both first and second themes; +of colour, in the presentation of the mournful minor theme in the +major key; and of originality, in the bars leading to the +recapitulation. In this last instance, the idea of gradually drawing +closer together the members of a phrase was borrowed from Beethoven, +but not the manner in which it is carried out. In the earlier master +it often stands out as a special feature; here we have, besides, +counter rhythm, and ambiguous modulation. When the principal theme +returns, it is clothed first with subdominant, then with tonic minor +harmony. The movement concludes with a vigorous coda evolved from the +opening theme. Five bars from the end, the first two bars of that +theme are given out in their original form; and then, as if repetition +were not sufficient, a thematic cadence is added, in which the notes +are given in loud tones, in augmented form, and, in addition, with +slackened _tempo_ (_largamente_). The slow movement (Andante) was, we +believe, one of Brahms' earliest efforts at composition; it is said to +have been written by him at the age of fourteen. It consists of a +theme with variations; and the former is based on an old German +Minnelied. The words of the folk song are written beneath the notes, +as if to put the listener into the right mood.[106] We need not dwell +on the variations, in which Beethoven and Schubert are the prevailing +influences, though not to any alarming extent. The music is by no +means difficult; for Brahms, indeed, remarkably easy. The movement +opens in C minor, but closes in C major. A Scherzo follows (E minor, +six-eight time; Allegro molto e con fuoco); it has a trio in C major. +The Scherzo, with its varied rhythm, is full of life; the Trio, +interesting in harmony, and also in the matter of rhythm. The Finale +(another Allegro con fuoco; the young composer has mounted his fiery +Pegasus) opens in C, in nine-eight time, thus-- + +[Music illustration] + +a metamorphosis, in fact, of the opening theme of the sonata. And +later on we have a similar re-presentation of subject-matter from the +first movement. This Finale is musically and technically attractive, +yet scarcely on the same high level as the first movement. But the age +of the composer must be taken into consideration; for quite a young +man, it is a wonderful production. + +The 2nd Sonata (Op. 2) is in F sharp minor. The Allegro non troppo ma +energico is a movement which in its subject-material breathes the +spirit of Chopin: the weird, stormy opening in the principal key may +claim kinship with the opening of the Polish composer's "Polonaise" in +the same key; while a certain strain in the melodious second subject +brings to one's mind a Chopin Nocturne, also in F sharp minor; in +neither case, however, is there anything amounting to plagiarism. The +exposition section is not repeated. The development is clever, though, +perhaps, somewhat formal. Again here, the secondary theme occupies, +apparently, chief attention; but it is supported by a bass evolved +from a principal motive. And in transition passages of the exposition, +and also in the recapitulation section and coda-- + +[Music illustration] + +in one or other shape, makes itself heard; so that, though outwardly +subordinate, its function is important: it binds together various +portions of the movement, and thus promotes union. The Andante which +follows, consists, as in the 1st Sonata, of a theme with variations. +There is nothing novel either in the theme or its mode of treatment. +Certain chords, cadences, figures, suggest Schubert--an idol whom +Brahms has never ceased to worship; and, in one place, the three +staves, and a few passages, show the influence of Liszt, the pianist +_par excellence_ of the days in which this sonata was written; but the +movement has, in addition to romantic charm, individuality. It +commences in B minor; then after a short expressive passage in major, +an arpeggio chord leads directly to the Scherzo; the following shows +the outward connection between the two movements-- + +[Music illustration: Commencement of Andante theme.] + +[Music illustration: Scherzo.] + +This bright, clever Scherzo, with its soft Schubertian trio, need not +detain us. The final Allegro is preceded by a short introduction, in +which the chief theme and other material of the Finale are set forth. +The connection between this and the earlier movements of the sonata is +not evident, like the one, for instance, already noticed, between the +Andante and the Scherzo; with research, and possibly some imagination, +relationship might, however, be traced. We are far from asserting that +movements of a sonata ought to be visibly connected; after all, the +true bond of union must be a spiritual one. But if an attempt be made +in that direction, surely the opening and closing movements are those +which, by preference, should be selected. In his Op. 28 Beethoven +seems to have evolved the themes of all four movements from the first; +in Op. 106 and Op. 109, connection is clear between the first and last +movements. Such an experiment was safe in the hands of Beethoven, and +Brahms has never allowed it to become a mannerism; but second-rate +composers, and superficial listeners run the danger of mistaking the +shadow for the substance. To this matter we shall, however, soon +return. Many references have been made to the composers who have +influenced Brahms, yet we cannot resist naming one more. The opening +section of this Allegro Finale reminds one more than once of the +corresponding section in Clementi's fine Sonata in B minor. The music +of this concluding movement is clever. + +The 3rd sonata (Op. 5) is in F minor. The Allegro opens with a wild, +sinister theme, and one which even casts a shadow over the calm, +hope-inspiring strains afterwards heard in the orthodox key of the +relative major. The tender melodies and soft chromatic colouring which +fill the remainder of the exposition section show strong feeling for +contrast. Again, storm and stress alternate with comparative calm in +the development section. The Andante expressivo bears the following +superscription:-- + + Der Abend dämmert, das Mondlicht scheint + Da sind zwei Herzen in Liebe vereint + Und halten sich selig umfangen. + + --_Sternau_. + +And it offers a delightful tone-picture. The moon "o'er heaven's clear +azure spreading her sacred light," the calm of evening, and happy, +though ever-sighing, lovers: 'tis a scene to tempt poet, painter, and +musician. The last, however, seems to have greatest advantage; music +by imitation and association can describe scenes of nature; and it can +paint, for are not its harmonies colours? But the musician can do what +is possible to neither poet nor painter,--he can make a direct appeal +to the emotions in their own language. The soft, dreamy coda--which, +with its Andante molto, its Adagio, and widened-out closing cadence, +seems to indicate the unwillingness of the lovers to part--has +Schubert colouring and charm. The reminiscence, at the commencement of +this movement, of the middle movement of the "Pathétique" cannot fail +to attract attention. Then, again, the opening of the Scherzo[107]-- + +[Music illustration] + +sounds familiar. It must surely have been this movement in which +someone pointed out to the composer a reminiscence of Mendelssohn. +"Anyone can find that out," was the rough-and-ready reply of Brahms. +But if Mendelssohn be the prevailing influence in the Scherzo, +Schubert has his turn in the Trio. The fourth movement is an +Intermezzo, entitled "Rückblick" (Retrospect). The opening phrase, and +indeed the whole of the short movement, carries us back to the picture +of the lovers. Some change has taken place: have the lovers grown +cold? or has death divided them? The themes are now sad, and clothed +in minor harmonies. The Finale, perhaps, shows skill rather than +inspiration; with regard to some of the subject-matter, it is, like +the previous movement, also retrospective. + +Liszt's sonata in B minor, dedicated to Robert Schumann, was evidently +written under the special influence of Beethoven's later +sonatas,--perhaps more particularly the one in A flat, Op. 110. There +is by no means unanimity of opinion among musicians with regard to +Liszt's merit as a composer; some consider that his genius has not yet +been properly recognised; others, that he will not for a moment bear +comparison with any one of the great masters who preceded him, and who +wrote for the pianoforte. Among his works which have specially given +rise to discussion stands this B minor Sonata, which has proved a +stumbling-block, both on account of its form and its contents. It +would simplify matters if the one could be discussed without the +other; this, however, is not possible. + +We have hitherto considered the sonata of three movements as typical, +and from that type Liszt's work differs; yet not "so widely, as on a +first hearing or reading may appear." Thus wrote Mr. C.A. Barry in a +remarkably interesting analysis of the sonata which he prepared some +years back for Mr. Oscar Beringer. He remarks further: "All the +leading characteristics of a sonata in three movements are here fully +maintained within the scope of a single movement, or, to speak more +precisely, an uninterrupted succession of several changes of _tempo_, +thus constituting a more complete organism than can be attained by +three distinct and independent movements." + +The idea of passing from one movement to another without break dates +from Emanuel Bach, nay, earlier, from Kuhnau; and Beethoven +occasionally adopted it, and with striking effect. The wretched habit +at concerts of applauding between the movements of a sonata +establishes a break where--at any rate in certain sonatas of +Beethoven--the composer certainly imagined an _uninterrupted_ +succession. The second movement of the "Appassionata" breaks off with +an arpeggio chord of diminished seventh, and the Finale starts on the +same chord. Yet surely after the final tonic chord of the opening +Allegro there should be no break, but only a brief pause. A _fermata_ +in the middle of a movement does not constitute a break, neither need +it at the end. In Beethoven's sonatas we find many movements, +outwardly independent, yet inwardly connected; those of the D minor +and F minor may be named by way of illustration. The composer, +however, in one or two of his works, revived, to some extent, the plan +adopted in the suites of early times, of evolving various movements +from one theme. Such outward connection may help to strengthen a bond +of union already existing, but it will not establish it. The question, +then, of Liszt's "more complete organism" depends, after all, on the +contents of the music. So, too, when, in addition to uninterrupted +succession, Liszt makes the one theme of the slow introduction the +source whence he derives the principal part of his tone-picture, +everything depends on the quality and latent power of this fertilising +germ. Discussion of form _per se_ is an impossibility. This Liszt +sonata stands, however, as a bold attempt to modify a form which, as +we have seen, Schumann thought exhausted (was it for that reason that +Liszt dedicated the work to him?), and one in which so many soulless +compositions were written during the second quarter of the present +century. "La sonate," says Charles Soullier in his _Nouveau +Dictionnaire de Musique Illustré_ "est morte avec le dix-huitième +siècle qui en a tant produit." Is Liszt's sonata a Phoenix rising from +its ashes? Shall we be able to say "La sonate est morte! Vive la +sonate!" Time will tell. Hitherto Liszt's work has not borne fruit. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE SONATA IN ENGLAND + + +In previous chapters we have been occupied with Italy and Germany. +Without reference to those countries a history of the pianoforte +sonata would be impossible. Italy was the land of its birth; Germany, +that of its growth, and, apparently, highest development. During the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries England furnished notable +composers for the harpsichord. William Byrd and Dr. John Bull are not +only among the earliest, but at the time in which they flourished, +they were the greatest who wrote for a keyboard instrument. At the +beginning of the seventeenth century English music was indeed in a +prosperous state; it was admired at home, and its merits were +acknowledged abroad. H. Peacham, in his _Compleat Gentleman_, +published in the reign of James I., says of Byrd: "For motets and +musicke of piety, devotion, as well as for the honour of our nation, +as the merit of the man, I preferre above all others our Phoenix, Mr +William Byrd, whom in that kind I know not whether any may equall. I +am sure none excell, even by the judgement of France and Italy, who +are very sparing in their commendation of strangers, in regard of that +conceipt they hold of themselves. His 'Cantiones Sacrae,' as also his +'Gradualia,' are mere angelicall and divine; and being of himselfe +naturally disposed to gravity and piety his veine is not so much for +light madrigals or canzonets; yet his 'Virginella,' and some others in +his first set, cannot be mended by the first Italian of them all." +Then at the end of the seventeenth century came Purcell, a genius who +seemed likely to raise English music still higher in the estimation of +foreign musicians. But, alas! he departed ere his powers were matured; +by his death English art sustained a grievous loss, and from that time +declined. The history of instrumental music during the eighteenth +century is dull, and, so far as the pianoforte sonata is concerned, of +little or no importance. Nevertheless, a brief survey of that century +will be attempted, after which reference will be made to a few sonata +composers of the century now drawing to a close. Just as we referred +to the sonatas for strings and harpsichord before commencing the +history of the clavier-sonata proper, so here a few remarks will be +made concerning the sonata before Dr. T.A. Arne--the first composer, +so far as we can trace, who wrote a work of that kind for the +harpsichord alone. + +In 1683 appeared Purcell's Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass, +the very same year in which Corelli published _his_ "Twelve Sonatas" +(Op. 1). In his preface, Purcell frankly admits that "he has +faithfully endeavoured a just imitation of the most famed Italian +masters." Sir J. Hawkins supposes that "the sonatas of Bassani,[108] +and perhaps of some other of the Italians, were the models after which +he formed them." In our introductory chapter we mentioned the sonatas +("a due, trè, quattro, e cinque stromenti") by Vitali (1677); and of +these, Mr. J.A. Fuller-Maitland, in his preface to the Purcell Society +edition of the "Twelve Sonatas" of 1683, remarks that "it is difficult +to resist the conclusion that these were the Englishman's models." +Vitali undoubtedly exerted strong influence; yet Purcell himself +describes his "Book of Sonatas" as "a just imitation of the most fam'd +Italian Masters." These sonatas of 1683, also the ten which appeared +after his death (among which is to be found No. 9, called the "Golden +Sonata") in 1697, are of great importance and interest in the history +of English music, but there is no new departure in them; this, at any +rate in the earlier ones of 1683, is fully acknowledged by the +composer. + +In 1695, John Ravenscroft, a descendant, possibly, of Thomas +Ravenscroft, published at Rome, sonatas for "violini, e violine, o +arciliuto, col basso per l'organo" Opera prima, but they were mere +imitations of Corelli.[109] In 1728 a certain John Humphries published +by subscription "Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass"; and +Hawkins, in his _History_, excites curiosity by declaring that they +are "of a very original cast"; he adds, however, "in respect that they +are in a style somewhat above that of the common popular airs and +country dance tunes, the delight of the vulgar, and greatly beneath +what might be expected from the studies of a person not at all +acquainted with the graces and elegancies of the Italians in their +compositions for instruments. To this it must be attributed that the +sonatas of Humphries were the common practice of such small +proficients in harmony as in his time were used to recreate themselves +with music at alehouse clubs and places of vulgar resort in the +villages adjacent to London; of these there were formerly many, in +which sixpence, at most, was the price of admission." We have quoted +this passage at length, because it indirectly confirms our statement +concerning English music of this period. If Hawkins had had anything +better to talk about, he would not have wasted space on the music of +alehouses and "places of vulgar resort." It may, however, be asked +whether Hawkins' report of Humphries' music is trustworthy. Now, +although the sonatas offer nothing of special interest, we may +certainly venture to say that one does not hear such well-written +melodious strains in or near alehouses of the present day. The sonatas +consist, for the most part, of four short movements. First, a slow +introduction, then an Allegro somewhat in the Corelli style. An +Adagio, often very short, separates this from the final movement, an +Allegro in binary form, a Minuet, or a Gigue. This "Humphries" musical +landmark is the only one we have to offer our readers between Purcell +and Dr. Arne. But before proceeding to notice the sonatas of the +latter, let us say something, if not of English music, yet of music in +England during the first half of the eighteenth century. + +Of the influence of Corelli we have already made mention. That +influence was materially strengthened by the two celebrated +violinist-composers, Veracini and Geminiani, who came to London in +1714; the former only paid a short visit; the latter made England his +home. Then a greater composer than the two just mentioned had already +arrived in London; this was Handel, whose Rinaldo had been produced +with wonderful success on the 24th February 1710. The genius of Handel +triumphed over all rivals, whether English or foreign, for well-nigh +half a century; and this fact alone explains the decline of English +art. But there was another strong influence which specially affected +harpsichord music: the Lessons of Domenico Scarlatti had made their +way throughout Europe. Thomas Roseingrave, who went to Italy in 1710, +became acquainted with the composer, and on his return pleaded the +cause of the Italian with an enthusiasm similar to that displayed a +century later by Samuel Wesley for Scarlatti's great contemporary, +J.S. Bach. Roseingrave edited "Forty-two Suites of Lessons for the +Harpsichord" by Scarlatti. Still another Italian influence may be +mentioned. "On the day," says Burney in his _History of Music_, "when +Handel's Coronation Anthem was rehearsed at Westminster Abbey (1727) +San Martini's[110] twelve sonatas were advertised." But Handel and +Scarlatti make up the history of harpsichord music in England during +the first half of the eighteenth century. Burney expressly states that +"the Lessons of the one and the Suites of the other were the only good +music for keyed instruments." + +Thomas Augustine Arne (1710-78) is principally known as a writer of +operas and incidental music to plays, but he also wrote organ +concertos, and sonatas for the harpsichord. The latter, entitled +"VIII. Sonatas or Lessons for the Harpsichord," probably appeared +somewhere about 1750. With this double title it is, of course, +impossible to regard them as serious sonatas. No. 8, for instance, +consists merely of a Minuet with variations! No. 1 opens with an +Andante in binary form, while two bars of Adagio lead to another +Allegro of similar structure. No. 2 is of a similar kind. The binary +form is of the later type, _i.e._ there is a return to the principal +theme in the second section. No. 3 opens with a Prelude, and a note +states that "in this and other Preludes, which are meant as extempore +touches before the Lesson begins, neither the composer nor performer +are oblig'd to a Strictness of Tune." The pleasing Allegro which +follows shows the influence of Scarlatti-Handel. The sonata concludes +with an attractive Minuet and variations. No. 5, with its graceful +Gavotta, and No. 7 might be performed occasionally. Arne's sonatas, if +not great, contain some neat, melodious writing. + +The second half of the century still offers poor results so far as +national music is concerned. We have spoken of Handel and Scarlatti; +but, after them, music in England again fell under foreign rule. In +the very year of Handel's death, John Christian Bach arrived in +London, which he made his home until his death in 1782. During that +period the sonatas of Mozart and Haydn became known; and the two +visits of the latter to England in 1791-92 and 1794-95 gave greater +lustre to his name, and rendered his style still more popular. And all +this foreign influence (strong inasmuch as Haydn and Mozart belonged +to a school with which J.C. Bach was in sympathy) is reflected in the +English music of the period. John Burton published, in 1766, "Ten +Sonatas for the Harpsichord," which are of interest. Some of the +writing recalls Scarlatti, but there are also many touches of harmony +and melody which tell of later times. The introduction of the Alberti +bass is one clear sign of a post-Scarlatti period. Burton paid a visit +to Germany in 1752, and was, we presume, acquainted with Emanuel +Bach's compositions. We may also name six sonatas by I. Worgan, M.B., +published in 1769. At the head of No. 5, the composer remarks: "Lest +the consecutive fifths at the beginning of the theme of this movement +should escape the critic, the author here apprizes him of them." They +are as follows:-- + +[Music illustration] + +The critic of those days must have been very dull if he required such +assistance, and his ear very sensitive if offended by such +consecutives as these. Lastly, we may give the name of a lady, Miss +Barthélémon,[111] whose interesting Sonata in G (Op. 3) was dedicated +to Haydn. + +In the early part of the nineteenth century, John Field, whose +nocturnes are still played and admired, wrote three sonatas (Op. 1), +and dedicated them to Muzio Clementi, his teacher. No. 1 is in E flat; +No. 2, in A; and No. 3, in C minor. They all consist of only two +movements (No. 1, Allegro and Rondo; No. 2, Allegro and Allegro +Vivace; No. 3, Allegro and Allegretto). In the first two sonatas the +two movements are in the same key; in the last, the first movement is +in C minor, the second, in C major. The Rondo of No. 1 contains +foreshadowings of Chopin. Field's music, generally, is old-fashioned, +and not worth revival; none, indeed, of his sonatas have ever been +played at the Monday Popular Concerts. + +Samuel Wesley[112] wrote three sonatas (Op. 3), likewise eight, +dedicated to the Hon. Daynes Barrington, yet we fear that not one of +them would prove acceptable at the present day. One looks in vain for +the name of Wesley in the Popular Concert Catalogue. Cipriani Potter +(1792-1871) deserves a word of mention. Beethoven, writing to Ries, in +London, in 1818, says: "Potter has visited me several times; he seems +to be a good man, and has talent for composition." His Sonata in C +(Op. 1, dedicated to Mrs. Brymer Belcher) consists of three movements: +an Allegro non troppo with a Haydnish theme-- + +[Music illustration] + +an attractive Adagio, and a dainty and pleasing Rondo pastorale. The +influence of Beethoven and Clementi is great; the individuality of +Potter, small. But the sonata is thoroughly well written, and--at any +rate as an educational piece--the Rondo deserves reprinting. + +Sir G.A. Macfarren composed three sonatas for the pianoforte. No. 3, +in G minor, dedicated to Miss Agnes Zimmermann, is a work which +presents several features of interest. In the first long movement (an +Allegro moderato) there is no repeat. The exposition section really +contains three subjects: an opening one in the principal key, a second +in D flat, and a third in the orthodox key of the relative major. The +development section, in which there is some solid counterpoint, is +decidedly clever; much use is made in it of the second subject +mentioned above. The Andante is a movement of simple structure. A +brisk Scherzo, in the making of which Weber and Schumann seem to have +lent a helping hand, leads to a long Finale,--the last, but by no +means the most successful of the four movements. We have just spoken +of influences; Weber may be said to have presided at the birth of the +opening Allegro, and Mendelssohn at that of the Finale. The appearance +in the Finale of the D flat theme from the Allegro deserves note. This +sonata may not be an inspired work, yet it has many excellent +qualities. + +Of Sir Sterndale Bennett's two sonatas, the 1st, in F minor (Op. 13, +dedicated to Mendelssohn), commences with a long movement (Moderato +expressivo), in which there are traces of the master to whom it is +dedicated; it is followed by a clever Scherzo and Trio, a melodious +Serenata, and a weak Presto agitato. The first, second, and last +movements are in F minor, the third in F major. Schumann, in a brief +notice of the work, describes it as excellent. The sonata (Op. 46) +entitled "The Maid of Orleans" commences with an Andante pastorale in +A flat, above which are written the following lines from Act iv. Scene +1 of Schiller's play, _Die Jungfrau von Orleans_:-- + + "Schuldlos trieb ich meine Lämmer + Auf des stillen Berges Höh." + + "In innocence I led my sheep + Adown the mountain's silent steep." + +The movement is graceful and pleasing. Then follows an Allegro +marziale:-- + + "Den Feldruf hör ich mächtig zu mir dringen + Das Schlactross steigt, und die Trompeten klingen." + + Prologue: Scene 4. + + "The clanging trumpets sound, the chargers rear, + And the loud war cry thunders in mine ear." + +Then an "In Prison" section with suitable superscription-- + + "Höre mich, Gott, in meiner höchsten Noth," etc. + + Act v. Scene 2. + + "Hear me, O God, in mine extremity." + +Lastly, a Finale-- + + "Kurz ist das Schmerz, und ewig ist die Freude." + + Act v. Scene 14. + + "Brief is the sorrow, endless is the joy." + +The title and the various superscriptions naturally cause the sonata +to be ranked as programme-music, but of a very simple kind. It is easy +to suggest pastoral scenes: a few pedal notes, a certain simplicity of +melody, and a few realistic touches expressive of the waving of +branches of trees, or the meandering of a brook, and the thing is +accomplished. + +Dr. C.H. Parry is an English composer whose name has of late been much +before the public. He has written works both secular and sacred for +our important provincial festivals; also chamber music, songs, etc.; +and all his music shows mastery of form, skill in the art of +development, and eclectic taste. For the present, we are, however, +concerned merely with his sonatas. Like Brahms, he at first composed +pianoforte sonatas: No. 1, in F; No. 2, in A minor and major. Brahms +made a third attempt, but the two just mentioned are all that are +known to us of Dr. Parry's. No. 1 opens with a non troppo Allegro, a +smooth movement of somewhat pastoral character; the music, also the +writing for the instrument, remind one occasionally of Stephen Heller. +A bright, though formal Scherzo, with a well-contrasted Trio in the +key of the submediant, is followed by a melodious Andante and a +graceful, showy Allegretto. + +No. 2 has an introductory movement marked _maestoso_; it is divided +into three sections. The first opens with a phrase of dramatic +character; the second, in the remote key of G sharp minor, contains +two short, expressive, Schumannish themes treated in imitation; the +third has passages leading back to the opening key and phrase. The +Allegro grazioso which follows is a compact little movement; in form +it is orthodox, yet there is no repeat to the exposition section. The +influence of Heller is still felt, but also that of Schumann. Grace +rather than power distinguishes the Adagio con sentimento, in the key +of C sharp minor. The Scherzo is clever and effective, and the +Allegretto cantabile, though the last, is scarcely the best of the +four movements. + +A manuscript Sonata in D flat (Op. 20) by Dr. C.V. Stanford, another +prominent composer of our day, was produced at the Popular Concerts +(4th February 1884). It consists of an Adagio leading to an Allegro +moderato. Then follows an Intermezzo in the key of the relative minor. +An Adagio (F major) leads to the Allegro Finale in D flat major. It is +thus noticed in the _Musical Times_ of March 1884:--"Some listeners +have professed to perceive in the work a deliberate intention to +violate the established laws of form, but we confess that to us no +such design is apparent. In matters of detail, Mr. Stanford shows +himself an independent thinker, but in all essentials his newest work +is as classical in outline as could possibly be desired. The opening +Adagio is exceedingly impressive, and the succeeding Allegro moderato +is worked out with splendid mastery of the subject-matter, the general +effect being that of a lofty design carried into execution by a +thoroughly experienced hand. The succeeding Allegro grazioso, a +modified kind of Scherzo, is vigorous, and the final Allegro commodo, +with its excellent first subject, seems scarcely less important than +the first movement." + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC. + + +Some mention, however brief, must be made of various sonatas written +by other contemporaries of the four composers discussed in the last +chapter. After Beethoven, the only work which, from an evolution point +of view, really claims notice is one by Liszt. All other sonatas are +written on classical lines with more or less of modern colouring. Even +M. Vincent d'Indy, one of the advanced French school of composers, has +written a "Petite Sonate dans la forme classique." + +Moscheles, in Germany, and Kalkbrenner, in France: these were once +names of note. Their music is often clever and brilliant, but, to +modern tastes, dry and old-fashioned; much of it, too, is superficial. + +Among still more modern works may be named those of Stephen Heller, +Raff, Rubinstein, Bargiel, and Grieg. The sonatas of Heller are +failures, so far as the name sonata means anything. He was not a +composer _de longue haleine_, and his opening and closing movements +are dull and tedious; some of the middle movements--as, for example, +the two middle ones of the Sonata in C major--are, however, charming. +Bargiel's Sonata in C major (Op. 34) is written somewhat in "Heller" +style, but it is stronger, and, consequently, more interesting than +any of that composer's. + +Raff and Rubinstein both wrote pianoforte sonatas, but these do not +form prominent features in their art-work. + +Grieg's one Sonata in E minor (Op. 7) is a charming, clever +composition; yet as it was with Chopin, so is it with this composer: +his smallest works are his greatest. + +Of duet sonatas there is little more to do than to mention the +principal ones. In the evolution of the sonata they are of little or +no moment. Some, however, are highly attractive. It would be +interesting to know who wrote the first sonata for four hands, but the +point is not an easy one to settle. Jahn, speaking of Mozart's duets, +remarks that "pianoforte music for two performers was then far from +having attained the popularity which it now possesses, especially +among amateurs." We imagine that the + +Sonate +à Quatre mains sur un Clavecin +Composé +par +J.C. Bach +---- +à Amsterdam +chez J. Schnitt Marchand de Musique +dans le Warmoes-straat + +was one of, if not the earliest. The part for the second clavier is +printed under that of the first. The sonata consists of only two +movements: an Allegro and a Rondo. The general style and treatment of +the two instruments reminds one of Mozart, but the music is crude in +comparison. Here is the commencement of the theme of the first +movement-- + +[Music illustration] + +The duet sonatas of Mozart are full of charm and skill, and will ever +be pleasing to young and old. Dussek has written some delightful +works, and Hummel's Op. 92, in A flat, is certainly one of the best +pieces of music he ever wrote. Schubert's two sonatas (B flat, Op. 30; +C, Op. 140) are very different in character: the one is smooth and +agreeable; the other contains some of the noblest music ever penned by +the composer. + +Sonatinas are almost always written for educational purposes. No +description, no analysis of such works, is necessary; only a list of +the best. The "Twelve Sonatinas for the Harpsichord or Pianoforte, for +the use of Scholars" (Op. 12), by James Hook (1746-1827), father of +the well-known humorist, Theodore Hook, deserve honourable mention. +Each number contains only two short movements; they are well written, +and, though old, not dry. Joseph Bottomley, another English composer +(1786-?), also wrote twelve sonatinas for the pianoforte. + +Those of Clementi and Dussek seem destined to perennial life. The +former composed twelve (Op. 36, 37, and 38), the latter six (Op. 20); +and then, of course, of higher musical interest are the sonatinas of +Beethoven (two) and Hermann Goetz (two). From an educational point of +view, however, these are perhaps not of equal value with many others +of inferior quality; but they are full of character and charm. Kuhlau +(1786-1832), on whose name Beethoven wrote the well-known Canon, "Kuhl +nicht lau," composed sonatas which, owing to their fresh, melodious +character and skilful writing, justly take high rank. Op. 20, 55, 59, +60, and 88 have all been edited by Dr. H. Riemann. Among still more +modern composers may be mentioned: Reinecke, whose three sonatinas +(Op. 47), six sonatinas with "the right-hand part within the compass +of five fingers" (Op. 127A), and (Op. 136) the "Six Miniature Sonatas" +(another term for sonatinas) have given satisfaction to teachers, and +enjoyment to many young pupils; also Cornelius Gurlitt, who has proved +a prolific worker in this department of musical literature. His six +sonatinas (Op. 121) and the duet sonatas (Op. 124,--really sonatinas) +are exceedingly useful, and justly popular. Besides these, he has +issued two series of progressive sonatinas: some by Diabelli, Pleyel, +Steibelt, etc.; some from his own pen. Koehler's three sonatinas +(without octaves), A. Loeschhorn's instructive sonatinas, E. Pauer's +National Sonatinas (Ireland, Wales, Italy, etc.), and Xaver +Scharwenka's two sonatinas are likewise of value. + +Among various strange works written under the title of sonata we may +count certain programme pieces. Thus, John Christian Bach, or "Mr. +Bach," as he is named on the title-page, published a sonata "qui +represente La Bataille de Rosbach," and an _N.B._ adds: "Dans cette +Sonate La Musique vous montre le Comencement d'une Bataille le feu des +Cannons et Mousqueterie L'Ataque de la Cavalerie et les L'Amendations +des Blessées." This work consists of one movement (Allegro) in +sonata-form. Except for the title, and the words "Canonade" and "Feu +des Mousqueteries," it would be difficult to guess the subject. The +music, which may be described as a study in the Alberti bass, is +decidedly more correct in form than the French of the title-page. +Then, again, Dussek composed a "Characteristic Sonata" describing "The +Naval Battle and Total Defeat of the Grand Dutch Fleet by Admiral +Duncan on the 11th of October 1797." But he was engaged in a much more +suitable task when he wrote music _expressing the feelings_ of the +unfortunate Marie Antoinette. + +There are three sonatas composed by A. Quintin Buée.[113] No. 3 is +"for two performers on one instrument." In the last movement, the +first performer is "Le Français," and he rattles along with the +popular tune "Ça ira," while the second, "The Englishman," steadily +plays his national air, "Rule Britannia"; towards the close, _fors +fuat_, "God save the King" and "Ça ira" are combined. + + + + +INDEX + + +ALBERTI, 109, 112. + +Alberti Bass, 26, 30, 33 (note), 109, 110, 239. + +Albrici V. 39, + influence on Kuhnau, 42. + +Ambros A.W. Pasquini, 73. + +Arbeau T. Orchésographie, 15 and 16. + +Arne T.A. 222, 225; _Sonatas_: 226, 227. + + +BACH C.P.E. 9, 12, 29 and (note), 31, 32, 87, 219, 228; + _Sonatas_: "Frederick," 25, 85-91, + Würtemberg, 85, 92, 93, 115, + "Reprisen," 85, 94-100, + Töplitz, 93 and 94, + "Leichte," 100, 161 (note), + three-movement, 175, + Leipzig Collections, 85, 101-7; + Beethoven, 86, 105, 106, + Dr. Bülow, 96-8, + Fasch, 40, + Haydn, 93, 114, 115, 125, + Kuhnau, 22, 24, + Marpurg's _Clavierstücke_, 91 and 92, + Neefe, 161-3. + +Bach J.C. 28 (note), 35, 227, 239; + _Sonatas_: 107, 108, 236. + +Bach J.C.F. 29, 35, 106. + +Bach J.E. 26, 29. + +Bach, J.S. 9, 14 (note), 229 (note); + Organ Concerto, 76, + sonata attributed to, 89 (note), + Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues, 160 and 161, + and fugue-form, 91; + Beethoven, 182-5, + Kuhnau, 20, 21, 48, 87, + Rust, 152. + +Bach W.F. 29; + _Sonatas_: 26, 108. + +Banchieri, 10; + _L'Organo suonarino_ (with sonata) 3-5. + +Banister H.C. Life of Macfarren, 140. + +Bargiel, 235; + _Sonata_: 236. + +Barry C.A. 218. + +Barthélémon Miss, 229 and (note). + +Bassani G. 7, 223 and (note). + +Becker D. 10; + _Sonatas_: 43. + +Becker C.F. Hausmusik in Deutschlande, 49-50. + +Beethoven L. v. 29, 31 and (note), 32, 33, 35, 45, 125, 194, 219; + Reminiscences, 133-140, 167, 168, + patrons and friends, 168-171, + programme-music, 21, + opus numbers, 112, 113, + connection and number of movements, 106 and 107, 171, + poetic basis, 178, 185-191, + exposition section, 36, + approach to recapitulation, 37, + key of second subject, 177, + the "repeat," 178, 179, + Codas and Introductions, 179-181, + central thought, 182, + disorganisation, 191; + _Sonatas_: (Op. 111), 57, 116, 174-6; + table, 164-5; + two-, 174-6, + three-, 172-3, + four-movement, 173-4, + sonatinas, 238; + Symphony in C, 102, 103, + "Eroica," 135, + sketches, 171-2, + theme of Op. 106, 210, 211; + Bach C.P.E. 86, 87, + Bach J.S. 160, 182-5, + Brahms, 210, 211, + Haydn, 166, 167, + Kuhlau, 238, + Kuhnau, 57, + Neefe, 161-3, + Potter, 230, + Scarlatti, 17, + Schindler, 186-8, 190, + Weber, 192, 195-198. + +Benda G. 28, 83 and (note); + _Clavierstücke_, 84; + _Sonatas_: 27. + +Bennett S. _Sonatas_: 231-32. + +Beringer O. 218. + +Birchall R. 18, 145 (note). + +Bitter C.H. 85, 92, 94 (note); + E. Bach, 97 and 98. + +Böhm G. _Chorale_, 54, 131. + +Bononcini B. 6. + +Bononcini G.M. 6. + +Borwick L. 205. + +Bottomley J. sonatinas, 238. + +Brahms J. 120; + _Sonatas_: 209-18. + Chopin, 214, + Clementi, 216, + Liszt, 210, 214, + Mendelssohn, 217, + Schubert, 214. + +Bossard, 42 (note). + +Buée A.Q. _Sonatas_: 239, 240 and (note). + +Bull Dr. 221. + +Bülow Dr. H. v. and E. Bach's sonatas, 96-8, 160. + +Burney Dr. 4, + Musical Extracts, 6. + +Burton J. _Sonatas_: 228. + +Buxtehude, 131; + Suites, 51 and 52. + +Byrd W. 221, 222. + + +CARLYLE, his "Frederick the Great," 83 (note). + +Chopin F. 229; + _Sonatas_: 209. + +Clementi, M. 33, 45, 119 (note), 130; + _Sonatas_: 131, 132-42, + sonatinas, 238; + Beethoven, 131, 133, 134, + Field, 229, + Macfarren, 140, + Mozart, 132, 133, + Potter, 230, + Scarlatti, 135. + +Corelli A. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 42, 45, 46, 74, 77 + (note), 79, 87, 224. + +Cramer J.B. 108, 146, 192, 193 and (note). + + +DANNREUTHER E. 133. + +Davidson J.W. 149. + +Dussek J.L. 33, 197, 237, 239; + Letters to publishers, 142-5; + _Sonatas_: 146-7, 148,' + _Le Retour à Paris_, 149, + _Plus Ultra_, 150, + sonatinas, 238. + Macfarren, 151-2, + Mendelssohn, 147, + Tomaschek, 145-6, + Woelfl, 149. + + +FAISST J. 50, + Analysis of a Mattheson Sonata, 22-3. + +Farina C. 6. + +Fasch J.F. 40. + +Fasch C.F.C. and E. Bach, 40, 41. + +Ferdinand, Prince Louis, death of 144, 145 (note). + +Fétis F.J. 27, 38, 240 (note), + extract from _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, 72-3. + +Field J. _Sonatas_: 229. + +Forkel, Letter from E. Bach to, 93-4, 96, 97. + +Frederick the Great, 22, 40, 41, 82, 83 (note), 85, 88. + +Frescobaldi, 71 (note). + +Froberger J.J. 20, 42, 46, 51, 52. + +Fuller-Maitland J.A. 51 (note), 223. + + +GABRIELI A. 10. + +Gabrieli G. 2, 10. + +Gaffi B. pupil of Pasquini, 71. + +Galuppi, 27, 29, 30 and (note) 31. + +Gasparini, pupil of Pasquini, 77 (note). + +Geminiani, 11, 225. + +Gluck, 28 (note). + +Goethe, 191. + +Goetz H. 238. + +Graun C.H. 83. + +Graun J.G. 82. + +Graupner Chr. 39 ff. + +Grétry, 27. + +Grieco G. 80. + +Grieg E. 235-6. + +Grove Sir G. 20, 27 (note), 73, 111, 133, 145. + +Gurlitt C. 238. + + +HANDEL G.F. 13, 14, 19, 26, 40, 57; + Kuhnau 48-9. + +Hasler H.L. 10. + +Hasse J.A. 28, 29, 84 (note); + _Sonatas_: 27, 32. + +Hawkins Sir J. 223 ff. + +Haydn J. 1, 37, 45, 87, 99, 164, 182, 228; + New era, 30, + anecdote, 117, + programme-music, 185, + European magazine, 114, 115, + father of symphony, 111, + "In Native Worth," 167, + number and connection of movements, 33 and (note), 106, + introductory slow movement, 138, + three-movement form, 174, + approach to dominant section, 34, + second subject, 35, + codas, 179, 189; + _Sonatas_: 113, 115-20; + Bach C.P.E. 93, + Beethoven, 166, 167, + Metastasio, 111, + Porpora, 112. + +Heller S. 233, 235-6. + +Hering A. 38. + +Hook J. sonatinas, 237. + +Hook T. 237. + +Hummel J.N. 192, 194 (Op. 92), 237. + +Humphries J. 224. + + +IKEN Dr. C. Beethoven, 188-9. + +Indy, Vincent d', 235. + + +JAHN Otto, 120, 129, 132, 236. + + +KALKBRENNER F.W.M. 134, 192, 235. + +Keiser, 48. + +Kittel C. 38 and (notes). + +Krieger J.P. 14 and (note). + +Krügner S. 38 and (note). + +Kühnel, 39. + +Kuhnau A. 38 and (note). + +Kuhnau J. 10, 22, 38, 219; + Writings and pupils, 39-41, + German and Italian influences, 42, + Bible Stories, 65-70, + Seven Partitas, 41, + Preface to Bible Sonatas, 52-4; + _Sonatas_: (B flat), 43-4, + _Frische Clavier Früchte_, 44-50, + "Bible," 19-21, 45, 46 (note), 48-9, 51, 54-65. + + +LEGRENZI G. 10; + _Sonatas_: 6. + +Le Trésor des Pianistes, 45 (note), 80, 94 (note). + +Liszt F. 235; + Beethoven, 176 + _Sonata_: 210 and 218-20. + +Locatelli 11, 12; + _Sonatas_: 9. + +Loeschhorn A. sonatinas, 239. + +Lotti, teacher of Galuppi, 29, 77 (note). + + +MACFARREN SIR G.A. 140; + _Sonatas_: 230 and 231; + Dussek, 151 and 152. + +Marpurg, 2, 3. + +Martini San, 112, 226. + +Mattheson, 7, 20, 23, 38 (note), 39 (note), 40 and (note), 42; + Pasquini 74; + _Sonata_: 22-3. + +Matthisson, the poet, 157. + +Mendel, 27, 72. + +Mendelssohn F. 151 (note), 231; + Dussek, 147. + +Morley, 7. + +Moscheles I. 235. + +Mozart L. 34; + _Sonatas_: 27. + +Mozart W.A. 33, 34, 35, 37, 45, 87, 99, 169; + Italian influence, 126-127, + Op. 1, 33 (note), + Requiem, 57, + duets, 236 and 237; + _Sonatas_: 120-5; + Beethoven, 160-1, + Clementi, 132, + Haydn, 127-9, + Kuhnau, 49. + +Müthel J.G. 27, 28 (note), 33, 90 (note). + + +NEEFE C.G. _Sonatas_: 161-3. + +Nichelmann C. 27, 28, 106. + + +PALESTRINA, 71, 73. + +Paradies P.D. 27, 28, 108-110. + +Parry Dr. C.H. 13, 20, 108; + _Sonatas_: 232 and 233. + +Pasquini B. (_see frontispiece by S. Hutton_), 14 (note), 74; + His monument, 71-2; + Operas and oratorio, 72, + Toccatas and Suites, 72, 74-5, + music in Berlin Library, 73, + in British Museum, 75; + _Sonatas_: 76-80; + Fétis, 72-3, + Handel, 77 (note), + Kuhnau, 81. + +Pasquini E. 71 (note). + +Pauer E. 43, 80, 189 (note); + sonatinas, 239. + +Pescetti G.B. _Sonatas_: 25-6. + +Pleyel, 239. + +Poglietti, 74 and (note). + +Potter C. _Sonata_: 130. + +Prieger Dr. E. 153, 159, 193 (note). + +Prout Prof. E. 147. + +Purcell H. 2; + _Sonatas_: 222-4. + + +RAFF J. 235, 236. + +Ravenscroft J. 224. + +Ravenscroft R. 224. + +Reinecke C. 238. + +Riemann Dr. H. 27 (note), 185, 238. + +Rimbault Dr. 43. + +Rochlitz F. 141. + +Rockstro, 77 (note). + +Rubinstein A. 235, 236. + +Rudolph, Archduke, 165, 170, 201. + +Rust Dr. W. 153 and (note). + +Rust F.W. 152 ff. + +Rust J.L.A. 152. + + +SANDONI P.G. _Sonatas_: 23-4. + +Scarlatti A. 77 (note), 80. + +Scarlatti D. 36, 73-4, 77 (note), 80, 89, 226; + _Sonatas_: 15, 16-19; + Bach C.P.E. 92 and 93, + Paradies, 109. + +Schaffrath C. 27 and (note), 31. + +Scharwenka X. 239. + +Scheibe J.A. _Critischer Musikus_, 48. + +Schindler A. 140 (note), 141, 142, 172, 173, 189; + Conversations with Beethoven, 186-8, 190. + +Schop J. 10, 11. + +Schubert F. 120, 195; + _Sonatas_: 198-206, 237. + +Schumann R. 152, 200, 202, 206; + Fantasia, 209; + _Sonatas_: 208-9; + Beethoven, 207. + +Sherard J. 223 (note). + +Shakespeare, 190, 191. + +Schoelcher V. Life of Handel, 19 (note), 77 (note). + +Spenser H. 191. + +Spitta Dr. P. 20, 21, 54, 57, 195. + +Squire W.B. 51 (note). + +Stanford Dr. C.V. _Sonata_: 233-4. + +Steffani A. 77 (note); + _Sonatas_: 14. + +Steibelt D. 192, 193 (note); + sonatinas, 239; + Beethoven, 194. + + +TARTINI G. 9, 11 (note); + _Sonatas_: 12. + +Telemann G.P. 48; + _Sonatas_: 24-5, + sonatinas, 89 (note). + +Tomaschek, account of Dussek's playing, 145-6. + +Turini F. 5-6; + _Sonatas_, 4. + + +UMSTATT J. 27 and (note), 32. + + +VERACINI, 11 and (note), 12, 225. + +Vitali G.B. 7, 223. + +Vogler, Abbé, 195, 196. + + +WAGENSEIL G. 31 and (note), 174; + _Sonatas_: 27. + +Weber C.M. v. 192; + _Sonatas_: 194-8. + +Weber M.M. v. 194. + +Weitzmann C.F. _Geschichte des Clavierspiels_, 74, + Pasquini, 75. + +Wesley S. 226; + _Sonatas_: 229-30. + +Woelfl J. 174, 192; + _Ne Plus Ultra_ Sonata: 149-50, 193 (note); + Beethoven, 194. + +Worgan I. _Sonatas_: 228. + + +ZACH, 31, 32. + +Zimmermann Miss A. 230. + + +MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] _Musikalisches Lexicon oder musikalische Bibliothek._ + +[2] Among the four-movement sonatas of Op. 1, No. 6 (in B minor) has +the peculiar order: Grave, Largo, Adagio, Allegro. + +[3] The Preludio Adagio only consists of four chords, or two bars; the +Adagio, again, only consists of four bars. The sonata, therefore, may +be considered as of three movements. + +[4] 1680-1762. + +[5] 1693-1764. + +[6] 1685-1750 (Veracini is regarded as of the Corelli school, yet it +should not be forgotten that his uncle, Antonio Veracini, is said to +have published "Sonate a tre, due violini e violone, o arciliuto col +basso continuo per l'organo" at Florence, already in 1662). + +[7] 1692-1770. + +[8] It is important to distinguish between _sonata_ and _sonata-form_. +The first movement of a modern sonata is usually in sonata-form; but +there are sonatas (Beethoven, Op. 26, etc.) which contain no such +movement. Sonata-form, as will be shown later on, has been evolved +from old binary form. By _sonata_ is understood merely a group of +movements; hence objection may certainly be taken to the term as +applied to the one-movement pieces of Dom. Scarlatti, which are not +even in sonata-form. + +[9] It must be remembered that Corelli spent some time in Germany +between 1680 and 1683, the latter being the year of publication of his +first sonatas at Rome. + +[10] In J.S. Bach's 2nd Sonata for Flauto traverso and Cembalo (third +movement) there is a return to the opening theme in the second +section; also in the Presto of the sonata for two violins and figured +bass we have an example very similar to the "Hoboy" sonata of Handel. + +[11] Krieger, by the way, studied under Bernardo Pasquini at Rome. + +[12] Cf. Corelli: Corrente in 10th Sonata of Op. 2; also Allemande and +Giga of the next sonata. + +[13] Cf. Scarlatti: No. 10 of the sixty sonatas published by Breitkopf +& Härtel. + +[14] When there is clearly a second subject, that of course offers the +point of return. (See Nos. 24 and 39.) + +[15] See V. Schoelcher's _Life of Handel_, p. 23. + +[16] See, however, chapter on the predecessors of Beethoven. + +[17] See ch. iii. on Pasquini. + +[18] "Seit einigen Jahren hat man angefangen, Sonaten für's Clavier +(da sie sonst nur für Violinen u. dgl. gehören) mit gutem Beifall zu +setzen; bisher haben sie noch die rechte Gestalt nicht, und wollen +mehr gerührt werden, als rühren, das ist, sie zielen mehr auf die +Bewegung der Finger als der Herzen." + +[19] The public did not support the undertaking, and the other five +never appeared. + +[20] The copy in the British Museum has no violin part, which was +probably unimportant. + +[21] Emanuel Bach's predecessor as clavecinist at the Prussian Court. + +[22] This name is not in Mendel, Riemann, Grove, nor Brown. Fétis, +however, mentions him as Joseph Umstadt, _maître de chapelle_ of Count +Brühl, at Dresden, about the middle of the eighteenth century, and as +composer of _Parthien_, and of six sonatas for the clavecin. + +[23] See, however, the early Würtemberg sonatas. + +[24] Examples to be found in Rolle, Müthel, and Joh. Chr. Bach, etc. + +[25] Gluck's six sonatas for two violins and a thorough bass, +published by J. Simpson, London (probably about the time when Gluck +was in London, since he is named on title-page "Composer to the +Opera"), have three movements: slow, fast, fast,--the last generally a +Minuet. + +[26] E. Bach did some strange things. One of his sonatas (Coll. of +1783, No. 1) has the first movement in G major, the second in G minor, +and the third in E major. + +[27] Galuppi, No. 4, first set: Adagio, Spiritoso, Giga Allegro. + +[28] Sometimes the last movement was a Tempo di Menuetto, a Polonaise, +or even a Fugue. + +[29] Wagenseil's Op. 1, Sonatas with violin accompaniment. No. 4, in +C, has Allegro, Minuetto, Andante, and Allegro assai. + +[30] As this experiment of Seyfert and Goldberg, in connection with +Beethoven, is of special interest, we may add that Goldberg has all +the movements in the same key, but Seyfert has both the Trio of the +Minuet, and the Andante in the under-dominant. This occurs in two of +his sonatas; in both, the opening key is major. + +[31] There is, however, one curious exception. The first of the two +"Sonates pour le clavecin, qui peuvent se jouer avec l'Accompagnement +de Violon, dédiées à Madame Victoire de France, par J.G. Wolfgang +Mozart de Salzbourg, agé de sept ans," published at Paris as Op. 1, +has _four_ movements: an Allegro in C (with, by the way, an Alberti +bass from beginning to end, except at the minor chord with organ point +near the close of each section, the place for the extemporised +cadenza), an Andante in F (Alberti bass from beginning to end), a +first and second Menuet, and an Allegro molto, of course, in C. The +brief dedication to Op. 1 is signed:--"Votre très humble, très +obéissant et très petit Serviteur, J.G. Wolfgang Mozart." + +[32] There is one exception: a sonata in G major, one of his earliest. +See chapter on Haydn and Mozart. + +[33] Scheibe; a return for the moment to a practice which was once of +usual occurrence. + +[34] Mention has been made in this chapter of a first section in a +minor piece of Scarlatti's ending in the _major_ key of the dominant. + +[35] In the Sonatas of 1781, for instance, the first movement of No. +2, in F, has a definite second subject, but that is scarcely the case +with the first movement of No. 3, in F minor. + +[36] This is the date given by Mattheson. In some dictionaries we find +1667; this, however, seems to be an error, for that would only make +Kuhnau fifteen years of age when he became candidate for the post of +organist of St. Thomas'. Fétis, who gives the later date (1667), +states that in 1684 Kuhnau became organist of St. Thomas', but adds: +"Quoiqu'il ne fût agé que de dix-sept ans." + +[37] This Kittel must surely have been father or uncle of Johann +Christian Kittel, Bach's last pupil. + +[38] Mattheson, in his _Grundlage einer Ehren-Pforte_, published at +Hamburg in 1740, complains that the names of Salomon Krügner, +Christian Kittel, A. Kuhnau, and Hering are not to be found in the +musical dictionaries. The first and third have not, even now, a place. + +[39] In a letter written by Graupner to Mattheson, the former, after +mentioning that he studied the clavier and also composition under +Kuhnau, says:--"Weil ich mich auch bei Kuhnau, als Notist, von +selbsten ambot, u. eine gute Zeit für ihn schrieb, gab nur solches +gewünschte Gelegenheit, viel gutes zu sehen, u. wo etwa ein Zweifel +enstund, um mündlichen Bericht zu bitten, wie dieses oder jenes zu +verstehen?" ("As I offered myself as copyist to Kuhnau, and wrote some +long time for him, such a wished-for opportunity enabled me to study +much good (music), and, whenever a doubt arose to learn by word of +mouth how this or that was to be understood.") + +[40] In the _Dictionnaire de Musique_ by Bossard (2nd ed. 1705) no +mention is made under the article "Sonata" of one for the clavier, and +yet the above had been published ten years previously. + +[41] See also next chapter. + +[42] Nearly the whole of this composer's works are said to have been +destroyed at the bombardment of Dresden in 1760. + +[43] The sonata is given in _Le Trésor des Pianistes_ with the +ornaments, yet even there more than a dozen have been omitted. + +[44] The clavier by its very nature tended towards polyphony; the +violin towards monody. And, besides, Kuhnau prided himself on the +fugal character of his sonatas. + +[45] Even in the later "Bible" Sonatas, figures from these sonatas +recur. + +[46] Cf. _The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book_, edited by J.A. +Fuller-Maitland and W. Barclay Squire (Breitkopf & Härtel). + +[47] Johann Jakob Froberger died in 1667. + +[48] Meyer thinks he was probably the son of Ercole Pasquini, born +about 1580, and predecessor of Frescobaldi at St. Peter's. + +[49] Weitzmann and other writers, in referring to the work published +at Amsterdam, spell the name Paglietti; it should, however, be +Polietti or Poglietti. + +[50] This piece was printed from a manuscript in the British Museum, +which bears no such title. Judging, however, from the title of the +_libro prezioso_ mentioned on p. 71 [Transcriber's Note: p. 73], that +name may originally have been given to it. + +[51] The suite is printed in the _Pasquini-Grieco Album_ by Messrs. +Novello. + +[52] Pasquini was no doubt one of the many composers who influenced +Handel. When the latter visited Italy before he came to London in +1710, he made the acquaintance of the two Scarlattis (Alessandro and +Domenico), Corelli, and other famous musicians at Rome; of Lotti and +Steffani at Venice; and surely at Naples he must have known Pasquini, +whose name, however, is not to be found either in Schoelcher or +Rockstro. Only Gasparini, who was a pupil of Pasquini's, is mentioned +by the former. + +[53] "Si puo fare a Due Cembali." + +[54] See the _Novello Album_. + +[55] See the _Novello Album_. + +[56] The post was offered to Bach in 1738, while Frederick was as yet +Crown Prince, but he only entered on his duties in 1740. + +[57] The four sons of Hans Georg Benda (Franz, Johann, Georg, and +Joseph) were excellent musicians, and all members of the band of +Frederick the Great. Georg, the third son, composer of _Ariadne_ and +_Medea_, two _duodramas_ which attracted the attention of Mozart, was, +however, the most remarkable. + +[58] Cf. Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_, vol. iv. p. 134:--"Graun, +one of the best judges living, is likewise off to Italy, gathering +singers." + +[59] The symphonies appear to be three-movement overtures transcribed +for clavier. As a rule, the pieces marked as symphonies in this +collection have no double bars, and, consequently, no repeat in the +first movement. A "symphony" of Emanuel Bach is, however, marked as a +"sonata" in the _Six Lessons for the Harpsichord_, published in London +during the eighteenth century. + +[60] The king was extremely fond of Hasse's music, but this composer, +though German by birth, was thoroughly Italian by training. + +[61] Yet, curiously, there is no chord in the later sonatas so large +as the two on page 29 (6th Sonata)-- + +[Music illustration] and [Music illustration] + +which, of course, are played in arpeggio. + +[62] Excepting in the fifth, which, by the way, was, for a long time, +considered to be the composition of J.S. Bach, and was published as +such by J.C. Westphal & Co. This return to the opening theme is to be +found already in the sonatinas for violin and cembalo by G.P. Telemann +published at Amsterdam in 1718. See Allegro of No. 1, in A; the main +theme is given as usual in the key of the dominant at the beginning of +the second section. Then after a modulation to the key of the relative +minor, a return is made to the opening key and the opening theme. + +[63] Similar passages are to be found in the opening Vivace of J.G. +Müthel's 2nd Sonata in G. He was a pupil of J.S. Bach, and either a +pupil or close follower of E. Bach. His six published sonatas are of +great musical interest; in his wide sweeping arpeggios and other +florid passages he shows an advance on E. Bach. His 2nd Arioso with +twelve variations is worth the notice of pianists in search of +something unfamiliar. There are features in the music--and of these +the character of the theme is not least--which remind one strongly of +Beethoven's 32 C minor variations. + +[64] A recitative is also to be found in a Müller sonata. + +[65] "In tempo in cui ebbi l'onore di darle Lezzione di Musica in +Berlino." + +[66] "The two sonatas, which met with your special approval, are the +only ones of this kind which I have ever composed. They are connected +with the one in B minor, which I sent to you, with the one in B flat, +which you now have also, and with two out of the Hafner-Würtemberg +Collection; and all six were composed on a Claviacord with the short +octave, at the Töplitz baths, when I was suffering from a severe +attack of gout." + +A series of six sonatas by E. Bach is in the _Trésor des Pianistes_, +and is said to have been published at Nuremberg in 1744; the work is +also dedicated to the Duke of Würtemberg, and the Opus number (2) is +also given to it. There is mention of these sonatas in Bitter's +biography of J.S. Bach's sons, but not of the others. + +[67] Sechs ausgewählte Sonaten für Klavier allem von Carl Philipp +Emanuel Bach bearbeitet und mit einem Vorwort herausgegeben von Hans +von Bülow (Peters, Leipzig). + +[68] In like manner he feels in the Andante, _reflection_, and in the +final Andantino, _melancholy consolation_. + +[69] _Leipziger Mus. Almanack_, 1783. + +[70] The number of sonatas in each collection grew gradually smaller: +first six, then three, lastly two. The dates of composition in the +last column of above table may be studied with advantage: a later date +of publication does not necessarily imply a more advanced work. Thus, +of the three fine sonatas in the 3rd Collection (all of which are +included in the Bülow selection), one was written eighteen, another +fifteen, and the third (though first in order of reckoning), seven +years before the date of publication (1781). + +[71] See particularly the Sonata in G (collection of 1783). + +[72] All of these consist of two movements; in the first, both +movements are marked Andante. + +[73] For the benefit of readers who may not possess Pohl's _J. Haydn_, +we insert in brackets, after the Pohl numbers, those of the Holle +edition. + +[74] Cf. C.F. Pohl's _J. Haydn_, vol. ii. p. 311. They are in the keys +of D, E flat, and A, and are interesting. The Tempo di Menuetto of the +second presents a strict canon in the octave. In the last, too, there +is a curious canon. + +[75] The treble of the tenth bar of the second section has been +frequently printed a third too high. + +[76] This Sonata in E flat (Op. 78) was dedicated to Mrs. Bartolozzi, +wife of the famous engraver, and to her Haydn also dedicated one in C +major, marked as Op. 79,--a bright, clever and showy work, in which +the influence of Clementi is sensibly felt. The development section of +the opening Allegro, together with the return to the principal theme, +is interesting. The Adagio, in the key of the subdominant, is one of +Haydn's best, while the final movement (Allegro molto) is full of life +and humour. + +[77] "Clementi is a charlatan, _like all the Italians_" (Letter to his +sister, June 7, 1783). + +[78] It is thirty-five years since the fine one in B minor was +performed at the Popular Concerts; and eighteen, since a Clementi +sonata has appeared on a Popular Concert programme. + +[79] The three Sonatas in E flat, F minor, and D, dedicated to +Maximilian Frederick, Elector of Cologne, and published at Speyer in +1783, are not here taken into account. + +[80] In mentioning any of them we shall first give the Breitkopf & +Härtel numbers and then the Holle numbers in brackets, so that either +edition may be referred to. + +[81] At the time of their production Dussek was not born, Hummel was +still a child, and Beethoven an infant "mewling and puking in the +nurse's arms," if, indeed, the Beethovens were able to afford the +luxury of a nurse. Even Emanuel Bach had not published any of his +Leipzig Collections, neither had Haydn written his best sonatas. As +Clementi was not only the survivor of Beethoven, but also his +predecessor, a reminder as to the state of the sonata world, when +Clementi first entered it, is not wholly unnecessary. + +[82] London Symphony in E flat, No. 8 (No. 1 in Breitkopf & Härtel +_Catalogue_). + +[83] See p. 187 concerning Beethoven's conversation with Schindler. + +[84] Schindler, _Biography of Beethoven_, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 223-4. + +[85] + +HAMBURGH, _June 12, 1801._ + +MR. CLEMENTI, MON CHER CLEMENTI,-- + +J'ai reçu avec un extrême plaisir votre lettre, aussi que +_L'Autoscript_ dans celle de ma femme, je suis extremement touché du +désir que vous témoignez de me revoir à Londres, mais etant une fois +dans le Continent je ne puis résister au désir de faire une visite à +mon Père, d'autant plus qui je Lui ai déja écrit que je viendrai pour +Sure le voir cette eteé, je sçais par Ses lettres qu'il attend ce +moment comme la plus grande, et peut-être, la dernière jouissance de +sa Vie; tromper dans une pareille attente un Viellard de 70 ans, ce +serait anticiper sur sa mort, d'ailleurs en arrivant en Angleterre +tout de suite je ne ferais également que manger mon argent, ou bien +celui de ma femme jusqu'à l'hiver prochain, aussi ma resolution est +prise de faire le Voyage de la Boheme; voire en passant Dresde, Prague +et Vienne, ou je sçais que je puis gagner de quoi me defrayer de tout +mon voyage, et au dela: et de revenir a Londres vers le Novembre, vous +pouvez compter ladessus, mais surtout sur le plaisir que j'aurai de +revoir et d'embrasser un ami tel que vous--Mardi prochain part d'ici +pour Londres un commis de Mr. Parish _un des premiers Banquiers d'ici_ +qui vous remetra en mains propres, par un de vos associés, mes trois +nouvelles Sonates,--je suis occupé a metre au net. Les trois +Concertinos qui vous recevrez aussi dans une quinzaine au plus tard, +dont j'espere qui vous serez assez content, etant le meilleur ouvrage +que j'ai jamais fait _in the Selling Way_, adieu mon cher Clementi, +Les oreilles doivent souvent vous tinter, car je parle constamment de +vous a tout le monde, car tout le monde aime qu'on leur parle de leurs +connaissances, or vous êtes de la connaissance de tout le monde, +adieu. + +Votre ami, + +DUSSEK. + +MESSRS LONGMAN, CLEMENTI, & CO., GENTELMEN AND FRIENDS,-- + +I beg you would do your possible to send to me the two grand +instruments immediately, for the two Gentelmen whom I have persuaded +to purchase them after they have heard my own, are very impatient +about it, and I am afraid if I do not receive a decided Answer from +you about it or the _connoisement_, wich I may Show them, they will be +induced to Buy some of their German Instruments as they are pretty +well influenced by the Capel Master of this Town who is a tolerable +great As in Music and an illnatured Antianglomane, besides I expect it +as the means to make my Journey to Bohemia, therefore I hope you will +be so good, and make the greatest Speed you can--you will see by the +above that I intend to be in London about November Next, when I will +be very happy to settle with you what may Balance in our account and +to continue faithfull to our agreement. + +Believe me, + +Gentelmen and Friends, + +Yours faithfully, + +DUSSEK. + +You have no Idea how many proposals I have received from London about +my Compositions, some of them will make you Laugh. + +[86] + +AT THE GENERAL QUARTERS OF THE PRUSSIAN ARMY IN SAXONY, _the 4th 8ber +1806_. + +DEAR SIR,-- + +I have lately composed three Quartettos for two Violins, Tenor and +Violoncello, and confess to you that I think this work above all that +I have composed, they are neither in the Stile of Mozart, or Haydn, +nor that of Pleyel, they are in the Stile of Dussek and I will hope +make some noise in the Musical World--the Price for the Propriety of +them in Britain is 60 guineas, wich I think highly moderate +considering the scarcity of good new Quartettos--I have particularly +chosen you Sir for the publication of this work, because I allways +found you very reasonable in the few Business I have had the pleasure +to make with you, and as my Contract with Clementi & Co. finishes the +4th November this year, I should be very glad to continue with you the +publication of all my Works in futur--These Quartettos are for you a +publication so advantagous that I have not the least doubt but you +will make the Bargain of them, since there is such a long time that +nothing has been published of my composition--I wish them to appear +about the middle of January, and to be dedicated _to His Royal +Highness the Prince Louis of Prussia_ with whom I am at this moment at +the Army against the French--If you wish to write to me, give the +letter to the Gentelmen who shall deliver to you the quartettos--I beg +You to give my best greetings to Mr. Crassier, Sheener, Tonkinson and +all Those that remember me, and believe me, + +Your very obedient Servant, + +and sincere friend, + +DUSSEK, + +Privy Secretary to His Royal H^s. the Prince Louis of Prussia. + +The above letter is addressed to Mr. Birchal, Music Seller, New Bond +Street, London. + +[87] _Musical Times_, September and October 1877. + +[88] Here is one, in the 8th Variation-- + +[Music illustration] + +[89] Mendelssohn, too, complained that Dussek was a prodigal. + +[90] The one in D minor has often been performed at the Popular +Concerts. + +[91] 1822-1892. + +[92] The original title is: "Sonata per il Cembalo ò Fortepiano di +F.W. Rust, 1788." + +[93] It is curious to note that in the supplement of the Breitkopf & +Härtel edition of Beethoven's works there are two little pieces +entitled "Lustig und Traurig." + +[94] E. Bach published six easy clavier sonatas in 1765, but Neefe +probably refers to earlier and more important works. + +[95] Besides those mentioned, he published in 1774 six new sonatas, +also variations on the theme "Kunz fand einst einen armen Mann." + +[96] "As your Royal Highness seemed to be pleased with the sonata in C +minor, I thought it would not appear too bold to surprise you with the +dedication of it." + +[97] The opening theme of that same symphony-- + +[Music illustration] + +recalls, curiously, the last movement of Beethoven's 8th Symphony; and +still more so in the form in which he first sketched it-- + +[Music illustration] + +[98] Schindler, by the way, relates in his _Biography of Beethoven_ +(3rd ed. 2nd Part, p. 212) that, already in 1816, when there was a +proposal made by Hoffmeister to Beethoven to issue a new edition of +his pianoforte music, the master conceived the intention of indicating +the poetic idea ("Poetische Idee") underlying his various works. And +the biographer adds: "This term (_i.e. poetic idea_) belongs to +Beethoven's epoch, and was used by him as frequently as was, for +example, the expression 'poetic contents' by others--in opposition to +works which only offer an harmonic and rhythmic play of tones. Writers +on æsthetics of our day declaim against the latter term; _with_ good +reason, if it refer to programme-music; _without_ reason, if they +extend their negation to all Beethoven's music, and deny its poetic +contents. Whence that tendency, which so frequently manifests itself, +and that strong desire to give pictorial explanations, especially of +the Beethoven symphonies and sonatas, if they contained nothing but a +well-ordered harmonic and rhythmic play of tones, and if they--or, at +least, some of them--were not based on some special idea? What other +composer creates this almost irresistible desire?" + +[99] Mr. E. Pauer, in his preface to Ernst von Elterlein's +_Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas explained for the lovers of the +musical art_,--a valuable and interesting book,--remarks: "Herr von +Elterlein's design is not so much to describe the beauties of +Beethoven's sonatas, as to direct the performer's attention to these +beauties, and to point out the _leading and characteristic features of +each separate piece_" (the italics are ours). + +[100] The Finale of a Sonata in A flat by Cramer, one of three +dedicated to Haydn, is said to have suggested to Beethoven the Finale +of _his_ Sonata in A flat (Op. 26). Dr. Erich Prieger, who has +recently published a facsimile of the autograph of Beethoven's sonata, +in his preface quotes some passages from the Cramer Finale, which +certainly seem to show that the Bonn master was to some extent +influenced by his predecessor. Here is the second of the three +passages quoted:-- + +[Music illustration] + +[101] Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" Sonata would have long been forgotten +but for Dussek's "Plus Ultra." See chapter on "Predecessors of +Beethoven." + +[102] In Steibelt's two sonatas (Op. 62), for instance, the airs "If a +body meet a body," "Jesse Macpharlane," and "La Chrantreuse" +[Transcriber's Note: So in original, perhaps should be "Chartreuse"] +are introduced. In his Op. 40 we also find "The Caledonian Beauty," +"The Maid of Selma," "'Twas within a mile of Edinbro' town," and "Life +let us cherish." Woelfl's sonatas (Op. 35, 38) also contain Scotch +airs, and his "Ne plus Ultra" has variations on "Life let us cherish." + +[103] 1773-1853, court organist at Heldburghausen. + +[104] 1766-1826, court organist at Freising. + +[105] Notice, in each case, the falling interval in the second and +fourth bar. + +[106] Verstohlen geht der Mond auf, blau, blau Blümelein, etc. + +[107] The long arpeggio leading up to the first note is omitted. + +[108] In the British Museum copy the "XII. Sonate da Chiesa, Opera +Quinta" of Bassani are bound up with "Sonate a Tre" by Giacomo +Sherard. In plain English, the latter composer was a certain James +Sherard, an apothecary by profession. The Bassani sonatas here +mentioned were published at Amsterdam. Hawkins tells us that "an +ordinary judge, not knowing that they were the work of another, might +mistake them for compositions of Corelli." The first violin book has +the following entry:--"Mr. Sherard was an apothecary in Crutched +Friars about the year 1735, performed well on the violin, was very +intimate with Handel and other Masters." This copy, which possibly +belonged to Sherard, contains also the following, written apparently +by the person into whose hands the book passed:--"Wm. Salter, surgeon +and apothecary, Whitechapel High Street." The various sonatas, too, +are marked in pencil--some as _good_; others, _very good_. The date, +1789, is also given--the year, probably, in which the volumes became +the property of W. Salter. + +[109] These sonatas were afterwards published at Amsterdam as +Corelli's, being marked as his Opera Settima. On the title-page was +written "Si crede che Siano State Composte di Arcangelo Corelli avanti +le sue altre Opere." + +[110] See chapter on Haydn. + +[111] She was surely the daughter of François Hippolite Barthélémon +(son of a Frenchman and of an Irish lady), who was on intimate terms +with Haydn, to whom the sonata above mentioned is dedicated. + +[112] Samuel Wesley (1766-1837), nephew of the Rev. John Wesley, was a +gifted musician, and is specially remembered for his enthusiastic +admiration of John Sebastian Bach. The letters which he wrote to +Benjamin Jacob on the subject of his favourite author were published +by his daughter in 1875. He also, in conjunction with C.F. Horn, +published an edition of Bach's "Wohltemperirtes Clavier." + +[113] He is described on the title-page as "formerly Composer to +several Cathedral Churches in France." Buée's name is neither in Fétis +nor the Pougin Supplément. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. Shedlock + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIANOFORTE SONATA *** + +***** This file should be named 17074-8.txt or 17074-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/0/7/17074/ + +Produced by John Hagerson, Charles Aldarondo, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Shedlock. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: none;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i6 {display: block; margin-left: 6em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i8 {display: block; margin-left: 8em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i10 {display: block; margin-left: 10em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i12 {display: block; margin-left: 12em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. Shedlock + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pianoforte Sonata + Its Origin and Development + +Author: J.S. Shedlock + +Release Date: November 16, 2005 [EBook #17074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIANOFORTE SONATA *** + + + + +Produced by John Hagerson, Charles Aldarondo, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<h2>THE</h2> + +<h1>PIANOFORTE SONATA</h1> + +<h2>ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT</h2> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>J.S. SHEDLOCK, B.A.</h2> +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<a name="image001"> +<img src="images/pasquini.jpg" alt="Monument of Bernardo Pasquini" width="267" height="400" /></a></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center">MONUMENT OF BERNARDO PASQUINI IN THE CHURCH OF SAN +LORENZO IN LUCINA ROME</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">SKETCHED BY STRITCH HUTTON</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +METHUEN & CO.<br /> +36 ESSEX STREET, W.C.<br /> +LONDON<br /> +1895<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div> + <table border="0" summary="Contents" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="75%" id="AutoNumber1"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><b>CHAP.</b></td> + <td><b>PAGE</b></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#PREFACE">PREFACE</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">I.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">INTRODUCTORY</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">II.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">JOHANN KUHNAU</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">III.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY + OF J. KUHNAU</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">IV.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS + CONTEMPORARIES</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">V.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">HAYDN AND MOZART</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VI.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VII.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">VIII.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">IX.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">X.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">THE SONATA IN ENGLAND</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right">XI.</td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, + SONATINAS, ETC.</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="left"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>This little volume is entitled "The Pianoforte Sonata: its Origin and +Development." Some of the early sonatas mentioned in it were, however, +written for instruments of the jack or tangent kind. Even Beethoven's +sonatas up to Op. 27, inclusive, were published for "Clavicembalo o +Pianoforte." The Germans have the convenient generic term "Clavier," +which includes the old and the new instruments with hammer action; +hence, they speak of a <i>Clavier Sonate</i> written, say, by Kuhnau, in +the seventeenth, or of one by Brahms in the nineteenth, century.</p> + +<p>The term "Piano e Forte" is, however, to be found in letters of a +musical instrument maker named Paliarino, written, as we learn from +the valuable article "Pianoforte," contributed by Mr. Hipkins to Sir +George Grove's <i>Dictionary of</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> <i>Music and Musicians</i>, already in the +year 1598, and addressed to Alfonso II., Duke of Modena. The earliest +sonata for a keyed instrument mentioned in this volume was published +in 1695; and to avoid what seems an unnecessary distinction, I have +used the term "Pianoforte Sonata" for that sonata and for some other +works which followed, and which are usually and properly termed +"Harpsichord Sonatas."</p> + +<p>I have to acknowledge kind assistance received from Mr. A.W. Hutton, +Mr. F.G. Edwards, and Mr. E. Van der Straeten. And I also beg to thank +Mr. W. Barclay Squire and Mr. A. Hughes-Hughes for courteous help at +the British Museum; likewise Dr. Kopfermann, chief librarian of the +musical section of the Berlin Royal Library.</p> + +<p style="text-align: right">J.S. SHEDLOCK.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">London</span>, 1895.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2>THE PIANOFORTE SONATA</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTORY</h3> + + +<p>In history we find certain names associated with great movements: +Luther with the Reformation, or Garibaldi with the liberation of +Italy. Luther certainly posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg +his famous Theses, and burnt the Papal Bull at the gates of that city; +yet before Luther there lived men, such as the scholar Erasmus, who +have been appropriately named Reformers before the Reformation. So, +too, Cavour's cautious policy paved the way for Garibaldi's brilliant +victories. Once again, Leonardo da Vinci is named as the inventor of +chiaroscuro, yet he was preceded by Fra Filippo Lippi. And in similar +manner, in music, certain men are associated with certain forms. +Haydn, for example, is called the father of the quartet; close +investigation, however, would show that he was only a link, and +certainly not the first one in a long evolution. So, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>too, with the +sonata. The present volume is, however, specially concerned with the +<i>clavier</i> or pianoforte sonata; and for that we have a convenient +starting-point—the Sonata in B flat of Kuhnau, published in 1695. The +date is easy to remember, for in that same year died England's +greatest musician, Henry Purcell.</p> + +<p>Before studying the history of the pianoforte sonata, even in outline, +it is essential that something should be said about the early history +of the <i>sonata</i>. That term appears first to have been used in +contradistinction to <i>cantata</i>: the one was a piece <i>sounded</i> +(<i>suonata</i>, from <i>sonando</i>) by instruments; the other, one <i>sung</i> by +voices. The form of these early sonatas (as they appear in Giovanni +Gabrieli's works towards the close of the sixteenth century) was +vague; yet, in spite of light imitations, the basis was harmonic, +rather than contrapuntal. They were among the first fruits of the +Renaissance in Italy. But soon there came about a process of +differentiation. Praetorius, in his <i>Syntagma musicum</i>, published at +Wolfenbüttel in 1619, distinguishes between the <i>sonata</i> and the +<i>canzona</i>. Speaking generally, from the one seems to have come the +sonata proper; from the other, the suite. During the whole of the +eighteenth century there was a continual intercrossing of these two +species; it is no easy matter, therefore, to trace the early stages of +development of each separately.</p> + +<p>Marpurg, in his description of various kinds of pieces in his +<i>Clavierstücke</i>, published at Berlin in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> 1762, says: "Sonatas are +pieces in three or four movements, marked merely <i>Allegro</i>, <i>Adagio</i>, +<i>Presto</i>, etc., although in character they may be really an +<i>Allemande</i>, <i>Courante</i>, and <i>Gigue</i>." Corelli, as will be mentioned +later on, gave dance titles in addition to Allegro, Adagio, etc. +Marpurg also states that "when the middle movement is in slow time it +is not always in the key of the first and last movements." This, +again, shows intercrossing. The genuine suite consisted of several +dance movements (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue) all in the +same key. But we find occasionally in suites, a Fugue or Fuguetta, or +even an Aria or Adagio; and in name, at any rate, one dance movement +has formed part of the sonata since the time of Emanuel Bach.</p> + +<p>In 1611, Banchieri, an Olivetan monk, published at Venice his +<i>L'Organo suonarino</i>, a work "useful and necessary to organists,"—thus +runs the title-page. At the end of the volume there are some pieces, +vocal and instrumental (a Concerto for soprano or tenor, with organ, a +Fantasia, Ricercata, etc.), among which are to be found two <i>sonatas</i>, +the one entitled, "Prima Sonata, doppio soggietto," the other "Seconda +Sonata, soggietto triplicato." They are written out in open score of +four staves, with mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, and bass clefs. To show +how the sonatas of those days differed both in form and contents from +the sonata of our century, the first of the above-mentioned is given +in short score. It will, probably, remind readers <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>of "the first +(<i>i.e.</i> sonatas) that my (<i>i.e.</i> Dr. Burney) musical inquiries have +discovered, viz., some sonatas by Francesco Turini, which consisted of +only a single movement, in fugue and imitation throughout."</p> + +<p><img src="images/music001a.png" alt="Sonata from L'Organo Suonarino" width="758" height="513" /></p> + +<p><img src="images/music001b.png" alt="Sonata continued" width="760" height="501" /></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span><img src="images/music001c.png" alt="Sonata continued" width="760" height="668" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music001.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music001.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>Turini was organist of Brescia Cathedral, and in 1624 published +<i>Madrigali a una, due, tre voci, con alcune Sonate e a tre, Ven. +1624</i>. Between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> Turini, also Carlo Farina, who published violin +sonatas at Dresden in 1628, and Corelli (<i>b.</i> 1653), who brought out +his first work in 1683, one name of great importance is Giovanni +Legrenzi.</p> + +<p>In the eighth volume of Dr. Burney's musical extracts there are two +sonatas, <i>a tre, a due violini e violone</i>, by Legrenzi (opera ottava, +1677). The first is in B flat. It commences with a movement in common +time entitled <i>La Benivoglia</i>.</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music002.png" alt="La Benivoglia" width="740" height="86" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music002.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music002.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>An Adagio in G minor (only six bars) is followed by an Allegro in D +minor, six-eight time, closing on a major chord; then eight bars +common time in B flat (no heading); and, finally, a Presto +(three-four) commencing in G minor and closing in B flat. None of the +movements is in binary form.</p> + +<p>The 2nd Sonata, in D, has five short movements. No. 1 has an opening +of thirty-seven bars in common time, fugato. There is a modulation in +the ninth bar to the dominant, and, later on, a return to the opening +theme and key; in the intervening space, however, in spite of +modulation, the principal key is not altogether avoided.</p> + +<p>Sonatas of various kinds by Legrenzi appeared between 1655 and 1677. +Then there were the "Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale ouero Sonate da +Camera, etc.," of Gio. Maria Bononcini, father of Battista Bononcini, +the famous rival of Handel, published at Bologna in 1669, and the +sonatas of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> Gio. Battista Vitali (Bologna, 1677). Giambatista Bassani +of Bologna, although his junior by birth, was the violin master of the +great Corelli. His sonatas only appeared after those of his +illustrious pupil, yet may have been composed before. Of the twelve in +Op. 5, most have many short movements; some, indeed, are so short as +to be scarcely deserving of the name.</p> + +<p>By the time of Arcangelo Corelli, who, as mentioned, published his +first work (Op. 1, twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass) in 1683, +sonatas answered to the definition given by Mattheson in his <i>Das neu +eröffnete Orchester</i> (1713), in which they are said to consist of +alternate Adagio and Allegro. J.G. Walther, again, in his dictionary +of music,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> which appeared at Leipzig in 1732, describes a sonata as +a "grave artistic composition for instruments, especially violins." +The idea of grouping movements was already in vogue in the sixteenth +century. Morley in his <i>Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical +Music</i>, printed in 1597, speaks of the desirableness of <i>alternating</i> +Pavans and Galliards, the one being "a kind of staid musick ordained +for grave dancing," and the other "a lighter and more stirring kind of +dancing." Contrast was obtained, too, not only by difference in the +character, but also, in the measure of the music; the former was in +common, the latter in triple time.</p> + +<p>With regard to the grouping of movements, Corelli's sonatas show +several varieties. The usual <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>number, however, was four, and the order +generally—slow, fast, slow, fast. Among the forty-eight (Op. 1, 2, 3, +and 4, published 1685, 1690, 1694, and 1700 respectively) we find the +majority in four movements, in the order given above<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>; of the twelve +in Op. 3, no less than eleven have four movements, but—</p> + +<div> + + <table border="0" summary="Corelli four-movement sonatas" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="50%" id="AutoNumber2"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td align="left">No. 1 (in F) has</td> + <td align="left">Grave, Allegro, Vivace, Allegro.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">No. 6 (in G),</td> + <td align="left">Vivace, Grave, Allegro, Allegro.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">No. 10 (in A minor), </td> + <td align="left">Vivace, Allegro, Adagio, Allegro.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + +</div> + + +<p>There are, however, eight sonatas consisting of <i>three movements</i>; and +as this, a century later, became the normal number, we will give the +list:—</p> + +<div> + + <table border="0" summary="Corelli three-movement sonatas" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="100%" id="AutoNumber3"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 1, No. 7 (in C)</td> + <td align="left">Allegro, Grave, Allegro. (Middle movement begins in A minor, but ends in C.)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 2, No. 2 (in D minor)</td> + <td align="left">Allemanda (Adagio), Corrente (Allegro), Giga (Allegro).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 2, No. 6 (in G minor)</td> + <td align="left">Allemanda (Largo), Corrente, Giga.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 2, No. 9 (F sharp minor)</td> + <td align="left">Allemanda (Largo), Tempo di Sarabanda (Largo), Giga (Allegro).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 4, No. 8 (D minor)</td> + <td align="left">Preludio (Grave), Allemanda (Allegro), Sarabanda (Allegro).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 4, No. 10 (G)</td> + <td align="left">Preludio<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> + (Adagio) and Allegro, +Adagio and Grave (E minor), Tempo di Gavotta (Allegro).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 4, No. 11 (C minor)</td> + <td align="left">Preludio (Largo), Corrente (Allegro), Allemanda (Allegro).</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">Op. 4, No. 12 (B minor)</td> + <td align="left">Preludio (Largo), Allemanda (Presto), Giga (Allegro).</td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + +</div> + +<p>It is interesting to note that each of the two sonatas (Op. 1, No. 7, +and Op. 4, No. 10), most in keeping with its title of sonata, has the +middle movement in a relative key. Op. 1, No. 7, begins with an +Allegro in common time; and the short Grave is followed by a light +Allegro in six-eight time. The first movement, with its marked return +to the principal key, is very interesting in the matter of form. The +other sonatas with suite titles have all their movements in the same +key. Locatelli in his <i>XII Sonate</i> for flute, published early in the +eighteenth century, has in the first: Andante, Adagio, Presto; also +Nos. 3, 5, etc. So, too, in Tartini's Sonatas (Op. 1) there are also +some in three (No. 3, etc.). But Emanuel Bach commenced with that +number, to which, with few and unimportant exceptions, he remained +faithful; likewise to the slow movement dividing the two quick ones. +The three-movement form used by J.S. Bach for his concertos and +sonatas no doubt considerably influenced his son. But already, in +1668, Diderich Becker, in his <i>Musikalische Frülings-Früchte</i>, wrote +sonatas for violins, etc. and <i>continuo</i>, in three movements. (No. 10, +Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. Again, Sonata No. 19 opens with a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>movement +in common time, most probably an Allegro; then comes an Adagio, and, +lastly, a movement in six-four, most probably quick <i>tempo</i>.) These +sonatas of Becker <i>a 3</i>, <i>4</i> or <i>5</i>, with <i>basso continuo</i>, are +unfortunately only printed in parts. As a connecting link between the +Gabrielis and Corelli, and more particularly as a forerunner of +Kuhnau, Becker is of immense importance. We are concerned with the +clavier sonata, otherwise we should certainly devote more space to +this composer. We have been able to trace back sonatas by German +composers to Becker (1668), and by Italian composers to Legrenzi +(1655); those of Gabrieli and Banchieri, as short pieces, not a group +of movements, are not taken into account. Now, of earlier history, we +do know that Hans Leo. von Hasler, said to have been born at Nuremberg +in 1564, studied first with his father, but afterwards at Venice, and +for a whole year under A. Gabrieli. Italian and German art are thus +intimately connected; but what each gave to, or received from, the +other with regard to the sonata seems impossible to determine. The +Becker sonatas appeared at Hamburg, and surely E. Bach must have been +acquainted with them. Becker in his preface mentions another Hamburg +musician—a certain Johann Schop—who did much for the cause of +instrumental music. Schop, it appears, published concertos for various +instruments already in the year 1644. And there was still another work +of importance published at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> Amsterdam, very early in the eighteenth +century, by the famous violinist and composer G. Torelli, which must +have been known to E. Bach. It is entitled "Six Sonates ou Concerts à +4, 5, e 6 Parties," and of these, five have three movements (Allegro, +Adagio, and Allegro).</p> + +<p>Corelli was the founder of a school of violin composers, of which +Geminiani,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Locatelli,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Veracini,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> and Tartini<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> were the most +distinguished representatives; the first two were actually pupils of +the master. In the sonatas of these men there is an advance in two +directions: sonata-form<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> is in process of evolution from binary +form, <i>i.e.</i> the second half of the first section is filled with +subject-matter of more definite character; the bars of modulation and +development are growing in number and importance; and the principal +theme appears as the commencement of a recapitulation. We should like +to say that <i>binary</i> is changing into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> <i>ternary</i> form; unfortunately, +however, the latter term is used for a different kind of movement. To +speak of a movement in sonata-form, containing three sections +(exposition, development, and recapitulation) as in binary form, seems +a decided misnomer.</p> + +<p>The violinists just mentioned were the last great writers of sonatas +in Italy. Emanuel Bach arose during the first half of the eighteenth +century, and, henceforth, Germany took the lead; Bach was followed by +Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The influence of the Corelli<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> school +was felt in Germany and also in England. Sonatas were published by +Veracini at Dresden in 1721, and by Tartini and Locatelli at Amsterdam +before 1740. Again Veracini was for a time solo violinist to the +Elector of Dresden (1720-23); Tartini lived for three years at Prague +(1723-26), while Locatelli, during the first half of the eighteenth +century, made frequent journeys throughout Germany. Emanuel Bach, the +real founder of the modern pianoforte sonata, must have been +influenced by their works.</p> + +<p>In a history of the development of the sonata generally, those of +Corelli would occupy an important place, for in them we find not only +fugal and dance forms, but also hints of sonata-form.</p> + +<p>Dr. Parry, in his article on "Sonata" in Sir G.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> Grove's <i>Dictionary +of Music and Musicians</i>, has named the Corrente of Corelli's 5th +Sonata in Op. 4 as offering "nearly a miniature of modern binary +form." The well-known Giga Allegro of the 9th Sonata (Op. 5), and the +Allemanda Allegro of the 10th Concerto in C, also present remarkable +foreshadowings.</p> + +<p>Handel, however, furnishes a very striking illustration—</p> + +<p>In the six "Sonatas or Trios for two Hoboys with a thorough bass for +the harpsichord," said to have been composed already in 1696, we find +quick movements in binary form. In some, the first section offers both +a first and a second subject, while in the second section, after +modulation, there is a return to the opening theme, though quite at +the close of that section. A brief description of one will make the +form clearer. The second Allegro of No. 4 (in F) has two sections. The +first, which ends in the dominant key (C), contains forty-six bars. +The opening theme begins thus:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music003.png" alt="Handel sonata, opening theme" width="304" height="79" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music003.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music003.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>At the twenty-ninth bar, a passage leads to the second theme—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music004.png" alt="Handel sonata, second theme" width="313" height="92" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music004.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music004.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>This second theme is, in a measure, evolved from the first. In any +case, it is of subordinate character; and it differs slightly as given +by first or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>second oboe, whereas the principal theme appears in +exactly the same manner for both instruments.</p> + +<p>The second section opens with developments of <i>b</i>, and modulation from +C major to D minor; <i>a</i> also is developed, the music passing from the +last-named key back to the opening one. There is a full close in that +key, and then modulation to F. The remaining twenty-two bars give the +first section in condensed form: first and second subjects and +coda.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<p>It would be interesting to trace the influences acting on the youth +Handel at the time when he wrote these sonatas. Most probably they +were Johann Philipp Krieger's<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> sonatas for violins and bass; N.A. +Strungk's sonatas published at Dresden in 1691; and more especially +Agostino Steffani's "Sonate da Camera" for two violins, alto, and +bass, published in 1683. An opera by the last-named, which appeared at +Hanover in 1699, has an "Air de Ballet," which contains the first +notes of "Let the bright Seraphim"; besides, it is known that Handel +culled ideas and "conveyed" notes from works of other composers; also, +that he turned them to the best account.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the same year in which Corelli published his Op. 1 (1683), Domenico +Scarlatti, the famous harpsichord player, was probably born; in the +history of development his name is the principal one of importance +between Corelli and Emanuel Bach. In the matter of technique he +rendered signal service, but, for the moment, we are concerned with +his contribution towards development. Scarlatti does not seem to have +ever considered the sonata in the sense of a work consisting of +several contrasting movements; all of his are of only one movement. +The title "sonata" as applied to his pieces is, therefore, misleading. +Whether the term was actually used by the composer himself seems +doubtful. The first thirty of the sixty Scarlatti sonatas published by +Breitkopf & Härtel appeared during the lifetime of the composer at +Madrid. They are dedicated to John the Just, King of Portugal, and are +merely entitled</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"><i>Essercizi per Gravicembalo.</i></p> + +<p>In editions of the eighteenth century the composer's pieces are styled +Lessons or Suites. However, twelve published by J. Johnson, London, +are described on the title-page as <i>Sonatas modernas</i>.</p> + +<p>From the earliest days of instrumental music dance tunes were divided +into two sections. The process of evolution is interesting. In the +earliest specimens, such as the <i>Branle</i> given in the Orché<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>sographie +of Thoinot Arbeau, we find both sections in the same key, and there is +only one theme. The movement towards the dominant note in this +<i>Branle</i> may be regarded as a latent modulation. In time the first +section was developed, and the latent modulation became real; then, +after certain intermediate stages, the custom was established of +passing from the principal to the dominant key (or, in a minor piece, +to the relative major or dominant minor), in which the first section +closed. But in Corelli,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and even in Scarlatti,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> we find, +occasionally, a return to an earlier stage (<i>i.e.</i> a first section +ending in the same key in which it commenced). In most of his pieces +Scarlatti modulates to the dominant; in minor, to the relative major. +Some exceptions deserve mention. In the Breitkopf & Härtel collection, +No. 26, in A major, passes to the minor key of the dominant; and No. +11, in C minor, modulates to the minor key of the dominant, but the +section closes in the major key of the dominant.</p> + +<p>Scarlatti's sonatas consist, then, of one movement in binary form of +the early type. Only in a few of these pieces is there a definite +second subject; in none, a return to the opening theme.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music005.png" alt="Scarlatti sonata" width="201" height="79" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music005.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music005.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>In No. 26 there is just a return to the first bar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> (see +second section, bar 11), but the previous ten bars show no modulation, +and one can scarcely speak of thematic development. After the few bars +of development and modulation, in some cases, the second section is +found to consist merely of a repetition of some part of the first +section, the key being tonic instead of dominant. This is, +practically, embryonic sonata-form. The tonic and dominant portions of +the first section are becoming differentiated; but the landmark, +<i>i.e.</i> the return to the opening theme in the second section which +divides binary from sonata form, is, in Scarlatti, non-existent. His +first sections often consist of a principal theme and passages, also +phrases indirectly connected with the opening one; sometimes of a +chain of short phrases more or less evolved from the opening thought +(see Nos. 1, 21, 29). (These and the numbers which follow refer to the +Breitkopf & Härtel edition of sixty Scarlatti sonatas.) The composer +often passes through the minor key of the dominant (in the first +section) before arriving at the major; sometimes the major is +introduced only late in the section (Nos. 7, 17, etc.), or minor +remains (No. 26). We meet with a similar proceeding in Beethoven. +Minor pieces often pass to the dominant minor, but end in major +(<i>i.e.</i>, first section). In Scarlatti there is, for the most part, no +second subject, but frequently (Nos. 5, 7, 9, etc.) a concluding +phrase which can, at times, be traced to the opening theme. Sonata 6, +in F, shows a second subject <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>of a certain independence. The best +examples are to be found in Nos. 24 and 29 (in A and E); in these the +character of the second subject differs from that of the first, and it +is also in a minor key, which offers still another contrast.</p> + +<p>And now a word or two respecting Scarlatti's method of development. He +alters figures (Nos. 12 and 54), extends them (Nos. 9 and 54), but +often merely repeats passages on the same degrees as those of the +first section, or on different ones. He makes use of imitation (Nos. 7 +and 36). Sometimes he evolves a phrase from a motive (No. 11). In No. +19 the development assumes a certain importance. It commences, not, as +in most cases, with the opening theme or figure of the first section, +but with a group of semiquaver notes which appears later in that +section. In No. 20 Scarlatti preserves the rhythm, but with total +change of notes (No. 20)—</p> + +<table border="0" summary="Scarlatti sonatas" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="AutoNumber7" width="734"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music006.png" alt="Scarlatti sonata 20" width="223" height="139" /></p></td> + <td> + <p style="text-align: center"> + <img src="images/music007.png" alt="Scarlatti sonata 20" width="238" height="107" /></p></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music006.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music006.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music007.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music007.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>The same number gives another interesting specimen of change of +rhythm. In No. 48 he picks out an unimportant group of notes, and +works it by imitation and sequence. There are some interesting +specimens of development in the thirty sonatas printed from +manuscripts in the possession of Lord Viscount Fitzwilliam by Robert +Birchall. Scarlatti's development bars are seldom many in number.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<p>After modulation and development, the music slides, as it were, into +some phrase from the first section,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and allowance being made on +account of difference of key (there the music was passing, or had +passed from tonic; here it is returning to that key), the rest is more +or less a repetition of the first section. <i>More or less</i>: sometimes +the repetition is literal; at other times there is considerable +deviation; and shortenings are frequent. With regard to style of +writing for the clavier—a few canonic imitations excepted—there is +no real polyphony. Most of the sonatas are in only two parts. The +composer revels in rapid passages (runs, broken chords, simple and +compound), wide leaps, difficult octaves, crossing of hands, and, of +course, short shakes innumerable. Domenico Scarlatti was indeed one of +the most renowned <i>virtuosi</i> on the clavier. Handel met him at Rome in +1708, and Cardinal Ottoboni persuaded them to compete with each other. +We are told that upon the harpsichord the victory was doubtful, but +upon the organ, Scarlatti himself confessed the superiority of his +rival.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>Johann Kuhnau published a sonata for clavier in 1695, and this was +followed up by a set of seven sonatas ("Frische Früchte") in 1696, and +a few years later (1700) by the seven "Bible" Sonatas. That he was the +first composer who <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>wrote a sonata for the clavier is a point which +cannot be overlooked, and in the evolution of the sonata he occupies +an interesting position. In the "Frische Früchte" there is, as Dr. +C.H. Parry truly remarks in his excellent article "Sonata" in Sir G. +Grove's <i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>, an awakening sense of the +relation and balance of keys; but in the "Bible" Sonatas the form and +order of the movements is entirely determined by the Bible stories. As +specimens of programme-music they are altogether remarkable, and will, +later on, be described in detail; they do not, however, come within +the regular line of development. It was, of course, natural that such +a new departure should attract the notice of John Sebastian Bach, who +was Kuhnau's immediate successor as cantor of St. Thomas' School, +Leipzig, and Spitta, in his life of Bach, refers to that composer's +<i>Capriccio sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo</i>, and +reminds us that "Kuhnau as well as so many others had some influence +on Bach." Of course, among the "so many others," Froberger's name—as +we shall see later on from Kuhnau's preface—deserves a prominent +place. In addition to what Kuhnau says, Mattheson has recorded that +"Froberger could depict whole histories on the clavier, giving a +representation of the persons present and taking part in them, with +all their natural characters." When writing the Capriccio above named, +Spitta believes that Bach was specially influenced by the last of the +"Bible" Sonatas (we <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>may perhaps add that Spitta tells us that Bach +was intimately acquainted with Kuhnau). He indeed says: "We might +doubt the early origin of the Capriccio if its evident 'dependence' on +Kuhnau did not solve the mystery." Then, again, in a Sonata in D by +Bach, published in the Bach Gesellschaft edition, Spitta calls +attention to the opening subject in D, and does not hesitate to +declare that "it is constructed on the pattern of a particular part of +the story of Jacob's marriage" (the 3rd of the "Bible" Sonatas). His +description of the Bach sonata would, doubtless, have attracted more +notice but for the fact that copies of the Kuhnau sonatas were +extremely rare; they were, we believe, never reprinted since the +commencement of the eighteenth century. The first two have now been +published by Messrs Novello & Co. The Kuhnau influence on Bach seems, +however, to have been of short duration; for, after these juvenile +attempts, as Spitta observes, "he never again returned to this branch +of music in the whole course of a long artistic career extending over +nearly fifty years." The fugue form absorbed nearly the whole +attention of that master; and the idea of programme-music remained in +abeyance until Beethoven revived it a century later.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Emanuel Bach +inherited some of his father's genius, and he may instinctively have +felt the utter hopelessness of following directly in his footsteps. +J.S. Bach had exhausted the possibilities of the fugue form.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> It was +perhaps fortunate for Emanuel Bach that, while still young, he left +his father's house. After residing for a few years at +Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he entered the service of Frederick the Great; +and at the court of that monarch he came, at any rate, directly under +Italian influence.</p> + +<p>An interesting link between Kuhnau and E. Bach is Mattheson, who +published at Hamburg in 1713 a sonata dedicated to the one who can +best play it (<i>derjenigen Persohn gewidmet, die sie am besten spielen +wird</i>). The work itself not being available, the following description +of it by J. Faisst (<i>Caecilia</i>, vol. 25, p. 157) may prove +interesting:—"It (<i>i.e.</i> the sonata) consists of only one movement, +which, considering its evidently intentional wealth of technique, +might be named a Toccata. But in form this one movement clearly +belongs to the sonata order, and, in fact, holds a middle place +between the tendencies towards sonata-form (the term taken in the +narrower sense of form of one single movement) noticeable in Kuhnau, +and the more developed shape which this form has assumed within recent +times. We have here three sections. In the opening one, the theme, +after its first exposition in the key of G, forms the basis of various +passages, and then appears in the key of the dominant, followed again +by passages of larger extent and richer contents; finally, in +abbreviated form, it reappears in the tonic. The second section +commences in the parallel key, E minor, with passages which recall +those of the first section, and continues with the theme in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>the same +key; afterwards theme and passages are developed through the keys of A +minor, C major, G major, D major and B minor; in the last, in which +the theme occurs, there is a full close. As third section the first is +taken <i>Da Capo</i>." It is evident from a remark made by Mattheson in his +<i>Der volkommene Capellmeister</i>, which appeared at Hamburg in 1739, +that some of the sonatas written during the transition period, between +Corelli and E. Bach, are lost, or, at any rate, have not been +discovered.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Mattheson says: "During the last years successful +attempts have been made to write sonatas for the clavier (formerly +they were for violins or instruments of that kind); still, up to now, +they have not the right form, and are capable of being touched (<i>i.e.</i> +played) rather than of touching: they aim at the movement of fingers +rather than of hearts."<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p> + +<p>A little later than Mattheson (<i>i.e.</i> in 1721), Pier Giuseppo Sandoni, +husband of the famous vocalist Cuzzoni, published at London "Sonate +per il Cembalo," dedicated to the Duchess of Pembroke. No. 1, in D +minor, has three movements, an Allemande, Largo, and Giga Presto; they +are all short, and in two sections; and, as a rule, the writing is in +two parts. No. 2, in F, opens with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>an Allegro of peculiar form. It +has four sections, each of which is repeated; the first (seven bars) +modulates to the key of C, closing thus—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music008.png" alt="Sandoni sonata" width="137" height="127" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music008.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music008.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The second section (also consisting of seven bars) soon modulates to D +minor, closing in that key in a manner similar to the first. The third +section (ten bars) consists of modulation and slight development, and +closes in A minor. The fourth section (fifteen bars) passes by means +of broken chords (in imitation of the last bar of the previous +section) through various keys, ending in the same fashion as the first +section, only, by way probably of intensification at the end, there +are seven instead of four quaver chords; the section, of course, ends +in F. This movement in the matter of form offers an interesting link +between Kuhnau and E. Bach. The second movement is a minuet, with +variations; it certainly has a beginning, but seems endless. The 3rd +Sonata, in A, resembles No. 1 in form, also in grouping of movements.</p> + +<p>And in addition to the sonata of Mattheson, the Sei Sonatine per +Violino e Cembalo, di Georgio Philippo Telemann, published at +Amsterdam in 1721, will give us an approximate idea of the clavier +sonata between Kuhnau and Emanuel Bach. Each number, by the way, is +headed—title-page notwithstanding—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>a sonata. No. 1, in A major, +consists of four movements, Adagio, Allegro, Largo, Allegro, and all +the four are in binary form. The second is naturally the most +important; the others are very short and simple. In this Allegro, +besides the allusion in the dominant key to the theme at the opening +of the second section there is a return to it, after modulation, in +the principal key. Some of the other sonatas are longer, but No. 1 +represents, roughly, the other five as to form and contents. No. 6, in +F, by the way, has only three movements: Vivace, Cantabile, and +Presto.</p> + +<p>The "Sonate per Gravicembalo, novamente composte," published by +Giovanni Battista Pescetti in 1739, deserve notice, since they +appeared three years before the six sonatas dedicated by Emanuel Bach +to Frederick the Great. They are nine in number. In style of writing, +order, and character of movements, they bear the stamp of the period +in which they were written. Most of the movements in binary form are +of the intermediate type, <i>i.e.</i> they have the principal theme in the +dominant at the beginning of the exposition section, and again, later +on, in the principal key. There is considerable variety in the order +and number of movements. No. 1, for instance, has an Adagio, an +Allegro, and a Menuett with variations. No. 2, in D, has four +movements: Andante, Adagio, Allegro, Giga; the short Adagio is in D +minor. No. 3, in G minor: Presto and A Tempo Giusto (a dignified +fugue).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> The influence of Handel is strong, also that of Scarlatti. +Bars such as the following—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music009.png" alt="Pescetti sonata" width="355" height="63" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music009.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music009.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>foreshadow, in a curious manner, the <i>Alberti</i> bass.</p> + +<p>A great number of clavier sonatas were written about the time during +which Emanuel Bach flourished: his first sonatas appeared in 1742, his +last in 1787. An interesting collection of no less than seventy-two +sonatas (sixty-seven by various composers; five anonymous), issued in +twelve parts, under the title <i>Oeuvres mêlées</i> (twelve books, each +containing six sonatas), was published by Haffner at Würzburg, +somewhere between 1760 and 1767. And another collection of symphonies +and sonatas, principally by Saxon composers, was published at Leipzig +in 1762 under the title <i>Musikalisches Magazin</i>. We will give the +names of some of the chief composers, with titles of their works, +adding a few other details. It is difficult in some cases to ascertain +the year of publication; and it is practically impossible to say when +the sonatas were actually composed:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Bach</span>, Wilh. Friedemann. Sei sonate, No. 1,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> D +major (Dresden, 1745). Sonata in C (published in Litolff's +<i>Maîtres du Clavecin</i>), and others in D and G (autographs), +and in F, A, and B flat (manuscripts).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bach</span>, Joh. Ernst. Two sonatas (in <i>Oeuvres +mêlées</i>).</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nichelmann</span>, Christoph. Sei brevi sonate, etc., Op. +2; Nuremberg (between 1745-1756).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hasse</span>. Two sonatas in E flat and B flat +(manuscript; on one is the date of 1754). Two sonatas, one +in D minor (only one Lento movement); the other in D major +(only one Allegro movement in old binary form). These are +both in the Leipzig collection named above.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Benda</span>, Georg. Sei sonate (Berlin, 1757). Sonatas in +G, C minor, and G, also seven sonatinas (Vermischte +Clavierstücke, Gotha, 1780).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wagenseil</span>, Georg. Sonata (<i>Oeuvres mêlées</i>). Six +sonatas for the harpsichord (with accompaniment for a +violin).<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Opera prima. (A. Hummel, London.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Schaffrath</span>, Christoph.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Six sonates, Op. 2 +(published by Haffner, Nuremberg, 1754).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mozart</span>, Leopold. Three sonatas (<i>Oeuvres mêlées</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Müthel</span>, Joh. Gottfr. Three sonatas, etc. (Haffner, +Nuremberg, about 1753); three sonatas (autograph).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Umstatt</span>, Joseph.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> One sonata (<i>Oeuvres mêlées</i>). +Sonata consisting of only a Minuetto, Trio, and Gigue +(Leipzig collection). And the two Italians—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Galuppi</span>. Sonate per cembalo (London); and</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paradies</span>, P. Domenico. Twelve sonate di +gravicembalo (London).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grétry</span>, Belgian composer (1741-1813), wrote "Six +sonates pour le clavecin" (1768), to which, unfortunately, +we have not been able to gain access.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> + +<p>From the two collections, etc., may be gathered many facts of +interest. First, as regards the number and character of movements in a +sonata. Emanuel Bach kept, for the most part, to three: two fast +movements, divided by a slow one.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> In the second of his Leipzig +collections (1780), there are two with only two movements (Nos. 2 and +3; a few bars connecting the two movements of No. 3). But among other +composers there are many examples; in some sonatas, the first movement +is a slow one; in others, both movements are quick, in which case the +second one is frequently a minuet.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> All twelve sonatas of Paradies +have only two movements.</p> + +<p>Of sonatas in three movements, some commence with a slow movement +followed by two quick movements.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> (In one instance, in E. Bach's +sonatas, the 1st Collection, No. 2, in F, we even find two slow +movements followed by a quick one, Andante, Larghetto, Allegro assai.) +But the greater number had the usual order:—Allegro or Allegretto, +Andante or Adagio, and Allegro or Presto. Thus Hasse, Nichelmann, +Benda, and other composers. Now in E. Bach's Würtem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>berg sonatas we +found all three movements were in the same key, and there are similar +cases in Hasse, Fried. Bach, Joh. Ernst Bach, etc.; but for the most +part, the middle (slow) movement was in some nearly related key; in a +sonata commencing in major—in the relative, or tonic minor, or minor +under-dominant; and even (as in a sonata by Adlgasser) in the +upper-dominant. Joh. C.F. Bach, in one instance, selected the minor +key of the upper-dominant, and there are examples of more remote keys +(E. Bach, Coll. of 1780, No. 1). With sonatas commencing in minor, the +key selected for the middle movement was generally the relative major +of the under-dominant, or that of the tonic; sometimes even tonic +major. A very extraordinary example of a remote key is to be met with +in Bach's Collection of 1779, No. 3: his opening movement is B minor, +but his middle one, G minor.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p> + +<p>It should be mentioned with regard to sonatas in three movements +commencing in a minor key, that the last generally (in works of this +period) remains and ends in minor. In modern sonatas the major is +often found, at any rate before the close (see Beethoven, Op. 10, No. +1, etc.).</p> + +<p>Baldassare Galuppi, born in 1706 on the island of Burano, near Venice, +was a pupil of Lotti's.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> Two sets of six "Sonate per il cembalo" of +his were published in London. We cannot give the date, but may state +that a sonata of his in manuscript bears the date 1754 (whether of +copy or composition is uncertain; anyhow, the year given acts as +limit). The variety in the number of the movements of the published +sonatas (one has four, some have three, some two, while No. 2 of the +first set has only one) points to a period of transition. This alone, +apart from the freshness and charm of the music, entitles them to +notice. Much of the writing is thin (only two parts), and, +technically, the music far less interesting than the Scarlatti pieces. +Some of the phrases and figures, and the occasional employment of the +Alberti bass, tell, however, of the new era soon about to be +inaugurated by Haydn. There is one little feature in the 1st Sonata of +the first set which may be mentioned. In the second section of the +Adagio (a movement in binary form) of that sonata, the theme appears, +as usual then, at the beginning of the second section, and, later on, +reappears in the principal key, but it starts on the fourth, instead +of the eighth quaver of the bar.</p> + +<p>There was great variety in the order of movements. Sometimes a slow +movement was followed by two quick movements;<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and the third +movement was frequently a minuet. The quick movement sometimes came in +the middle (Galuppi, Sonata in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> B flat), sometimes at the beginning +(E. Bach, Coll. 1781, No. 3), sometimes at the end (E. Bach, Coll. +1779, No. 2). Then, again, sometimes all, but frequently two of the +three movements, were connected, <i>i.e.</i> the one passed to the other +without break.</p> + +<p>So much for sonatas in two or three movements. But among the <i>Oeuvres +mêlées</i> there are no less than twenty which have four movements—some +in the old order: slow, fast, slow, fast; others in a new order: +Allegro, Andante or Adagio, Minuet, and Allegro or Presto.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Thus +Wagenseil,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Houpfeld, J.E. Bach, Hengsberger, and Kehl. Sometimes +(as in Seyfert and Goldberg) the Minuet came immediately after the +Allegro<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> (see +<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Beethoven chapter</a> with regard to position of Minuet +or Scherzo in his sonatas). In a sonata by Schaffrath, the opening +Allegro is followed by a Fugue. Again (in Spitz, Zach, and Fischer) +the following order is found: Allegro, Andante, Allegro, Minuet. In +Fischer all the movements are in one key; only the Trio of the Minuet +is in the tonic minor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> In Spitz the Andante is in the under-dominant, +the other movements being in the principal key. In Zach the Andante is +in the minor tonic, and the third movement in the upper-dominant. It +is well to notice that <i>in none of these four-movement sonatas are the +movements connected</i>. The same thing is to be observed in Beethoven, +with exception, perhaps, of Op. 110. In the <i>Oeuvres mêlées</i> there is +only one instance of a sonata in <i>five</i> movements by Umstatt. It +consists of an Allegro, Adagio (in the dominant), Fugue Allegro (in +the relative of dominant), a Minuet in the principal key, with Trio in +relative minor; and, finally, a Presto. By way of contrast, we may +recall the two sonatas of Hasse, in one movement, already mentioned, +and also the last of Emanuel Bach's six sonatas of 1760.</p> + +<p>The works of many of the composers named in connection with +differences in the number and order of movements are forgotten; and, +in some cases, indeed, their names are not even thought worthy of a +place in musical dictionaries. Yet these variations are of great +moment in the history of development. And this for a double reason. +First, many of the works must have been known to E. Bach, and yet he +seems to have remained, up to the last, faithful to the three-movement +plan. One or two of his sonatas have only two movements, none, +however, has four. Secondly, the experiment of extending the number to +more than three, practically passed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>unheeded by Dussek, Clementi, +Mozart,<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Haydn,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> and by all the composers of importance until +Beethoven. The last-named commenced with sonatas in four movements; +but, as will be seen in a later chapter, he afterwards became partial +to the scheme of three movements.</p> + +<p>Let us now consider, and quite briefly, movements in binary form; +again, in this matter, some instructive facts will be gathered from +the works of Bach's contemporaries. As in Scarlatti, so here we find +the first of the two sections into which such a movement is divided, +ending in one case<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> in the tonic, but, as a rule, in the dominant. +There is, however, an instance of the close in the under-dominant +(Müthel, No. 2 of the Sonatas of 1780), and in E. Bach, in the +relative minor of the under-dominant (Sonatas of 1780, No. 3, Finale). +In a minor key, the first section closed either in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>the key of the +relative major, or that of the dominant minor<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>—much more +frequently the former.</p> + +<p>Now, in proportion as the second part of the first section grew more +definite, so also did the approach to it. Everyone knows the pause so +frequently to be found in Haydn and Mozart, on the dominant of the +dominant, <i>i.e.</i> if the key of the piece were C—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music010.png" alt="dominant of the dominant" width="198" height="72" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music010.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music010.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>It is instructive to compare the less formal methods of approaching +the new key in E. Bach and his contemporary Paradies; with them it was +generally by means of a half-close. It must be remembered that E. Bach +frequently has a movement quite on Scarlatti lines, <i>i.e.</i> without a +definite second subject;<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> also that the second subject in Bach's +time was, as a rule, of secondary importance. But, curiously, in the +Finale of a sonata written by Leopold Mozart (father of the great +genius), after a half cadence on the dominant of the dominant, <i>tempo</i> +and measure change (from Presto two-four, to Andante three-four, the +latter remaining until the end of the first section), and the same +occurs in the recapitulation section; by this means the second theme +was made specially prom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>inent. In a sonata of Scarlatti's, in D, +commencing</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music011.png" alt="Scarlatti Sonata in D" width="214" height="65" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music011.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music011.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>there is a definite second subject in, by the way, the minor key of +the dominant, and it is divided from the first by two bars in common +time (a descending scale and a shake on a semibreve). And then again, +in No. 12 of the "Libro de XII. Sonatas Modernas para Clavicordio," +the second subject is divided from the first by two bars of common +time (the piece is in Scarlatti's favourite measure, three-eight), an +ascending scale and a shake. There are clear examples of a second +subject, besides E. Bach, in Eberlin, Fleischer, J.C. Bach, and J.C.F. +Bach. Yet even in Haydn's sonatas one cannot always speak of a second +subject. The further history of the development of the contents of the +second half of the first section shows, as it were, a struggle between +two ideals. One was <i>kinship</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the endeavour to present the +secondary matter in strong relationship to the opening one (the +opening notes or bars of a real second subject were, indeed, +frequently the same, allowance being made, of course, for difference +of key); the other was <i>contrast</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the endeavour to obtain +variety. Haydn was more affected by the first; Mozart by the second. +In Beethoven the two are happily combined. It is important to notice +the closing bars of many first sections of the period of which we are +speaking. For instance, in E. Bach, the first movement of the sonata +in each <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>of the Collections of 1781 and 1783 has a concluding theme +(as in the sonata of Scarlatti, and frequently evolved from the +opening theme). Though in the complementary key, it cannot count as +"the second subject." It appears after the complementary key has been +ushered in by one cadence, and after having apparently run its course, +it has been wound up by another. Then, again, the portion between the +cadences just mentioned is at times filled with a true theme, so that +the concluding one, like the cave of Abraham's field of Machpelah, is +in reality an appendency. <i>Sometimes there are several</i>: the +enlargement of the exposition section by Beethoven, and still more +modern composers, so that it contains sometimes three, and even more +themes, is practically an exposition section on Scarlatti lines, only +on a larger scale: the figure has become a phrase, mere connecting +passages have acquired organic meaning. The second section of +Scarlatti's movement in binary form contained a few bars of +development and modulation. Then a return was made to the opening key +of the piece, <i>but never to the opening theme</i>; and in that key a +portion more or less great, more or less varied, according to +circumstances, was repeated. That return to the opening theme is, as +we have already said, the landmark which divides binary from sonata +form.</p> + +<p>In sonatas of the middle of the eighteenth century the modulation +section (in a major key) ended in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>various ways,—on the dominant +chord (of the principal key), on the tonic chord of the relative +minor, the under-dominant, or even on the tonic itself of the +principal key. Later on, Haydn and Mozart kept, for the most part, to +the dominant chord. Beethoven, on account of the distant, and often +abrupt, modulations of his middle sections, generally marked the +approach to the recapitulation by clear, and often prolonged, dominant +harmony; sometimes, however, the return of the principal theme comes +as a surprise. The recapitulation always remained more or less +faithful to the exposition. It is interesting to note how little the +character and contents of the recapitulation section have been +affected in modern times by the growth of the development section. In +the matter of balance the two sections of movements in binary form are +more satisfactory than the two sections (two, so far as outward +division is concerned) of modern sonatas. The grain of mustard-seed in +the parable grew into a tree, and so, likewise, have the few bars of +modulation of early days grown into an important section. However +difficult to determine the exact moment at which a movement in +sonata-form really ceased to be binary, there seems no doubt that that +moment has now passed. We have already noted when the change +commenced.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>JOHANN KUHNAU</h3> + + +<p>This remarkable musician was born, April 1660,<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> at Geysing, where +his grandfather, who, on account of his religious opinions, had been +forced to leave Bohemia, had settled. Already in his ninth year young +Kuhnau showed gifts for science and art. He had a pleasing voice, and +first studied under Salomon Krügner, and afterwards under Christian +Kittel,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> organist of the Elector at Dresden. His next teachers were +his brother Andreas Kuhnau, Alexander Hering,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and Vin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>cenzo +Albrici. In 1680 the plague broke out at Dresden, and Kuhnau returned +to his parents. He then went to Zittau with a certain Erhard Titius, +who had been <i>Praefectus</i> at the Kreuzschule, Dresden, and received +help from the court organist, Moritz Edelmann, also from the +"celebrated" Weise. A motet of Kuhnau's was given at Zittau under his +direction. After the death of Titius, Kuhnau resided for a time in the +house of J.J. von Hartig, judge at Zittau. In 1682 he went to Leipzig, +where D. Scherzer endeavoured to obtain for him the post of organist +at St. Thomas'; Kühnel, however, was appointed. The latter died in +1684, and was succeeded by Kuhnau, who in 1700 also became cantor of +St. Thomas'. He devoted much of his time to jurisprudence. Among other +things, he wrote a curious satire, entitled <i>Der musikalische +Quacksalber</i>, published in 1700. There remain in manuscript, +<i>Tractatus de tetrachordo</i> and <i>Introductio ad compositionem +musicalem</i>. Kuhnau had many pupils; we know of two who afterwards +became distinguished men. The one was Christoph Graupner (1683-1760), +who in 1710 became capellmeister at Darmstadt. In 1722, on the death +of Kuhnau, Graupner,<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> who had been prize scholar under him, +presented his testimonials, was examined, and seemed likely to become +cantor as his teacher's successor. Meanwhile, however, John Sebastian +Bach offered himself as candidate, and as Dr. Pepusch before Handel at +Cannons in 1710, so did Graupner retire before his great rival. +Mattheson, in his <i>Ehren-Pforte</i> (p. 410), tells us that "as a +composer for the clavier, Graupner may rank as one of the best of his +time." He wrote suites and sonatas for clavier. Johann Friedrich Fasch +(1688-1758 or 9), the second pupil, soon after leaving Leipzig, where +he had enjoyed Kuhnau's instruction from 1701-7, went to Italy, and on +his return studied for a short time with Graupner. Fasch then filled +various posts, until in 1722 (the very year indeed of Kuhnau's death) +he became capellmeister at Anhalt Zerbst, where he remained until his +death. His son, Carl Friedrich Christian, was the founder of the +Berlin <i>Singakademie</i>. In 1756 Emanuel Bach had something to do with +Fasch's appointment as clavecinist to Frederick the Great. The father, +who was then seventy years of age, and who, like old Sebastian Bach, +lived with the fear of God before his eyes, opposed the wish of his +son to enter the service of the infidel king. Emanuel, who wished the +younger Fasch to come to Berlin, wrote to the father to say "that in +the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>land over which Frederick the Great ruled, one could believe what +one liked; that the king himself was certainly not religious, but on +that very account esteemed everyone alike." Bach offered to take young +Fasch into his house, and to preserve him as much as possible from +temptation. With regard to Graupner, it would be interesting to know +whether in any of his sonatas (the autographs of which are, we +believe, at Darmstadt) he worked at all on Kuhnau's lines. And with +regard to Fasch, one would like to know whether he ever conversed with +Emanuel Bach about his father, who taught him theory, and about Johann +Kuhnau, his father's renowned teacher. It is from such by-paths of +history that one sometimes learns more than from statements showing +how son descended from sire, and how pupils were directly influenced +by their teachers.</p> + +<p>But it is as a musician that we are now concerned with Kuhnau, and, in +the first place, as the composer of the earliest known sonata for the +clavier. In 1695 he published at Leipzig—</p> + +<p>"Sieben Partien aus dem Re, Mi, Fa, oder Terzia minore eines jedweden +Toni, benebenst einer <i>Sonata</i> aus dem B. Denen Liebhabern dieses +Instrumenten zu gar besondern Vergnügen aufgesetzet." That is—</p> + +<p>Seven Partitas based on the Re, Mi, Fa, or minor third of each mode, +together with a Sonata in B flat, for the especial gratification of +lovers of this instrument.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> + +<p>With respect to this sonata, Kuhnau remarks in his preface: "I have +added at the end a Sonata in B flat, which will please amateurs; for +why should not such things be attempted on the clavier as well as on +other instruments?" In such modest fashion was ushered into the world +the first sonata for clavier, or, at any rate, the earliest with which +we are acquainted.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> + +<p>Mattheson, in <i>Das neu eröffnete Orchester</i> (1713), speaks about the +<i>revival</i> of clavier sonatas, so that it is not quite certain whether +that B flat Sonata was actually the first.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> During the seventeenth +century, sonatas were written for various instruments, with a figured +bass for the cembalo.</p> + +<p>It will, of course, be interesting to trace the influences acting upon +Kuhnau. They were of two kinds: the one, Italian; the other, German. +Corelli deserves first mention; and next, the Italian organist and +composer, Vincenzo Albrici,<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> capellmeister to the Elector of Saxony +from 1664-88, and afterwards organist of St. Thomas', Leipzig, who is +known to have encouraged Kuhnau when young, and to have helped him to +learn the Italian language. But German influence must also have been +strong. Of Froberger special mention will be made later on. There was +one <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>man, Diderich Becker, who published sonatas for violins and bass +already in 1668, and these, if we mistake not, must have been well +known to Kuhnau. Apart from the character of the music, the title of +the work, <i>Musikalische Frülings Früchte</i>, and the religious style of +the preface, remind one of Kuhnau's "Frische Früchte," also of his +preface to the "Bible" Sonatas. It is curious to find the quaint +expression "unintelligent birds" used first by Becker, and afterwards +by Kuhnau.</p> + +<p>Let us describe briefly the above-mentioned B flat Sonata. The first +movement is in common time, but the composer gave it no heading. It is +generally supposed (Becker, Rimbault, Pauer) to be an Allegro; +<i>moderato</i> might well be added, for the stately, Handelian-like (the +anachronism must be excused) music will scarcely bear a rapid <i>tempo</i>. +The movement opens with an eight-bar phrase, closing on the dominant. +Then the music, evolved from previous material, passes rapidly through +various related keys. After this modulation section there is a cadence +to F major, and in this, the dominant key, something like a new +subject appears, though it is closely allied to the first. A return is +soon made to the principal key, but there is no repetition of the +opening theme. After a cadence ending on the tonic (B flat), and two +coda-like bars, comes a fugal movement, still in the same key. The +vigorous subject, the well-contrasted counterpoint, the interesting +episodes, and many attractive details <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>help one to forget the monotony +of key so prevalent in the days in which this sonata was written. +This, and indeed other fugues of Kuhnau show strong foreshadowings of +Handel and Bach; of this matter, however, more anon. The counterpoint +to the third entry of the subject is evolved from the opening subject +of the sonata. The third movement consists of a fine Adagio in E flat, +in the key of the subdominant and in three-four time. Then follows a +short Allegro in three-four time, of polyphonic character. At the +close of the movement Kuhnau has written the opening chords of the +first movement with the words <i>Da Capo</i>. A similar indication is to be +found in one of the "Frische Früchte" Sonatas. This repetition, also +the third movement leading directly to the fourth, and the thematic +connection mentioned above, would seem to show that the composer +regarded the various sections of his sonata as parts of a whole.</p> + +<p>In addition, Kuhnau wrote thirteen sonatas. The "Frische Clavier +Früchte," or "Sieben Suonaten von guter Invention u. Manier auf dem +Clavier zu spielen," were published in 1696, and later editions in +1710 and 1724. In a quaint preface the composer tells us that in +naming his "Fresh Fruits" "sonatas," he kept in mind all kinds of +<i>inventiones</i> and changes (Veränderungen) by which so-called sonatas +are superior to mere partitas. Already a century before this preface +was written, Praetorius had distinguished between two classes of +instrumental music: the one, grave; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>the other, gay. The composer has +also a word to say about the graces or ornaments, the "sugar which +sweetens the fruits." In modern reprints of Kuhnau the sugar is +sometimes forgotten.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> These "Frische Früchte" were followed by six +"Bible" Sonatas in 1700. The former, both as regards form and +contents, are remarkable. Kuhnau was a man of deeper thought and +loftier conception than Emanuel Bach, but he was fettered by fugal +forms,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and was fighting against them much in the same spirit in +which Beethoven, a century later, fought against sonata-form, in the +most general sense of that term. Beethoven was not only the more +gifted, but he profited by the experiments of his predecessors, and he +enjoyed the advantage of a vastly improved technique; Haydn, Mozart, +Clementi, and others were the stepping-stones by which he rose to +higher things. Kuhnau's attempts at sonata writing were bold, often +rugged; and his experiments in programme-music, extraordinary. The +latter were soon forgotten, while the clever, clear-formed sonatas of +Emanuel Bach served as a gratification to the age in which he lived, +and as guides to the composers who followed him. The "Frische +Früchte," standing between Corelli and Emanuel Bach, are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>of interest. +The fugal element is still strong; and we find, not so much the smooth +style of Corelli as the vigorous style of Froberger and other +composers of North Germany. In character of subject-matter and in form +there is decided advance as compared with the B flat Sonata. Kuhnau +still seems rather limited in figures, and therefore repeats +himself;<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> then again his movements do not always show gradation of +interest. Their order and number are, indeed, perplexing, and not +always satisfactory. The 2nd Sonata, in D, for instance, commences +with a fine Allegro, followed first by a short Adagio, commencing in +the relative minor, and intermixed with short presto passages, and +then by a lively movement in six-eight time. These three would form an +admirable sonata, yet the composer does not end here. There is still +another short Adagio, and a concluding movement; and in spite of some +fine passages, these appendages form a decided anti-climax. Similar +instances are to be found in the other sonatas.</p> + +<p>Now for a few words concerning their form. Some of the opening +movements (for instance, those of Nos. 1, 2) are practically based on +fugue-form, with which, by the way, sonata-form is allied.</p> + +<p>The first movement of No. 4, in C minor, is of interest, both in its +resemblances to, and differ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>ences from, modern sonata-form. It has +<i>four</i> sections:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>a.</i> Eleven bars, beginning and ending in C minor, and +containing a characteristic theme.</p> + +<p><i>b.</i> Eleven bars, beginning in E flat (<i>i.e.</i> relative major +of opening key) and closing in G minor (<i>i.e.</i> key of minor +dominant). It contains a theme rhythmically allied to the +principal theme. <i>This section is repeated.</i></p> + +<p><i>c.</i> Nine-and-a-half bars, opening in C minor, and passing +to, and closing in E flat. It contains imitative passages +evolved from the principal theme.</p> + +<p><i>d.</i> Exact repetition of first section, only with a close on +the major chord.</p></div> + +<p>The last movement of the 6th Sonata, in B flat, offers a still more +striking resemblance to sonata-form; the various sections are better +balanced; the middle or development section (with its close strettos) +is particularly noticeable; also the recapitulation, which is not +literal, as in the above example. The slow movements—occasionally +very short—follow no particular plan. The fugal element is always +more or less present, but some of the other movements have somewhat of +a suite character; No. 6, indeed, opens with a <i>Ciaccona</i>. There is a +certain formality about Kuhnau's music, and, for reasons already +mentioned, he is occasionally monotonous. But there is an independent +spirit running through his sonatas, and a desire to escape from the +trammels of tradition which are quite refreshing. And there is a +nobility in the style and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>skill in the workmanship which remind us of +the great Bach. There are, indeed, resemblances to Bach, also to +Handel. Scheibe, in his <i>Critischer Musikus</i>, mentions Kuhnau, in +conjunction with Keiser, Telemann, and Handel, as one of the greatest +composers of the eighteenth century. The mention of Kuhnau together +with Handel deserves note. The constant discoveries which are being +made of Handel's indebtedness to other composers suggest the thought +that perhaps Kuhnau was also laid under contribution. No one, we +think, can hear the "Bible" Sonatas without coming to the conclusion +that Handel was acquainted with the works of his illustrious +predecessor. We will just place side by side three passages from the +"Bible" Sonatas of Kuhnau with three from a harpsichord suite of +Handel—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music012.png" alt=""Bible" Sonata, No. 2. Kuhnau." width="299" height="115" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music012.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music012.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music013.png" alt="Collection I., Suite 7, Ouverture. Handel." width="406" height="116" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music013.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music013.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music014.png" alt=""Bible" Sonata, No. 6. Kuhnau." width="740" height="180" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music014.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music014.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music015.png" alt="Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille. Handel." width="740" height="161" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music015.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music015.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music016.png" alt=""Bible" Sonata, No. 6. Kuhnau." width="740" height="104" /> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music016.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music016.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p><img src="images/music017.png" alt="Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille. Handel." width="740" height="100" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music017.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music017.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>It should be noticed that the three Handel quotations are all from the +same suite. We do not mean to infer that the above passages from +Handel are plagiarisms, but merely that the Kuhnau music was, +unconsciously, in his mind when he wrote them.</p> + +<p>C.F. Becker, in his <i>Hausmusik in Deutschland</i>, has suggested that +these sonatas were known also to Mozart, and begs us to look on this +picture, the opening of a Vivace movement in Kuhnau's 6th Sonata:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music018.png" alt="Vivace movement in Kuhnau's 6th Sonata" width="740" height="181" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music018.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music018.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> + +<p>and on this, from <i>The Magic Flute</i>:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music019.png" alt="from The Magic Flute" width="740" height="173" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music019.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music019.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Faisst, however, justly observes that though the harmonic basis is the +same in both, with Kuhnau the under-part is melody, whereas with +Mozart it is the reverse. He also accuses Becker—and justly, as +readers may see by turning to the passage in the <i>Zauberflöte</i>—of not +having represented the passage quite honestly. Reminiscence hunters +need to be very careful.</p> + +<p>In these sonatas, as compared with the one in B flat, the thematic +material is of greater importance; and so, too, in the slow movements +the writing is simpler and more melodious.</p> + +<p>The rapid rate at which they were composed deserves mention. Kuhnau +seems to have had the ready pen of a Schubert. In the preface to these +"Frische Früchte" he says: "I wrote these seven sonatas straight off, +though attending at the same time to my duties (he was <i>juris +practicus</i>, also organist of St. Thomas'), so that each day one was +completed. Thus, this work, which I commenced on the Monday of one +week, was brought to an end by the Monday of the following week."</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<p>Kuhnau's second (and, so far as we know, last) set of sonatas bears +the following title:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +Musikalische Vorstellung<br /> +Einiger<br /> +Biblischer Historien<br /> +In 6 Sonaten<br /> +Auf dem Klavier zu spielen<br /> +Allen Liebhabern zum Vergnügen<br /> +Verfüget<br /> +von<br /> +Johann Kuhnauen.<br /> +</p> + +<p>That is—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +Musical Representation<br /> +of some<br /> +Bible Stories<br /> +In 6 Sonatas<br /> +To be performed on the Clavier<br /> +For the gratification of amateurs<br /> +Arranged<br /> +by<br /> +Johann Kuhnau.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Kuhnau was not the originator of programme-music. In the so-called +<i>Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book</i>,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> in the Fitzwilliam Library, there +is a Fantasia by John Munday, who died 1630, in which there is given a +description of weather both fair and foul. Again, Froberger, who died +in 1667, is said to have been able, <i>on the clavier</i>, to describe +incidents, ideas, and feelings; there is, indeed, in existence a +battle-piece of his. And then Buxtehude (<i>d.</i> 1707) wrote a set of +seven Suites for clavier, in which he is said to have represented <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>the +nature and characteristics of the planets; these are, unfortunately, +lost. With Froberger's music, at any rate, Kuhnau was familiar. In a +long preface to these Bible stories, the composer refers to the +subject of programme-music. He reminds us how from ancient times +musicians have tried to rival the masters of rhetoric, sculpture, and +painting in terms of their own art. And he expressly refers to +programme pieces, and even to sonatas by the "distinguished +Froberger<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> and other excellent composers." The essence of his long, +elaborate, and, at times, somewhat confused argument (it must be +remembered that he was discussing a very difficult subject; and, also, +that he was the first to write about it) is as follows:—He believes +music capable by itself of producing wonderful effects, but in special +cases, requiring the assistance of words. Music, he tells us, can +express sadness or joy; for that no words are necessary. When, +however, some individual—as in his sonatas—is referred to, words +become essential, <i>i.e.</i> if one is to distinguish between the +lamentation of a sad Hezekiah, a weeping Peter, or a mourning +Jeremiah. In other language, words are necessary to render the emotion +definite. Kuhnau gives a quaint illustration of the absolute necessity +of words in certain cases; and that illustration is of particular +interest, inasmuch as it points to still earlier, and possibly, +clavier sonatas. "I remember," says our author, "hearing a few years +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>ago a sonata composed by a celebrated Chur-Fürst capellmeister, to +which he had given the title, 'La Medica.' After—so far as I can +recall—describing the whines of the patient and of his relations, the +running of the latter to the doctor, the pouring forth of their +sorrow, there came, finally, a Gigue, under which stood the words, +'The patient is progressing favourably, but has not quite recovered +his health.' At this some mocked, and were of opinion that, had it +been in his power, the author might well have depicted the joy at a +perfect recovery. So far, however, as I could judge, there was good +reason for adding words to the music. The sonata commenced in D minor; +in the Gigue there was constant modulation towards G minor. At the +final close, in D, the ear was not satisfied, and expected the closing +cadence in G." In this wise was the partial recovery expressed in +tones, and explained in words.</p> + +<p>Except for the unmistakable seriousness of the author, this +description might be taken as a joke, just as in one of the "Bible" +Sonatas the deceit of Jacob is expressed by a deceptive cadence; but +such extreme examples serve to emphasise the author's declaration +that, at times, words are indispensable. Before noticing the sonatas +themselves, one more quotation in reference to the same subject must +be made from this interesting preface. The humblest scholar, Kuhnau +tells us, knows the rule forbidding consecutive perfect consonances, +and he <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>speaks of certain strict <i>censores</i> who expose the clumsiness +of <i>musical poets</i> who have refused to be bound by that rule. "But," +says Kuhnau, in lawyer-like language: "<i>Cessante ratione prohibitionis +cessat ipsa prohibitio</i>." The term <i>musical poets</i> (the italics are +ours) is a remarkable one; Kuhnau himself, of course, was one of them.</p> + +<p>Philipp Spitta, in his <i>Life of J.S. Bach</i>, devotes one short +paragraph to the Bible stories, and gives one or two brief quotations +from the second; but they certainly deserve a longer notice.</p> + +<p>The 1st Sonata is entitled "The Fight between David and Goliath." It +opens with a bold section, intended, as we learn from a +superscription, to represent <i>the bravado of Goliath</i>. The giant's +characteristic theme, on which the whole section is built, is as +follows:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music020.png" alt="Goliath's theme" width="184" height="70" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music020.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music020.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Then follows a section in A minor. A Chorale represents the prayer to +God of the terrified Israelites, while the palpitating quaver +accompaniment stands for the terror which seized them at sight of the +giant; the harmonies are very striking. This Chorale setting should be +compared with one by Bach (Spitta's <i>Life of Bach</i>, English edition, +vol. i. p. 216), said to owe its existence to the influence of Georg +Böhm, organist at Lüneburg at the commencement of the eighteenth +century. Next comes a little pastoral movement (C major, three-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>four +time) expressive of David's courage and of his confidence in God. Then +a tone-picture is given of the encounter; the heavy tread of the +Philistine is heard in the bass, while semiquaver passages, evolved +from a figure in the preceding movement, evidently portray the +spirited youth. One realistic bar scarcely needs the explanation given +by Kuhnau that it is the slinging of the stone which smote the +Philistine in his forehead; and the same may be said of the "Goliath +falls" in the following bar:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music021a.png" alt="Battle between David and Goliath" width="740" height="664" /></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music021b.png" alt="David and Goliath continued" width="740" height="323" /></p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music021c.png" alt="Goliath falls" width="740" height="311" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music021.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music021.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>This section, limited to sixteen bars, is not only an early, but a +notable specimen of programme-music; it is realistic, but not in the +least ridiculous. Rapid passages with points of imitation tell of the +flight of the Philistines. A bright movement (still in C) bears the +superscription, "The joy of the Israelites at their victory"; in it +there is an allusion to the pastoral movement. Maidens then advance, +with timbrels and instruments of music, to meet the victor, and the +sonata concludes with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>a stately Minuet, similar in character to the +Minuet in the Overture to Handel's <i>Samson</i>; the people are dancing +and singing for joy.</p> + +<p>The 2nd Sonata presents to us a very different picture. Here we have +the melancholy of Saul driven away by means of music. There are a few +realistic effects, such as the paroxysms of madness of Saul, and the +casting of the javelin; but the subject is one which readily lends +itself to real musical treatment. The music of the 1st Sonata was +principally objective; here, however, it is principally subjective. In +the first part of the work the music depicts, now the sadness, now the +rage of the monarch. The opening is worthy of Bach, and presents, +indeed, a foreshadowing of the opening of the 16th Prelude of the +"Well-tempered Clavier." Spitta mentions the fine fugue, with the +subject standing for the melancholy, the counter-subject for the +madness of the king; and he justly remarks that these two images of +Saul "contain the poetical germ of a truly musical development." The +"dimly brooding" theme of the fugue brings to one's mind the "Kyrie +eleison" fugue of Mozart's <i>Requiem</i>; also the theme of the Allegro of +Beethoven's Sonata in C minor (Op. 111), notwithstanding the fact that +Kuhnau's is slow and sad, but Beethoven's, fast and fiery. Here is the +first half of the former—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music022.png" alt="Kuhnau Bible Sonata No. 2" width="461" height="53" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music022.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music022.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Let not our readers be deceived by the word<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> "fugue." The movement is +no mere formal scholastic piece of writing such as one might expect; +the preluding of David on his harp, the "javelin" episode, the +paroxysms of rage give to it rather the character of a free fantasia. +One word with regard to the paroxysm passages. We quoted above a +sentence from the preface respecting the violation of the rule +respecting consecutive consonances by certain "poet musicians." +Kuhnau, under this plural mask, was, as we have mentioned, certainly +referring to himself, for in another part of the preface he specially +calls attention to the consecutive fifths by which he depicts the +disordered mind of King Saul. This first movement, opening in G minor, +ends on the chord of G major. We now come to a movement (B flat) +entitled "The Refreshing Melody from David's Harp." The following is +part of David's soothing theme:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music023.png" alt="David's theme" width="222" height="123" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music023.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music023.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>At first it is not heard in its entirety. The sweet singer of Israel +plays it, or sometimes only the first two bars, in various keys, and +with varied harmonisation, as if watching the king and trying the +effect on him of different modulations. Besides in the principal key, +it appears several times, and in succession, in the relative minor, +then in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>minor key of the supertonic. The key of the subdominant +enters with refreshing effect; after that, a return is made to the +principal key, which continues until the close of the movement. +Between each delivery of the theme, occur passages similar to the +following:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music024.png" alt="David's restlessness" width="304" height="85" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music024.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music024.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>as if to denote the restlessness of the king. And as the character of +the music, especially towards the close, suggests <i>piano</i> and +<i>pianissimo</i>, it would seem as though intended to express the gradual +healing power of the music. As a piece of abstract music, the movement +appears long, but not if the dramatic situation be kept well in mind. +At length the sounds of the harp cease, and a closing, peaceful, and +dignified movement in G minor tells of Saul's now tranquil state of +mind.</p> + +<p>The 3rd Sonata, entitled "The Marriage of Jacob," opens with a +delightful Gigue; over it stands the superscription, "The joy of the +family of Laban at the arrival of their relation Jacob." The beginning +of the second section has, as usual, the subject inverted. The music +is gay and sparkling. Then comes a section illustrative of Jacob's +seven years' service for a wife. The music expresses effort and +fatigue, but by way of musical contrast sprightly bars intervene from +time to time, to represent happy moments when the lovers meet. Further +on we have the bridal-song of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>companions of Rachel: a short, +quaint, and delicate movement in minor and in triple time. It +commences thus:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music025.png" alt="Bridal song" width="741" height="143" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music025.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music025.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>A short section follows, full of rapid semiquaver passages and points +of imitation (such a mode of procedure is frequently adopted by the +composer); and then comes a sudden change in the character of the +music. No <i>tempo</i> is marked, but, evidently, it must not be rapid. It +is a tone-picture of the deception practised by Laban upon Jacob when +he substituted Leah in place of Rachel. At first, it is a free +recitative. A quotation of a few bars will give a good idea of the +extraordinary harmonies and rhythmical figures:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music026a.png" width="748" height="143" alt="Laban's deception" /></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music026b.png" alt="Laban's deception" width="754" height="148" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music026.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music026.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>And again—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music027.png" alt="Laban's deception" width="736" height="139" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music027.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music027.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The Fugue, short and vigorous, has a characteristic theme:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music028.png" alt="Fugue" width="742" height="81" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music028.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music028.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>A new section expresses Jacob's happiness until he discovers the +deceit practised on him. The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>exact moment of displeasure is indicated +by a superscription; the latter, however, was scarcely necessary—the +notes speak for themselves. For there are reminiscences of the Laban +recitative, of the fugue theme, and also (in augmentation) of the +counter-subject. This is, indeed, an early instance of the employment +of representative themes. The composer then naïvely orders the section +descriptive of the wedding festivities to be repeated, to illustrate +the second marriage of Jacob with the beloved Rachel.</p> + +<p>The 4th Sonata deals with Hezekiah's mortal sickness and recovery. It +is shorter than the preceding ones, and of simpler structure. It opens +with slow, sad music: the prophet of God has summoned the king to +prepare for death. His ardent prayer to heaven is naturally expressed +by a well-known Chorale, supported by most effective polyphonic +harmony. After a short thematic working of a figure from the Chorale, +the latter is submitted to fresh treatment: the movement (in six-four +time) somewhat resembles the old Corrente. The sonata concludes with a +lively movement in binary form. It is intended to depict the king's +joy at his recovery. There are a few bars <i>adagio</i> in each section: +Hezekiah recalls the past. This is the only one of the sonatas which, +as abstract music, would be satisfactory without any programme.</p> + +<p>No. 5 is entitled "Gideon, the Saviour of Israel." From a musical +point of view it is the least interesting of the set, yet it contains +some <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>curious programme effects. It will be remembered that a sign +from heaven was given to Gideon: the fleece was to be covered with +dew, but the ground to remain dry; the next night, however, the order +of things was reversed. Kuhnau expresses the latter by giving a theme +in <i>contrary motion</i>. This may almost be described as punning in +music. The composer, however, meant it seriously; from the tone of his +preface, and the narration, with comments, which he has prefixed to +each sonata, in addition to the explanatory words over the music +itself, it is clear that his aim was to elucidate and intensify the +Bible stories by means of his art. He was a man, apparently, of deep +religious belief.</p> + +<p>The battle-picture is a curiosity, but, as music, of little value. The +flight of the Midianites is depicted in the following primitive +manner:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music029.png" alt="Flight of the Midianites" width="744" height="153" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music029.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music029.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The 6th (and last) Sonata bears the title, "The Tomb of Jacob." We +have, at first, mournful music: the sons of the Patriarch are standing +round the deathbed. At length Jacob dies, and they "ponder over the +consequences of the sad event." A quiet, expressive theme</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music030.png" alt=""The Tomb of Jacob"" width="738" height="70" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music030.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music030.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p> + +<p>is then treated fugally, and with marked effect. Then comes the +journey from Egypt to the land of Canaan. The bass, progressing in +quavers, expresses motion. From time to time a curious syncopated +semiquaver figure is heard in the upper part: it may be intended to +represent sobbing. The following quotation, including one of these +"sobbing" passages, will give a good idea of the character of this +section—</p> + +<p><img src="images/music031.png" alt="Journey from Egypt" width="755" height="345" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music031.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music031.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>A short, solemn phrase is headed, "The Burial of Israel." Then a +finely worked-out fugal section depicts the great grief of the +bystanders. It is in four parts, but in one place the addition of a +fifth part and stretto treatment render the feeling of grief more +intense. A peaceful closing section in the major key and in triple +time expresses the consoled minds of the survivors.</p> + +<p>From this <i>résumé</i> of these "Bible" Sonatas, it will be seen that they +have nothing in common with the ordinary sonata of the time in which +they <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>were written. They were bold attempts at programme-music; and, +as we have already said, the form is entirely determined by the +subject-matter.</p> + +<p>In the old edition of these "Bible" Sonatas, in addition to the +preface of which we have made mention, Kuhnau has related the Bible +stories in his own characteristic language. We give a translation of +the first two, as specimens.</p> + + +<p style="text-align: center">I. <i>The Combat between David and Goliath</i></p> + +<p>The portrait given in Scripture of great Goliath is something quite +uncommon: a monster of nature appears, a giant, tall as a tree. Six +ells will not suffice to measure his length; the high helmet of brass +which he wears on his head makes him appear still taller; and the +scaly coat of mail, the greaves of brass placed about his legs, +together with the enormously heavy shield which he carries, also his +strong spear, tipped with iron, like unto a weaver's beam, +sufficiently show that he is of mighty strength, and that all these +exceedingly heavy loads do not inconvenience him in the slightest. If +the mere description of this man creates fear, how much greater will +not the terror of the poor Israelites be when the living image of this +their enemy appears before them. For he stands before them in his +brazen armour, rivalling the sun in brilliancy, makes with the +rustling of his armour a terrible din, and snorts and bellows as if he +would devour them at one <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>mouthful; his words sound in their ears like +dreadful thunder. He holds in contempt his enemies and their equipage, +and demands that a hero be sent out to him from their camp; this +combat is to show whose shoulders shall bear the yoke of bondage. By +this means he imagines that the sceptre will soon pass from the +Israelites to the Philistines. But a miracle is about to happen! When +courage fails all the heroes of Israel, when the giant has only to +show himself, to cause them to flee, when, also, the terrible warrior +continues, according to his custom, to pour contempt on the enemy, +David, a slim, courageous stripling, a simple shepherd-boy, then +appears, and offers to fight the bully. He is accused of rashness. +This, however, troubles David but little; he adheres firmly to his +heroic resolution, and seeks audience of King Saul. By God's help, he +had fought with a bear and a lion who had taken from him a lamb, had +snatched the prey from the jaws of these cruel beasts, and, further, +had slain them. Thus he hoped would end the struggle with this bear +and lion of a Philistine. Strongly relying upon God, he advances +towards the powerful giant, with a sling, and with some specially +selected pebbles. Then the Philistines think to themselves, "Now will +the great hero blow away the enemy like a speck of dust, or kill him +as he would a fly." All at once Goliath becomes terrible in his rage, +and raves, uttering frightful oaths at David, declaring that he is +treated as if he were a dog, and that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> David comes to him with +shepherd's staff, and not with weapons worthy of a warrior. David, +however, is fearless. He relies on his God, and prophesies to the +enemy that, though without sword, spear, or shield, he will cast +Goliath to the ground; that he will cut off his head, and leave his +carcase as food for birds and wild beasts. Hereupon David rushes at +the Philistine, wounds him in the forehead with a sharp stone cast +from his sling, so that Goliath falls to the ground. Before he has +time to rise, David, making use of his opportunity, slays him with his +own sword, and bears away from the field of battle, the hewn-off head +as a trophy of victory. As formerly the Israelites fled before the +snorting and stamping of the great Goliath, so now flee the +Philistines in consequence of the victory of young David. Thus they +give opportunity to the Israelites to pursue them, and to fill the +roads with the corpses of the slain fugitives. It is easy to imagine +how great must have been the joy of the victorious Hebrews. In proof +of it, we learn how women came forth from the cities of Judea, with +drum, fiddle, and other musical instruments, to meet the victors, and +sang alternately: "Saul hath slain his thousands, but David his ten +thousands."</p> + +<p>Thus the sonata expresses—</p> + +<p>1. The stamping and defying of Goliath.</p> + +<p>2. The terror of the Israelites, and their prayer to God at sight of +the terrible enemy.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> + +<p>3. The courage of David, his desire to humble the pride of the giant, +and his childlike trust in God.</p> + +<p>4. The contest of words between David and Goliath, and the contest +itself, in which Goliath is wounded in the forehead by a stone, so +that he falls to the ground and is slain.</p> + +<p>5. The flight of the Philistines, and how they are pursued by the +Israelites, and slain by the sword.</p> + +<p>6. The exultation of the Israelites over their victory.</p> + +<p>7. The praise of David, sung by the women in alternate choirs.</p> + +<p>8. And, finally, the general joy, expressing itself in hearty dancing +and leaping.</p> + + +<p style="text-align: center">II. <i>David curing Saul by means of Music</i></p> + +<p>Among the heavy blows dealt to us at times by God, for holy reasons, +are to be counted bodily sicknesses. Of these one can in a real sense +say that they cause pain. Hence the invention of that physician of +Padua was by no means ridiculous, who thus represented in +picture-form, over his house-door, the various sicknesses: a man +attacked by many dogs and gesticulating wildly, through pain. To each +of these dogs was given a name, and each acted accordingly. The dog, +Gout, was biting the man's foot; the dog, Pleurisy, his <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>loins; Stone, +his kidneys; Colic, his belly, and so on. Finally, a great sheep-dog, +representing daily fever, had thrown the man to the ground. The +inventor could easily have known (for that he did not require any +special experience) that sicknesses act upon men in a manner not less +gentle. By the exercise of patience, pain can at length be conquered, +although the soul, so intimately combined with the body, must feel it +not a little. But when the soul is attacked by sickness, patience +always gives way; for bodily, cannot in any way be compared with +mental, suffering. Inner anguish shows itself in restless gestures. +Scripture takes us into a lazaretto of such afflicted persons. Among +others, we meet with a royal and singular patient. Saul is his name. +Of him we read: "The spirit of the Lord departed from Saul, and he was +vexed by an evil spirit from the Lord." Where God is absent, and the +Evil One present, there must dwell all manner of evil. The hateful +aspect of this man in his paroxysms of pain can readily be imagined. +His eyes turn the wrong way, and sparks of fire, so to speak, dart out +one after the other; his face is so disfigured, that human features +can scarce be recognised; his heart casts forth, as it were, a wild, +stormy sea of foam. Distrust, jealousy, envy, hatred, and fear burst +forth from him. Especially does the javelin, constantly flying from +his hand, show that his heart rages fiercely with anger. To sum up: +his soul-sickness is so great that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>the marks of hellish tortures can +be clearly traced. At lucid intervals (<i>lucidis intervallis</i>) or quiet +hours, the tortured king realises his indescribable evil; and he +therefore seeks after a man who can cure him. But under such +extraordinary circumstances can help be hoped for? From human arts, +Saul could not expect any salvation. But God sometimes works wonders +among men. So he sends to him a noble musician, the excellent David, +and puts uncommon power into his harp-playing. For when Saul, so to +speak, is sweating in the hot bath of sadness, and David plays only +one little piece, the king is at once refreshed, and brought into a +state of repose.</p> + +<p>Thus the sonata represents—</p> + +<p>1. Saul's sadness and madness.</p> + +<p>2. David's refreshing harp-playing, and</p> + +<p>3. Tranquillity restored to the king's mind.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU</h3> + + +<p>In the year 1637 was born at Massa de Valnevola (Tuscany) Bernardo +Pasquini,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> who is said to have been one of the most distinguished +performers on the organ and also the harpsichord. He studied under +Loreto Vittori and Antonio Cesti, but his real master was evidently +Palestrina, whose scores young Bernardo studied with fervent zeal. He +was appointed organist of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, and, according +to the monument erected to his memory by his nephew, Bernardo +Ricordati, and his pupil, Bernardo Gaffi, in the church of San Lorenzo +in Lucina of that city, the composer was for a time in the service of +Battista, Prince Borghese. The inscription runs thus:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"D.O.M.</p> + +<p>"Bernardo Pasquino Hetrusco e Massa Vallis Nevolæ Liberianæ Basilicæ +S.P.Q.R. Organedo viro probitate vitæ et moris lepore laudatissimo qui +Excell. Jo. Bap. Burghesii Sulmonensium Principis clientela et +munificentia honestatus <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>musicis modulis apud omnes fere Europæ +Principes nominis gloriam adeptus anno sal. MDCCX. die XXII. Novembris +S. Ceciliæ sacro ab Humanis excessit ut cujus virtutes et studia +prosecutus fuerat in terris felicius imitaretur in coelis. Bernardus +Gaffi discipulus et Bernardus Ricordati ex sorore nepos præceptori et +avunculo amantissimo moerentes monumentum posuere. Vixit annos LXXII. +menses XI. dies XIV."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Pasquini enjoyed reputation as a dramatic composer, and the success of +an opera of his performed at the Teatro Capranica, Rome, during the +festivities in honour of Queen Christina of Sweden (1679), is +specially noted; or, according to Mendel, he wrote two successful +operas, one for the opening of the Teatro Capranica, and a second for +the festivals. He also wrote an oratorio: <i>La Sete di Christo</i>. +Pasquini died in the year 1710.</p> + +<p>But, it will be asked, Why is he mentioned in a book which is +concerned with the sonata? It is known that he was a skilful performer +on the harpsichord, and some Toccatas and Suites of his appear to have +been published in a collection of clavier music at Amsterdam in 1704. +Fétis, in his <i>Biographie Universelle des Musiciens</i>, even states that +he wrote sonatas for <i>gravicembalo</i>. Here are his words:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"Landsberg possédait un recueil manuscrit original de pièces d'orgue +de Pasquini, dont j'ai extrait deux toccates, composées en 1697. Ce +manuscrit est indiqué d'une manière inexacte dans le catalogue <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>de la +bibliothèque de ce professeur (Berlin, 1859) de cette manière: +Pasquini (Bernardo) <i>Sonate pei Gravicembalo</i> (libro prezioso). Volume +grosso <i>E scritto di suo (sua) mano in questo libro</i>. Ce même +catalogue indiqué aussi de Bernard Pasquini: <i>Saggi di +contrapunto</i>—Anno 1695. Volume forte. <i>E scritto di suo (sua) mano in +questo libro</i>. Malheureusement ces précieux ouvrages sont passés en +Amérique avec toute la bibliothèque musicale du professeur Landsberg."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Whether these precious volumes actually went to America seems +doubtful. Anyhow both volumes are now safely housed in the Berlin +Royal Library. It may be mentioned that the first contains no real +sonata: its contents consist principally of suites, toccatas, +variations, and fugues.</p> + +<p>In the story of Italian instrumental music, Pasquini is little more +than a name. The fourth volume of A.W. Ambros' <i>History of Music</i> +concludes thus:—"So ist uns von dem gerühmten Meister nichts +geblieben, als seine Name u. seine stolze Grabschrift in San Lorenzo +in Lucina." (Thus of the famous master (<i>i.e.</i> Pasquini) nothing +remains except his name and his proud monument in San Lorenzo in +Lucina). The writer of the article "D. Scarlatti," in Sir George +Grove's <i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>, remarks that the famous +harpsichord player and composer "has been called a pupil of Bernardo +Pasquini." But he considers this "most improbable, seeing that +Pasquini was of the school of Palestrina, and wrote entirely in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>the +contrapuntal style, whereas Domenico Scarlatti's chief interest is +that he was the first composer who studied the peculiar +characteristics of the free style of the harpsichord."</p> + +<p>Of Pasquini as a performer on the harpsichord, Mattheson relates "how +on his visit to Rome he found Corelli playing the violin, Pasquini the +harpsichord, and Gattani the lute, all in the orchestra of the +Opera-house." And, once more, in the notice of Pasquini in the same +dictionary, we are informed that the composer "exercised a certain +influence on German musicians." In C.F. Weitzmann's <i>Geschichte des +Clavierspiels</i> there is an interesting reference to some Toccatas of +Pasquini published in "Toccates et suites pour le clavecin de MM. +Pasquini, Paglietti et Gaspard Kerle, Amsterdam, Roger, 1704." A +Toccata was published (most probably one of those in the above work) +by I. Walsh in his</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +Second Collection<br /> +of<br /> +Toccates, Vollentarys and Fugues<br /> +made on purpose for the<br /> +Organ and Harpsichord<br /> +Compos'd by<br /> +Pasquini, Polietti<br /> +and others<br /> +The most Eminent Foreign Authors.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Of Polietti,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> court organist at Vienna before J.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>S. Bach was born, +Emil Naumann has, by the way, given an interesting account in an +article "Ein bisher unbekannt gebliebener Vorgänger Seb. Bach's unter +den Italienern" (<i>Neue Berl. Mus.-Ztg.</i> Jahrgang 29). The Toccatas of +Pasquini, published by Roger, and a so-called "Sonata,"<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> printed by +Weitzmann in the work just referred to, constitute, we believe, all +that has hitherto appeared in print of this composer.</p> + +<p>And yet surely Pasquini may lay claim to a place in the history of +instrumental music and the sonata, for he not only wrote suites, but +also sonatas for the harpsichord, or, to be quite exact, for two +harpsichords. Some, at any rate, of his music is to be found in the +British Museum. There are three volumes (Add. MSS. 31,501-3). On the +fly-leaf of the first is written:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">"Ad Usum Bernardi Felicij Ricordati de Baggiano in Etruria."</p> + +<p>Then comes in pencil a note probably made when the volumes came into +the possession of the British Museum:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"These are original MSS. by the hand of Bernardo Pasquini, 1637-1710, +the greatest organist of Italy in the second half of the 17th century, +and written for his nephew B. Ricordati. They are the only MSS. of +Pasquini known to be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>in Europe. This vol. is dated at the end, Dec. +3, 1704; at the beginning, May 6, 1703."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>And now for its contents. The first piece is a short suite,<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> +consisting of a Tastata (the old term for Prelude), a Corrente and an +Aria; and it shows that Pasquini could write homophonic as well as +polyphonic music. Then follows a piece in the key of D major, headed</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">"A due Cembali, 1704, Bernardo Pasquini,"</p> + +<p>which consists of three movements. First one commencing with chords, +after which, fugal imitation. Next we have a fugal movement, like the +preceding one, in common time; lastly, one in six-eight time. All +three movements are in the same key. The part for each cembalo is +written on a separate stave, the one below the other. Only the bass +notes are written, and the upper parts are indicated by figures. But +this will be clearer presently, for we shall give one or more +illustrations. At the close of the six-eight movement is written +<i>fine</i>, and on the following page another piece begins in C major, +marked merely 2a, commencing thus:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music032.png" alt="Pasquini sonata" width="738" height="83" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music032.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music032.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>This theme reminds one of Bach's Adagio from the 2nd Organ Concerto—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music033.png" alt="Bach, Adagio, 2nd Organ Concerto" width="741" height="93" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music033.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music033.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>or even Handel's "Along the Monster Atheist strode."<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> The movements +of this second piece are similar in structure and character to those +of the first. Next we have a piece of lighter character in two +movements, and, apparently, for one cembalo: there is, of course, only +one bass part (figured). At the commencement is merely marked <i>Basso +continuo</i>. The following piece is headed 3a Sonata (3rd Sonata). It is +in the key of D minor, and it has three movements, all in the same +key. Now, as all the pieces for <i>two cembali</i> in the volume after this +are marked as sonatas, coupled with the fact that before this 3rd +Sonata there are two pieces for two cembali, the latter of which is +marked 2a (second), we may conclude that these two are also sonatas. +The piece for one cembalo between the 2nd and 3rd Sonatas is, as we +have remarked, of lighter character, and was possibly considered a +suite. After the 3rd Sonata comes a fourth, then a <i>Basso continuo</i> +(containing, however, by exception, more <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>than one suite), and so on, +alternately, until the 14th Sonata is reached. Then follows the last +piece in the volume. The superscription, "For one <i>or</i> two +cembali,"<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> leads us to believe that the preceding <i>Basso continuo</i> +numbers were intended for one cembalo. It should be stated that +movements in binary form are rare among the sonatas, frequent among +the <i>Basso continuo</i> pieces,—another reason for considering the +latter suites.</p> + +<p>The structure of the 3rd Sonata<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> is extremely simple. The first, +probably an Allegro moderato, opens with a bold characteristic phrase, +which is repeated in the second bar by the second cembalo; points of +imitation, in fact, continue throughout the movement. At the seventh +bar there is modulation to the dominant, and at the ninth, to the +subdominant, in which the opening theme recurs. A stately antiphonal +passage leads back to the principal key, and the movement concludes +with a cadence such as we find in many a work of Bach's or Handel's. +The Adagio opens with short phrases for each instrument alternately. A +new subject in the relative major is treated in imitative fashion. +After a return to the opening theme, also an allusion to the second +theme, a new figure is introduced, but the movement soon comes to a +close. This slow movement brings to one's mind "The Lord is a Man of +War," and the major section of the duet, "Thou in Thy Mercy,"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> in +Handel's <i>Israel in Egypt</i>. The third movement, in structure, much +resembles the first; the music is broad and vigorous. The closing bars +suggest the stringendo passage and presto bars in the coda of the +Scherzo of the "Choral Symphony." Of course it is disappointing to +have only the bass parts for each instrument. The volume, as we have +already stated, was for the use of Ricordati, and probably the uncle +and nephew performed these sonatas together. Musicians will be able to +write out the figured basses, and thus form some idea of the music. +The figures are an outline of what was in the composer's mind; but +these basses, like those of Bach and Handel, so simple, so clear to +the composers who penned them, will always remain more or less a <i>crux +criticorum</i>. It will be noticed that the three movements, as in some +of Corelli's sonatas, are all in the same key.</p> + +<p>We now give the opening bars of the three movements of the piece for +one or two cembali:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music034.png" alt="Pasquini sonata, 1st movement" width="746" height="91" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music034.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music034.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music035.png" alt="Pasquini sonata, 2nd movement" width="750" height="98" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music035.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music035.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music036.png" alt="Pasquini sonata, 3rd movement" width="332" height="111" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music036.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music036.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>All the other sonatas are more or less after the pattern of the one +given. The other two volumes contain suites, airs with variations, +arias, and a quantity of short figured basses, apparently as studies.</p> + +<p>Before closing this short chapter we will add a word or two about +Italian music for the harpsichord at the beginning of the eighteenth +century. A recent writer remarks that "Domenico Scarlatti seems to +spring full-armed into the view of history." But his father, the +renowned opera-writer, Alessandro Scarlatti, wrote music for the +harpsichord, also his pupil, Gaëtano Grieco, who succeeded him as +Professor at the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo (Naples) in +1717. The influence of the master can be clearly traced in the music +of the pupil; and, if one may judge from the simpler character of +Grieco's music<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> as compared with that of D. Scarlatti, he, too, was +a predecessor. Grieco is said to have been born about 1680; D. +Scarlatti was born in 1683; but this, of course, decides nothing as to +the dates of their compositions. The harpsichord music of G. Grieco +has both character and charm, and it is indeed strange that none of +his pieces have been included either in the <i>Trésor des Pianistes</i>, +the <i>Maîtres du Clavecin</i>, or Pauer's Collections of old music.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> + +<p>This chapter is headed: "A Contemporary of Kuhnau." The latter +published all his known sonatas by the year 1700, while the dates +assigned to the Pasquini sonata volume are, as we have seen, 1703-4. +But at that time Pasquini was over sixty years of age; it is therefore +more than probable that he was really the predecessor of the German +master as a writer of clavier sonatas.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES</h3> + + +<p>Carl Phillip Emanuel, third son of J.S. Bach, was born at Weimar, 8th +or 14th March, 1714, and died at Hamburg, 14th December, 1788. He +studied composition and clavier-playing with his father. His brother, +Wilhelm Friedemann, his senior by four years, went through a similar +course, but learnt, in addition, the violin under J.G. Graun. +Emanuel's attention, however, was concentrated on the one instrument; +and to this we probably owe the numerous clavier sonatas which he +wrote, and which paved the way for those of Haydn, Mozart, and +Beethoven. In his twenty-first year (1735) Emanuel left his father's +house in order to study jurisprudence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder; three +years later, however, he went to Berlin, and as cembalist entered the +service of Frederick the Great (1740).<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> Already in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>his father's +house, the young student saw and heard many distinguished musicians; +he himself has told us that no musician of any note passed through +Leipzig without seeking an opportunity to meet his father, so famed as +composer and as performer on the organ and clavier. And again, +afterwards, at the Court of Prussia, he came into contact with the +most notable composers and performers of his day. From among these may +be singled out C.H. Graun (composer of the "Tod Jesu") and Georg +Benda.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Graun was already in the service of Frederick when the +latter was only Crown Prince.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> It would be interesting to learn the +special influences acting upon Emanuel before he published his first +set of sonatas in 1742, but this is scarcely possible. The collection +of symphonies<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> or sonatas published at Leipzig in 1762, mentioned +in our <a href="#CHAPTER_I">introductory chapter</a>, gives, however, some idea of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>the music +of that period; and it is possible that many of the numbers were +written before Emanuel Bach published his first works. The "Sammlung +Vermischte Clavierstücke für geübte und ungeübte Spieler," by Georg +Benda, may also be mentioned; it is of great interest, especially the +Sonata in C minor. The character of the music and style of writing for +the instrument constantly remind one of Emanuel Bach. Benda, born in +1721, joined the King of Prussia's Band in 1742, and soon became known +as an experienced performer on the harpsichord. Unfortunately it is +impossible to ascertain the dates of composition of the various pieces +of this collection, and thus to find out whether Benda was an imitator +of Bach or <i>vice versâ</i>; the collection itself was only published at +Gotha in 1780.</p> + +<p>The Italian taste in music which prevailed at the Prussian Court<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> +had undoubtedly a marked influence on Bach, and one for good. The +severe counterpoint of the North German school and the suave melody of +the Sunny South blended together with happy results.</p> + +<p>It is customary to speak <i>en bloc</i> of Emanuel Bach's sonatas; if, +however, the earlier be compared with some of the later ones, +interesting differences may be detected, and developments <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>traced. But +the composer's artistic career, unfortunately, does not show a steady, +regular advance such as we find in J.S. Bach or Beethoven. C.H. +Bitter, his biographer and enthusiastic admirer, has to confess that +he was a practical man, and that he wrote at times to please pupils +and amateurs; while, occasionally, his aim may have been pecuniary +gain.</p> + +<p>Of his early period, we shall notice the "Sei Sonate per Cembalo," +dedicated to Frederick II. of Prussia (1742), and the Würtemberg +Sonatas, published in 1745. Of his middle period, the "Sechs Sonaten +fürs Clavier mit veränderten Reprisen," Berlin, 1760, and the "Sechs +leichte Sonaten," Leipzig, 1766. And of his latter period, the six +collections of "Sonaten für Kenner u. Liebhaber," published at Leipzig +between 1779 and 1787. With regard, however, to the last-named, it +must be remembered that some are of a comparatively early date. Thus +the 3rd Sonata of the 3rd Collection, one of the finest of Bach's +works, was composed in 1763, while the collection itself only appeared +in 1781. But a table of dates will be given further on.</p> + +<p>If some of the best sonatas written after 1760 be compared with those +of 1742, there will be found in the later works more character in the +subject-matter, also movements of greater length. Practice, too, had +improved the composer's style of writing. The later Bach did not +return to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>principal theme in such a crude, nay, lawless, fashion +as the following:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music037.png" alt="(Frederick) Sonata 1. First Movement.]" width="302" height="196" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music037.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music037.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>In these "Frederick" Sonatas there is as yet no tendency to enharmonic +and other surprise modulation such as Bach afterwards displayed. Then +as to technique, we find here octaves and large chords comparatively +rare,<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> while scale passages are more restricted. Like Beethoven, +Emanuel Bach seized hold of additional notes to the keyboard. In 1742 +his highest and lowest notes, apparently, were—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music038.png" alt="1742 highest and lowest notes" width="127" height="107" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music038.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music038.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>but afterwards—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music039.png" alt="highest and lowest notes" width="127" height="119" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music039.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music039.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the <a href="#CHAPTER_I">introductory chapter</a> we noted the change with regard to the +number of movements of a sonata which took place between 1683, when +Corelli published his first sonatas, and 1740, when E. Bach composed +his first set. Instances were given of sonatas in three movements by +Corelli, but with that composer <i>four</i> was the normal number; with E. +Bach, <i>three</i>. This change came about in great measure through the +concerto. From E. Bach, we are able to show the links in the chain of +development: Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; but though between +Kuhnau, the first writer of sonatas for the clavier, and Bach, B. +Pasquini wrote, as mentioned in the <a href="#CHAPTER_III">last chapter</a>, sonatas in three +movements, yet we have no knowledge that Bach was acquainted with +them. Kuhnau, in fact, however interesting a phenomenon in the musical +firmament, is not necessary to explain the appearance of Bach. Joh. +Sebastian Bach was undoubtedly acquainted with the "Bible" Sonatas. He +must have admired them, but he may have been afraid of the freedom of +form which they displayed, and of their tendency to programme-music; +and perhaps he did not speak of them to his sons, lest they should be +led astray. For, as we have already mentioned, Sebastian Bach seems to +have yielded for a moment to the Kuhnau influence, but, if we may +judge from his subsequent art-work, he did not feel satisfied that it +was a good one.</p> + +<p>In 1742, E. Bach dedicated the six sonatas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> (composed in 1740) to +Frederick the Great. The title-page runs thus:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +Sei Sonate<br /> +per Cembalo<br /> +che all' Augusta Maestà<br /> +di<br /> +Frederico II.<br /> +Rè di Prussia<br /> +D.D.D.<br /> +l'Autore<br /> +Carlo Filippo Emanuele Bach<br /> +Musico di Camera di S.M.<br /> +Alle spese di Balth. Schmid<br /> +in Norimberga.<br /> +</p> + +<p>And in the obsequious dedication, the composer describes them as works +"debolissimo Talento mio." As Bach's earliest published sonatas, they +are, for our purpose, of special interest. Their order is as +follows:—</p> + +<div> + <table border="0" summary="Emanuel Bach early sonatas" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="50%" id="AutoNumber4"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td>Sonata</td> + <td>1</td> + <td align="center">in</td> + <td align="left">F</td> + <td align="left">Poco Allegro, Andante, Vivace.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>2</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">B flat</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>Vivace, Adagio, Allegro assai.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>3</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">E</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>Poco Allegro, Adagio, Presto.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>4</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">C minor</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>Allegro, Adagio, Presto.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>5</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">C</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>Poco Allegro, Andante, Allegro assai.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td>6</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">A</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>Allegro, Adagio, Allegro.</span></td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> +</div> + + +<p>The first and last movements of all six are in binary form. In the +five major sonatas, the first sections close in the key of the +dominant, and in the one minor sonata (No. 4), in the relative major. +The opening movement of each sonata is in early sonata-form: the +second section starts with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>principal theme, or a brief allusion +to it; but then, after a short development with modulation, there is a +return to the principal key and to the principal theme.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The final +movements, on the other hand, are of the usual <i>suite</i> order. Of +interest and, indeed, of importance in our history of development are +the contents of the first section of the opening movements. In some of +the Scarlatti sonatas (see No. 56) there is to be found a fairly +definite second subject in the dominant key, or, in the case of a +minor piece, in the dominant minor or relative major. Here the process +of differentiation is continued; in the 2nd Sonata the contrast +between the two subjects is specially marked. We give the opening bar +of each—</p> + +<table border="0" summary="C.P.E. Bach" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" id="AutoNumber8" width="75%"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <img src="images/music040.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, 2nd Sonata, 1st subject" width="241" height="88" /></td> + <td> + <img src="images/music041.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, 2nd Sonata, 2nd subject" width="180" height="84" /></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music040.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music040.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music041.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music041.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>In most of the developments the composer steers clear of the principal +key, so that at the return of the principal theme it may appear fresh. +To such a method, since Beethoven, we are quite accustomed; but it is +curious how little <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>attention—even with the example of E. Bach before +him—Haydn paid to such an effective means of contrast in some of his +early sonatas. In Bach's No. 6, in A, the development assumes unusual +magnitude; it is even longer than the first section. And it is not +only long, but interesting. One passage, of which we quote a portion, +has rather a modern appearance:<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music042.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach Sonata No. 6" width="751" height="175" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music042.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music042.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The return of the principal theme is preceded by an unexpected entry +of the opening bars in B minor,—a first sign of that humour which +afterwards formed so prominent a feature in Bach's music. And the +theme itself, after the opening notes, is dealt with in original +fashion.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<p>The middle movements of Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 6 are in the key of the +relative minor; that of No. 1 is in the tonic minor, and that of No. 4 +(C minor), in the relative major. No. 1, twice interrupted by a +recitative (upper part and figured bass),<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> is dignified, yet +tender, and, in form, original. The Adagio, in C sharp minor, of No. 3 +is a movement of singular charm; it is based on imitation, but, though +old in style, it breathes something of the new spirit, or rather—for +there is nothing new under the sun—of the old Florentine spirit which +freed music for a time from the fetters of polyphony. The genius of +Johann Sebastian Bach gained the victory over form, and, in fact, +exhausted fugue-form. It is in the clever, but dry fugues of some of +his contemporaries and, especially, successors, that one can feel the +absolute necessity for a new departure. This Adagio is, as it were, a +delicate remembrance, and one not unmixed with sadness, of the +composer's immortal parent.</p> + +<p>The light, lively final movements need no description. All the music +of these sonatas is written in two or three parts or voices; +occasionally there are chord passages in which for the moment the +number is increased. We have dwelt somewhat in detail on this work, as +it appears to be little known.</p> + +<p>There is a sonata in the key of D major, published in the 3rd +Collection (1763) of Marpurg's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> <i>Clavierstücke</i> (p. 10), by E. Bach, +which was written in the same year (1740), but earlier than the +"Frederick" Sonatas. C.H. Bitter remarks that if the year of +composition were not known, it would certainly pass as a much later +work. The first movement reminds one of Beethoven's terse, bold style. +Bitter refers to the freedom with which the thoughts are expressed, to +the melodious character of the Andante, and to the humour of the +Finale. He might also have referred to the style of writing for the +instrument, which suggests a later date.</p> + +<p>In 1745 (?) appeared the Würtemberg Sonatas (so called because they +were dedicated to Bach's pupil, the <i>Duca di Wirtemberg e Teckh</i>, as +he is named on the title-page of the original edition). These sonatas +are marked as Opera seconda. They were offered by the composer to the +Duke in recognition of the many favours shown to him "at the time when +I had the honour of giving you lessons in music at Berlin."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Of +these sonatas we have only been able to have access to the two +preserved in the British Museum; the others are probably of similar +character.</p> + +<p>No. 1, in E flat, opens with an Adagio, followed by an Allegro assai +(E flat), and then by a Menuet alternato and Trio, both in E flat, and +with the former <i>da capo</i>. The first and second movements are in old +binary form; the Allegro shows the influence of D. Scarlatti. The +Minuet is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>fresh and pleasing. It is evident, taking E. Bach himself +as standard, that this is a suite rather than a sonata.</p> + +<p>No. 2, in B flat, is of similar character and construction. Both +sonatas are old in form, but more modern in their subject-material and +style of writing than those dedicated to the King of Prussia. In the +latter there is a solidity not to be found here; in its place we have +lightness, almost merriment; they were written, one would almost +think, expressly for the amusement of the Duke. The rapid semi-quaver +passages (as in No. 1) and the crossing of hands (as in No. 2) tell in +no undecided manner of the influence of Scarlatti. The exceedingly +light and graceful Minuets remind one of the kinship between the +composer and Haydn.</p> + +<p>In a letter to Forkel, dated 10th February 1775, Bach writes as +follows:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"Die 2 Sonaten, welche Ihren Beyfall vorzüglich haben, sind die +einzigen von dieser Art, die ich je gemacht habe. Sie gehören zu der, +aus dem H-moll, die ich Ihnen mitschickte, zu der aus dem B, die Sie +nun auch haben, u. zu 2en aus der Hafner-Würtembergischen Sammlung, u. +sind alle 6 anno 1743, im Töplitzer Bade von mir, der ich damahls sehr +gicht-brüchig war, auf einem Claviacord mit der kurzen Octav +verfertiget."<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> + +<p>It would be interesting to know the two sonatas belonging to this +period, "the only ones of the kind that I have ever written." In the +catalogue of musical remains of E. Bach, published two years after his +death, the opening bars are given of a Sonata in B minor (see above +letter) written at Töplitz in 1743—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music043.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach Sonata in B minor" width="251" height="85" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music043.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music043.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>This, surely, must be the one mentioned in the above letter.</p> + +<p>In 1760, Bach published six sonatas with varied repeats (<i>mit +veränderten Reprisen</i>), dedicated to Princess Amelia of Prussia. In +the preface the composer remarks that "nowadays change or repetition +is indispensable." He complains that some players will not play the +notes as written, even the first time; and again, that players, if the +changing on repetition is left to them, make alterations unsuitable to +the character <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>of the music. These sonatas are of great historic +interest. This preface, also the evident necessity for additional +(inner part) notes at times, especially in the slow movements of E. +Bach and other composers of that day, make one feel that, as it now +stands, much of Bach's music is a dead letter. Here we are face to +face with a question which in a kindred matter has given rise to much +controversy. If the music is to produce its proper effect, something +must be done. To that (in the case of Emanuel Bach's sonatas) all +reasonable musicians must agree. Yet not, perhaps, as to what that +something should be. According to certain authorities, only additions +should be made which are strictly in keeping with the spirit of the +age in which the music was written. Some, on the other hand, would +bring the music up to date; they think it better to clothe +eighteenth-century music in nineteenth-century dress, than to ask +musicians with nineteenth-century ears to listen to patched-up +eighteenth-century music. The second plan would not be approved by +musicians who hold the classical masters in veneration; with a little +modification, the first one, however, ought to meet with general +acceptance. We may write in keeping with the spirit of a past age, but +the music must now be played on an instrument of different character, +compass, and quality of tone; so surely in making additions (and, so +far as certain ornaments are concerned, alterations) these things +ought to be taken into consideration. A certain latitude should, +therefore, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>be allowed to the transcriber; hard-and-fast rules in such +a delicate task are impossible. The late Dr. Bülow edited six of +Emanuel Bach's sonatas,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> and though he was well acquainted with the +composer's style of writing, his anxious desire to present the music +in the most favourable light sometimes led him to make changes of +which even lenient judges would not approve. The matter is an +interesting one, and we may therefore venture to refer somewhat in +detail to one passage. In the 3rd Sonata (F minor) of the 3rd +Collection, the passage—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music044.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, 3rd Collection, 3rd Sonata" width="411" height="144" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music044.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music044.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>has been changed by Bülow: he has altered the C flat in the second +half of the first bar into a C natural, thus smoothing down the hard +progression to the key of B flat minor. Now this very passage had +already, nearly a hundred years previously, attracted the notice of +Forkel, who admitted that, apart from the context, it jarred against +his musical feeling. But he had thought over the composer's intention +in writing that sonata, and had come to the conclusion that, in the +opening Allegro, Bach wished <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>to express indignation.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> He therefore +asks: "Are the hard, rough, passionate expressions of an angry and +indignant man beautiful?" In this case, Forkel was of opinion that the +hard modulation was a faithful record of what the composer wished to +express.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> The natural order of history seems inverted here. One +would have expected Forkel to look upon the music from an abstract, +but Bülow from a poetical point of view. C.H. Bitter—also on purely +musical grounds—condemns Bülow's alterations. He says:—"Even +weaknesses of great masters, among which the passages in question are +not to be counted, still more so, special peculiarities, should be +left untouched. What would become of Beethoven, if each generation of +musicians, according to individual judgment, arrogated to itself the +right, here and there, of expunging hardnesses, smoothing down +peculiarities, and softening even sharp points with which, from time +to time, we come into unpleasant contact? Works of art must be +accepted as they are."</p> + +<p>The first part of Bitter's argument is sound; but, unfortunately for +the last, the writer in his life of Emanuel Bach and his brothers +insists on the necessity of <i>not</i> accepting Emanuel's clavier works +<i>as they are</i>.</p> + +<p>He quotes a passage from the Andante of the 4th Sonata of the second +set of the "Reprisen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> Sonaten," and comes to the natural conclusion +that it was only an outline requiring filling up.</p> + +<p>With all his faults, one cannot but admire the spirit in which Bülow +worked. He felt the greatness of the old masters, regretted the +limited means which they had at their command, also the stenographic +system in which they were accustomed to express their thoughts; and he +sought, therefore, to make use of modern means, and thereby was +naturally tempted to introduce modern effects. The restoration of the +old masters is a difficult and delicate task, and in most cases, one +may add, a thankless one. In the matter of transcription, however, it +is important to distinguish between a Bülow and a Tausig: the one +displayed the intelligence of an artist; the other, the +thoughtlessness of a <i>virtuoso</i>.</p> + +<p>But what, it may be asked, is the character of the changes made by +Bach? The matter is of interest; by examining these sonatas, we get +some idea of the difference between letter and spirit. However, from +what we have said above, a mere imitation of these changes, in playing +Bach's music, would, in its turn, be letter rather than spirit.</p> + +<p>As a rule the bass remains the same, though plain crotchets may become +quavers, as in extract from Sonata 1 given below, or notes turned into +broken octaves—</p> + +<table border="0" summary="Sonata 1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="75%" id="AutoNumber9"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <img src="images/music045.png" alt="quavers" width="201" height="81" /></td> + <td> + <img src="images/music046.png" alt="broken octaves" width="305" height="87" /></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music045.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music045.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + <td><p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click + <a href="music/music046.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music046.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p> + +<p>or, at times, some very slight alteration may occur, such as—</p> + +<table border="0" summary="alterations" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="75%" id="AutoNumber10"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <img src="images/music047.png" alt="version 1" width="223" height="69" /></td> + <td><img src="images/music048.png" alt="version 2" width="224" height="82" /></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music047.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music047.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music048.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music048.ly">here</a>.</p> + + </td> + </tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>In the upper parts the changes are similar to those found in the +variations of Haydn and Mozart. An illustration will be better than +any explanation, and we accordingly give a brief extract from the 1st +Sonata: first the five bars of the Allegretto, as at the opening, then +as they are changed—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music049.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, Sonata 1, Allegretto" width="749" height="461" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music049.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music049.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music050.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, Sonata 1" width="760" height="465" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music050.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music050.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The publication of the set of six Leipzig collections of sonatas, +etc., commenced in 1779; but thirteen years previously, the composer +had published a set of "Sechs Leichte Clavier Sonaten," and these, in +one or two respects, are curious. The opening movement of No. 6 has no +double bars, and, therefore, no repeat of the first section. And +again, it has a coda pausing on the dominant chord and followed by an +Andantino. This second movement, peculiar in form and modulation, ends +on the dominant of F, leading directly to the Presto.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> + +<p>The opening of the Larghetto of No. 2—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music051.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, Sonata 2, Larghetto" width="731" height="113" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music051.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music051.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>was probably the prototype of many a theme of the classical masters.</p> + +<p>The works by which Emanuel Bach is best known are the six collections +of sonatas, rondos, and fantasias published at Leipzig between +1779-1787. The composer died in 1788. The 1st Collection (1779) bears +the title "Sechs Claviersonaten für Kenner und Liebhaber," and, in +fact, contains six sonatas. But "nebst einigen Rondos" (together with +some Rondos) was already added to the title-page of the 2nd and 3rd +Collections; and to the remaining ones, the still further addition of +"Freye Fantasien."</p> + +<p>For the sake of reference, the list of sonatas is subjoined—</p> + +<div> + <table border="0" summary="Emanuel Bach sonatas" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="60%" id="AutoNumber5"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">Coll.</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">(1779)</td> + <td align="center">1</td> + <td align="center">Sonata</td> + <td align="center">in</td> + <td align="left">C</td> + <td align="left">1773</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">F</td> + <td align="left">1758</td> + <td align="left">Berlin.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">B minor</td> + <td align="left">1774</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>A (Bülow No. 3)</span></td> + <td align="left">1765</td> + <td align="left">Potsdam.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">F</td> + <td align="left">1772</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>G (Bülow No. 4)</span></td> + <td align="left">1765</td> + <td align="left">Potsdam.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">(1780)</td> + <td align="center">2</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">G</td> + <td align="left">1774</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">F</td> + <td align="left">1780</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>A (Bülow No. 2)</span></td> + <td align="left">1780</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">(1781)</td> + <td align="center">3</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">A minor</td> + <td align="left">1774</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>D minor (Bülow No. 5)</span></td> + <td align="left">1766</td> + <td align="left">Potsdam.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left"> +<span>F minor (Bülow No. 1)</span></td> + <td align="left">1763</td> + <td align="left">Berlin.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">(1783)</td> + <td align="center">4</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">G</td> + <td align="left">1781</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">E minor</td> + <td align="left">1765</td> + <td align="left">Berlin.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">(1785)</td> + <td align="center">5</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">E minor</td> + <td align="left">1784</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">B flat</td> + <td align="left">1784</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left">(1787)</td> + <td align="center">6</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">D</td> + <td align="left">1785</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="left">E minor</td> + <td align="left">1785</td> + <td align="left">Hamburg.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + +</div> + + +<p>Without copious musical examples, an analysis of these eighteen +sonatas would prove heavy reading. It will, therefore, be easier for +the writer, and certainly pleasanter for his readers, to give a +somewhat "freye Fantasia" description of them, laying emphasis +naturally on points connected with the special purpose in view.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p> + +<p>In the matter of tonality there are some curiosities. When Beethoven's +1st Symphony appeared, the opening bars of the introduction became +stumbling-stones to the pedagogues of that day. The work was, without +doubt, in the key of C major; yet, instead of opening with the tonic +chord of that key, the composer led up to it through the keys of the +subdominant, relative <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>minor, and dominant. No wonder that such a +proceeding surprised conventional minds, and that the critics warned +Beethoven of the danger of "going his own way." But his predecessor, +Emanuel Bach, had also strayed from the pedagogic path, a narrow one, +yet, in the end, leading to destruction. In the first book (1779), the +5th Sonata (as shown by the whole of the movement, with exception of +the two opening bars) is in the key of F major, yet the first bar is +in C minor (minor key of the dominant) and the second, in D minor +(relative minor of the principal key).</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music052.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, Sonata 5" width="742" height="192" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music052.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music052.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>There were, no doubt, respecters of tonality also in Emanuel Bach's +day, to whom such free measures must have seemed foolhardy. While +composing this sonata Bach was, apparently, in daring mood. The slow +middle movement in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> D minor opens with an inversion of the dominant +ninth, and the Finale in F thus—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music053.png" alt="Finale in F" width="362" height="124" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music053.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music053.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>Of the character of the first section of movements in binary form we +have already spoken in the <a href="#CHAPTER_I">introductory chapter</a>.</p> + +<p>In the matter of development, the Bach sonatas are in one respect +particularly striking; the composer seems to have resolutely turned +away from the fugal style, and in so doing probably found himself +somewhat hampered. Like the early Florentine reformers, Bach was +breaking with the past, and with a mightier past than the one on which +the Florentines turned their back; like them, he, too, was occupied +with a new form. Not the music itself of the first operas, but the +spirit which prompted them, is what we now admire; in E. Bach, +too,—especially when viewed in the light of subsequent history,—we +at times take the will for the deed.</p> + +<p>We meet with much the same kinds of development as in Scarlatti: +phrases or passages taken bodily from the first section and repeated +on different degrees of the scale, extensions of phrases, and +passage-writing based on some figure from the exposition, etc. The +short development section of the Sonata in G (Collection No. 6) offers +examples of the three methods of development <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>just mentioned. Bach, +like Scarlatti, was a master of his instrument, and even when—as was +said of Mendelssohn—he had nothing particular to say, he always +managed to say that little well. E. Bach has already much to suffer in +the inevitable comparison with Beethoven; and the fact that we have +the full message of the one, but not of the other, no doubt +accentuates the difference.</p> + +<p>In many ways Bach reminds one of Beethoven. There are unexpected +fortes and pianos, unexpected crescendos and diminuendos. Of such, the +noble Larghetto in F minor of the Sonata in F (Collection 1779, No. 2) +offers, indeed, several fine examples. Particularly would we notice +the passage just before the return of the opening theme; it begins +<i>ff</i>, but there is a gradual decrease to <i>pp</i>; the latter seems +somewhat before its time, and therefore surprises. Then, again, we +meet with out-of-the-way modulations. Bach was extremely fond of +enharmonic transitions,<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> and the same can be said of Beethoven in +both his early and his late works. The means employed by the two +composers may be the same, but the effect is, of course, always more +striking in Beethoven, whose thoughts were deeper, and whose means of +expressing them were in every way more extended. And once again, in +some of the forms of melody, in figures and passages, traces can be +found of connection between the two masters. To our thinking the bond +of union between E. Bach and Beethoven is stronger than <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>the +oft-mentioned one between the early master and Haydn: Haydn was +practically Bach's pupil; Beethoven, his spiritual heir. This it is +which gives interest to any outward resemblances which may be +detected, not the resemblances themselves.</p> + +<p>In Bach's six sonatas of 1742 the movements are detached. But the +opening movement (an Andante in sonata form) of the 2nd Sonata of the +Leipzig Collection of 1779 ends with a few bars in canonic form (and +with quaint Bebung effect), leading without break to the following +Larghetto. The next sonata also connects the second with the third +movement. In the above case the change was merely from the key of +tonic major to that of minor; but here the movement is in G minor, and +an enharmonic modulation leads to the dominant of B minor, key of the +final movement. The sonata begins in B minor, and the choice of the +remote key of G minor for the middle movement is somewhat curious. +Sonata No. 4 connects first and second movements; and the third is +evidently meant to follow without pause. It must, however be +remembered that the majority of the Leipzig sonatas do not have the +various movements thus connected. It therefore seems to have been an +experiment rather than a settled plan. Examples of the connection of +movements are also to be found in Nichelmann and J.C.F. Bach. The same +thing may be seen in some of Haydn's sonatas (Nos. 18, 22, etc.), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>while Beethoven offers a remarkable instance in his sonata, Op. 57.</p> + +<p>The 1st Sonata of the 2nd Collection passes from the first to the +second movement (Allegretto, G minor; Larghetto, F sharp minor) in a +curious manner, by enharmonic means. The last bar has—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music054.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, Collection II, Sonata 1" width="136" height="87" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music054.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music054.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>The quotation is in abbreviated form. The second chord would, of +course, be taken at first as dominant minor ninth on G. The 1st Sonata +of the 4th Collection is not striking as music, and certainly not of +sufficient importance to justify serious inquiry into the peculiar +order of keys for the three movements (G, G minor, and E major).</p> + +<p>With regard to the number of movements, all except two of the eighteen +sonatas have three; the second and third of the 2nd Collection have +only two.</p> + +<p>John Christian Bach, or the "London" Bach, as he was called, dedicated +his fifth work, consisting of six sonatas "Pour le clavecin ou +pianoforte," to Ernst, Duke of Mecklenburg. This cannot have been +before 1759, as that was the year in which the composer came to +London. He describes himself on the title-page as—"Maître de Musique +de S.M. la Reine d'Angleterre." These sonatas, as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>we learn from the +dedication, were written for the "amusement" of the Duke. The first, +third, and fourth have each only two movements. They remind us less of +E. Bach than of Haydn's early style. There is some very fresh, +pleasing writing in them. No. 5 has some excellent practising +passages, and perhaps the following—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music055.png" alt="J.C. Bach, Sonata 5" width="389" height="84" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music055.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music055.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>may have suggested to Cramer his first study. The middle movement of +No. 6 is a vigorous double Fugue; the whole sonata is, indeed, one of +the finest of the set.</p> + +<p>A Sonata in D, by Wilhelm Friedmann Bach, is commented on by Dr. Parry +in his "Sonata" dictionary article. There is another one in C major, a +fresh and vigorous example of a musician whose powers were never fully +developed.</p> + +<p>The sonatas of Pietro Domenico Paradies (<i>b.</i> 1710), a contemporary of +E. Bach, are of interest. They were published in London by John +Johnson, and bear the title, "Sonate di gravicembalo dedicate a sua +altezza reale la principessa da Pier Domenico Paradies Napolitano." +The edition bears no date; but the right of printing and selling +granted by George II. bears the date November 28, 1754. A second +edition was published at Amsterdam in 1770. The sonatas are twelve in +number, and consist of only two movements of various character:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> some +have an Allegro or Presto, followed by a Presto, Allegro, or Gigue; +and sometimes (as in Nos. 9 and 11) the second movement is an Andante. +In other sonatas the first movement is in slow time. These +two-movement sonatas would seem to form an intermediate stage between +Scarlatti and Emanuel Bach. As a matter of fact, however, the latter, +as we have seen, had published clavier sonatas in three movements long +before the appearance of those of Paradies. In some of the movements +in binary form Paradies shows an advance on Scarlatti (see Nos. 1 and +10), for in the second section there is a return, after modulation, to +the principal theme. Some have the theme in the dominant key at the +commencement of that section, others not. Thus we see various stages +represented in these sonatas. The music is delightfully fresh, and, +from a technical point of view, interesting. The influence of +Scarlatti both in letter and spirit is strongly felt. In some of the +movements (<i>cf.</i> first movement of No. 8 and of No. 12) there is a +feature which Paradies did not inherit from Scarlatti, <i>i.e.</i> the +so-called Alberti bass. Of such a bass Scarlatti gives only slight +hints. Alberti, said to have been its inventor, was a contemporary of +Paradies, and the latter may have learnt the trick from him: there are +many examples of its use. In Alberti, "VIII Sonate Opera Prima,"<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> +the opening Allegro of No. 2 has <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>it in forty-four of the forty-six +bars of which it consists, and, besides, each section is repeated. +That convenient form of accompaniment soon came into vogue. It occurs +frequently in the sonatas and concertos of J.C. Bach and Haydn, but it +is in the works of second-rate composers that one sees the full use, +or rather abuse, made of it. No. 8 of the Paradies sonatas is +particularly attractive, and the second movement forms a not +unpleasant reminiscence of Handel's so-called "Harmonious Blacksmith" +variations.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>HAYDN AND MOZART</h3> + + +<h4>I.—Haydn</h4> + +<p>This composer, to whom is given the name of "father of the symphony +and the quartet," was born at Rohrau, a small Austrian village on the +Leitha, in the night between 31st March and 1st April 1732. At a very +early age the boy's sweet voice attracted the notice of G. Reuter, +capellmeister of St. Stephen's, Vienna, and for many years he sang in +the cathedral choir. In 1749 he was dismissed, the alleged cause being +a practical joke played by him on one of his fellow-choristers. He +was, as Sir G. Grove relates in his article "Haydn" in the <i>Dictionary +of Music and Musicians</i>, thrown upon the world "with an empty purse, a +keen appetite, and no friends." Haydn took up his abode in an attic in +the old Michaelerhaus. But it chanced that Metastasio lived in the +same building, and the famous poet took an interest in the penniless +composer, and, among other things, taught him Italian. Metastasio was +extremely fond of music, and we know from his letters that the flowing +compositions of his countrymen <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>delighted him more than the learned +music of Germany. Then Haydn made the acquaintance of Porpora, who +gave him instruction in composition and in the art of singing. And he +is also supposed to have studied the works of San Martini, an Italian +composer in the service of Prince Esterhazy. In addition, Italian +music was much played and much admired in Vienna. Emanuel Bach also, +as we have seen, came under Italian influence, but not until he had +finished his studies under his father's guidance. Once more, we may +conclude that Haydn, before he commenced writing clavier sonatas, had +made acquaintance with those of Paradies and of Alberti. These early +Italian influences should be noted, for one is apt to think rather of +the young composer as plodding through Fux's "Gradus" and playing +Emanuel Bach's sonatas on his "little worm-eaten clavier." During his +last years Haydn told his friend Griesinger that he had diligently +studied Emanuel Bach, and that he owed very much to him. From the +painter Dies, in his biographical notice of the master, we also learn +how fond he was of playing Emanuel Bach's sonatas. And this influence +was undoubtedly not only a strong, but a lasting one; in 1788, the +year in which E. Bach died, Haydn wrote to Artaria, begging the latter +to send him that master's last two works for clavier.</p> + +<p>In reference to Haydn, musicians are apt to speak merely of his +sonatas, whereas those of Beethoven are generally described by their +key, or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>their opus number; or as belonging to one of the three +periods into which that master's art-work is usually divided. There is +good reason for this difference. Haydn's sonatas are not of equal +importance with those of his successor; and then some are +old-fashioned, others second-rate. Beethoven's sonatas are by no means +all of equal merit, yet there is not one but has some feature, whether +of form, or development, or technique, by which it may be +distinguished. And yet a close and careful study of Haydn's sonatas +will show that he, too, had his periods of apprenticeship, mastery, +and maturity. Let not our readers take alarm. We are not going to +analyse his thirty-five sonatas, or to enter into minute details. But +we shall try, by selecting some of the most characteristic works, to +show how the master commenced, continued, and concluded.</p> + +<p>The earliest of the published sonatas,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> No. 1 (33), is somewhat of +a curiosity. It consists of four movements: an Allegro in G major; a +Minuetto and Trio, G major and minor; an Adagio in G minor; and an +Allegro molto in G major. It is the only sonata of Haydn's which +contains four movements. The plaintive Trio and the Scarlatti-like +Finale are attractive.</p> + +<p>In the year 1774, J.J. Hummel, at Amsterdam, published six sonatas, +the last three of which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>appear to have been originally written for +pianoforte and violin;<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> and in 1776 six more were printed by +Longman & Broderip as Op. 14. These may serve as specimens of Haydn's +early style; and in them, by the way, the composer was accused of +imitating, nay, caricaturing, E. Bach.</p> + +<p>In the <i>European Magazine</i> for October 1784 there appeared an account +of Joseph Haydn, "a celebrated composer of music," in which occurs the +following:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"Amongst the number of professors who wrote against our rising author +was Philipp Emanuel Bach of Hamburgh (formerly of Berlin); and the +only notice Haydn took of their scurrility and abuse was to publish +lessons written in imitation of the several styles of his enemies, in +which their peculiarities were so closely copied, and their extraneous +passages (particularly those of Bach of Hamburgh) so inimitably +burlesqued, that they all felt the poignancy of his musical wit, +confessed its truth, and were silent."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>Further on the writer mentions the sonatas of Ops. 13 and 14 as +"expressly composed in order to ridicule Bach of Hamburgh"; nay, he +points to the second part of the second sonata in Op. 13 and the whole +of the third sonata in the same work by way of special illustration.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are many resemblances to E. Bach in Haydn,—notes wide apart, +pause bars, surprise modulations, etc.,—and this is not more +extraordinary than to find resemblances between Mozart and Beethoven; +but the charge of caricature seems unfair. Besides, it is scarcely +likely that Haydn, who owed so much to Bach, would have done any such +thing. It must be remembered that at the date of the <i>European +Magazine</i> in question, E. Bach had not yet published any of the six +Leipzig Collections ("Sonaten für Kenner," etc.), by which he is best +known at the present day.</p> + +<p>Of the six sonatas, Op. 13, the first three are Nos. 8 (26), 9 (27), +10 (28) in Pohl's thematic catalogue (<i>Joseph Haydn</i>, vol. ii.). The +other three have not been reprinted in modern collections. In the +first three the keys and order of movements are as follow:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>No. 1. Allegro moderato in C; Adagio, F; Finale, Presto.</p> + +<p>No. 2. Allegro moderato in E; Andante, E minor; Finale, +Tempo di Menuetto.</p> + +<p>No. 3. Allegro moderato in F; Larghetto, E minor; Presto.</p></div> + +<p>These sonatas are interesting as music, and the workmanship is +skilful. If one can get over the thinness of the part-writing, +especially in the slow movements, there is much to enjoy in them. The +style of movement—Tempo di Menuetto—in No. 2 recalls Emanuel Bach's +"Würtemberg" sonatas of 1745.</p> + +<p>Here are the numbers of the sonatas of Op.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> 14: 11 (20), 12 (21), 13 +(22), 14 (23), 15 (24), 16 (25). And here are the keys and movements—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>No. 1. Allegro con brio in G; Minuetto, G; Trio, G minor; +Presto.</p> + +<p>No. 2. Allegro moderato in E flat; Minuetto, E flat; Trio, E +flat minor; Presto.</p> + +<p>No. 3. Moderato in F; Adagio, B flat; Tempo di Menuetto.</p> + +<p>No. 4. Allegro in A; Adagio; Tempo di Minuetto con +Variazione.</p> + +<p>No. 5. Moderato in E; Presto.</p> + +<p>No. 6. Allegro moderato in B minor; Tempo di Minuetto; +Presto.</p></div> + +<p>During the eighteenth century, both in Italy and Germany, sonatas in +two movements were common, but with Haydn the reduction in No. 5 +probably was made on practical, and not artistic grounds. Schindler +once asked Beethoven why he had only two movements to his Sonata in C +minor (Op. 111), and the master replied—probably with a twinkle in +his eye—that he had not had time for a third.</p> + +<p>If these sonatas of 1776 be compared with earlier ones (1767), an +immense improvement in the development sections will be observed. In +the earliest but one of the master's sonatas—No. 2 (30)—the whole of +the middle section is in the principal key. No. 4 (Op. 14) has all +three movements connected,—a plan, as we have already seen, adopted +by E. Bach in some of his sonatas. The sonata in question is in the +key of A major. The Allegro ends with an arpeggio dominant <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>chord, and +still in the same bar follows the dominant chord of the relative key +of F sharp minor, leading directly to the Adagio; this movement, in +its turn, closes on the dominant chord of A, the key, of course, of +the final movement (Tempo di Minuetto con Variazioni).</p> + +<p>In 1780 six sonatas were published by Artaria, and dedicated to the +sisters Franziska and Marianne v. Auenbrugger. They are Nos. 20 (1), +21-24 (10-13), and 7 (14). No. 20 (1) is a bright little work. No. 21 +(10) (C sharp minor) opens with an interesting movement.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> The +sonata ends with a beautiful Menuetto and Trio, in which the composer +comes very near to Beethoven. The middle movement is a Scherzando, and +thereby hangs a little tale. No. 24 (13) commences with the same +theme. When Haydn sent the sonatas to his publisher he called +attention to this resemblance, and, in fact, requested that it should +be mentioned on the inner side of the title-page. And he added: "I +could, of course, have chosen a hundred other ideas in place of this +one; but in order not to run any risk of blame on account of this +intentional trifle (which the critics, and especially my enemies, will +regard in a bad light), I make this <i>avertissement</i>. Or please add +some note of a similar kind, otherwise it may prove detrimental to the +sale." No. 22 (11) has an opening Allegro in Haydn's brightest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>manner. The short Largo is quaint and expressive; the <i>ff</i> chord of +the Neapolitan sixth is of fine effect. The movement ends on the +dominant chord, and thus leads without break to the lively Presto +Finale. The concluding movement of the next sonata displays a +crispness and vigour which remind one of Haydn's great successor. +Already in connection with these six sonatas have we mentioned +Beethoven. And from this period onwards the kinship between the two +composers becomes more evident. Haydn, however, did not, like +Beethoven, rise steadily higher and higher; great moments came, as it +were, by fits and starts. He wrote in season and out of season; <i>nulla +dies sine linea</i> seems to have been his motto. With Beethoven, a later +work, unless it be one of his few <i>pièces d'occasion</i>, means a fuller +revelation of his genius.</p> + +<p>We will now pass on to the latest period, represented by two great +sonatas, both in the key of E flat. The one was written for the +composer's friend and patron, Frau v. Genziger. The opening Allegro +shows earnest, deep feeling, while at the close of the recapitulation +Haydn makes us feel the full power of his genius; the passage +irresistibly recalls moments in the first movement of the +"Appassionata"; those stately reiterated chords, those solemn pauses, +have a touch of mystery about them. It is interesting to see how the +second theme is evolved from the principal subject of the movement; by +a slight modification <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>the character of the music is quite changed; +what was stately is now light and graceful. The Adagio cantabile is +one of the purest examples of a style of music which has become a +thing of the past. The full and sustained tone of modern instruments +has rendered unnecessary those turns, arpeggios, and numerous +ornaments with which the composers of the last century tried to make +amends for the fleeting tones of their harpsichords and clavichords. +Haydn and Mozart were skilful in this art of embellishment, though +sometimes it was unduly profuse; this Adagio of Haydn's is a model of +sobriety. The bold minor section, which Frau v. Genziger, by the way, +found rather troublesome to play, offers an effective contrast to the +major. A graceful Tempo di Menuetto brings the work to an effective +close. The other Sonata in E flat<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> is much more difficult to play. +The writing is fuller, and it contains passages which even a modern +pianist need not disdain. It is really strange that the sonata is not +sometimes heard at the Popular Concerts. In the opening Allegro the +exposition section contains more than the two orthodox themes, and the +development <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>section assumes considerable magnitude; the latter is +full of clever details and bold modulations. The key of the Adagio is +E major, but this is of course the enharmonic equivalent of F flat. +Brahms, in his last Sonata for Violoncello and Pianoforte in F, has +the slow movement in F sharp. This has been spoken of as a novelty, +yet Haydn, as we see, had already made the experiment; and similar +instances may be found in Schubert and Beethoven, though not in their +pianoforte sonatas. The Finale Presto reminds one by the style of +writing, and by a certain quaint humour, of Emanuel Bach; but there +are some bold touches—<i>sforzandos</i> on unaccented beats, prolongation +of phrases, long dwelling on one harmony, etc.—which anticipate +Beethoven. Traces of the past, foreshadowings of the future; these are +familiar facts in evolution.</p> + + +<h4>II.—Mozart</h4> + +<p>Before Mozart had reached the age of twenty he wrote six sonatas for a +certain Baron Dürnitz, who, by the way, forgot to send the promised +payment in return. Of these, Otto Jahn remarks that "their healthy +freshness and finished form entitle them still to be considered as the +best foundation for a musical education." Freshness is indeed the best +term to describe both the thematic material and the developments. Four +of them (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5) consist of the usual three movements; +No. 4 commences with a long<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> Adagio in two sections, each of which is +repeated. Two graceful Minuets (the second taking the place of a Trio) +follow, and the third movement is an Allegro in sonata-form. No. 6 has +for its second movement a Rondeau en Polonaise, and for its third, a +Theme with variations. The Rondo of No. 3 (in B flat) is unusually +long; it contains two episodes, one in the relative minor, the other +in the subdominant. The next three sonatas (in C, A minor, and D) are +of greater importance. They are all said to have been written at +Mannheim. The first was most probably the one mentioned in a letter of +1777 written by Mozart to his father. He describes a public concert +given on the 22nd of October, and says: "Then I played alone the last +Sonata in D, then my Concerto in B flat, then a Fugue in C minor, and +a splendid Sonata in C major out of my own head, with a Rondo at the +end." The "last Sonata in D" was the last of the set of six noticed +above. In reference to the Sonata in C, the expression "out of my own +head" would seem to indicate that it had not at that time been written +out. Mozart was right to speak of the work as "splendid." The bold +opening subject, the well-contrasted second theme, the short but +masterly development, the original leading back to the principal +subject, and the many variations in the recapitulation section, fully +justify his qualification. The slow movement is full of charm, and the +Rondo, with its elaborate middle section, is of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>highest interest. +The 2nd Sonata, in A minor, is, next to the one in C minor, Mozart's +finest effort in this department of musical literature. And there is a +story connected with it. Capellmeister Cannabich's eldest daughter +Rosa had captivated the young composer; he wrote to his father about +her, and described her as "a pretty, charming girl," and added, "she +has a staid manner and a great deal of sense for her age (the young +lady was only thirteen); she speaks but little, and when she does +speak, it is with grace and amiability." On the very next day after +his arrival in Mannheim he began to write this sonata for her. The +Allegro was finished in one day. Young Danner, the violinist, asked +him about the Andante, and Mozart replied: "I mean to make it exactly +like Mdlle. Rose herself." This was the picture to which he worked. +One of Beethoven's finest sonatas, the C sharp minor, was inspired by +a beautiful girl: a strong appeal to the emotions calls forth a +composer's best powers. Mozart's first movement was written on 31st +October, and the Rondo on 8th November. The Allegro maestoso presents +many points of interest. The opening theme with its dotted motive is +prominent throughout the movement; the transition passage to the key +of the relative major is based on it, and so is the coda to the +exposition section. Again, in the development and recapitulation +sections it forms a striking feature, while in the final coda it is +intensified by reiteration of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>the dotted figure, and also by the rise +from the dominant to the tonic. The slow movement, with its expressive +themes, graceful ornamentation, and bold middle section, was not +surpassed by Mozart even in his C minor Sonata. The Presto closes the +work in worthy manner; it forms a contrast to the first movement, and +yet is allied to it in sentiment. The passionate outburst at the +close, with the repeated E's, seems almost a reminiscence of the +Allegro theme. There are two features in the development section of +that movement which point to Beethoven: the one is the augmentation in +the seventh bar of the quaver figure in the two preceding bars; the +other, the phrase containing the shake which is evolved from an +earlier one by curtailment of its first note. The 3rd Sonata, though +in many ways attractive, will not bear comparison with the other two. +In 1779, at Vienna, Mozart composed, among other sonatas, the +beautiful one in A major,—the first example, perhaps, of a sonata +commencing with a theme and variations. This first movement is very +charming, but the gem of the work is the delicate Menuetto; the Trio +speaks in tender, regretful tones of some happy past. The Alla Turca +is lively, but not far removed from the commonplace.</p> + +<p>From among the symphonies of Mozart, the three (in G minor, E flat, +and C) which he wrote in 1788 stand out with special prominence; and +so, from the sonatas, do the three in A minor (1778), C minor (1784), +and F (1788). In the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>first, as regards the writing, virtuosity +asserts itself, and in the third, contrapuntal skill; but in the +second, the greatness of music makes us forget the means by which that +greatness is achieved. The Sonatas in A minor and F are wonderful +productions, yet they stand a little lower than the C minor. The +nobility and earnestness of the last-named give it a place near to +Beethoven's best sonatas. We might say equal, were it not that the +writing for the instrument is comparatively thin; however noble the +ideas, they are but inadequately expressed. This C minor Sonata is +remarkable for its originality, simplicity, and unity; Mozart +possessed qualities which mark creative art of the highest kind. In +writing some of his pianoforte sonatas, he had the public, or pupils, +more or less in his mind; and though he did not become a mere +sonata-maker, like some of his contemporaries, his whole soul was not +always in his work; of this the inequalities in his music give +evidence. In some movements (especially the closing ones) of the +sonatas, the subject-matter is often trivial, and the passage-writing +commonplace. The silkworm produces its smooth, regular ball of silk +without effort, and in like manner Mozart could turn out Allegros, +Rondos, sets of variations <i>à discretion</i>. The Sonata in C minor, to +our thinking, is the only one in which he was entirely absorbed in his +art; the only one in which the ideal is never marred by the real. The +last movement is no mere Rondo, but one which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>stands in close +relationship to the opening Allegro; they both have the same tragic +spirit; both seem the outpouring of a soul battling with fate. The +slow movement reveals Mozart's gift of melody and graceful +ornamentation, yet beneath the latter runs a vein of earnestness; the +theme of the middle section expresses subdued sadness. The affinity +between this work and Beethoven's sonata (Op. 10, No. 1) in the same +key is very striking.</p> + +<p>Mozart composed his C minor Sonata towards the end of the year 1784. +The C minor Fantasia, which precedes it in some editions, was not +written until the middle of 1785. The two, however, were published +together by Mozart himself. It is impossible to consider this a new +experiment in sonata-form, as regards grouping of movements; the unity +of character and feeling between Fantasia and Sonata no doubt led to +their juxtaposition. The Fantasia is practically complete in itself; +so too is the Sonata. The two are printed separately in Breitkopf & +Härtel's edition of Mozart's works.</p> + +<p>Haydn and Mozart represent an important stage in sonata history: they +stand midway between Emanuel Bach and Beethoven. It is usual to look +upon Bach as the founder, Haydn and Mozart as the builders-up, and +Beethoven as the perfecter of the sonata edifice. Such a summing-up is +useful in that it points to important landmarks in the evolution of +the sonata; yet it is only a rough-and-ready one. Bach was something +more than a founder, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> Beethoven, to say the least, shook the +foundations of the edifice. Haydn and Mozart would seem to be fairly +described, for traces of scaffolding are all too evident in their +works, yet they found the building already raised. Some of it, +however, appeared to them in rococo style, and so they gradually +rebuilt. And they not only altered, but enlarged and strengthened. Of +rebuilding and alteration, their slow movements and finales give +evidence; and of enlargement, all the three sections of movements in +so-called sonata-form. Their subject-matter, as it grew in importance, +grew in compass. This in itself, of course, enlarged the exposition +section; but the transition passage from first to second theme, and +the rounding-off of the section, both grew in proportion. The joints, +too, of the structure were strengthened: the half cadence no longer +sufficed to divide first from second subject, or, after development, +to return to the principal theme; then, again, the wider scope of the +development itself demanded more striking harmonies, more forcible +figuration, and more varied cadences.</p> + +<p>The subject-matter, we have said, became more important; it differed +also in character. The themes of Emanuel Bach, for the most part, seem +to be evolved from harmonic progressions and groupings of notes; those +of his successors, rather the source whence springs melody and +figuration. The one uttered broken phrases; the others, complete +musical sentences. Italian fashion prevailed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>during the second half +of the eighteenth century much as it did in the first. The simple +charm and warmth of the music of the violin-composers had penetrated +the contrapuntal crust which covered Emanuel Bach's heart; and the +feeling that he could never hope to rival his father must have +rendered him all the more willing to yield to it. But the influence of +his father could not be wholly cast aside, and Emanuel was, as it +were, drawn in opposite directions; it is really wonderful what he +actually achieved. True lovers of John Sebastian Bach know well that +his music, though of a contrapuntal character, is by no means dry; but +the formal aspect of it must have made its mark on the son ere he +could feel the power, and realise the splendour of his father's +genius.</p> + +<p>Haydn and Mozart, on the other hand, were born and bred in the very +midst of Italian music. Of Haydn's early days we have already spoken, +and those of Mozart were not unsimilar. Otto Jahn, in his life of that +composer, says of the father Leopold, that "his ideas were firmly +rooted in the traditions of Italian music"; so firmly, indeed, that he +could not appreciate the mild innovations of a Gluck. This paternal +influence was deepened, besides, by Mozart's early visits to Italy.</p> + +<p>Then, again, so far as we can make out, the clavier compositions of +John Sebastian Bach, and, especially the "Well-tempered Clavier," were +unknown both to Haydn and Mozart in their days of childhood and early +manhood. What a difference in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>the case of Beethoven, who, it will be +remembered, could play the greater number of the forty-eight Preludes +and Fugues before he was twelve years of age! The beauty of Italian +music not only impressed Haydn and Mozart, but kindled their creative +faculties; while its simple, rhythmical character probably aided them +materially in giving utterance to their thoughts and feelings. Nature +had bestowed on them in rich measure the gift of melody, and they soon +began to compose.</p> + +<p>Emanuel Bach, we have said, was drawn in two opposite directions. +Haydn and Mozart, though they were spared this dual influence, had, +however, to face a difficulty. They found a form ready to hand, yet +one which, as we have attempted to show, required modifications of +various kinds. The former had to make the old fit in with the new; but +the latter, the new with the old. Hence their inspiration was +handicapped. They were to some extent constructing as well as +creating; and then their sense of order, balance, and proportion was +so strong, that they often turned out movements more remarkable for +their clearness of form than for the strength of their contents.</p> + +<p>Mozart profited by Haydn's early attempts, and his best sonatas are +vastly superior to most of Haydn's. After Mozart's death, and even for +some years before, Haydn seemed to have caught much of the spirit of +the younger composer. He showed this especially in his London +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>symphonies, but also in one or two of his later sonatas. "This mutual +reaction," says Jahn, "so generously acknowledged by both musicians, +must be taken into account in forming a judgment on them."</p> + +<p>Haydn, though fully conscious of his own powers, practically +acknowledged the superiority of his brother-artist. On learning of +Mozart's death, he exclaimed: "Posterity will not see such talent for +a century to come!"—a prophecy which, at the time it was uttered, +seemed likely of fulfilment.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN</h3> + + +<h4>I. Muzio Clementi</h4> + +<p>Muzio Clementi, born at Rome in 1752, was brought to England by +Alderman Beckford, father of the author of <i>Vathek</i>, and at Fonthill +Abbey he had leisure to study the works of Handel, John Sebastian +Bach, Emanuel Bach, Domenico Scarlatti, and Paradies. Clementi, like +Scarlatti, was a <i>virtuoso</i>; but although both indulged largely in +technical display, they were true and intelligent artists. In +Scarlatti, the balance between his musical ideas and the form in which +they were presented was almost perfect; in Clementi, virtuosity often +gained the ascendency over virtue. With the latter, however, as indeed +with E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and many other composers, the necessity +of earning a living, and therefore of writing for "long" ears, mixed +with the love of fame, produced works which, like the old Eden tree, +contained both good and evil. To judge such great men really fairly, +the chaff ought to be separated from the wheat; and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>chaff ought +to be thoroughly removed, even at the risk of sometimes losing a +portion of wheat.</p> + +<p>To the true lover of music, choice selections are more precious than +complete collections; the latter are, of course, necessary to those +whose business it is to study the rise and development of the various +composers. The pianoforte sonatas of Mozart, Haydn, Dussek, and +Clementi might be reduced to very moderate compass. To suggest that +any one of Beethoven's thirty-two should be removed out of its place +would now sound flat blasphemy; but art progresses, and some even now +are falling into oblivion. The catalogue of music performed at the +Popular Concerts during the history of the past thirty-five years +shows pretty clearly which sonatas of Beethoven are likely to live +long, and which not. But to return to Clementi. He published his first +three sonatas (Op. 2, Nos. 1-3) in 1770, the year in which Beethoven +was born; and the influence which he exerted over that master was +considerable. In Beethoven's library were to be found many sonatas of +Clementi, and the master's predilection for them is well known. The +world seldom renders full justice to men who prepared the way for +greater than themselves; Pachelbel, Böhm, and Buxtehude, the immediate +predecessors of Bach, and, again, Emanuel Bach, to whom Haydn was so +indebted, and whose works were undoubtedly studied by Beethoven, are +notable examples. This is, of course, perfectly natural: the best only +survives; but musicians who <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>take serious interest in their art ought, +from time to time, to look back and see how much was accomplished and +suggested by men who, in comparison with their mighty contemporaries +and successors, are legitimately ranked as second-rate. Among such, +Clementi holds high place. Beethoven over-shadowed the Italian +composer; but the harsh judgment expressed by Mozart<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> has +contributed not a little, we imagine, to the indifference now shown to +the Clementi sonatas.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> The judgment was a severe one; but Otto Jahn +relates how Clementi told his pupil Berger that, "at the period of +which Mozart writes, he devoted his attention to brilliant execution, +and in particular to double runs and extemporised passages." And, +again, Berger himself was of opinion that the sonata selected for +performance by Clementi at the memorable contest with Mozart in +presence of the Emperor Joseph the Second (December 1781), was +decidedly inferior to his earlier compositions of the same kind. The +sonata in question was the one in B flat (B. & H., No. 61; Holle, No. +37), of which the opening theme commences in the same manner as the +Allegro of the Overture to the <i>Magic Flute</i>. Mozart suffered much +from the predominant Italian influence at court, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> "like all +the Italians" in the letter just mentioned shows, to say the least, a +bitter spirit. But the letter was a private one, probably hastily +written. The judgment expressed was formed from an inferior work; in +any case, it must not be taken too seriously. Mozart, by the way, was +not the only composer who failed to render justice to his +contemporaries.</p> + +<p>Clementi's sonatas may be roughly divided into three classes. Some he +wrote merely for the display of technique, while some were composed +for educational purposes. But there remain others in which his heart +and soul were engaged, and in these he reaches a very high level. Our +classification is a rough one, for often in those which we consider +his best, there is plenty of showy technique. With the exception of +Mozart's sonata in C minor, and Haydn's "Genziger" and "London" +sonatas, both in E flat, also some of Rust's, of which we shall soon +have something to say, there are, to our thinking, none which in +spirit come nearer to Beethoven than some of Clementi's. Mr. E. +Dannreuther, in his article on the composer in Sir George Grove's +<i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>, justly remarks "that a judicious +selection from his entire works would prove a boon."</p> + +<p>In order to trace the relationship between Clementi and Beethoven, it +may be well to state that Clementi in 1783 had published up to Op. 11 +(Sonata and Toccata; the Toccata, by the way, is not included in the +Breitkopf & Härtel <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>edition; it appeared first, we believe, together +with the sonata, in a London edition. Beethoven's first sonatas (Op. +2) appeared only in 1796).<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> By 1802, Clementi had published up to +Op. 40; in which year Beethoven composed two of the three sonatas, Op. +31, Nos. 1-3. Between 1820-21 appeared Clementi's sonata, Op. 46 +(dedicated to Kalkbrenner), and the last set of three sonatas in +(including the "Didone Abbandonata") Op. 50. Beethoven's sonata in E +(Op. 109) appeared in November 1821. Thus Clementi at first influenced +Beethoven, but, later on, the reverse must have been the case.</p> + +<p>Breitkopf & Härtel have published sixty-four sonatas of Clementi; and +of these, sixty-three are to be found in the Holle edition.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p> + +<p>The three sonatas, Op. 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (25, 26, 27), have only two +movements, and are principally remarkable for their showy +technique.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p> + +<p>Clementi, of course, was well acquainted with Scarlatti's music, yet +it would perhaps be difficult to point out any direct influence of the +one over the other. In the next three sonatas, Op. 9, Nos. 4, 5, 6 +(11, 28, 12), the first and third are most interesting. In the second, +Clementi indulges in his favourite passages of thirds, sixths, and +octaves; there is, indeed, a Presto movement, a <i>moto perpetuo</i> for +the right hand, in octaves, which, if taken up to time, would tax even +pianists of the present day. The 1st sonata may be noticed for its +bold chords, and its <i>sforzandos</i> on unaccented beats, which sound +Beethovenish. The 3rd sonata reminds us in many ways of the Bonn +master. In the opening Allegro there is a sighing figure—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music056.png" alt="sighing figure" width="114" height="79" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music056.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music056.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>which plays an important part throughout the movement, and therefore +gives a marked character to it. In the development section the bold +contrasts, the powerful chords, the sighing figure in augmentation, +all point to Beethoven. And, curiously enough, the principal theme, +which now appears in major (the sonata is in G minor), reminds one +very strongly of the "Eroica"—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music057.png" alt="Clementi sonata principal theme" width="747" height="84" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music057.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music057.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>It is worth noticing that the "sighing figure" may be traced in the +other two movements of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>sonata. The next sonata, No. 10 (44), has +three movements, all in the same key; the Trio of the Minuet is in the +key of the subdominant. In the first movement may be noticed the +extension of a phrase by repetition (<i>pp</i>) of its last two notes, a +feature often to be met with in Beethoven (see, for instance, the +first movement of the "Appassionata," development section).</p> + +<p>The piano phrase in the Rondo of No. 11 (45), before the organ point +and the pause bar, is striking. No. 14 (2) is interesting. The broken +octaves at the end of the exposition section, and the return by +ellipsis to the principal theme, call to mind passages in Beethoven's +Op. 22 and Op. 109. Sonata No. 16 (4) has a delightful first movement; +the evolution of the second subject from the first deserves attention. +In No. 18 (51) there is one point to notice. The key of the first +movement is in F, but the principal theme in the recapitulation +section appears in E flat; the second theme, however, according to +rule, in the tonic.</p> + +<p>Sonata No. 19 (52), in F minor, demands more than a passing word. Our +readers will, perhaps, be tired of our noticing foreshadowings of +Beethoven, yet we must add others here. We can assure them, however, +or rather those who are not familiar with Clementi's sonatas, that the +passages to which we call attention only form a small proportion of +those to which we might refer. The first movement (Allegro agitato) is +concise; there <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>is no padding. Every bar of the exposition section may +be termed thematic. The second subject, in the orthodox relative +major, is evolved from the principal theme. And the latter descends, +but the former ascends—a true Beethoven contrast. The coda to the +first section, with its working of a thematic figure in augmentation, +forms a striking feature. At the close of the development section a +long dignified dominant passage seems a preparation for the return of +the principal theme, but the composer has a surprise; after a pause +bar, the <i>second</i> theme appears, and in A flat. A modulation soon +leads back to F minor, and quite in Beethoven fashion—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music058.png" alt="Clementi Sonata 19" width="753" height="179" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music058.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music058.ly">here</a>.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<p>and the exposition coda is repeated in extended form. In the next +movement (Largo e sostenuto) sombre tones still prevail; the key is +that of the dominant minor. There is evident kinship between the first +and last movements; of this the opening bar of the former and the +closing bars of the latter offer signal proof.</p> + +<p>In No. 23 (43) at the end of the last movement, an organ point reminds +us that the full intentions of the composer are not recorded. Thus, in +Clementi's early sonatas at any rate, the inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>preter, as in E. +Bach's works, was expected to make additions. In No. 26 (7) the +opening of the theme of the Arietta recalls, and in no vague manner, +the opening of the Finale of Beethoven's Septet. No. 34 (8) is an +excellent sonata; there is considerable freedom in the recapitulation +section. In No. 39 (35) Clementi returns to an old form of sonata: +there are only two movements, a Larghetto and Tempo di Minuetto, and +both in the same key. With sonata No. 41 (32), the first of two +published as Op. 34, Clementi breaks new ground. The idea of +incorporating the subject-matter of an introductory slow movement had +already occurred to Haydn,<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> but Clementi goes to greater lengths. +(It must not be forgotten that Beethoven's "Sonate Pathétique," Op. +13, appeared in 1799; possibly, before Clementi's.) From the opening +characteristic subject of the Largo is evolved the principal subject +of the Allegro <i>con fuoco</i>, and there is also relationship between it +and the second subject. In the unusually long development section, a +dramatic passage, evolved from the concluding bars of the Largo, leads +to a slow section in which the opening notes of the Largo are given +out in loud tones, and in the unexpected key of C major (the three +repeated <i>sforzando</i> crotchets remind one of the "fate" notes in the C +minor Symphony); and when the Tempo primo is resumed, the</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music059.png" alt="Clementi sonata 41" width="313" height="86" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music059.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music059.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + + + +<p>also reminds one of</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music060.png" alt="Beethoven C minor symphony" width="308" height="81" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music060.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music060.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>in the same movement of the above-mentioned Symphony. Then, again, in +an important coda the theme is given out in modified, yet intensified +form. In the Finale of the sonata the Largo still makes its influence +felt. Exception may perhaps be taken to the length of the first +movement, and to the prominence throughout the work, of the principal +key; but the evident desire of the composer to express something which +was inwardly moving him gives great interest to the music.</p> + +<p>The sonata in B minor, Op. 40, is one of Clementi's most finished +productions. The name of Beethoven must again be mentioned; for depth +of meaning, boldness, style of development, and gradation of interest, +the music comes within measurable distance of the greater master. Not +only is there no padding, but here the technique serves a higher +purpose than that of display; there are no formal successions of +thirds, sixths, or octaves, no empty bravoura passages. The long +development section of the first movement, with its bold contrasts, +its varied presentation of thematic material, its peculiar mode of +dealing with fragments of a theme, and its long dwelling on dominant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>harmony previous to the return of the principal theme,—all these +things remind one of Beethoven. This movement is followed by a Largo +(<i>mesto e patetico</i>) leading to the final Allegro. These two are +intimately connected; and, moreover, the latter includes reminiscences +from the introductory Adagio. After a brief reference to the Largo, +the movement concludes with a passionate Presto coda. In Mr. +Banister's <i>Life of Macfarren</i> we learn that the latter considered the +B minor of Clementi "one of the finest sonatas ever written"; and many +musicians will, probably, agree with him.</p> + +<p>Of the three last sonatas (Op. 50, Nos. 1, 2, and 3), it must be +remembered that when they appeared Beethoven had published up to Op. +106, and possibly Op. 109. If, then, in some of the earlier Clementi +sonatas we spoke of his influence on Beethoven, it is just the reverse +here. Nevertheless, of these sonatas which must have been known to +that master, one may have led him to think again of the idea of +revealing the poetic basis of his sonatas.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> Clementi gives the +title, "Didone Abbandonata: Scena Tragica" to his work. The +introductory Largo is <i>sostenuto e patetico</i>, while the Allegro which +follows bears the superscription, <i>deliberando e meditando</i>; the +Adagio is <i>dolente</i>; and the Allegro Finale, <i>agitato e con +disperazione</i>. The music expresses throughout the sorrow and despair +of the forsaken queen, while certain wild passages (as for example the +coda of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>first Allegro) tell also of her anger. This Allegro is an +admirably sustained movement, and, at moments, the composer rises to +the height of his argument. It is interesting, too, from a technical +point of view, for there is no empty display. Whatever degree of +inspiration may be accorded to the music, it will surely be +acknowledged that the composer was full of his theme; that all his +powers of head and heart were engaged in the task of illustration. +This "Dido" sonata, of course, suffers if compared with those of +Clementi's great contemporary; and some of the writing is formal and +old-fashioned, and, at times, too thin to attract the sympathy or to +excite the interest of pianists of the present day, who enjoy the +richer inheritance of Beethoven, the romantic tone-pictures of +Schumann and Brahms, the fascinating miniatures of Chopin, and the +clever glitter of Liszt. Still it does not deserve utter oblivion. +Hear what Fr. Rochlitz says of it in the <i>Allg. Mus. Zeit.</i>: "It (the +sonata) is indeed a tragic scene, one so clearly thought out and so +definitely expressed, that it is by no means difficult—not only in +each movement, but in its various divisions—to follow literally the +course of changing feeling which is here developed."</p> + +<p>Schindler, with regard to the work, also remarks as follows: "Who +understands nowadays how to interpret this musical soul-picture +(written unfortunately in old stereotyped sonata-form!)? At best, +glancing hastily over it, a pianist carelessly <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>remarks that the +poetical contents of this sonata are only expressed in the title." And +again: "In the year 1827, at Baden, near Vienna, Clementi gave me +details respecting the contents and interpretation of this tone-poem. +A new edition of the work by J. André of Offenbach enabled me to +insert a preface with the explanations of the veteran master."<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> And +further, as a tone-picture expressing states of the soul, he knows "of +no other work entitled sonata more worthy of a place beside those of +Beethoven."</p> + + +<h4>II. Johann Ludwig Dussek</h4> + +<p>This composer comes next to Clementi, in order of time, and, we may +add, of merit. His natural gifts really exceeded those of Clementi; +but the latter made a deep study of his art, and also of the +pianoforte, to which, indeed, like Chopin, he devoted his whole +attention. Dussek was fond of ease and pleasure, and never developed +his powers to the full. It may be noted that both these celebrated +pianists were connected with English music-publishing houses. Clementi +prospered, though not in his first undertaking with Longman & +Broderip; but Dussek was unsuccessful, and left England, so it is +said, to avoid his creditors. There is, indeed, a letter written by +Dussek from Hamburg, dated 12th June, 1801, to Clementi, and apart +from the curious spectacle of these two pianists in commercial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>correspondence with each other, the letter is of interest, in that it +belongs to a period of Dussek's life concerning the details of which +there is some uncertainty.<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> Dussek, it may be mentioned, does <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>not +ever appear to have returned to London. In 1803 he became attached to +Prince Louis Ferdinand, to whom he offered advice in pianoforte +playing and composition. There is another letter extant of Dussek's +written in the same year in which that Prince fell on the battlefield +of Saalfeld (13th October, 1806), and this also we will give, as we +believe, like the one above, it has never been published.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> The +catalogue of Dussek's <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>works, in Sir G. Grove's <i>Dictionary of Music +and Musicians</i>, mentions three quartets for strings (Op. 60: in G, B +flat, and E flat), most probably the works referred to in the second +letter.</p> + +<p>Dussek, born in the year 1761, studied first with his father J.J. +Dussek, and in his twenty-second year received further instruction +from Emanuel Bach; he soon enjoyed great fame as an executant. +Tomaschek, himself a pianist of note, thus speaks of him in his +autobiography:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"There was, in fact, something magical about <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>the way in which Dussek, +with all his charming grace of manner, through his wonderful touch, +extorted from the instrument delicious and at the same time emphatic +tones. His fingers were like a company of ten singers, endowed with +equal executive powers, and able to produce with the utmost perfection +whatever their director could require. I never saw the Prague public +so enchanted as they were on this occasion by Dussek's splendid +playing. His fine declamatory style, especially in <i>cantabile</i> +phrases, stands as the ideal for every artistic performance—something +which no other pianist has since reached."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>The above quotation refers to a concert given at Prague in 1804.</p> + +<p>There is, unfortunately, great confusion in the opus numbers of +Dussek's works; and, moreover, it is difficult, if not impossible, to +give the dates either of composition or publication. Breitkopf & +Härtel have published more than fifty sonatas, but we shall only refer +to some of the more important ones. Dussek, like all the prominent +composers of his time, not even excepting Haydn and Mozart, wrote +music on a practical, rather than on a poetical basis; one of the +letters given above acknowledges this in very frank terms. But to +Dussek's credit be it said, his least valuable works are masterpieces +as compared with those which the sonata-makers, Steibelt, Cramer, and +others, fabricated by the hundred. In Dussek we find great charm and +refinement, while the writing <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>for the instrument is often highly +attractive; but the art of developing themes was certainly not his +strong point. That he was at times careless or indifferent may be seen +from such a bar as the following (Op. 47, No. 1, Litolff ed.; Adagio, +bar 9):—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music061.png" alt="Dussek op. 47" width="236" height="147" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music061.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music061.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>The bar before the return of the principal theme in the Allegro of the +sonata in E flat (Op. 75) furnishes another instance. Again, in the +Allegro of the sonata in A flat, known as "Le Retour à Paris," there +is a passage (commencing fifteen bars before the end of the exposition +section) which, with slight alteration, might have been materially +improved.</p> + +<p>Of the early sonatas, Op. 10, No. 2, in G minor, is an interesting +work. It consists of two well-contrasted movements: an Adagio in +binary, and a Vivace in sonata form. Of the Presto of Op. 10, No. 3, +Professor Prout, in his interesting article, <i>Dussek's Pianoforte +Sonatas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> says: "Both the first and second principal subjects +remind us irresistibly of that composer (Mendelssohn), while the +phrase at the conclusion of the first part, repeated at the end of the +movement, is almost identical with a well-known passage in the first +movement of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> 'Scotch Symphony.' Is the coincidence accidental, or +did Mendelssohn know the sonata, and was he unconsciously influenced +by it?"</p> + +<p>In his three last sonatas (Op. 70, 75, and 77), Dussek rises to a very +high level; he was undoubtedly influenced by the earnestness of +Beethoven, the chivalric spirit of Weber, and the poetry of Schubert. +A new era had set in. These three composers were neither the <i>fools</i> +of princes nor the servants of the public: they were in the world, yet +not of it. They looked upon their art as a sacred thing; and most +probably the shallowness of much of the music produced in such +abundance towards the close of the eighteenth century spurred them on +to higher efforts. Dussek had lived an irregular, aimless sort of +life; he had wandered from one country to another, and had acquired +the ephemeral fame of the <i>virtuoso</i>. Perhaps he was a disappointed +man; there is a tinge of sadness about these last sonatas which +supports such a view. Perhaps a feeling that his life was ebbing away +made him serious: his music now shows no trifling. Explain it as you +may, Dussek's three last contributions to sonata literature rank +amongst the best of his day; and the indifference now shown to +them—so far, at least, as the concert platform is concerned—is proof +of ignorance, or bad taste. We say ignorance, because the rising +generation has few, if any, opportunities of hearing this composer's +music. It is eighteen years since his Op. 70 was given at the Popular +Concerts; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>while twenty-three and twenty-nine years have passed since +Op. 75 and Op. 77 have been played there.</p> + +<p>The sonata in A flat, entitled "Le Retour à Paris," is known in +England as "Plus Ultra," and in an old edition it is dedicated to "Non +plus Ultra." The latter was meant for Woelfl, a famous pianist and +contemporary. His music is now forgotten, and his name is principally +remembered in connection with Beethoven; like the latter, his talent +for improvisation was great. The late J.W. Davidson, in his long and +interesting preface to Brewer & Co.'s edition of Dussek's A flat +sonata, leads us to believe that Dussek's publisher, and not the +composer himself, was responsible for the change of title to "Plus +Ultra." The opus number, too, was changed from 70 to 71. The following +story is also told by Davidson in a preface contributed by him to the +Brewer edition of the Woelfl sonata:—"Who will play it?" asked the +publisher (Well), looking through the music of the composer. "I vill +it blay," replied Woelfl. "Yes, but you won't buy the copies. No one +but yourself or Dussek can play the Allegro, and I doubt if either of +you can play the variations." Woelfl, however, sitting down before an +old harpsichord, convinced the publisher of his error. "What shall we +call it?" asked Well. "Call it 'Ne plus Ultra,'" said Woelfl, rubbing +his hands with joy, and adding, "Now shall we see if Herr von Esch +vill more blay, or Herr Bomdembo make de variation."</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> + +<p>Dussek's "Plus Ultra" (Op. 70) is justly admired; the music is fine, +and in the matter of technique, setting aside a few sensational +passages<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> in Woelfl's sonata, which his very long fingers enabled +him to execute with comparative ease, far surpassed the earlier work. +It must appear strange to many musicians who do not possess a copy of +Woelfl's sonata, that, in any mention of the rivalry between the two +composers, no reference is made to Woelfl's sonata beyond the title. +An examination of the latter, however, would soon solve the mystery. +The plain fact is this: both the music and even the technique are now +absolutely uninteresting. The sonata, in the key of F major, commences +with a brief introductory Adagio, followed by a long, tedious Allegro +abounding in passages of thirds. A brief Andante comes between this +Allegro and the Finale, consisting of flimsy variations on the popular +melody "Life let us Cherish." In a book of small compass such as the +present one, we only wish to dwell upon matters of interest. For some +particular purpose Woelfl's sonatas might possibly prove of importance +and even interest; but not here. The "Non plus Ultra," so far as we +are concerned, may serve to remind us that Woelfl once lived; while +the rest <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>of his music, like some incidents in his life, may be +consigned to oblivion. We cannot say that we have read all his +sonatas, but enough of them, we believe, to judge, generally, of their +contents.</p> + +<p>Professor Macfarren's opinion of Dussek, as composer for the +pianoforte, in the <i>Imperial Dictionary of Biography</i>, is so +excellent, that we cannot perhaps do better than quote his words:—</p> + +<blockquote> + +<p>"The immense amount of Dussek's compositions for the pianoforte have +by no means equal merit; many of them were written for the mere object +of sale, still more for the purpose of tuition, and some with the +design of executive display. Of those which were produced, however, in +the true spirit of art, expressing the composer's feelings in his own +unrestrained ideas, there exist quite enough to stamp him one of the +first composers for his instrument; and while these are indispensable +in the complete library of the pianist, they are above value to the +student in the development of his mechanism and the formation of his +style. A strong characteristic of the composer is his almost redundant +profusion of ideas;<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> but his rich fecundity of invention is greatly +counterbalanced by diffuseness of design, resulting from the want of +that power of condensation by means of which greater interest is often +given to less beautiful matter."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p>And then, again, in an analysis of a Dussek Quintet, he remarks that +in that composer's works <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>we may trace "not only the origin of many of +the most beautiful effects with which later writers have been +accredited, but some of the identical ideas by which these very +writers have made their way into popularity."</p> + + +<h4>III. Friedrich Wilhelm Rust</h4> + +<p>During the years 1744-45 a young man named Johann Ludwig Anton Rust +went to Leipzig to study jurisprudence and philosophy. But he was also +musical, and played the violin at performances given under the +direction of J.S. Bach. On returning to his home at Wörlitz, Rust +tried to inspire those around him with enthusiasm for the music of +Bach. With his younger brother, Friedrich Wilhelm, he was, at any +rate, successful; for the latter, already at the age of thirteen, was +able to play by heart the whole of the "Well-tempered Clavier." Later +on, young Friedrich went to Halle to study law, and there not only +made the acquaintance of Friedemann Bach, but, in return for attending +to the correspondence of that gifted musician, he received from him +instruction in composition, organ and clavier playing. Afterwards, at +Potsdam, he continued his clavier studies under Emanuel Bach. Surely a +finer training never fell to the lot of any pupil. Schumann recommends +young musicians to make Bach their daily bread; and of that, Rust must +have had full weight. But the list of his teachers is not yet +exhausted; he went to Italy in 1765, and studied <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>the violin under +Tartini. Rust composed operas, cantatas, concertos, and sonatas for +violin,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and for pianoforte; the last-named, of which he wrote +eight, now concern us.</p> + +<p>The earliest, entitled "Sonata Erotica," was composed in 1775; this +work, however, was not published until the year 1888 (edited by his +grandson, Dr. Wilhelm Rust,<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> late cantor of St. Thomas'). It is the +first of a series of works extraordinary in many ways—in form, +subject-matter, developments, and technique. With regard to the +last-named, there is something to say, and it had better be said at +once. Dr. E. Prieger, in his interesting pamphlet, <i>F.W. Rust: Ein +Vorgänger Beethovens</i>, remarks as follows:—"While the grandson, full +of enthusiasm, threw his whole soul into the creations of his +ancestor, he gave a reflection, in his edition, of the pictures which +had been vividly formed in his mind." To accomplish this he has +strengthened the writing, and, in some cases, <i>modernised</i> it. Dr. +Prieger, who has seen some, if not all of the autographs, has assured +us that "these additions only concern the exterior, and do not affect +the fundamental, character of the work." This statement is, to a +certain extent, satisfactory, and we receive it thankfully. But a +great deal of the writing is far ahead of the age in which it was +written; it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>reminds one now of Weber, now of Schumann. Why, one may +ask, did not the editor indicate the additions in smaller notes? Then +it would have been possible to see exactly what the elder Rust had +written, and what the younger Rust had added. At present one can only +marvel at some of the writing, and long to know how much of it really +belongs to the composer. It appears that Rust, as editor of his +grandfather's work, had some intention of describing his editions, +etc., but death, which frequently prevents the best intentioned plans, +intervened.</p> + +<p>The "Sonata Erotica" is noticeable, generally, for its charm, poetry, +and spontaneity. The first movement, an Allegro moderato, is in +sonata-form. The second, in the key of the relative minor, entitled +Fantasie, has in it more of the spirit of Beethoven than of Emanuel +Bach. The Finale is in rondo form; the middle section consists of a +playful Duettino, containing free imitations.</p> + +<p>The next sonata (1777), in D flat, opens with a graceful Allegretto, +and closes with a Tempo di Minuetto, which, for the most part, points +backward rather than forward. The slow movement, Adagio sostenuto, is, +however, of a higher order than either of these. It has Beethovenish +breadth and dignity, yet lacks the power of the Bonn master: those +magic touches by which the latter makes us feel his genius, and +secures gradation of interest up to the very close of a movement. This +Adagio, however, were the date of its com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>position unknown, might pass +for a very clever imitation of Beethoven's style.</p> + +<p>In 1784, Rust wrote two sonatas, one in F sharp minor, the other in B +flat minor. The latter consists of three movements, and the music, +especially in the Adagio in E flat minor, bears traces of the great +Bach; still there are passages which sound more modern even in this +very Adagio, which points so clearly to him as the source of +inspiration. The modern element, however, admits of explanation, for +Haydn and Mozart, at the time in which the sonata was written, had +appeared in the musical firmament. But in the works we are about to +mention, the composer suggests Beethoven, Weber, and even Schumann. In +writing about Clementi, we were compelled frequently, and at the risk +of wearying our readers, to call attention to foreshadowings of both +the letter and spirit of Beethoven. The cases of Clementi and Rust, +however, are not quite parallel. With the former it was mere +foreshadowing; with exception of a few passages in which there was +note resemblance between the two composers, the music still bore +traces of Clementi's mode of thought and style of writing. But with +Rust, there are moments in which it is really difficult to believe +that the music belongs to a pre-Beethoven period.</p> + +<p>The sonata<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> in D minor (1788) opens with a vigorous yet dignified +Allegro; the graceful Adagio <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>is of eighteenth century type; it is in +the key of the relative major, but closes on the dominant chord of D +minor, leading without break to a final Allegro, full of interesting +details. The movement concludes with an impressive <i>poco adagio</i> coda, +in which Rust makes use of the principal theme of the opening +movement. We will venture on one quotation, although a few bars, +separated from the context, may convey only a feeble impression—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music062.png" alt="Rust, Sonata in D minor, poco adagio" width="756" height="371" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music062.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music062.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p>The sonata in D major, composed six years later, opens with an +interesting Allegro. The second movement, in B minor, bears the +superscription "Wehklage" (Lamentation). Rust's eldest son, a talented +youth, who was studying <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>at Halle University, was drowned in the river +Saale, 23rd March 1794. Matthisson, the "Adelaide" poet, sent to the +disconsolate father a poem entitled "Todtenkranz für ein Kind," to +which Rust sketched music, and on that sketch is based this pathetic +movement, which sounds like some tone-poem of the nineteenth century. +Here is the impressive coda:—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music063.png" alt="Rust, Sonata in D major, "Wehklage" movement" width="759" height="722" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music063.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music063.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + +<p>There follows a dainty, old-fashioned Minuet, and a curious movement +entitled "Schwermuth und Frohsinn" (Melancholy and Mirth);<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> though +after the "Wehklage" these make little impression.</p> + +<p>During four years (1792-96), Rust was occupied with a sonata in C +minor and major. The work is a remarkable one. It opens with an +energetic Recitativo in C minor, interrupted for a few bars by an +Arioso Adagio in C major. Then comes a Lento in six-four time based on +the celebrated Marlbrook song, a dignified movement containing, among +other canonic imitations, one in the ninth. It leads by means of a +<i>stringendo</i> bar to a brilliant Allegro con brio, a movement of which +both the music and the technique remind one of Beethoven's bravoura +style. A second section of the sonata commences with the recitative +phrase of the opening of the work, only in A minor. This leads to a +highly characteristic Andante, which Dr. Rust, the editor, in a +preface to the published sonata, likens to the "mighty procession" in +Lenau's <i>Faust</i>. The Finale consists of an animated Allegro, with a +clever fugato by way of episode; there is still an Allegro maestoso, +which, except for its length and the fact that it contains a middle +section, Cantabile e religioso, we should call a long coda. The whole, +evidently programme-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>music, is a sonata worked out somewhat on Kuhnau +lines.</p> + +<p>Now, was Beethoven acquainted with Rust's music? Dr. Prieger, in the +pamphlet mentioned above, remarks as follows:—"During the years +1807-27 Wilhelm Karl Rust (<i>b.</i> 1787, <i>d.</i> 1855), the youngest son of +our master, was in Vienna, and had the good fortune to make the +acquaintance of Beethoven, who was pleased with his playing, and +recommended him as teacher. Among Rust's lady pupils were Baroness +Dorothea Ertmann and Maximiliane Brentano, both of whom belonged to +Beethoven's most intimate circle of friends, and had been honoured by +having works dedicated to them. The younger Rust was gifted with an +extraordinary memory, and therefore it seems more than probable that +he occasionally performed some of his father's works in that circle. +On the other hand, we have Beethoven's energetic nature holding aloof +from anything which might influence his own individuality."</p> + +<p>There, in a few words, is the answer to our question. And it is about +the only one we can ever hope to obtain. Rust was altogether a +remarkable phenomenon, a musician born, as it were, out of due time. +If Beethoven, as seems quite possible, was acquainted with his music, +then Rust exerted an influence over the master quite equal to that of +Clementi. It almost seems as if we ought to say, greater.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN</h3> + + +<p>Bach's forty-eight Preludes and Fugues and Beethoven's thirty-two +Sonatas tower above all other works written for the pianoforte; they +were aptly described by the late Dr. Hans v. Bülow, the one as the +Old, the other as the New Testament of musical literature. Each fresh +study of them reveals new points of interest, new beauties; they are +rich mines which it is impossible to exhaust. Bach seemed to have +revealed all the possibilities of fugue-form; and the history of the +last seventy years almost leads one to imagine that Beethoven was the +last of the great sonata writers. To this matter, however, we will +presently return. In speaking of the various composers from Kuhnau +onwards, we have tried to show the special, also the earliest, +influences acting on them; and we shall still pursue the same course +with regard to Beethoven. When he went to Vienna in 1792 he found +himself in the very centre of the musical world. Haydn, though past +sixty years of age, was at the zenith of his fame; and Beethoven, for +a time, studied under him. Mozart had died in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>the previous year, so +his name was still in everybody's mouth. The early works of Beethoven +give strong evidence of the influence exerted over him by these two +composers. Then Prince Lichnowsky, the friend and pupil of Mozart, and +Baron van Swieten, the patron and friend of both Haydn and Mozart, +were among the earliest to take notice of the rising genius and to +invite him to their musical <i>matinées</i> and <i>soirées</i>; and one can +easily guess what kind of music was performed on those occasions. But +the little story of Beethoven remaining at van Swieten's house, after +the guests had departed, in order to "send his host to bed with half a +dozen of Bach's Fugues by way of <i>Abendsegen</i>" reminds us of another +strong, and still earlier, influence. At Bonn, under the guidance of +his master, Christian Gottlob Neefe, Beethoven was so well-grounded in +the "Well-tempered Clavier," that already, at the age of twelve, he +could play nearly the whole of it. But, if we are not mistaken, he +also made early acquaintanceship with the sonatas of Emanuel Bach. For +in 1773 Neefe published "Zwölf Klavier-Sonaten," which were dedicated +to the composer just named. In the preface he says: "Since the period +in which you, dearest Herr Capellmeister, presented to the public your +masterly sonatas, worked out, too, with true taste, scarcely anything +of a characteristic nature has appeared for this instrument.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> Most +composers have been occupied in writing Symphonies, Trios, Quartets, +etc. And if now and then they have turned their attention to the +clavier, the greater number of the pieces have been provided with an +accompaniment, often of an extremely arbitrary kind, for the violin; +so that they are as suitable for any other instrument as for the +clavier." Then, later on, Neefe acknowledges how much instruction and +how much pleasure he has received from the theoretical and practical +works of E. Bach (we seem to be reading over again the terms in which +Haydn expressed himself towards Bach). May we, then, not conclude that +young Beethoven's attention was attracted to these "masterly sonatas," +and also to those of his teacher Neefe? This is scarcely the moment to +describe the Neefe sonatas.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> In connection, however, with +Beethoven, one or two points must be noticed. In the third of the +three sonatas which Beethoven composed at the age of eleven, the last +movement is entitled: Scherzando allegro ma non troppo, and twice in +Neefe do we come across the heading, Allegro e scherzando (first set, +No. 5, last movement; and second set, No. 1, also last movement). +Then, again, No. 2 of the second set opens with a brief introductory +Adagio, one, by the way, to some extent connected with the Allegro +which follows.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> In the 2nd of the above-mentioned Beethoven sonatas +(the one in F minor) there is also a slow introduction; the young +master, no mere imitator, anticipates his own "Sonate Pathétique," and +repeats it in the body of the Allegro movement. Lastly, no one, we +believe, can compare the Neefe variations with those of Beethoven in +the 3rd sonata (in A) without coming to the conclusion that the pupil +had diligently studied his teacher's compositions, which, we may add, +were thoroughly sound, full of pleasing <i>cantabile</i> writing, and, at +times, not lacking in boldness. Let us venture on one quotation of +only four bars from Sonata 1, in G, of the second set of six: it is +the opening of a short Adagio connecting the Allegro with an Allegro e +scherzando—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music064.png" alt="Beethoven, Sonata 1 in G" width="742" height="367" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music064.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music064.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p>The enharmonic modulation from the second to the third bar reminds one +of E. Bach, who was so fond of such changes; also of a similar one in +the "Pathétique."</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> + +<p>Beethoven wrote thirty-two sonatas, and in the following table the +opus number of each work is given, also the date of its publication; +some have a title, and the greater number a dedication:—</p> + +<div> + <table border="0" summary="Beethoven sonatas" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="100%" id="AutoNumber6"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td align="center"><b>Sonata</b></td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="center"><b>Published</b></td> + <td align="center"><b>Dedicated to</b></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 2</td> + <td align="center">No. 1</td> + <td align="left">(F minor)</td> + <td align="center">1796.</td> + <td align="center">Haydn.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 2</td> + <td align="left">(A)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 3</td> + <td align="left">(C.)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 7</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(E flat)</td> + <td align="center">1797.</td> + <td align="center">Countess Babette Keglevics.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 10</td> + <td align="center">No. 1</td> + <td align="left">(C minor)</td> + <td align="center">1798.</td> + <td align="center">Countess Browne.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 2</td> + <td align="left">(F)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 3</td> + <td align="left">(D)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 13</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(C minor, "Sonate Pathétique")</td> + <td align="center">1799.</td> + <td align="center"> +<span>Prince Charles Lichnowsky</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 14</td> + <td align="center">No. 1</td> + <td align="left">(E)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">Baroness Braun.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 2</td> + <td align="left">(G)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 22</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(B flat)</td> + <td align="center">1802.</td> + <td align="center">Count Browne.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 26</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(A flat)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">Prince Charles Lichnowsky.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 27</td> + <td align="center">No. 1</td> + <td align="left">(E flat)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">Princess Liechtenstein.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 2</td> + <td align="left">(C sharp minor)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center"> +<span>Countess Giulietta Guicciardi.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 28</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(D)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">Joseph de Sonnenfels.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 31</td> + <td align="center">No. 1</td> + <td align="left">(G)</td> + <td align="center">1803.</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 2</td> + <td align="left">(D minor)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 3</td> + <td align="left">(E flat)</td> + <td align="center">1804.</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 49</td> + <td align="center">No. 1</td> + <td align="left">(G minor)</td> + <td align="center">1805.</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">No. 2</td> + <td align="left">(G)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 53</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(C)</td> + <td align="center">"</td> + <td align="center">Count Waldstein.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 54</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(F)</td> + <td align="center">1806.</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 57</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(F minor)</td> + <td align="center">1807.</td> + <td align="center">Count Brunswick.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 78</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(F sharp)</td> + <td align="center">1810.</td> + <td align="center">Countess Theresa of Brunswick.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 79</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(G)</td> + <td align="center">"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 81A</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(E flat; "Das Lebewohl, die Abwesenheit, das + Wiedersehn")</td> + <td align="center">1811.</td> + <td align="center">Archduke Rudolph.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 90</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(E minor)</td> + <td align="center">1815.</td> + <td align="center">Count Moritz Lichnowsky.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 101</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(A)</td> + <td align="center">1817.</td> + <td align="center">Baroness Dorothea Ertmann.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 106</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(B flat)</td> + <td align="center">1819.</td> + <td align="center">Archduke Rudolph.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 109</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(E)</td> + <td align="center">1821.</td> + <td align="center">Maximiliane Brentano.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 110</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(A flat)</td> + <td align="center">1822.</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="center">Op. 111</td> + <td align="center"> </td> + <td align="left">(C minor)</td> + <td align="center">1823.</td> + <td align="center">Archduke Rudolph.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> +</div> + + +<p>The autograph of the last sonata does not bear any dedication, but, +from a letter of Beethoven (1st June, 1823) to the Archduke, it is +evident that it was intended for the latter.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p> + +<p>The fanciful name of "Moonlight" to Op. 27 (No. 2), the appropriate +publisher's title of Op. 57, and the poetical superscriptions of Op. +81A, have, without doubt, helped those sonatas towards their +popularity. It does not always happen that the most popular works of a +man are his best; but these in question justly rank among Beethoven's +finest productions. The last five sonatas are wonderful tone-poems; +yet, with the exception, perhaps, of Op. 110, in A flat, as regards +perfection of form and unity of conception, not one equals Op. 27 (No. +2), Op. 31 (No. 2), and Op. 57. Apart from any æsthetic +considerations, the digital difficulties <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>of the last five sonatas +prevent their becoming common property. The brilliant technique of Op. +53 has proved a special attraction to pianists, and it has therefore +become widely known. With this one sonata Beethoven proved his +superiority, even in the matter of virtuosity, over the best pianists +of his day.</p> + +<p>In order to be able to enter fully into the spirit of the music of +great composers, it is necessary to know the history of their lives. +Beethoven's is fairly well known. But it may be worth while to refer, +briefly, to the principal men and women to whom the master dedicated +his pianoforte sonatas.</p> + +<p>Of the thirty-two, as will be seen from the above table, eight have no +dedication.</p> + +<p>In the year 1792 Beethoven left Bonn and went to Vienna. There he +studied counterpoint under Haydn, yet the lessons proved +unsatisfactory. But the fame and influence of the veteran master no +doubt prompted the young artist to dedicate to him the three sonatas, +Op. 2. The title-page of the oldest Vienna edition runs thus:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +Trois Sonates pour le Clavecin Piano-forte composées<br /> +et dediées<br /> +A Mr. Joseph Haydn Docteur en musique par<br /> +Louis van Beethoven.<br /> +</p> + +<p>There was perhaps more of sarcasm than respect in the "Docteur en +musique"; Beethoven is related to have said that he had taken some +lessons from Haydn, but had never learnt anything from him. +Nevertheless he paid heed to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>his teacher's music. There are in the +sonatas one or two reminiscences of Haydn, which seem to us curious +enough to merit quotation. One occurs in the sonata in C minor (Op. +10, No. 1). We give the passage (transposed) from Haydn, and the one +from Beethoven:—<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music065.png" alt=""Letter V," Pohl, No. 58. Haydn." width="756" height="143" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music065.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music065.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> +<img src="images/music066.png" alt="Op. 10, No. 1. Beethoven." width="752" height="136" /> </p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music066.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music066.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p>And another—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music067.png" alt=""In Native Worth" (Creation). Haydn." width="749" height="146" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music067.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music067.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> +<img src="images/music068.png" width="759" height="145" alt="Op. 31, No. 1. Beethoven." /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music068.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music068.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> + +<p>While speaking of reminiscences, a curious one may be mentioned. The +theme of the slow movement of Beethoven's sonata in A (Op. 2, No. 2) +strongly resembles the theme of the slow movement of his own Trio in B +flat (Op. 97):—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music069.png" alt="Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 2." width="309" height="137" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music069.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music069.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> <img src="images/music070.png" alt="Beethoven, Trio, Op. 97. Andante." width="409" height="131" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music070.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music070.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>In Op. 111, again, the second subject of the Allegro recalls a phrase +in the Presto of the Sonata in C sharp minor.</p> + +<p>Haydn, as the most illustrious composer of that day, stands first; but +the next name worthy of mention is Count Waldstein, a young nobleman +who had been a guide, philosopher, and friend to Beethoven during the +Bonn days. The well-known entry in the young musician's Album just +before his departure for Vienna shows in what high esteem he was held +by Waldstein. Count Ferdinand Waldstein died in 1823.</p> + +<p>Prince Charles Lichnowsky was one of the composer's earliest patrons +after the latter had settled in Vienna. The Prince, descended from <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>an +old Polish family, was born in 1758, and, consequently, was, by twelve +years, Beethoven's senior. He lived mostly in Vienna. In 1789 he +invited Mozart to accompany him to Berlin; and the King's proposal to +name the latter his capellmeister is supposed to have been suggested +by the Prince. Lichnowsky was also a pupil of Mozart's. His wife, +Princess of Thun, was famous for her beauty, her kindly disposition, +and for her skill as a musician. Beethoven had not been twelve months +in Vienna when he was offered rooms in the Prince's house. It was +there that the pianoforte sonatas Op. 2 were first played by their +author in presence of Haydn. Beethoven remained in this house until +1800. In 1799 the "Sonate Pathétique" was dedicated to the Prince, and +in the following year the latter settled on him a yearly pension of +600 florins. In the year 1806 there was a rupture between the two +friends. At the time of the battle of Jena, Beethoven was at the seat +of Prince Lichnowsky at Troppau, in Silesia, where some French +officers were quartered. The independent artist refused to play to +them, and when the Prince pressed the request, Beethoven got angry, +started the same evening for Vienna, and,—anger still burning in his +breast,—on his arrival home, he shattered a bust of his patron. The +composer's refusal to play to the French officers was grounded on his +hatred to Napoleon, who had just won the battle of Jena. Beethoven, +however, became reconciled with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>the Prince before the death of the +latter in 1814. It should be mentioned that Beethoven's first +published work, the three pianoforte Trios, was dedicated to Prince +Lichnowsky.</p> + +<p>The Archduke Rudolph (1788-1831) was one of the master's warmest +friends, and one of his most devoted admirers. His uncle was Max +Franz, Elector of Cologne, to whose chapel both Beethoven and his +father had belonged. The Archduke was the son of Leopold of Tuscany +and Maria Louisa of Spain; his aunt was Marie Antoinette, and his +grandmother the famous Maria Theresa. He is supposed to have made the +acquaintance of Beethoven during the winter of 1803-4, and then to +have become his pupil. The pianoforte part of the Triple Concerto (Op. +58), commenced in 1804, and published in 1807, is said to have been +written for him.</p> + +<p>Concerning the Countess Giulietta Guicciardi, for whom Beethoven +entertained a hopeless passion, and the Countess Theresa of Brunswick, +to whom he is said to have been secretly engaged for some years, there +is no necessity to enter into detail. Everyone has probably heard of +the famous love-letters, and of the discussion as to which of these +two they were addressed. Maximiliane Brentano was a niece of the +famous Bettine Brentano.</p> + +<p>The Baroness Ertmann was an excellent performer on the pianoforte, and +is said to have been unrivalled as an interpreter of Beethoven's +music. Mendelssohn met her at Rome in 1831, and in a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>letter describes +her playing of the C sharp minor and D minor Sonatas.</p> + +<p>We must now turn to the sonatas, yet neither for the purpose of +analysis nor of admiration. We shall briefly discuss how far Beethoven +worked on the lines established by his predecessors, and how far he +modified them. And, naturally, the question of music on a poetic basis +will be touched upon.</p> + +<p>The number of movements of which Beethoven's sonatas consist varies +considerably: some have two, some three, others four. The three very +early sonatas dedicated to Maximilian, Archbishop of Cologne, have +only three movements (the second opens with a brief Larghetto, which, +however, really forms part of the first movement). But the four +Sonatas Op. 2 (Nos. 1, 2 and 3) and Op. 7 all have four movements—an +Allegro, a slow movement, a Scherzo or Minuet and Trio, and a final +Allegro or Rondo. There are examples in later sonatas of similar +grouping; but it is an undeniable fact that in some of his greatest +sonatas—Op. 31 (No. 2), Op. 27 (No. 2), Op. 53, Op. 57—he reverts to +the three-movement sonata so faithfully adhered to by Emanuel Bach, +Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi. And there is evidence that the omission +of the Minuet or Scherzo in Op. 10 (Nos. 1 and 2), in Op. 13, and in +others named above, was the result of reflection and not caprice.</p> + +<p>Among sketches for the Sonatas, Op. 10,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> Beethoven writes: "Zu den +neuen Sonaten ganz kürze Menuetten" (to the new sonatas quite short +Minuets); and also, a little further on, "Die Menuetten zu den Sonaten +ins künftige nicht länger als von 16 bis 24 Takte" (in future the +Minuets to the sonatas not to exceed from 16 to 24 bars). Then, again, +there are two sketches for a movement of the Minuet or Scherzo kind, +which were almost certainly intended for the Sonata No. 1 in C minor. +One of these was afterwards completed, and has been published in the +Supplement to Breitkopf & Härtel's edition of Beethoven's works. Both +these were finally rejected, yet Beethoven made still another attempt. +There is a sketch for an "Intermezzo zur Sonate aus C moll," and at +the end of the music the composer writes: "durchaus so ohne Trio, nur +ein Stück" (exactly thus without Trio, only one piece). So the Minuets +were to be short; then the limit of length is prescribed; and, lastly, +an Intermezzo <i>without</i> Trio is planned. The composer proposed, but +his <span lang="el" title="Greek: daimôn">δαιμων</span> disposed; the Sonata in C minor finally appeared +in print with only an Adagio between the two quick movements.</p> + +<p>Schindler, in reference to the proposal made by Hoffmeister to +Beethoven to edit a new edition of his pianoforte works, tells us that +had that project been carried out, the master, in order to get a +nearer approach to unity, would have reduced some of his earlier +sonatas from four movements to three. And he adds: "He would most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>certainly have cut out the Scherzo Allegro from the highly pathetic +sonata for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 30, No. 2; the first and third +have only three movements), a movement in complete opposition to the +character of the whole. He always objected to this movement, and, for +the reason just assigned, advised that it should be omitted. Had the +scheme been carried out, a small number of Scherzos, Allegros and +Menuets would have been 'dismissed.' In our circle, however, +objections were raised against this proposal; for among these +Scherzos, etc., each of us had his favourite, and did not like the +idea of its being removed from the place which it had long occupied. +The master, however, pointed to the three-movement sonatas—Op. 10 in +C minor, Op. 13, Op. 14, Op. 31 (Nos. 1 and 2), Op. 57, and others. +The last sonatas—Op. 106 and Op. 110—which contain more than three +movements must be judged in quite a different manner" (<i>Life of +Beethoven</i>, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 215-16).</p> + +<p>Schindler's statements have sometimes been called in question; the +above, however, bears on it the stamp of truth.</p> + +<p>But how came it to pass that Beethoven's first four sonatas—Op. 2 +(Nos. 1, 2, and 3) and Op. 7—have four movements? That is a question +easier to ask than to answer. Schindler's remark that he followed +custom is difficult to understand. In our <a href="#CHAPTER_I">introductory chapter</a> we +spoke of twenty sonatas containing four movements written <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>probably +about the middle of the eighteenth century, also of one of Wagenseil's +for clavier with violin accompaniment; yet among the known sonatas of +that period, these form a minority. Woelfl's Sonata in B flat (Op. 15) +has four movements: Allegro, Andante, Scherzo Allegro, and Finale +(theme and variations), but that work appeared shortly after +Beethoven's Op. 2.</p> + +<p>Even Haydn, who is said to have introduced the Minuet into the +Symphony, remained faithful to the three-movement form of sonata. +Beethoven, however, wrote six sonatas consisting of two movements. +This change in the direction of simplicity is striking, for in his +quartets the composer became more and more complex. It seems as if he +were merely intent on exhibiting strong contrast of mood: agitation +and repose, or fierce passion followed by heavenly calm; we are +referring especially to the Sonata in E minor (Op. 90) and to the one +in C minor (Op. 111). The two sonatas of Op. 49—really sonatinas +written for educational purposes—may be dismissed; also Op. 54, in +the composition of which the head rather than the heart of the master +was engaged. Even Op. 78, in F sharp, in spite of the Countess of +Brunswick, to whom it was dedicated, does not seem the outcome of +strong emotion; and therefore we do not take it now into +consideration. The two sonatas (Op. 90 and 111) mentioned above are +strong tone-poems, and the master having apparently said all that he +had to say, stopped.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> The story, already related, about having no time +to complete Op. 111 must not be taken seriously. Nevertheless, we do +not for one moment imagine that Beethoven was thus reducing the number +of movements, in accordance with some preconceived scheme.</p> + +<p>The D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) and the F minor (Op. 57) sonatas, not to +speak of others, form the apotheosis of the sonata in three movements +as established, though not invented, by Emanuel Bach. To say that +Beethoven was the perfecter of the sonata is true, but it is scarcely +the whole truth. The E minor appears a first great step in the process +of dissolution; the C minor, a second. They were great steps, because +they were those of a very great man. The experiments as to number of +movements of which we spoke in our <a href="#CHAPTER_I">introductory chapter</a> were +interesting; and with regard to the number, and also the position of +the Minuet before or after the slow movement, those experiments +acquired additional interest, inasmuch as Beethoven seems for a time +to have been affected by them. The two works named are, however, of +the highest importance; in them, if we are not mistaken, are to be +found the first signs of the disappearance, as it were, of the sonata +of three movements, and, perhaps, of the sonata itself, into the +"imperceptible." After Op. 90 Beethoven wrote sonatas in four +movements, but that does not affect the argument, neither does the +fact, that after Beethoven are to be found <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>several remarkable sonatas +with the same number. The process of evolution of the sonata was +gradual; so also will be that of its dissolution. The title of +"sonata" given by Beethoven to his Op. 90 and Op. 111 does not affect +the music one jot; under any other name it would sound as well. You +might call the "Choral Symphony" a Divertimento, and the title would +be considered inappropriate; or a Polonaise, and the name would be +scouted as ridiculous; but the music would still remain great and +glorious. Yet taking into consideration the meaning of the term +"sonata" as understood by Emanuel Bach, Haydn, and Beethoven himself, +it can scarcely be the right one for these tone-poems in two sections. +The sonata-form of the first movement in each case may have suggested +the title. The two early sonatas Op. 27 (Nos. 1 and 2) are both styled +sonata, but with the addition <i>quasi una fantasia</i>. And in neither +case was the first movement in sonata-form; the one in E flat does not +even contain such a movement. There are other signs of the process of +disintegration in the later sonatas. Op. 109, in E, is peculiar as +regards the form of the movements of which it is composed; and the +fugues of Op. 101, 106, and 109—a return, by the way, to the +past—show at least an unsettled state of mind. The sonata in A flat +(Op. 110) was probably the germ whence sprang the sonata in B minor of +Liszt—a work of which we shall soon have to speak.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> + +<p>Beethoven departed from the custom of his predecessors Haydn and +Mozart, and the general practice of sonata-writers before him, in the +matter of tonality. In a movement in sonata-form the rule was for the +second subject to be in the dominant key in the exposition section, +and in the tonic in the recapitulation section, if the key of the +piece was major; but if minor, in the relative major or dominant minor +in the exposition, and in the tonic major or minor in the +recapitulation. Thus, if the key were C major, the second subject +would be first in G major, afterwards in C major; if the key were C +minor, first in E flat major, or G minor, afterwards in C minor or +major. In a minor movement the second subject is found more often in +the relative major than in the dominant minor. The first and third +movements of Beethoven's Sonata in D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) illustrate +the latter; in each case the second subject is in A minor.</p> + +<p>In major keys, besides that of the dominant, Beethoven chose the +mediant (E) in his sonata in C (Op. 53); and in the recapitulation it +occurs first in the sub-mediant (A), and only afterwards, in varied +form, in the orthodox tonic. Then in the B flat sonata (Op. 106) the +second subject occurs in the sub-mediant (G). In the last sonata in C +minor, the second subject is neither in the relative major, nor in the +dominant minor, but in the major key of the sub-mediant. Once again, +in the sonata in D major (Op. 10, No. 3) a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>second theme is introduced +in the key of the relative minor before the dominant section is +reached. With regard, indeed, to the number of themes and order of +keys, some other movements of the Beethoven sonatas show departures +from the orthodox rules.</p> + +<p>In the important matter of the repeat of the first section of a +movement in sonata-form, we find the master, for the most part, +adhering to the custom delivered unto him by his predecessors. And yet +there were two strong reasons why he might have been tempted to depart +from it. The repetition was a survival from the old dance movements in +binary form. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mozart not only repeated, but +introduced various kinds of ornaments, and even harmonic changes; and +they expected performers to do the same. Beethoven, however, allowed +no such licence—one, indeed, which in the hands of ordinary pianists +would be calculated to spoil rather than to improve the music. Part, +then, of the <i>raison d'être</i> of the repeat ceased to exist. But a +still stronger temptation to suppress it must have been the +<i>programme</i> or <i>picture</i> which Beethoven had in his mind when he +composed. The repeat, now become almost an empty form, must have +proved at times a fetter to his imagination. In many ways he was bold; +but in this matter strangely conservative. It was only in the sonata +in F minor, Op. 57, that he first ventured to omit the repeat. It is +not to be found in the opening movements of Op. 90 or Op. 110, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>yet in +his last sonata (Op. 111) the composer almost seems as if he wished to +atone for his previous sins of omission. He had evidently not settled +the question one way or the other; but the fact that in three of his +most poetical works he departed from custom, deserves note. Before his +time the repeat, like the laws of the Medes and Persians, seemed +irrevocably fixed.</p> + +<p>Beethoven added important introductions or codas, or even both, to +some of the movements of his sonatas. Codas are to be found in the +sonatas both of Haydn and Mozart, but not introductory movements; the +idea of the latter, however, did not originate with Beethoven. The +Grave which opens the "Pathétique" (Op. 13) does not merely throw the +listener into the right mood for the Allegro, but the opening phrase—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music071.png" alt="Beethoven, "Pathetique," Grave" width="319" height="96" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music071.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music071.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>is afterwards made use of in the development section—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music072.png" alt="Beethoven, "Pathetique," development section" width="298" height="104" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music072.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music072.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>and, later on, it occurs in double augmentation.</p> + +<p>The <i>maestoso</i> which ushers in the Allegro of the last sonata contains +foreshadowings which are better felt than explained.</p> + +<p>At times the codas of Haydn are interesting,—as, for example, the one +at the end of the first <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>movement of his "Genziger" Sonata in E +flat,—yet they do not present the thematic material in any new or +striking light. With Beethoven it is different. In the Sonata in E +flat (Op. 7) not only is there contrapuntal working, but the principal +theme, just at the close, is, as it were, rounded off, completed. +Similar treatment may be seen in the first movement of the Sonata in D +(Op. 10, No. 3) (here the effect is intensified by contrary motion); +also in the Allegro of Op. 13, and other sonatas; the opening movement +of Op. 57 offers a striking illustration.</p> + +<p>The coda to the first movement of the "Waldstein" Sonata (Op. 53) is +on a most elaborate scale: it is almost as long as the development +section. In the latter, only fragments of the principal theme had been +worked, but in the coda it appears in complete form; fierce chords +seem to retard its progress, and a sinking, syncopated figure is +opposed to it, counteracting its rising, expanding nature. But it +works its way onward and upward, until, as if exhausted by the effort, +two descending scales lead to a quiet delivery of the second theme, +which had not been heard during the development section. Then +principal theme is given for the last time; it has overcome all +obstacles, and proclaims its victory in loud and powerful chords. The +Presto which closes the "Appassionata" (Op. 57) is one of Beethoven's +grandest codas, and all the more wonderful in that it follows a +movement of intense storm and stress.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> It is a coda, not merely to the +last movement, but to the whole work: it recalls the first, as well as +the third movement. The coda of the first movement of the C minor +Symphony displays similar intensity; there, however, we have an +expression of strong will; here, one of savage despair. The coda of +the first movement of the "Adieux" Sonata (Op. 81A) is another +memorable ending. The farewell notes sound sad in the opening Adagio, +while in the Allegro which follows they are again plaintive, or else +agitated. But in the coda, though still sad, they express a certain +tenderness, and the lingering of friends loth to part. Whatever the +special meaning of the music, the point which we here wish to +emphasise is, that the coda presents thematic material, already amply +developed, in quite a new light.</p> + +<p>In the matter of structure, Beethoven may be said, in the main, to +have followed Haydn and Mozart, but the effect of his music is, +nevertheless, very different. By overlapping of phrases; by very +moderate use of full closes; by making passages of transition +thoroughly thematic; by affinity and yet strong contrast between his +principal and second themes; by a more organic system of development; +by these and other means Beethoven surpassed his predecessors in power +of continuity, intensity, and unity. Then, again, his conception of +tonality was broader, and his harmonies were more varied; the fuller, +richer tone of the pianoforte of his day influenced the character of +his <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>melodies; while the consequent progress of technique, as +exhibited in the works of some of his immediate predecessors and +contemporaries, enabled him to present his thoughts with greater +variety and more striking effect than was possible to either Haydn or +Mozart.</p> + +<p>Once more, Beethoven seemed to be elaborating some central thought; +Haydn and Mozart (with few exceptions), to be deftly weaving together +thoughts so as to obtain pleasing contrasts. In a similar manner, the +first and last movements of a sonata with Beethoven are of kindred +mood, though perhaps of different degree. Haydn and Mozart seem again +to be aiming at contrast; after a dignified opening Allegro and a +soft, graceful slow movement, they frequently wind up with a Finale of +which the chief characteristics are humour, playfulness, and +merriment, so that the listener may part company from them in a +pleasant frame of mind.</p> + +<p>We have been comparing the composer, and to his advantage, with Haydn +and Mozart. But the latter, however, sometimes come within near reach +of the former; and had the means at their disposal been similar, they +might possibly have equalled him. And, on the other hand, Beethoven's +inspiration was sometimes at a comparatively low ebb. Speaking +generally, however, the comparison, we believe, stands good.</p> + +<p>John Sebastian Bach devoted the greater part of his life to the art of +developing themes. His <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>skill was wonderful, and so, too,—considering +the restrictions of the fugue-form,—was the imagination which he +displayed. In Beethoven the old master seems to live again, only under +new and more favourable conditions. Bach was brought up in the way of +the fugue, Beethoven of the sonata; and, it may be added, from these, +respectively, neither ever departed. From early youth onward, our +composer was a deep student of Bach, and assimilated some of his +predecessor's methods. One special feature of Beethoven's mode of +development was to take a few notes, or sometimes merely a figure, +from his theme, and to expand them into a phrase; as, for instance, in +the opening movement of the sonata in C minor (Op. 10, No. 1), in +which</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music073.png" alt="Beethoven, op. 10, no.1, opening movement" width="187" height="82" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music073.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music073.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>forms the material for the closing phrase of the exposition section. +And the opening figure of the Finale of the same sonata is employed in +a similar manner at the commencement of the second section of the +movement. The Rondo of Op. 10, No. 3, furnishes good illustrations. +Now let us turn to Bach. In the 13th Fugue of the "Well-tempered +Clavier," the closing notes of the subject</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music074.png" alt="J.S. Bach, Well-Tempered Clavier, 13th Fugue" width="227" height="116" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music074.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music074.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>are expanded, commencing at bar twenty-four, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>into a melodious phrase. +Also in the Prelude which follows (No. 14)</p> + +<table border="0" summary="J.S. Bach Prelude 14" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="75%" id="AutoNumber11"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <img src="images/music075.png" alt="J.S. Bach, Prelude, No. 14" width="182" height="95" /></td> + <td>becomes</td> + <td> + <img src="images/music076.png" alt="J.S. Bach, Prelude, No. 14" width="342" height="100" /></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music075.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music075.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + </td> + <td> </td> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music076.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music076.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + </td> + </tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p>And some magnificent examples might be culled from the noble Preludes +in E flat and B flat minor (Book 1, Nos. 8 and 22). Again, another +special feature of Beethoven is the extension of a phrase by +repetition of the last clause,—a method too familiar to need +quotation. But let us give one illustration from Bach (Book 1, Fugue +6)—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music077.png" alt="J.S. Bach, Book 1, Fugue 6" width="746" height="108" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music077.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music077.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p>The 8th Prelude of Book I has been already mentioned to illustrate one +point, but there are other Beethovenisms in it.</p> + +<p>These comparisons must not be misunderstood; study of Bach +strengthened Beethoven's genius. We are not speaking of bald +imitation, not even of conscious imitation. He not only received the +message of the old master, as a child, but while he was a child; and +that no doubt helped him more than all the works of his predecessors +from Emanuel Bach upwards. It appealed to him strongly, because it was +based on nature. Bach's Fugues are living organisms; they are +expansions of some central thought. Development reveals the latent +power, the latent meaning of the themes; were it merely artificial, no +matter how <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>skilful, it would be letter, not spirit. A clever +contrapuntist once conceived the bold idea of competing with Bach; he +wrote a series of Preludes and Fugues in all the keys, and displayed +wonderful skill in all the arts of counterpoint, canon, and fugue, +while in the matter of elaborate combinations he actually surpassed +Bach (we refer here only to the "Well-tempered Clavier"). But the +result was failure; the laborious work was wasted. Klengel had +mistaken the means for the end; he had worked as a mathematician, not +as a musician. Beethoven felt the true secret of Bach's greatness, and +his own genius taught him how to profit by it. Next to the necessity +of having something of importance to say, something which development +will enhance, the great lesson which Beethoven learnt from Bach was +unity in variety, the "highest law in all artistic creation," as Dr. +H. Riemann well remarks in his <i>Catechism of Musical Æsthetics</i>.</p> + +<p>Very many, probably the greater number, of Beethoven's sonatas rest +upon some poetic basis. Bombet, in his <i>Life of Haydn</i>, tells us how +that composer sometimes "imagined a little romance, which might +furnish him with musical sentiments and colours"; and the titles which +he gave to many of his symphonies certainly support that statement. At +other times the romance was already to hand, as in the case of the +32nd sonata, which was inspired by Haydn's dear friend, Frau von +Genziger. Of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>poetic basis underlying some of Beethoven's sonatas +we have fair knowledge. Schindler, in the second edition of his +<i>Biography of Beethoven</i>, gives a few extracts from the Conversation +Books (Conversations Hefte), in which, on account of the master's +deafness, questions or answers were written down by those holding +conversation with him. Beethoven read, and, of course, replied <i>viva +voce</i>. We have not, it is true, his words, yet it is possible, at +times, to gather their purport from the context. For instance, there +is a conversation (or rather one half of it) recorded, which took +place in 1823 between the composer and Schindler. The latter says: "Do +you remember how I ventured a few years ago to play over to you the +Sonata Op. 14?—now everything is clear." The next entry runs +thus:—"I still feel the pain in my hand." A footnote explains that +after Schindler had played the opening section of the first movement, +Beethoven struck him somewhat roughly on the hand, pushed him from the +stool, and, placing himself on it, played and <i>explained</i> the sonata. +Then Schindler says: "Two principles also in the middle section of +'Pathétique,'" as if the teacher had called upon him to give +illustrations from other sonatas of what he had explained concerning +Op. 14. But there is another record of a conversation which took place +between Beethoven and Schindler in the very month (March, 1827) in +which the composer died. "As you feel well to-day," says the disciple, +"we <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>can continue our talk concerning the poetic basis ("wieder etwas +poetisiren") of the Trio in B flat." And after some remarks about +Aristotle's views of tragedy, and about the <i>Medea</i> of Euripides, we +come across the following:—"But why <i>everywhere</i> a superscription? In +many movements of the sonatas and symphonies, where feeling and one's +own imagination might dictate, such a heading would do harm. Music +ought not, and cannot, on all occasions give a definite direction to +feeling." Beethoven must have been alluding to some scheme of his for +indicating the nature of the contents of his works, and its boldness +seems to have astonished Schindler. It is possible that Beethoven, +conscious that his end was not far distant, carried away by the +enthusiasm of the moment, and desirous of giving all possible help to +the right understanding of his music, went far beyond the modest lines +by which he was guided when writing his "Pastoral" Symphony.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> But +let us return to the conversation.</p> + +<p>"Good!" says Schindler, "then you will next <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>set about writing an +<i>angry</i> sonata?" Beethoven would seem to have declared even that +possible, for Schindler continues: "Oh! I have no doubt you will +accomplish that, and I rejoice in anticipation." And, then, as if +remembering that his master was an invalid, and that it would not be +right to excite him by prolonging the argument, he added, probably in +a half-jocular manner: "Your housekeeper must do her part, and first +put you into a towering passion." The above extracts show pretty +clearly that the poetic basis of his music was a subject which +Beethoven took pleasure in discussing with his friends. Beethoven's +back was, however, at once up if he found others pushing the matter +too far. Of this we will give an instance. In the year 1782 Dr. +Christian Müller of Bremen organised concerts among the members of his +family, and, already at the beginning of the nineteenth century, +Beethoven's name figured on the programmes. A friend of the family, +Dr. Carl Iken, who took part in the musical proceedings, was an ardent +admirer of Beethoven's music, and he ventured to draw up explanations +and picture-programmes of the master's works; and these were <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>read out +before the performances of the works in question. It seems, indeed, +that he was the first who felt impelled to give utterance to the +poetical feelings aroused by Beethoven's music. Dr. Iken's intentions +were of the best, and he may often have succeeded in throwing his +audience into the right mood. A poetical programme, if not too +fantastic, would often prove of better effect than the most skilful of +analyses. These "Iken" programmes so delighted Dr. Müller that he sent +several of them to the master at Vienna. Beethoven read, but his anger +was stirred. He sent for Schindler, and dictated a letter to Dr. +Müller. It was a friendly but energetic protest against such treatment +of his or anyone else's music. He drew attention to the erroneous +opinions to which it would give birth. <i>If explanations were needed</i>, +he declared, <i>let them be limited to the general characteristics of +the compositions</i>,<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> which it would not be difficult for cultured +musicians to furnish. Thus relates Schindler, and there seems no +reason to doubt his word. It is to be hoped that Dr. Müller's letter +will one day be discovered. It was not the plan to which Beethoven +objected, but the manner in which it was carried out.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p> + +<p>Before quitting this subject, let us refer to one or two sonatas +concerning which there are well authenticated utterances of the +master. Schindler once asked him for the key to the Sonatas in D minor +(Op. 31, No. 2) and F minor ("Appassionata"), and Beethoven replied: +"Read Shakespeare's <i>Tempest</i>." The reply was laconic. Beethoven, no +doubt, could have furnished further details, but he abstained from so +doing, and in this he was perfectly justified. Then Schindler, growing +bold, ventured a further question: "What did the master intend to +express by the Largo of the Sonata in D (Op. 10, No. 3)?" And the +latter replied that everyone felt that this Largo described the +condition of the soul of a melancholy man, with various nuances of +light and shade. Beethoven's quiet, dignified utterances deserve +special attention in these days of programme-music. It is perhaps well +that he did not carry out his idea of furnishing the clue to the +poetic idea underlying his sonatas. It would, of course, have been +highly interesting to know the sources of his inspirations, but it is +terrible to think of the consequences which would have ensued. +Composers would have imitated him, and those lacking genius would have +made themselves and their art ridiculous. Berlioz went to extremes, +but his genius saved him; and Schumann, a true poet, though inclined +to superscriptions, kept within very reasonable lines.</p> + +<p>It was undoubtedly this poetic basis that so affected the form of +Beethoven's sonatas. The little <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>romances by which Haydn spurred his +imagination were as children's tales compared with the deep thoughts, +the tragic events, and the masterpieces of Plato, Shakespeare, and +Goethe, which in Beethoven sharpened feeling and intensified thought. +The great sonatas of Beethoven are not mere cunningly-devised pieces, +not mere mood-painting; they are real, living dramas.</p> + +<p>In aiming at a higher organisation, he actually became a disorganiser. +"All things are growing or decaying," says Herbert Spencer. And in +Beethoven, so far as sonata and sonata-form are concerned, we seem, as +it were, to perceive the beginning of a period of decay.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN</h3> + + +<h4>I. Weber</h4> + +<p>The two greatest contemporaries of Beethoven were, undoubtedly, Carl +Maria von Weber and Franz Schubert, and both wrote pianoforte sonatas. +Many other composers of that period—some of them possessed of +considerable talent—devoted themselves to that branch of musical +literature: Steibelt (1764-1823), Woelfl (1772-1812), J.B. Cramer +(1771-1858), J.N. Hummel (1778-1837), F.W.M. Kalkbrenner (1788-1849), +and others. Of these, the first three may be named sonata-makers. The +number which they produced is positively alarming; but it is some +consolation to think that a knowledge of their works is not of +essential importance. Steibelt's sonata in E flat (dedicated to Mme. +Buonaparte) was given once at the Popular Concerts in 1860, and +Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" sonata, several times between 1859 and 1873; +not one, however, of the 105 said to have been written by J.B.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> Cramer +has ever been heard there.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Most of these works justly merit the +oblivion into which they have fallen; some are quite second, or even +third rate; others were written merely as show pieces,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> and are +now, of course, utterly out of date; and many were written for +educational purposes, or to suit popular taste (sonatas containing +variations on national and favourite airs, light rondos, etc.).<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p> + +<p>Cramer's studies have achieved world-wide reputation, and, as music, +they are often interesting. Also in his sonatas are to be found many +serious, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>well-written movements; musical taste has, however, so +changed since the rise of the romantic school, that it is doubtful +whether they would be now acceptable even as teaching pieces.</p> + +<p>Hummel's few sonatas have suffered at the hand of time; but, though +the music be mechanical, and therefore cold, there is much to interest +pianists in the two sonatas in F sharp minor (Op. 81) and D major (Op. +106). These were written after the composer's appointment at Weimar in +1820. His two early sonatas (Op. 13, in E flat, and Op. 20, dedicated +to Haydn) are not easy, yet not so difficult as the two just +mentioned.</p> + +<p>Steibelt and Woelfl both measured themselves with Beethoven in the art +of improvisation. The former was so ignominiously defeated that he +never ventured to meet his rival again. Woelfl, however, fared better. +With his long fingers he could accomplish wonders on the instrument; +but only so far as technique was concerned did he surpass Beethoven.</p> + +<p>Carl Maria v. Weber (1786-1826) in early youth studied the pianoforte +under two able court organists, J.P. Heuschkel<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> and J.N. +Kalcher,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> both of whom he always held in grateful remembrance. +Under the direction of the latter he wrote some pianoforte sonatas, +which, according to the statement of his son and biographer, M.M. v. +Weber, were accidentally destroyed. Later on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>he studied under Vogler +and other masters. He became a famous pianist, and at Berlin, in 1812, +composed his 1st Sonata in C (Op. 24). No. 2, in A flat (Op. 39), was +commenced at Prague in 1814, and completed at Berlin in 1816. No. 3, +in D minor (Op. 49), was also written at Berlin, and in the same year. +No. 4, in E minor (Op. 70), occupied the composer between the years +1819 and 1822; it was written at Hosterwitz, near Dresden, during the +time he was at work on his opera <i>Euryanthe</i>.</p> + +<p>Weber and Schubert are both classed as contemporaries of Beethoven, +yet the latter was also their predecessor. Of Schubert we shall speak +presently. As regards Weber, it should be remembered that before he +had written his sonata in C (Op. 24) Beethoven had already published +"Les Adieux" (Op. 81A). The individuality of the composer of <i>Die +Freischütz</i> was, however, so strong, that we meet with no direct +traces of the influence of Beethoven in his pianoforte music.</p> + +<p>The Weber sonatas have been described by Dr. P. Spitta as "fantasias +in sonata-form," and this admirably expresses the character of these +works. Weber followed the custom of his day in writing sonatas, but it +seems as though he would have accomplished still greater things had he +given full rein to his imagination, and allowed subject-matter to +determine form. Like his great contemporary, of whom we have next to +speak, Weber, in spite <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>of Vogler's teaching, was not a strong +contrapuntist; he relied chiefly upon melody, harmonic effects, and +strong contrasts. His romantic themes, his picturesque colouring, +enchant the ear, and the poetry and passion of his pianoforte music, +both intensified by grand technique, stir one's soul to its very +depths; yet the works are of the fantasia, rather than of the sonata +order. We have the letter rather than the true spirit of a sonata. +Place side by side Weber's Sonata in A flat (the greatest of the four) +and Beethoven's D minor or "Appassionata," and the difference will be +at once felt. In the latter there is a latent power which is wanting +in the former. It seems as if one could never sound the depths of +Beethoven's music: fresh study reveals new beauties, new details; the +relation of the parts to the whole (not only of the sections of a +movement, but of the movements <i>inter se</i>), and, therefore, the unity +of the whole becomes more evident. We must not be understood to mean +that Weber worked without plan, or even careful thought; but merely, +that the organic structure of his sonatas is far less closely knit +than in those of the Bonn master; there is contrast rather than +concatenation of ideas, outward show rather than inner substance. The +slow movements (with exception of those of the 1st and 2nd Sonatas, +which have somewhat of a dramatic character) and Finales are +satisfactory, <i>per se</i>, as music: the former have charm, refinement; +the latter, elegance, piquancy, brilliancy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> Now, in these sonatas, +the opening movements seem like the commencement of some tragedy: in +No. 2 there is nobility mixed with pathos; in No. 3, fierce passion; +and in No. 4, still passion, albeit of a tenderer, more melancholy +kind. But in the Finales it is as though we had passed from the +tragedy of the stage to the melodrama, or frivolity of the +drawing-room; they offer, it is true, strong contrast, yet not of the +right sort, not that to which Beethoven has accustomed us.</p> + +<p>Throughout the four sonatas we detect the hand of a great pianist. In +the first, the element of virtuosity predominates; the first and, +especially, the last movement (the so-called Perpetuum mobile) are +show pieces, though of a high order. In the other sonatas the same +element exists, and yet it seldom obtrudes itself; the composer is +merely using, to the full, the rich means at his command to express +his luxuriant and poetical thoughts. In his writing for the instrument +Weber recalls Dussek,—the Dussek of the "Retour à Paris" and +"Invocation" sonatas. The earlier master was also a great pianist, and +filled with the spirit of romance; still he lacked the force and fire +of Weber. Then, again, Dussek, in early manhood, passed through the +classical crucible, whereas Weber was born and bred very much <i>à la +Bohémienne</i>; he developed from within rather than from without. It is +easier to criticise than to create. If we cannot place the sonatas of +Weber on the same high level as those of Beethoven, we may <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>at least +say that they take very high rank; also, that in the hands of a great +pianist they are certain to produce a powerful impression.</p> + + +<h4>II. Schubert</h4> + +<p>The other great contemporary of Beethoven was Franz Schubert, born in +1797, the year in which the former published his Sonata in E flat (Op. +7). Then, again, Schubert's earliest pianoforte sonata was composed in +February 1815, while Beethoven's Sonata in A (Op. 101) was produced at +a concert only one year later (16th February 1816). It is well to +remember these dates, by which we perceive that Beethoven had written +twenty-seven of his thirty-two sonatas before Schubert commenced +composing works of this kind. But though here and there the influence +of the Bonn master may be felt in Schubert, the individuality of the +latter was so strong, that we regard him as an independent +contemporary. The influence of Haydn and Mozart, <i>plus</i> his own mighty +genius, seem almost sufficient to account for Schubert's music. The +new edition of the composer's works published by Messrs. Breitkopf & +Härtel contains fifteen sonatas for pianoforte solo. The first four—</p> + +<p> +No. 1, in E (1815),<br /> +No. 2, in C (1815),<br /> +No. 3, in A flat (1817), and<br /> +No. 4, in E minor (1817),<br /> +</p> + +<p>had hitherto only been known by name.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> + +<p>In following the career of a great composer, his first efforts, +however humble, however incomplete, are of interest; but from a purely +musical point of view the Minuets of Nos. 2 and 3 are the most +attractive portions of these sonatas; we catch in them glimpses of +that freshness and romantic beauty which characterise Schubert's later +productions.</p> + +<p>In moments of strong inspiration, Schubert worked wonders, yet the +lack of regular and severe study often makes itself felt. Though +colouring may enhance counterpoint, it will not serve as a substitute +for it. Then there is, at times, monotony of rhythm; and this, to a +great extent, was the result of little practice in the art "of +combining melodies."</p> + +<p>While on the subject of Schubert's failings, we may as well complete +the catalogue. In the later sonatas we meet with diffuseness; and +sometimes a stroke of genius is followed by music which, at any rate +for Schubert, is commonplace. It seems presumption to weigh the +composer in critical balances, and to find him wanting; but he stands +here side by side with Beethoven, and the contrast between the two men +forces itself on our notice. Both were richly endowed by nature. By +training, and the power of self-criticism which the latter brings with +it, Beethoven was able to make the most of his gifts; Schubert, on the +other hand, by the very lavish display which he sometimes made, +actually weakened them. There is no page of musical history more +touching than <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>the one which records how the composer, after having +written wonderful songs, grand symphonies, and other works too +numerous to mention, made arrangements to study with S. Sechter, one +of the most eminent theorists of the day. The composer paid the latter +a visit on the 4th November 1828; but within a fortnight, Schubert was +no longer in the land of the living. When too late, he seems to have +made the discovery which, perhaps, his very wealth of inspiration had +hidden from him up to that moment, namely, that discipline strengthens +genius. One may point out faults in Schubert's art-works, yet his +melodies and harmonies are so bewitching, his music altogether so full +of spontaneity and inspiration, that for the time being one is +spellbound. Schumann was fairly right when he described Schubert's +lengths as "heavenly."</p> + +<p>Three more sonatas were produced in the year 1817, the first in the +unusual key of B major; and here we find a marked advance in +conception and execution. It opens with an Allegro, the total effect +of which, however, is not satisfactory; the principal theme has +dramatic power, and what follows has lyrical charm, but the +development section is disappointing. The Adagio seems like an +arrangement of a lovely symphonic movement; the orchestra, and not the +pianoforte, must have been in the composer's mind when he penned it. +The lively Scherzo, with its quiet Trio, is a little gem. The +clear-cut, concise form of such movements saved Schubert from all +danger of diffuse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>ness; and in them, as Mozart remarked to the Emperor +Joseph, who complained of the number of notes in his opera, <i>Die +Entführung</i>, there are "just as many as are necessary." The sonata in +A minor (Op. 164), which consists of three movements, is short and +delightful from beginning to end. In the opening Allegro the second +subject occurs, by way of exception, in the major key of the +submediant. There is much to admire in the 3rd, in E flat, especially +the Minuet and Trio; yet the music is not pure Schubert. About six +years elapsed between this and the next sonata, in A minor (1823). +Schubert had already written his B minor Symphony, and though the +first two movements of the sonata will not compare with those of the +former in loftiness of conception, there is a certain kinship between +the two works. In both there are fitful gusts of passion, a feeling of +awe, and a tone of sadness which tells of disappointed hopes, of lost +illusions. The Finale, though fine, stands on a lower level. During +the years 1825-26, Schubert wrote, besides one in A major (Op. 120), +three magnificent sonatas: one in A minor, dedicated to the Archduke +Rudolph (Op. 42), another in D (Op. 53), and a third in G (Op. 78). In +these three works we have the composer's ripest efforts. The first +movement of the 1st, in A minor, is well-nigh perfect. That opening +phrase—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music078.png" alt="Schubert, op. 42, opening phrase" width="326" height="93" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music078.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music078.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>haunts one like a sad dream; and the development <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>section, long, +though not monotonous, is full of it. Without sacrificing his +individuality, Schubert has here caught something of Beethoven's +peculiar method of treating a theme,—that is, of evolving new phrases +from its various sections. The coda, again, has penetrating power, and +the fierce concluding phrase sounds like the passionate resistance of +a proud artist to the stern degrees of fate. The tender melody and +delicate variations of the Andante, the bold Scherzo, with its soft +Trio, and the energetic Finale are all exceedingly interesting; yet +they do not affect us like the first movement, in which lies not only +the majesty, but the mystery of genius. The sonata in D has a vigorous +opening Allegro,—a long, lovely, slow movement,—a crisp Scherzo, but +a peculiar Finale, one which Schumann qualifies as comical +(possirlich). The sonata in G contains some of the composer's most +charming, characteristic music. The opening <i>moderato e cantabile</i> is +a tone-poem of touching pathos. The sad principal theme is supported +by such soft, tender harmonies, that its very sadness charms. In the +development section it assumes a different character. Melancholy gives +place to passion, at times fierce; then calm returns. The coda is one +of the most fascinating ever penned by Schubert. The slow movement and +Menuetto form worthy companions; but with the Finale the composer +breaks the spell. Schumann says: "Keep away from it; it has no +imagination, no enigma to solve."</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p> + +<p>The last three sonatas (in C minor, A, and B flat) were composed in +September 1828, not three months before the death of the composer. In +the opening theme of No. 2, determination and confidence are +expressed, while in the Scherzo and Rondo there is even sunshine, +though now and again black clouds flit across the scene. But in the +Adagio, and in all the movements of the other two sonatas, the mood is +either one of sadness, more or less intense, dark despair, or fierce +frenzy. Music can express both joy and sorrow, though the latter seems +more congenial to it. Mournful strains are an echo, as it were, of the +"still, sad music of humanity." Grief, too, sharpens the imagination; +and music produced under its influence stirs a sensitive soul more +powerfully than the brightest, merriest sounds. But these three +sonatas, though they contain wonderful thoughts and some of Schubert's +grandest, and most delicate harmonic colouring, fall short of +perfection. They are too long, not because they cover so many pages, +but because there is a lack of balance; at times, indeed, the composer +seems to lose all sense of proportion. Then, again, the weakness of +Schubert in the art of development is specially felt; the noble +themes, on the whole, lose rather than gain by the loose, monotonous, +and, in some places, even trivial treatment to which they are +subjected. And what is more fatal than a lack of gradation of +interest? In a truly great work of art, be it poem, tragedy, sonata, +or symphony, the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>author carries his readers or audience along with +him from one point to another,—he gives no time for rest or +reflection; and when he has worked them up to the highest pitch, he +stops, and there is an awakening, as it were, from some wonderful +dream. If afterwards the work be analysed, the pains with which it was +built up can be traced; the powerful effect which it produced will be +found due, not alone to the creative power, the imagination of the +author, but also to his dialectic skill and to his critical faculty. +It is all very well to talk of great works as the fruits of hot +inspiration and not cold intellect. A masterpiece is the outcome of +both; the one provides the material, the other shapes it. Schubert was +an inspired composer, but most of his works, especially those of large +compass, show that he was mastered by moods, not that he was master of +them. It may be said that many who can appreciate beautiful music have +not the bump of intellect strongly developed, and would not therefore +be affected by any such shortcomings; that they would simply enjoy the +music. That is very likely, but here we are analysing and comparing; +and neither the beauty nor even grandeur of the music, nor the effect +which it might produce on certain minds, concerns us. There are many +persons who have had no technical training, but who possess a true +sense of order, proportion, and gradation; and such instinctively feel +that Schubert's sonatas, in spite of their many striking qualities, +are not so great as those of Beethoven. We have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>referred more than +once to the Popular Concert catalogue, which is a very fair +thermometer of public taste. One can see how seldom the Schubert +sonatas are performed in comparison with those of his great +contemporary. But to refer specially to the three last sonatas now +under notice. The one in B flat (No. 3) was played by Mr. Leonard +Borwick, it is true, on the 3rd February 1894, but the previous date +of performance was 16th January 1882. No. 2, in A, was last given in +1882, and No. 1 has not been heard since 1879.</p> + +<p>The Allegro of the C minor sonata opens with a bold theme, and an +energetic transition passage leads to the dominant of the relative +major key. Of the soft second theme Schubert seems so fond, that he is +loth to quit it; he repeats it in varied form, and still after that, +it is heard in minor. This unnecessarily lengthens the exposition +section, which, in addition, has the repeat mark. The development +section is rather vague, but the coda is impressive: the long +descending phrase and the sad repeated minor chords at the close +suggest exhaustion after fierce conflict. The theme of the Adagio, in +A flat, partly inspired by Beethoven, is noble, and full of tender, +regretful feeling; the opening and close of the movement are the +finest portions. The Minuet and Trio are effective, but the final +Allegro is hopelessly long, and by no means equal to the rest of the +work.</p> + +<p>The first movement of the sonata in A has a characteristic principal +theme, and one in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>dominant key of bewitching beauty. The coda +gives a last reminiscence of the opening theme; but its almost defiant +character has vanished away; for it is now played pianissimo. +Schubert, in the importance of his codas, recalls Beethoven; each, +however, made it serve a different purpose. The latter, at any rate in +his Allegro movements, gathers together his strength, as if for one +last, supreme effort. Schubert, on the other hand, seems rather as if +his strength were spent, and as if he could only give a faint echo of +his leading theme. The coda of the first movement of the sonata in A +minor (Op. 42) offers, however, one striking exception. The Andantino +and Scherzo of the A sonata are well-nigh perfect, but the Rondo, in +spite of much that is charming, is of inferior quality and of +irritating length. The 3rd sonata, in B flat, the last of the series, +the <i>sonate-testament</i>, as Von Lenz said of Beethoven's Op. 111, has +wonderful moments, yet it contains also lengths which even Schumann +would scarcely have ventured to style "heavenly." We refer +particularly to the first and last movements; the Andante and Scherzo +are beyond criticism.</p> + +<p>These sonatas were written as Schubert was about to enter the Valley +of the Shadow of Death. His spirit was still strong, but his flesh +must have been weak. To turn away from them on account of any +imperfections, would be to lose some of Schubert's loftiest thoughts, +some of his choicest tone-painting.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT</h3> + + +<p>After Beethoven, the first composer of note was Robert Schumann, one +of the founders of the so-called romantic school. In one of his +letters he refers to Beethoven's choral symphony "as the turning-point +from the classical to the romantic period." By reading, Schumann had +cultivated his imagination, but his musical training was irregular; +and, indeed, when he first commenced composing, practically <i>nil</i>. If +his soul was stirred by some poem, or tale, or by remembrance of some +dear friend, he sought to express his thoughts and feelings, and on +the spur of the moment. In a letter he writes: "I have been all the +week at the piano, composing, writing, laughing, and crying, all at +once. You will find this state of things nicely described in my Op. +20, the 'Grosse Humoreske,' which is already at the printer's. You see +how quickly I always work now. I get an idea, write it down, and have +it printed; that's what I like. Twelve sheets composed in a week!" And +thus short-tone poems, or a long piece, such <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>as the "Humoreske," of +irregular form, were the result. Now that was not the way in which he +composed his two sonatas. He was two years, off and on, at work on the +first, in F sharp minor (Op. 11), and eight on the other, in G minor +(Op. 22). One may therefore conclude that the fetters of form were a +source of trouble to him. And he can scarcely have felt very +enthusiastic over his task; in 1839, after both sonatas were +completed, he declared that "although from time to time fine specimens +of the sonata species made their appearance, and, probably, would +continue to do so, it seemed as if that form of composition had run +its appointed course."</p> + +<p>Of the two sonatas, the one in F sharp minor is the more interesting. +The Aria is a movement of exquisite simplicity and tenderness, and the +Scherzo, with its <i>Intermezzo alla burla</i>, has life and character. But +the Allegro, which follows the poetical introduction, and the Finale +are patchy, and at times laboured. It must not, however, be supposed +that they are uninteresting. The music has poetry and passion, and the +strong passages atone for the weak ones. There were composers at that +time who could produce sonatas more correct in form, and more logical +in treatment, yet not one who could have written music so filled with +the spirit of romance.</p> + +<p>The Sonata in G minor resembles its predecessor both in its strong and +its weak points. Considered, however, as a whole, it is less warm, +less intense.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> It is unnecessary to describe the two works in detail, +for they must be familiar to all musicians, and especially pianists. A +sympathetic rendering of them will always give pleasure; but in a +history of evolution they are of comparatively small moment. It is +interesting to compare them with the Fantasia in C (Op. 17), a work in +which Schumann displayed the full power of his genius.</p> + +<p>Chopin was another composer whose spirit moved uneasily within the +limits of the sonata. The first which he wrote (we do not reckon the +posthumous one in C minor)—the one in B flat minor—is an impressive +work. There is a certain rugged power in the opening movement, and the +Scherzo is passionate, and its Trio tender. The picturesque March owes +much of its effect to its colouring and contrasts; while the +extraordinary Finale sounds weird and uncanny. In the hands of a great +interpreter the music makes a powerful appeal; yet as a sonata it is +not really great. It lacks organic development, unity. The Sonata in B +minor, though attractive to pianists, is an inferior work. The first +movement, with exception of its melodious second theme, is dry, and +the Finale belongs to the <i>bravoura</i> order of piece. The Scherzo is +light and graceful. The slow movement is the most poetical of the +four, though spun out at too great length. The real Chopin is to be +found in his nocturnes, mazurkas, and ballads, not in his sonatas.</p> + +<p>Among modern sonatas, the three by Brahms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> (C, Op. 1; F sharp minor, +Op. 2; and F minor, Op. 5) claim special notice. With the exception of +the Liszt Sonata in B minor, which, whatever its musical value, at +least opens up "new paths" in the matter of form, the Brahms sonatas +are the only ones since Schumann which distinctly demand detailed +notice. The composer followed ordinary Beethoven lines; with exception +of the Intermezzo of the 3rd Sonata, the number and order of movement +resemble those of many a Beethoven sonata; while there is enlargement, +not change in the matter of form. Brahms studied the special means by +which his great predecessor, in some instances, sought to accentuate +the unity between various sections of a sonata; he steeped his soul in +the romantic music of Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Schumann, and, +in addition, trained his intellect to grasp the mysteries of +counterpoint, and to perceive the freer modern uses to which it was +put by the classical masters. Brahms' early acquaintance with Liszt +opened up to him, too, the resources of modern technique. And thus, +possessing individuality of his own, in addition to these inheritances +and acquirements, Brahms wrote sonatas, which, though in the main on +old lines, are no mere imitations, pale reflexes of his predecessors.</p> + +<p>The 1st Sonata, in C (Op. 1), has for its opening theme one which has +been said to resemble the opening theme of Beethoven's Op. 106. It +will be well to look on this picture (Beethoven)—</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music079.png" alt="Beethoven, op. 106" width="307" height="92" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music079.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music079.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>and on this (Brahms)—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music080.png" alt="Brahms, op. 1" width="253" height="97" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music080.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music080.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>There is resemblance in the matter of rhythm, but the up-beat in +Beethoven constitutes a marked difference; and, besides, the +succession of notes differs in each case. Brahms's theme, already at +the eighth bar, recommences in a key a tone lower; a similar +proceeding, by the way, is to be found in Beethoven's Sonata in G (Op. +31, No 1). After a few points of imitation, and digression through +various keys, we meet with a new theme in A minor, the soft, tender +character of which contrasts well with the bold opening one. But unity +amid diversity is Brahms' aim; and here the contrast does not prevent +a certain kinship between them—one, however, which can be felt rather +than explained.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> Of another pianissimo phrase, still in A minor, +much use is afterwards made. The prominence given in the exposition +section to the subject-matter styled "secondary," and still more so in +the development section, is peculiar; this feature had certainly not +been copied from Beethoven, who, as a rule, made his first <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>theme of +first importance. Brahms concludes his exposition section in the +opening key of the movement,—a return to early methods; Beethoven +adopted a similar course in the first movement of his Op. 53. Brahms' +development section is comparatively short. Of counterpoint we get a +good illustration in the combinations of both first and second themes; +of colour, in the presentation of the mournful minor theme in the +major key; and of originality, in the bars leading to the +recapitulation. In this last instance, the idea of gradually drawing +closer together the members of a phrase was borrowed from Beethoven, +but not the manner in which it is carried out. In the earlier master +it often stands out as a special feature; here we have, besides, +counter rhythm, and ambiguous modulation. When the principal theme +returns, it is clothed first with subdominant, then with tonic minor +harmony. The movement concludes with a vigorous coda evolved from the +opening theme. Five bars from the end, the first two bars of that +theme are given out in their original form; and then, as if repetition +were not sufficient, a thematic cadence is added, in which the notes +are given in loud tones, in augmented form, and, in addition, with +slackened <i>tempo</i> (<i>largamente</i>). The slow movement (Andante) was, we +believe, one of Brahms' earliest efforts at composition; it is said to +have been written by him at the age of fourteen. It consists of a +theme with variations; and the former is based on an old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> German +Minnelied. The words of the folk song are written beneath the notes, +as if to put the listener into the right mood.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> We need not dwell +on the variations, in which Beethoven and Schubert are the prevailing +influences, though not to any alarming extent. The music is by no +means difficult; for Brahms, indeed, remarkably easy. The movement +opens in C minor, but closes in C major. A Scherzo follows (E minor, +six-eight time; Allegro molto e con fuoco); it has a trio in C major. +The Scherzo, with its varied rhythm, is full of life; the Trio, +interesting in harmony, and also in the matter of rhythm. The Finale +(another Allegro con fuoco; the young composer has mounted his fiery +Pegasus) opens in C, in nine-eight time, thus—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music081.png" alt="Brahms, op. 1, Finale" width="230" height="83" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music081.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music081.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>a metamorphosis, in fact, of the opening theme of the sonata. And +later on we have a similar re-presentation of subject-matter from the +first movement. This Finale is musically and technically attractive, +yet scarcely on the same high level as the first movement. But the age +of the composer must be taken into consideration; for quite a young +man, it is a wonderful production.</p> + +<p>The 2nd Sonata (Op. 2) is in F sharp minor. The Allegro non troppo ma +energico is a move<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>ment which in its subject-material breathes the +spirit of Chopin: the weird, stormy opening in the principal key may +claim kinship with the opening of the Polish composer's "Polonaise" in +the same key; while a certain strain in the melodious second subject +brings to one's mind a Chopin Nocturne, also in F sharp minor; in +neither case, however, is there anything amounting to plagiarism. The +exposition section is not repeated. The development is clever, though, +perhaps, somewhat formal. Again here, the secondary theme occupies, +apparently, chief attention; but it is supported by a bass evolved +from a principal motive. And in transition passages of the exposition, +and also in the recapitulation section and coda—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music082.png" alt="Brahms, op. 2" width="243" height="98" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music082.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music082.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>in one or other shape, makes itself heard; so that, though outwardly +subordinate, its function is important: it binds together various +portions of the movement, and thus promotes union. The Andante which +follows, consists, as in the 1st Sonata, of a theme with variations. +There is nothing novel either in the theme or its mode of treatment. +Certain chords, cadences, figures, suggest Schubert—an idol whom +Brahms has never ceased to worship; and, in one place, the three +staves, and a few passages, show the influence of Liszt, the pianist +<i>par excellence</i> of the days in which this sonata was written; but the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>movement has, in addition to romantic charm, individuality. It +commences in B minor; then after a short expressive passage in major, +an arpeggio chord leads directly to the Scherzo; the following shows +the outward connection between the two movements—</p> + +<table border="0" summary="Brahms op. 2" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="75%" id="AutoNumber12"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> +<img src="images/music083.png" alt="Brahms, op. 2, commencement of Andante theme" width="242" height="128" /></td> + <td> + <img src="images/music084.png" alt="Brahms, op. 2, Scherzo" width="215" height="107" /> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music083.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music083.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + </td> + <td><p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click + <a href="music/music084.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music084.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + </td> + </tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + +<p>This bright, clever Scherzo, with its soft Schubertian trio, need not +detain us. The final Allegro is preceded by a short introduction, in +which the chief theme and other material of the Finale are set forth. +The connection between this and the earlier movements of the sonata is +not evident, like the one, for instance, already noticed, between the +Andante and the Scherzo; with research, and possibly some imagination, +relationship might, however, be traced. We are far from asserting that +movements of a sonata ought to be visibly connected; after all, the +true bond of union must be a spiritual one. But if an attempt be made +in that direction, surely the opening and closing movements are those +which, by preference, should be selected. In his Op. 28 Beethoven +seems to have evolved the themes of all four movements from the first; +in Op. 106 and Op. 109, connection is clear between the first and last +movements. Such an experiment was safe in the hands of Beethoven, and +Brahms has never <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>allowed it to become a mannerism; but second-rate +composers, and superficial listeners run the danger of mistaking the +shadow for the substance. To this matter we shall, however, soon +return. Many references have been made to the composers who have +influenced Brahms, yet we cannot resist naming one more. The opening +section of this Allegro Finale reminds one more than once of the +corresponding section in Clementi's fine Sonata in B minor. The music +of this concluding movement is clever.</p> + +<p>The 3rd sonata (Op. 5) is in F minor. The Allegro opens with a wild, +sinister theme, and one which even casts a shadow over the calm, +hope-inspiring strains afterwards heard in the orthodox key of the +relative major. The tender melodies and soft chromatic colouring which +fill the remainder of the exposition section show strong feeling for +contrast. Again, storm and stress alternate with comparative calm in +the development section. The Andante expressivo bears the following +superscription:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Der Abend dämmert, das Mondlicht scheint<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Da sind zwei Herzen in Liebe vereint<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Und halten sich selig umfangen.<br /></span> +<br /> +<span class="i12">—<i>Sternau</i>.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>And it offers a delightful tone-picture. The moon "o'er heaven's clear +azure spreading her sacred light," the calm of evening, and happy, +though ever-sighing, lovers: 'tis a scene to tempt poet, painter, and +musician. The last, however, seems <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>to have greatest advantage; music +by imitation and association can describe scenes of nature; and it can +paint, for are not its harmonies colours? But the musician can do what +is possible to neither poet nor painter,—he can make a direct appeal +to the emotions in their own language. The soft, dreamy coda—which, +with its Andante molto, its Adagio, and widened-out closing cadence, +seems to indicate the unwillingness of the lovers to part—has +Schubert colouring and charm. The reminiscence, at the commencement of +this movement, of the middle movement of the "Pathétique" cannot fail +to attract attention. Then, again, the opening of the Scherzo<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music085.png" alt="Brahms, op. 5, Scherzo" width="742" height="118" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music085.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music085.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p>sounds familiar. It must surely have been this movement in which +someone pointed out to the composer a reminiscence of Mendelssohn. +"Anyone can find that out," was the rough-and-ready reply of Brahms. +But if Mendelssohn be the prevailing influence in the Scherzo, +Schubert has his turn in the Trio. The fourth movement is an +Intermezzo, entitled "Rückblick" (Retrospect). The opening phrase, and +indeed the whole of the short movement, carries us back to the picture +of the lovers. Some change has taken place: have the lovers grown +cold? or has death divided them? The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>themes are now sad, and clothed +in minor harmonies. The Finale, perhaps, shows skill rather than +inspiration; with regard to some of the subject-matter, it is, like +the previous movement, also retrospective.</p> + +<p>Liszt's sonata in B minor, dedicated to Robert Schumann, was evidently +written under the special influence of Beethoven's later +sonatas,—perhaps more particularly the one in A flat, Op. 110. There +is by no means unanimity of opinion among musicians with regard to +Liszt's merit as a composer; some consider that his genius has not yet +been properly recognised; others, that he will not for a moment bear +comparison with any one of the great masters who preceded him, and who +wrote for the pianoforte. Among his works which have specially given +rise to discussion stands this B minor Sonata, which has proved a +stumbling-block, both on account of its form and its contents. It +would simplify matters if the one could be discussed without the +other; this, however, is not possible.</p> + +<p>We have hitherto considered the sonata of three movements as typical, +and from that type Liszt's work differs; yet not "so widely, as on a +first hearing or reading may appear." Thus wrote Mr. C.A. Barry in a +remarkably interesting analysis of the sonata which he prepared some +years back for Mr. Oscar Beringer. He remarks further: "All the +leading characteristics of a sonata in three movements are here fully +maintained within the scope of a single movement, or, to speak more +precisely, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>an uninterrupted succession of several changes of <i>tempo</i>, +thus constituting a more complete organism than can be attained by +three distinct and independent movements."</p> + +<p>The idea of passing from one movement to another without break dates +from Emanuel Bach, nay, earlier, from Kuhnau; and Beethoven +occasionally adopted it, and with striking effect. The wretched habit +at concerts of applauding between the movements of a sonata +establishes a break where—at any rate in certain sonatas of +Beethoven—the composer certainly imagined an <i>uninterrupted</i> +succession. The second movement of the "Appassionata" breaks off with +an arpeggio chord of diminished seventh, and the Finale starts on the +same chord. Yet surely after the final tonic chord of the opening +Allegro there should be no break, but only a brief pause. A <i>fermata</i> +in the middle of a movement does not constitute a break, neither need +it at the end. In Beethoven's sonatas we find many movements, +outwardly independent, yet inwardly connected; those of the D minor +and F minor may be named by way of illustration. The composer, +however, in one or two of his works, revived, to some extent, the plan +adopted in the suites of early times, of evolving various movements +from one theme. Such outward connection may help to strengthen a bond +of union already existing, but it will not establish it. The question, +then, of Liszt's "more complete organism" depends, after all, on the +contents of the music.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> So, too, when, in addition to uninterrupted +succession, Liszt makes the one theme of the slow introduction the +source whence he derives the principal part of his tone-picture, +everything depends on the quality and latent power of this fertilising +germ. Discussion of form <i>per se</i> is an impossibility. This Liszt +sonata stands, however, as a bold attempt to modify a form which, as +we have seen, Schumann thought exhausted (was it for that reason that +Liszt dedicated the work to him?), and one in which so many soulless +compositions were written during the second quarter of the present +century. "La sonate," says Charles Soullier in his <i>Nouveau +Dictionnaire de Musique Illustré</i> "est morte avec le dix-huitième +siècle qui en a tant produit." Is Liszt's sonata a Phoenix rising from +its ashes? Shall we be able to say "La sonate est morte! Vive la +sonate!" Time will tell. Hitherto Liszt's work has not borne fruit.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>THE SONATA IN ENGLAND</h3> + + +<p>In previous chapters we have been occupied with Italy and Germany. +Without reference to those countries a history of the pianoforte +sonata would be impossible. Italy was the land of its birth; Germany, +that of its growth, and, apparently, highest development. During the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries England furnished notable +composers for the harpsichord. William Byrd and Dr. John Bull are not +only among the earliest, but at the time in which they flourished, +they were the greatest who wrote for a keyboard instrument. At the +beginning of the seventeenth century English music was indeed in a +prosperous state; it was admired at home, and its merits were +acknowledged abroad. H. Peacham, in his <i>Compleat Gentleman</i>, +published in the reign of James I., says of Byrd: "For motets and +musicke of piety, devotion, as well as for the honour of our nation, +as the merit of the man, I preferre above all others our Phoenix, Mr +William Byrd, whom in that kind I know not whether any <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>may equall. I +am sure none excell, even by the judgement of France and Italy, who +are very sparing in their commendation of strangers, in regard of that +conceipt they hold of themselves. His 'Cantiones Sacrae,' as also his +'Gradualia,' are mere angelicall and divine; and being of himselfe +naturally disposed to gravity and piety his veine is not so much for +light madrigals or canzonets; yet his 'Virginella,' and some others in +his first set, cannot be mended by the first Italian of them all." +Then at the end of the seventeenth century came Purcell, a genius who +seemed likely to raise English music still higher in the estimation of +foreign musicians. But, alas! he departed ere his powers were matured; +by his death English art sustained a grievous loss, and from that time +declined. The history of instrumental music during the eighteenth +century is dull, and, so far as the pianoforte sonata is concerned, of +little or no importance. Nevertheless, a brief survey of that century +will be attempted, after which reference will be made to a few sonata +composers of the century now drawing to a close. Just as we referred +to the sonatas for strings and harpsichord before commencing the +history of the clavier-sonata proper, so here a few remarks will be +made concerning the sonata before Dr. T.A. Arne—the first composer, +so far as we can trace, who wrote a work of that kind for the +harpsichord alone.</p> + +<p>In 1683 appeared Purcell's Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass, +the very same year in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>which Corelli published <i>his</i> "Twelve Sonatas" +(Op. 1). In his preface, Purcell frankly admits that "he has +faithfully endeavoured a just imitation of the most famed Italian +masters." Sir J. Hawkins supposes that "the sonatas of Bassani,<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> +and perhaps of some other of the Italians, were the models after which +he formed them." In our <a href="#CHAPTER_I">introductory chapter</a> we mentioned the sonatas +("a due, trè, quattro, e cinque stromenti") by Vitali (1677); and of +these, Mr. J.A. Fuller-Maitland, in his preface to the Purcell Society +edition of the "Twelve Sonatas" of 1683, remarks that "it is difficult +to resist the conclusion that these were the Englishman's models." +Vitali undoubtedly exerted strong influence; yet Purcell himself +describes his "Book of Sonatas" as "a just imitation of the most fam'd +Italian Masters." These sonatas of 1683, also the ten which appeared +after his death (among <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>which is to be found No. 9, called the "Golden +Sonata") in 1697, are of great importance and interest in the history +of English music, but there is no new departure in them; this, at any +rate in the earlier ones of 1683, is fully acknowledged by the +composer.</p> + +<p>In 1695, John Ravenscroft, a descendant, possibly, of Thomas +Ravenscroft, published at Rome, sonatas for "violini, e violine, o +arciliuto, col basso per l'organo" Opera prima, but they were mere +imitations of Corelli.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> In 1728 a certain John Humphries published +by subscription "Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass"; and +Hawkins, in his <i>History</i>, excites curiosity by declaring that they +are "of a very original cast"; he adds, however, "in respect that they +are in a style somewhat above that of the common popular airs and +country dance tunes, the delight of the vulgar, and greatly beneath +what might be expected from the studies of a person not at all +acquainted with the graces and elegancies of the Italians in their +compositions for instruments. To this it must be attributed that the +sonatas of Humphries were the common practice of such small +proficients in harmony as in his time were used to recreate themselves +with music at alehouse clubs and places of vulgar resort in the +villages adjacent to London; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>of these there were formerly many, in +which sixpence, at most, was the price of admission." We have quoted +this passage at length, because it indirectly confirms our statement +concerning English music of this period. If Hawkins had had anything +better to talk about, he would not have wasted space on the music of +alehouses and "places of vulgar resort." It may, however, be asked +whether Hawkins' report of Humphries' music is trustworthy. Now, +although the sonatas offer nothing of special interest, we may +certainly venture to say that one does not hear such well-written +melodious strains in or near alehouses of the present day. The sonatas +consist, for the most part, of four short movements. First, a slow +introduction, then an Allegro somewhat in the Corelli style. An +Adagio, often very short, separates this from the final movement, an +Allegro in binary form, a Minuet, or a Gigue. This "Humphries" musical +landmark is the only one we have to offer our readers between Purcell +and Dr. Arne. But before proceeding to notice the sonatas of the +latter, let us say something, if not of English music, yet of music in +England during the first half of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>Of the influence of Corelli we have already made mention. That +influence was materially strengthened by the two celebrated +violinist-composers, Veracini and Geminiani, who came to London in +1714; the former only paid a short visit; the latter made England his +home.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> Then a greater composer than the two just mentioned had already +arrived in London; this was Handel, whose Rinaldo had been produced +with wonderful success on the 24th February 1710. The genius of Handel +triumphed over all rivals, whether English or foreign, for well-nigh +half a century; and this fact alone explains the decline of English +art. But there was another strong influence which specially affected +harpsichord music: the Lessons of Domenico Scarlatti had made their +way throughout Europe. Thomas Roseingrave, who went to Italy in 1710, +became acquainted with the composer, and on his return pleaded the +cause of the Italian with an enthusiasm similar to that displayed a +century later by Samuel Wesley for Scarlatti's great contemporary, +J.S. Bach. Roseingrave edited "Forty-two Suites of Lessons for the +Harpsichord" by Scarlatti. Still another Italian influence may be +mentioned. "On the day," says Burney in his <i>History of Music</i>, "when +Handel's Coronation Anthem was rehearsed at Westminster Abbey (1727) +San Martini's<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> twelve sonatas were advertised." But Handel and +Scarlatti make up the history of harpsichord music in England during +the first half of the eighteenth century. Burney expressly states that +"the Lessons of the one and the Suites of the other were the only good +music for keyed instruments."</p> + +<p>Thomas Augustine Arne (1710-78) is prin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>cipally known as a writer of +operas and incidental music to plays, but he also wrote organ +concertos, and sonatas for the harpsichord. The latter, entitled +"VIII. Sonatas or Lessons for the Harpsichord," probably appeared +somewhere about 1750. With this double title it is, of course, +impossible to regard them as serious sonatas. No. 8, for instance, +consists merely of a Minuet with variations! No. 1 opens with an +Andante in binary form, while two bars of Adagio lead to another +Allegro of similar structure. No. 2 is of a similar kind. The binary +form is of the later type, <i>i.e.</i> there is a return to the principal +theme in the second section. No. 3 opens with a Prelude, and a note +states that "in this and other Preludes, which are meant as extempore +touches before the Lesson begins, neither the composer nor performer +are oblig'd to a Strictness of Tune." The pleasing Allegro which +follows shows the influence of Scarlatti-Handel. The sonata concludes +with an attractive Minuet and variations. No. 5, with its graceful +Gavotta, and No. 7 might be performed occasionally. Arne's sonatas, if +not great, contain some neat, melodious writing.</p> + +<p>The second half of the century still offers poor results so far as +national music is concerned. We have spoken of Handel and Scarlatti; +but, after them, music in England again fell under foreign rule. In +the very year of Handel's death, John Christian Bach arrived in +London, which he made his home until his death in 1782. During that +period the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>sonatas of Mozart and Haydn became known; and the two +visits of the latter to England in 1791-92 and 1794-95 gave greater +lustre to his name, and rendered his style still more popular. And all +this foreign influence (strong inasmuch as Haydn and Mozart belonged +to a school with which J.C. Bach was in sympathy) is reflected in the +English music of the period. John Burton published, in 1766, "Ten +Sonatas for the Harpsichord," which are of interest. Some of the +writing recalls Scarlatti, but there are also many touches of harmony +and melody which tell of later times. The introduction of the Alberti +bass is one clear sign of a post-Scarlatti period. Burton paid a visit +to Germany in 1752, and was, we presume, acquainted with Emanuel +Bach's compositions. We may also name six sonatas by I. Worgan, M.B., +published in 1769. At the head of No. 5, the composer remarks: "Lest +the consecutive fifths at the beginning of the theme of this movement +should escape the critic, the author here apprizes him of them." They +are as follows:—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music086.png" alt="Worgan, Sonata No. 5" width="224" height="160" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music086.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music086.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>The critic of those days must have been very dull if he required such +assistance, and his ear very sensitive if offended by such +consecutives as these. Lastly, we may give the name of a lady,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> Miss +Barthélémon,<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> whose interesting Sonata in G (Op. 3) was dedicated +to Haydn.</p> + +<p>In the early part of the nineteenth century, John Field, whose +nocturnes are still played and admired, wrote three sonatas (Op. 1), +and dedicated them to Muzio Clementi, his teacher. No. 1 is in E flat; +No. 2, in A; and No. 3, in C minor. They all consist of only two +movements (No. 1, Allegro and Rondo; No. 2, Allegro and Allegro +Vivace; No. 3, Allegro and Allegretto). In the first two sonatas the +two movements are in the same key; in the last, the first movement is +in C minor, the second, in C major. The Rondo of No. 1 contains +foreshadowings of Chopin. Field's music, generally, is old-fashioned, +and not worth revival; none, indeed, of his sonatas have ever been +played at the Monday Popular Concerts.</p> + +<p>Samuel Wesley<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> wrote three sonatas (Op. 3), likewise eight, +dedicated to the Hon. Daynes Barrington, yet we fear that not one of +them would prove acceptable at the present day. One looks in vain for +the name of Wesley in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> Popular Concert Catalogue. Cipriani Potter +(1792-1871) deserves a word of mention. Beethoven, writing to Ries, in +London, in 1818, says: "Potter has visited me several times; he seems +to be a good man, and has talent for composition." His Sonata in C +(Op. 1, dedicated to Mrs. Brymer Belcher) consists of three movements: +an Allegro non troppo with a Haydnish theme—</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music087.png" alt="Potter, op. 1" width="296" height="92" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music087.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music087.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p style="text-align: center"> </p> + +<p>an attractive Adagio, and a dainty and pleasing Rondo pastorale. The +influence of Beethoven and Clementi is great; the individuality of +Potter, small. But the sonata is thoroughly well written, and—at any +rate as an educational piece—the Rondo deserves reprinting.</p> + +<p>Sir G.A. Macfarren composed three sonatas for the pianoforte. No. 3, +in G minor, dedicated to Miss Agnes Zimmermann, is a work which +presents several features of interest. In the first long movement (an +Allegro moderato) there is no repeat. The exposition section really +contains three subjects: an opening one in the principal key, a second +in D flat, and a third in the orthodox key of the relative major. The +development section, in which there is some solid counterpoint, is +decidedly clever; much use is made in it of the second subject +mentioned above. The Andante is a movement of simple structure. A +brisk Scherzo, in the making of which Weber and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> Schumann seem to have +lent a helping hand, leads to a long Finale,—the last, but by no +means the most successful of the four movements. We have just spoken +of influences; Weber may be said to have presided at the birth of the +opening Allegro, and Mendelssohn at that of the Finale. The appearance +in the Finale of the D flat theme from the Allegro deserves note. This +sonata may not be an inspired work, yet it has many excellent +qualities.</p> + +<p>Of Sir Sterndale Bennett's two sonatas, the 1st, in F minor (Op. 13, +dedicated to Mendelssohn), commences with a long movement (Moderato +expressivo), in which there are traces of the master to whom it is +dedicated; it is followed by a clever Scherzo and Trio, a melodious +Serenata, and a weak Presto agitato. The first, second, and last +movements are in F minor, the third in F major. Schumann, in a brief +notice of the work, describes it as excellent. The sonata (Op. 46) +entitled "The Maid of Orleans" commences with an Andante pastorale in +A flat, above which are written the following lines from Act iv. Scene +1 of Schiller's play, <i>Die Jungfrau von Orleans</i>:—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Schuldlos trieb ich meine Lämmer<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Auf des stillen Berges Höh."<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"In innocence I led my sheep<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Adown the mountain's silent steep."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The movement is graceful and pleasing. Then follows an Allegro +marziale:—</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Den Feldruf hör ich mächtig zu mir dringen<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Das Schlactross steigt, und die Trompeten klingen."<br /></span> +<span class="i12">Prologue: Scene 4.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"The clanging trumpets sound, the chargers rear,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And the loud war cry thunders in mine ear."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Then an "In Prison" section with suitable superscription—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Höre mich, Gott, in meiner höchsten Noth," etc.<br /></span> +<span class="i12">Act v. Scene 2.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Hear me, O God, in mine extremity."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Lastly, a Finale—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Kurz ist das Schmerz, und ewig ist die Freude."<br /></span> +<span class="i12">Act v. Scene 14.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Brief is the sorrow, endless is the joy."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>The title and the various superscriptions naturally cause the sonata +to be ranked as programme-music, but of a very simple kind. It is easy +to suggest pastoral scenes: a few pedal notes, a certain simplicity of +melody, and a few realistic touches expressive of the waving of +branches of trees, or the meandering of a brook, and the thing is +accomplished.</p> + +<p>Dr. C.H. Parry is an English composer whose name has of late been much +before the public. He has written works both secular and sacred for +our important provincial festivals; also chamber music, songs, etc.; +and all his music shows mastery of form, skill in the art of +development, and eclectic taste. For the present, we are, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>however, +concerned merely with his sonatas. Like Brahms, he at first composed +pianoforte sonatas: No. 1, in F; No. 2, in A minor and major. Brahms +made a third attempt, but the two just mentioned are all that are +known to us of Dr. Parry's. No. 1 opens with a non troppo Allegro, a +smooth movement of somewhat pastoral character; the music, also the +writing for the instrument, remind one occasionally of Stephen Heller. +A bright, though formal Scherzo, with a well-contrasted Trio in the +key of the submediant, is followed by a melodious Andante and a +graceful, showy Allegretto.</p> + +<p>No. 2 has an introductory movement marked <i>maestoso</i>; it is divided +into three sections. The first opens with a phrase of dramatic +character; the second, in the remote key of G sharp minor, contains +two short, expressive, Schumannish themes treated in imitation; the +third has passages leading back to the opening key and phrase. The +Allegro grazioso which follows is a compact little movement; in form +it is orthodox, yet there is no repeat to the exposition section. The +influence of Heller is still felt, but also that of Schumann. Grace +rather than power distinguishes the Adagio con sentimento, in the key +of C sharp minor. The Scherzo is clever and effective, and the +Allegretto cantabile, though the last, is scarcely the best of the +four movements.</p> + +<p>A manuscript Sonata in D flat (Op. 20) by Dr. C.V. Stanford, another +prominent composer of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>our day, was produced at the Popular Concerts +(4th February 1884). It consists of an Adagio leading to an Allegro +moderato. Then follows an Intermezzo in the key of the relative minor. +An Adagio (F major) leads to the Allegro Finale in D flat major. It is +thus noticed in the <i>Musical Times</i> of March 1884:—"Some listeners +have professed to perceive in the work a deliberate intention to +violate the established laws of form, but we confess that to us no +such design is apparent. In matters of detail, Mr. Stanford shows +himself an independent thinker, but in all essentials his newest work +is as classical in outline as could possibly be desired. The opening +Adagio is exceedingly impressive, and the succeeding Allegro moderato +is worked out with splendid mastery of the subject-matter, the general +effect being that of a lofty design carried into execution by a +thoroughly experienced hand. The succeeding Allegro grazioso, a +modified kind of Scherzo, is vigorous, and the final Allegro commodo, +with its excellent first subject, seems scarcely less important than +the first movement."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC.</h3> + + +<p>Some mention, however brief, must be made of various sonatas written +by other contemporaries of the four composers discussed in the +<a href="#CHAPTER_X">last +chapter</a>. After Beethoven, the only work which, from an evolution point +of view, really claims notice is one by Liszt. All other sonatas are +written on classical lines with more or less of modern colouring. Even +M. Vincent d'Indy, one of the advanced French school of composers, has +written a "Petite Sonate dans la forme classique."</p> + +<p>Moscheles, in Germany, and Kalkbrenner, in France: these were once +names of note. Their music is often clever and brilliant, but, to +modern tastes, dry and old-fashioned; much of it, too, is superficial.</p> + +<p>Among still more modern works may be named those of Stephen Heller, +Raff, Rubinstein, Bargiel, and Grieg. The sonatas of Heller are +failures, so far as the name sonata means anything. He was not a +composer <i>de longue haleine</i>, and his opening and closing movements +are dull and tedious; some <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>of the middle movements—as, for example, +the two middle ones of the Sonata in C major—are, however, charming. +Bargiel's Sonata in C major (Op. 34) is written somewhat in "Heller" +style, but it is stronger, and, consequently, more interesting than +any of that composer's.</p> + +<p>Raff and Rubinstein both wrote pianoforte sonatas, but these do not +form prominent features in their art-work.</p> + +<p>Grieg's one Sonata in E minor (Op. 7) is a charming, clever +composition; yet as it was with Chopin, so is it with this composer: +his smallest works are his greatest.</p> + +<p>Of duet sonatas there is little more to do than to mention the +principal ones. In the evolution of the sonata they are of little or +no moment. Some, however, are highly attractive. It would be +interesting to know who wrote the first sonata for four hands, but the +point is not an easy one to settle. Jahn, speaking of Mozart's duets, +remarks that "pianoforte music for two performers was then far from +having attained the popularity which it now possesses, especially +among amateurs." We imagine that the</p> + +<p style="text-align: center"> +Sonate<br /> +à Quatre mains sur un Clavecin<br /> +Composé<br /> +par<br /> +J.C. Bach<br /> +----<br /> +à Amsterdam<br /> +chez J. Schnitt Marchand de Musique<br /> +dans le Warmoes-straat<br /> +</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p> + +<p>was one of, if not the earliest. The part for the second clavier is +printed under that of the first. The sonata consists of only two +movements: an Allegro and a Rondo. The general style and treatment of +the two instruments reminds one of Mozart, but the music is crude in +comparison. Here is the commencement of the theme of the first +movement—</p> + +<p> +<img src="images/music088.png" alt="J.C. Bach, duet sonata" width="743" height="95" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music088.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music088.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p> + +<p>The duet sonatas of Mozart are full of charm and skill, and will ever +be pleasing to young and old. Dussek has written some delightful +works, and Hummel's Op. 92, in A flat, is certainly one of the best +pieces of music he ever wrote. Schubert's two sonatas (B flat, Op. 30; +C, Op. 140) are very different in character: the one is smooth and +agreeable; the other contains some of the noblest music ever penned by +the composer.</p> + +<p>Sonatinas are almost always written for educational purposes. No +description, no analysis of such works, is necessary; only a list of +the best. The "Twelve Sonatinas for the Harpsichord or Pianoforte, for +the use of Scholars" (Op. 12), by James Hook (1746-1827), father of +the well-known humorist, Theodore Hook, deserve honourable mention. +Each number contains only two <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>short movements; they are well written, +and, though old, not dry. Joseph Bottomley, another English composer +(1786-?), also wrote twelve sonatinas for the pianoforte.</p> + +<p>Those of Clementi and Dussek seem destined to perennial life. The +former composed twelve (Op. 36, 37, and 38), the latter six (Op. 20); +and then, of course, of higher musical interest are the sonatinas of +Beethoven (two) and Hermann Goetz (two). From an educational point of +view, however, these are perhaps not of equal value with many others +of inferior quality; but they are full of character and charm. Kuhlau +(1786-1832), on whose name Beethoven wrote the well-known Canon, "Kuhl +nicht lau," composed sonatas which, owing to their fresh, melodious +character and skilful writing, justly take high rank. Op. 20, 55, 59, +60, and 88 have all been edited by Dr. H. Riemann. Among still more +modern composers may be mentioned: Reinecke, whose three sonatinas +(Op. 47), six sonatinas with "the right-hand part within the compass +of five fingers" (Op. 127A), and (Op. 136) the "Six Miniature Sonatas" +(another term for sonatinas) have given satisfaction to teachers, and +enjoyment to many young pupils; also Cornelius Gurlitt, who has proved +a prolific worker in this department of musical literature. His six +sonatinas (Op. 121) and the duet sonatas (Op. 124,—really sonatinas) +are exceedingly useful, and justly popular. Besides these, he has +issued two series <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>of progressive sonatinas: some by Diabelli, Pleyel, +Steibelt, etc.; some from his own pen. Koehler's three sonatinas +(without octaves), A. Loeschhorn's instructive sonatinas, E. Pauer's +National Sonatinas (Ireland, Wales, Italy, etc.), and Xaver +Scharwenka's two sonatinas are likewise of value.</p> + +<p>Among various strange works written under the title of sonata we may +count certain programme pieces. Thus, John Christian Bach, or "Mr. +Bach," as he is named on the title-page, published a sonata "qui +represente La Bataille de Rosbach," and an <i>N.B.</i> adds: "Dans cette +Sonate La Musique vous montre le Comencement d'une Bataille le feu des +Cannons et Mousqueterie L'Ataque de la Cavalerie et les L'Amendations +des Blessées." This work consists of one movement (Allegro) in +sonata-form. Except for the title, and the words "Canonade" and "Feu +des Mousqueteries," it would be difficult to guess the subject. The +music, which may be described as a study in the Alberti bass, is +decidedly more correct in form than the French of the title-page. +Then, again, Dussek composed a "Characteristic Sonata" describing "The +Naval Battle and Total Defeat of the Grand Dutch Fleet by Admiral +Duncan on the 11th of October 1797." But he was engaged in a much more +suitable task when he wrote music <i>expressing the feelings</i> of the +unfortunate Marie Antoinette.</p> + +<p>There are three sonatas composed by A.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> Quintin Buée.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> No. 3 is +"for two performers on one instrument." In the last movement, the +first performer is "Le Français," and he rattles along with the +popular tune "Ça ira," while the second, "The Englishman," steadily +plays his national air, "Rule Britannia"; towards the close, <i>fors +fuat</i>, "God save the King" and "Ça ira" are combined.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> +<p> </p> + +<p> +<span class="smcap">Alberti</span>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, +<a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alberti Bass, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, +<a href="#Page_33">33</a> (note), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, +<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Albrici V. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Kuhnau, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ambros A.W. Pasquini, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Arbeau T. Orchésographie, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> and <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Arne T.A. <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bach C.P.E.</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: "Frederick," <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-91,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Würtemberg, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Reprisen," <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-100,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Töplitz, <a href="#Page_93">93</a> and <a href="#Page_94">94</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Leichte," <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a> (note),</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">three-movement, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Leipzig Collections, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-7;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dr. Bülow, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-8,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fasch, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Haydn, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuhnau, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marpurg's <i>Clavierstücke</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> and <a href="#Page_92">92</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Neefe, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-3.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bach J.C. <a href="#Page_28">28</a> (note), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bach J.C.F. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bach J.E. <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bach, J.S. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> (note), <a href="#Page_229">229</a> (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organ Concerto, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sonata attributed to, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> (note),</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues, <a href="#Page_160">160</a> and <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">and fugue-form, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-5,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuhnau, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rust, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bach W.F. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Banchieri, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>L'Organo suonarino</i> (with sonata) <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-5.</span><br /> +<br /> +Banister H.C. Life of Macfarren, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bargiel, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonata</i>: <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Barry C.A. <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Barthélémon Miss, <a href="#Page_229">229</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Bassani G. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Becker D. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Becker C.F. Hausmusik in Deutschlande, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-50.<br /> +<br /> +Beethoven L. v. <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reminiscences, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-140, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">patrons and friends, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-171,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">programme-music, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">opus numbers, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">connection and number of movements, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> and <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">poetic basis, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>-191,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">exposition section, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">approach to recapitulation, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">key of second subject, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">the "repeat," <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Codas and Introductions, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-181,</span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">central thought, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">disorganisation, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: (Op. 111), <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-6;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">table, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-5;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two-, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-6,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">three-, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>-3,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">four-movement, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-4,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sonatinas, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Symphony in C, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Eroica," <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sketches, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-2,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">theme of Op. 106, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bach C.P.E. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bach J.S. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-5,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brahms, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Haydn, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuhlau, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuhnau, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Neefe, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-3,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Potter, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scarlatti, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schindler, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-8, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Weber, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>-198.</span><br /> +<br /> +Benda G. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> and (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Clavierstücke</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bennett S. <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_231">231</a>-32.<br /> +<br /> +Beringer O. <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Birchall R. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Bitter C.H. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">E. Bach, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> and <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Böhm G. <i>Chorale</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bononcini B. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bononcini G.M. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Borwick L. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bottomley J. sonatinas, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brahms J. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-18.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chopin, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clementi, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Liszt, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mendelssohn, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schubert, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bossard, <a href="#Page_42">42</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Buée A.Q. <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Bull Dr. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bülow Dr. H. v. and E. Bach's sonatas, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-8, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Burney Dr. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Musical Extracts, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Burton J. <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Buxtehude, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suites, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> and <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Byrd W. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Carlyle</span>, his "Frederick the Great," <a href="#Page_83">83</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Chopin F. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Clementi, M. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> (note), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-42,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sonatinas, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Field, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Macfarren, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mozart, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Potter, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scarlatti, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Corelli A. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(note), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cramer J.B. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dannreuther E.</span> <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Davidson J.W. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dussek J.L. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Letters to publishers, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-5;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-7, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Le Retour à Paris</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Plus Ultra</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">sonatinas, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macfarren, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-2,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mendelssohn, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomaschek, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-6,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Woelfl, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Faisst J.</span> <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Analysis of a Mattheson Sonata, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-3.</span><br /> +<br /> +Farina C. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fasch J.F. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fasch C.F.C. and E. Bach, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ferdinand, Prince Louis, death of <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Fétis F.J. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a> (note),<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extract from <i>Biographie Universelle des Musiciens</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-3.</span><br /> +<br /> +Field J. <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p> +<p>Forkel, Letter from E. Bach to, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-4, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Frederick the Great, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a> (note), <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Frescobaldi, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Froberger J.J. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fuller-Maitland J.A. <a href="#Page_51">51</a> (note), <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Gabrieli A.</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gabrieli G. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gaffi B. pupil of Pasquini, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Galuppi, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a> and (note) <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gasparini, pupil of Pasquini, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Geminiani, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gluck, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Goethe, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goetz H. <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Graun C.H. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Graun J.G. <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Graupner Chr. <a href="#Page_39">39</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Grétry, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grieco G. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grieg E. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-6.<br /> +<br /> +Grove Sir G. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> (note), <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gurlitt C. <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Handel G.F.</span> <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kuhnau <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-9.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hasler H.L. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hasse J.A. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hawkins Sir J. <a href="#Page_223">223</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Haydn J. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New era, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">anecdote, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">programme-music, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">European magazine, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">father of symphony, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"In Native Worth," <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">number and connection of movements, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">introductory slow movement, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">three-movement form, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">approach to dominant section, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">second subject, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">codas, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-20;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bach C.P.E. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Metastasio, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porpora, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Heller S. <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-6.<br /> +<br /> +Hering A. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hook J. sonatinas, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hook T. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hummel J.N. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> (Op. 92), <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Humphries J. <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Iken</span> Dr. C. Beethoven, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>-9.<br /> +<br /> +Indy, Vincent d', <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Jahn</span> Otto, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Kalkbrenner F.W.M.</span> <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Keiser, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kittel C. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> and (notes).<br /> +<br /> +Krieger J.P. <a href="#Page_14">14</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Krügner S. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Kühnel, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kuhnau A. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Kuhnau J. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Writings and pupils, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-41,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">German and Italian influences, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bible Stories, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-70,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seven Partitas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preface to Bible Sonatas, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-4;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: (B flat), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-4,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Frische Clavier Früchte</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-50,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Bible," <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-21, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> (note), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-9, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-65.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Legrenzi G.</span> <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Le Trésor des Pianistes, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> (note), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Liszt F. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonata</i>: <a href="#Page_210">210</a> and <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-20.</span><br /> +<br /> +Locatelli <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Loeschhorn A. sonatinas, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lotti, teacher of Galuppi, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note).<br /> +<br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Macfarren Sir G.A.</span> <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_230">230</a> and <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dussek, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> and <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Marpurg, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Martini San, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mattheson, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a> (note), <a href="#Page_39">39</a> (note), <a href="#Page_40">40</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pasquini <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonata</i>: <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-3.</span><br /> +<br /> +Matthisson, the poet, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mendel, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mendelssohn F. <a href="#Page_151">151</a> (note), <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dussek, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Morley, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moscheles I. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mozart L. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mozart W.A. <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian influence, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-127,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Op. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a> (note),</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Requiem, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">duets, <a href="#Page_236">236</a> and <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-5;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-1,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clementi, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Haydn, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-9,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuhnau, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Müthel J.G. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> (note), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Neefe C.G.</span> <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-3.<br /> +<br /> +Nichelmann C. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Palestrina</span>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paradies P.D. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-110.<br /> +<br /> +Parry Dr. C.H. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_232">232</a> and <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pasquini B. (<i>see <a href="#image001">frontispiece</a> by S. Hutton</i>), <a href="#Page_14">14</a> (note), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">His monument, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-2;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Operas and oratorio, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Toccatas and Suites, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-5,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">music in Berlin Library, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in British Museum, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-80;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fétis, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-3,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Handel, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note),</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuhnau, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pasquini E. <a href="#Page_71">71</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Pauer E. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a> (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sonatinas, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pescetti G.B. <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-6.<br /> +<br /> +Pleyel, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poglietti, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Potter C. <i>Sonata</i>: <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prieger Dr. E. <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Prout Prof. E. <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Purcell H. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-4.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Raff J.</span> <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ravenscroft J. <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ravenscroft R. <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reinecke C. <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Riemann Dr. H. <a href="#Page_27">27</a> (note), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rimbault Dr. <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rochlitz F. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rockstro, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Rubinstein A. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rudolph, Archduke, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rust Dr. W. <a href="#Page_153">153</a> and (note).<br /> +<br /> +Rust F.W. <a href="#Page_152">152</a> ff.<br /> +<br /> +Rust J.L.A. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Sandoni P.G.</span> <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-4.<br /> +<br /> +Scarlatti A. <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scarlatti D. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-4, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-19;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bach C.P.E. <a href="#Page_92">92</a> and <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paradies, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schaffrath C. <a href="#Page_27">27</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scharwenka X. <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scheibe J.A. <i>Critischer Musikus</i>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schindler A. <a href="#Page_140">140</a> (note), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conversations with Beethoven, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-8, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schop J. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schubert F. <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-206, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schumann R. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fantasia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_208">208</a>-9;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sherard J. <a href="#Page_223">223</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> +<br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p> +<p>Schoelcher V. Life of Handel, <a href="#Page_19">19</a> (note), <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Spenser H. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spitta Dr. P. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Squire W.B. <a href="#Page_51">51</a> (note).<br /> +<br /> +Stanford Dr. C.V. <i>Sonata</i>: <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-4.<br /> +<br /> +Steffani A. <a href="#Page_77">77</a> (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Steibelt D. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sonatinas, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tartini G.</span> <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> (note);<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Telemann G.P. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-5,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">sonatinas, <a href="#Page_89">89</a> (note).</span><br /> +<br /> +Tomaschek, account of Dussek's playing, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>-6.<br /> +<br /> +Turini F. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-6;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Umstatt J.</span> <a href="#Page_27">27</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Veracini</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vitali G.B. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vogler, Abbé, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wagenseil G.</span> <a href="#Page_31">31</a> and (note), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Weber C.M. v. <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-8.</span><br /> +<br /> +Weber M.M. v. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Weitzmann C.F. <i>Geschichte des Clavierspiels</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pasquini, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Wesley S. <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-30.</span><br /> +<br /> +Woelfl J. <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Ne Plus Ultra</i> Sonata: <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-50, <a href="#Page_193">193</a> (note);</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beethoven, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Worgan I. <i>Sonatas</i>: <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Zach</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zimmermann Miss A. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br /> +</p> +<hr /> + +<p style="text-align: center">MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH</p> + + +<hr /> + + +<h3>FOOTNOTES</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Musikalisches Lexicon oder musikalische Bibliothek.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Among the four-movement sonatas of Op. 1, No. 6 (in B +minor) has the peculiar order: Grave, Largo, Adagio, Allegro.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The Preludio Adagio only consists of four chords, or two +bars; the Adagio, again, only consists of four bars. The sonata, +therefore, may be considered as of three movements.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> 1680-1762.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> 1693-1764.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> 1685-1750 (Veracini is regarded as of the Corelli school, +yet it should not be forgotten that his uncle, Antonio Veracini, is +said to have published "Sonate a tre, due violini e violone, o +arciliuto col basso continuo per l'organo" at Florence, already in +1662).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> 1692-1770.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> It is important to distinguish between <i>sonata</i> and +<i>sonata-form</i>. The first movement of a modern sonata is usually in +sonata-form; but there are sonatas (Beethoven, Op. 26, etc.) which +contain no such movement. Sonata-form, as will be shown later on, has +been evolved from old binary form. By <i>sonata</i> is understood merely a +group of movements; hence objection may certainly be taken to the term +as applied to the one-movement pieces of Dom. Scarlatti, which are not +even in sonata-form.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> It must be remembered that Corelli spent some time in +Germany between 1680 and 1683, the latter being the year of +publication of his first sonatas at Rome.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> In J.S. Bach's 2nd Sonata for Flauto traverso and +Cembalo (third movement) there is a return to the opening theme in the +second section; also in the Presto of the sonata for two violins and +figured bass we have an example very similar to the "Hoboy" sonata of +Handel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Krieger, by the way, studied under Bernardo Pasquini at +Rome.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Cf. Corelli: Corrente in 10th Sonata of Op. 2; also +Allemande and Giga of the next sonata.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Cf. Scarlatti: No. 10 of the sixty sonatas published by +Breitkopf & Härtel.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> When there is clearly a second subject, that of course +offers the point of return. (See Nos. 24 and 39.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See V. Schoelcher's <i>Life of Handel</i>, p. 23.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See, however, + <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">chapter</a> on the predecessors of Beethoven.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See + <a href="#CHAPTER_III">ch. iii</a>. on Pasquini.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> "Seit einigen Jahren hat man angefangen, Sonaten für's +Clavier (da sie sonst nur für Violinen u. dgl. gehören) mit gutem +Beifall zu setzen; bisher haben sie noch die rechte Gestalt nicht, und +wollen mehr gerührt werden, als rühren, das ist, sie zielen mehr auf +die Bewegung der Finger als der Herzen."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The public did not support the undertaking, and the +other five never appeared.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The copy in the British Museum has no violin part, which +was probably unimportant.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Emanuel Bach's predecessor as clavecinist at the +Prussian Court.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> This name is not in Mendel, Riemann, Grove, nor Brown. +Fétis, however, mentions him as Joseph Umstadt, <i>maître de chapelle</i> +of Count Brühl, at Dresden, about the middle of the eighteenth +century, and as composer of <i>Parthien</i>, and of six sonatas for the +clavecin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See, however, the early Würtemberg sonatas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Examples to be found in Rolle, Müthel, and Joh. Chr. +Bach, etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Gluck's six sonatas for two violins and a thorough bass, +published by J. Simpson, London (probably about the time when Gluck +was in London, since he is named on title-page "Composer to the +Opera"), have three movements: slow, fast, fast,—the last generally a +Minuet.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> E. Bach did some strange things. One of his sonatas +(Coll. of 1783, No. 1) has the first movement in G major, the second +in G minor, and the third in E major.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Galuppi, No. 4, first set: Adagio, Spiritoso, Giga +Allegro.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Sometimes the last movement was a Tempo di Menuetto, a +Polonaise, or even a Fugue.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Wagenseil's Op. 1, Sonatas with violin accompaniment. +No. 4, in C, has Allegro, Minuetto, Andante, and Allegro assai.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> As this experiment of Seyfert and Goldberg, in +connection with Beethoven, is of special interest, we may add that +Goldberg has all the movements in the same key, but Seyfert has both +the Trio of the Minuet, and the Andante in the under-dominant. This +occurs in two of his sonatas; in both, the opening key is major.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> There is, however, one curious exception. The first of +the two "Sonates pour le clavecin, qui peuvent se jouer avec +l'Accompagnement de Violon, dédiées à Madame Victoire de France, par +J.G. Wolfgang Mozart de Salzbourg, agé de sept ans," published at +Paris as Op. 1, has <i>four</i> movements: an Allegro in C (with, by the +way, an Alberti bass from beginning to end, except at the minor chord +with organ point near the close of each section, the place for the +extemporised cadenza), an Andante in F (Alberti bass from beginning to +end), a first and second Menuet, and an Allegro molto, of course, in +C. The brief dedication to Op. 1 is signed:—"Votre très humble, très +obéissant et très petit Serviteur, J.G. Wolfgang Mozart."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> There is one exception: a sonata in G major, one of his +earliest. See <a href="#CHAPTER_V">chapter</a> on Haydn and Mozart.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Scheibe; a return for the moment to a practice which was +once of usual occurrence.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Mention has been made in this chapter of a first section +in a minor piece of Scarlatti's ending in the <i>major</i> key of the +dominant.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> In the Sonatas of 1781, for instance, the first movement +of No. 2, in F, has a definite second subject, but that is scarcely +the case with the first movement of No. 3, in F minor.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> This is the date given by Mattheson. In some +dictionaries we find 1667; this, however, seems to be an error, for +that would only make Kuhnau fifteen years of age when he became +candidate for the post of organist of St. Thomas'. Fétis, who gives +the later date (1667), states that in 1684 Kuhnau became organist of +St. Thomas', but adds: "Quoiqu'il ne fût agé que de dix-sept ans."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> This Kittel must surely have been father or uncle of +Johann Christian Kittel, Bach's last pupil.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Mattheson, in his <i>Grundlage einer Ehren-Pforte</i>, +published at Hamburg in 1740, complains that the names of Salomon +Krügner, Christian Kittel, A. Kuhnau, and Hering are not to be found +in the musical dictionaries. The first and third have not, even now, a +place.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> In a letter written by Graupner to Mattheson, the +former, after mentioning that he studied the clavier and also +composition under Kuhnau, says:—"Weil ich mich auch bei Kuhnau, als +Notist, von selbsten ambot, u. eine gute Zeit für ihn schrieb, gab nur +solches gewünschte Gelegenheit, viel gutes zu sehen, u. wo etwa ein +Zweifel enstund, um mündlichen Bericht zu bitten, wie dieses oder +jenes zu verstehen?" ("As I offered myself as copyist to Kuhnau, and +wrote some long time for him, such a wished-for opportunity enabled me +to study much good (music), and, whenever a doubt arose to learn by +word of mouth how this or that was to be understood.")</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> In the <i>Dictionnaire de Musique</i> by Bossard (2nd ed. +1705) no mention is made under the article "Sonata" of one for the +clavier, and yet the above had been published ten years previously.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> See also next + <a href="#CHAPTER_III">chapter</a>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Nearly the whole of this composer's works are said to +have been destroyed at the bombardment of Dresden in 1760.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> The sonata is given in <i>Le Trésor des Pianistes</i> with +the ornaments, yet even there more than a dozen have been omitted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The clavier by its very nature tended towards polyphony; +the violin towards monody. And, besides, Kuhnau prided himself on the +fugal character of his sonatas.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Even in the later "Bible" Sonatas, figures from these +sonatas recur.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Cf. <i>The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book</i>, edited by J.A. +Fuller-Maitland and W. Barclay Squire (Breitkopf & Härtel).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Johann Jakob Froberger died in 1667.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Meyer thinks he was probably the son of Ercole Pasquini, +born about 1580, and predecessor of Frescobaldi at St. Peter's.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Weitzmann and other writers, in referring to the work +published at Amsterdam, spell the name Paglietti; it should, however, +be Polietti or Poglietti.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> This piece was printed from a manuscript in the British +Museum, which bears no such title. Judging, however, from the title of +the <i>libro prezioso</i> mentioned on p. 71 [Transcriber's Note: p. + <a href="#Page_73">73</a>], that name may originally have +been given to it.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The suite is printed in the <i>Pasquini-Grieco Album</i> by +Messrs. Novello.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Pasquini was no doubt one of the many composers who +influenced Handel. When the latter visited Italy before he came to +London in 1710, he made the acquaintance of the two Scarlattis +(Alessandro and Domenico), Corelli, and other famous musicians at +Rome; of Lotti and Steffani at Venice; and surely at Naples he must +have known Pasquini, whose name, however, is not to be found either in +Schoelcher or Rockstro. Only Gasparini, who was a pupil of Pasquini's, +is mentioned by the former.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> "Si puo fare a Due Cembali."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> See the <i>Novello Album</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> See the <i>Novello Album</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> The post was offered to Bach in 1738, while Frederick +was as yet Crown Prince, but he only entered on his duties in 1740.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> The four sons of Hans Georg Benda (Franz, Johann, Georg, +and Joseph) were excellent musicians, and all members of the band of +Frederick the Great. Georg, the third son, composer of <i>Ariadne</i> and +<i>Medea</i>, two <i>duodramas</i> which attracted the attention of Mozart, was, +however, the most remarkable.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Cf. Carlyle's <i>Frederick the Great</i>, vol. iv. p. +134:—"Graun, one of the best judges living, is likewise off to Italy, +gathering singers."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The symphonies appear to be three-movement overtures +transcribed for clavier. As a rule, the pieces marked as symphonies in +this collection have no double bars, and, consequently, no repeat in +the first movement. A "symphony" of Emanuel Bach is, however, marked +as a "sonata" in the <i>Six Lessons for the Harpsichord</i>, published in +London during the eighteenth century.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The king was extremely fond of Hasse's music, but this +composer, though German by birth, was thoroughly Italian by training.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Yet, curiously, there is no chord in the later sonatas +so large as the two on page 29 (6th Sonata)— +</p> + <table border="0" summary="C.P.E. Bach chords" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse" width="61%" id="AutoNumber13"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> + <img src="images/music089.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, 6th Sonata, chord" width="91" height="92" /></td> + <td><p style="text-align: center">and</p></td> + <td> + <img src="images/music090.png" alt="C.P.E. Bach, 6th Sonata, chord" width="89" height="82" /></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music089.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music089.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + </td> + <td> </td> + <td> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music090.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music090.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + </td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> + +<p>which, of course, are played in arpeggio.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Excepting in the fifth, which, by the way, was, for a +long time, considered to be the composition of J.S. Bach, and was +published as such by J.C. Westphal & Co. This return to the opening +theme is to be found already in the sonatinas for violin and cembalo +by G.P. Telemann published at Amsterdam in 1718. See Allegro of No. 1, +in A; the main theme is given as usual in the key of the dominant at +the beginning of the second section. Then after a modulation to the +key of the relative minor, a return is made to the opening key and the +opening theme.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Similar passages are to be found in the opening Vivace +of J.G. Müthel's 2nd Sonata in G. He was a pupil of J.S. Bach, and +either a pupil or close follower of E. Bach. His six published sonatas +are of great musical interest; in his wide sweeping arpeggios and +other florid passages he shows an advance on E. Bach. His 2nd Arioso +with twelve variations is worth the notice of pianists in search of +something unfamiliar. There are features in the music—and of these +the character of the theme is not least—which remind one strongly of +Beethoven's 32 C minor variations.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> A recitative is also to be found in a Müller sonata.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> "In tempo in cui ebbi l'onore di darle Lezzione di +Musica in Berlino."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> "The two sonatas, which met with your special approval, +are the only ones of this kind which I have ever composed. They are +connected with the one in B minor, which I sent to you, with the one +in B flat, which you now have also, and with two out of the +Hafner-Würtemberg Collection; and all six were composed on a +Claviacord with the short octave, at the Töplitz baths, when I was +suffering from a severe attack of gout." +</p><p> +A series of six sonatas by E. Bach is in the <i>Trésor des Pianistes</i>, +and is said to have been published at Nuremberg in 1744; the work is +also dedicated to the Duke of Würtemberg, and the Opus number (2) is +also given to it. There is mention of these sonatas in Bitter's +biography of J.S. Bach's sons, but not of the others.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Sechs ausgewählte Sonaten für Klavier allem von Carl +Philipp Emanuel Bach bearbeitet und mit einem Vorwort herausgegeben +von Hans von Bülow (Peters, Leipzig).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> In like manner he feels in the Andante, <i>reflection</i>, +and in the final Andantino, <i>melancholy consolation</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>Leipziger Mus. Almanack</i>, 1783.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> The number of sonatas in each collection grew gradually +smaller: first six, then three, lastly two. The dates of composition +in the last column of above table may be studied with advantage: a +later date of publication does not necessarily imply a more advanced +work. Thus, of the three fine sonatas in the 3rd Collection (all of +which are included in the Bülow selection), one was written eighteen, +another fifteen, and the third (though first in order of reckoning), +seven years before the date of publication (1781).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> See particularly the Sonata in G (collection of 1783).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> All of these consist of two movements; in the first, +both movements are marked Andante.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> For the benefit of readers who may not possess Pohl's +<i>J. Haydn</i>, we insert in brackets, after the Pohl numbers, those of +the Holle edition.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Cf. C.F. Pohl's <i>J. Haydn</i>, vol. ii. p. 311. They are in +the keys of D, E flat, and A, and are interesting. The Tempo di +Menuetto of the second presents a strict canon in the octave. In the +last, too, there is a curious canon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The treble of the tenth bar of the second section has +been frequently printed a third too high.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> This Sonata in E flat (Op. 78) was dedicated to Mrs. +Bartolozzi, wife of the famous engraver, and to her Haydn also +dedicated one in C major, marked as Op. 79,—a bright, clever and +showy work, in which the influence of Clementi is sensibly felt. The +development section of the opening Allegro, together with the return +to the principal theme, is interesting. The Adagio, in the key of the +subdominant, is one of Haydn's best, while the final movement (Allegro +molto) is full of life and humour.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Clementi is a charlatan, <i>like all the Italians</i>" +(Letter to his sister, June 7, 1783).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> It is thirty-five years since the fine one in B minor +was performed at the Popular Concerts; and eighteen, since a Clementi +sonata has appeared on a Popular Concert programme.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> The three Sonatas in E flat, F minor, and D, dedicated +to Maximilian Frederick, Elector of Cologne, and published at Speyer +in 1783, are not here taken into account.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> In mentioning any of them we shall first give the +Breitkopf & Härtel numbers and then the Holle numbers in brackets, so +that either edition may be referred to.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> At the time of their production Dussek was not born, +Hummel was still a child, and Beethoven an infant "mewling and puking +in the nurse's arms," if, indeed, the Beethovens were able to afford +the luxury of a nurse. Even Emanuel Bach had not published any of his +Leipzig Collections, neither had Haydn written his best sonatas. As +Clementi was not only the survivor of Beethoven, but also his +predecessor, a reminder as to the state of the sonata world, when +Clementi first entered it, is not wholly unnecessary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> London Symphony in E flat, No. 8 (No. 1 in Breitkopf & +Härtel <i>Catalogue</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> See p. + <a href="#Page_187">187</a> concerning Beethoven's conversation with +Schindler.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Schindler, <i>Biography of Beethoven</i>, 3rd ed. vol. ii. +pp. 223-4.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> +</p><p style="text-align: right"> +<span class="smcap">Hamburgh</span>, <i>June 12, 1801.</i> +</p> +<p><br /> +<span class="smcap">Mr. Clementi</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">        Mon Cher Clementi</span>,—<br /> +</p> +<p> +J'ai reçu avec un extrême plaisir votre lettre, aussi que +<i>L'Autoscript</i> dans celle de ma femme, je suis extremement touché du +désir que vous témoignez de me revoir à Londres, mais etant une fois +dans le Continent je ne puis résister au désir de faire une visite à +mon Père, d'autant plus qui je Lui ai déja écrit que je viendrai pour +Sure le voir cette eteé, je sçais par Ses lettres qu'il attend ce +moment comme la plus grande, et peut-être, la dernière jouissance de +sa Vie; tromper dans une pareille attente un Viellard de 70 ans, ce +serait anticiper sur sa mort, d'ailleurs en arrivant en Angleterre +tout de suite je ne ferais également que manger mon argent, ou bien +celui de ma femme jusqu'à l'hiver prochain, aussi ma resolution est +prise de faire le Voyage de la Boheme; voire en passant Dresde, Prague +et Vienne, ou je sçais que je puis gagner de quoi me defrayer de tout +mon voyage, et au dela: et de revenir a Londres vers le Novembre, vous +pouvez compter ladessus, mais surtout sur le plaisir que j'aurai de +revoir et d'embrasser un ami tel que vous—Mardi prochain part d'ici +pour Londres un commis de Mr. Parish <i>un des premiers Banquiers d'ici</i> +qui vous remetra en mains propres, par un de vos associés, mes trois +nouvelles Sonates,—je suis occupé a metre au net. Les trois +Concertinos qui vous recevrez aussi dans une quinzaine au plus tard, +dont j'espere qui vous serez assez content, etant le meilleur ouvrage +que j'ai jamais fait <i>in the Selling Way</i>, adieu mon cher Clementi, +Les oreilles doivent souvent vous tinter, car je parle constamment de +vous a tout le monde, car tout le monde aime qu'on leur parle de leurs +connaissances, or vous êtes de la connaissance de tout le monde, +adieu.</p> +<p style="text-align: right">Votre ami,</p> +<p style="text-align: right"><span class="smcap">Dussek</span>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Messrs Longman, Clementi, & Co.</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">           Gentelmen And Friends</span>,—</p> +<p> +I beg you would do your possible to send to me the two grand +instruments immediately, for the two Gentelmen whom I have persuaded +to purchase them after they have heard my own, are very impatient +about it, and I am afraid if I do not receive a decided Answer from +you about it or the <i>connoisement</i>, wich I may Show them, they will be +induced to Buy some of their German Instruments as they are pretty +well influenced by the Capel Master of this Town who is a tolerable +great As in Music and an illnatured Antianglomane, besides I expect it +as the means to make my Journey to Bohemia, therefore I hope you will +be so good, and make the greatest Speed you can—you will see by the +above that I intend to be in London about November Next, when I will +be very happy to settle with you what may Balance in our account and +to continue faithfull to our agreement.</p> +<p style="text-align: right">Believe me,</p> +<p style="text-align: right">Gentelmen and Friends,</p> +<p style="text-align: right">Yours faithfully,</p> +<p style="text-align: right"><span class="smcap">Dussek</span>.</p> +<p> +You have no Idea how many proposals I have received from London about +my Compositions, some of them will make you Laugh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> +</p><p style="text-align: right"> +<span class="smcap">At the General Quarters of the Prussian Army in Saxony</span>, <i>the +4th 8ber 1806</i>. +</p><p> +<span class="smcap">Dear Sir</span>,— +</p><p> +I have lately composed three Quartettos for two Violins, Tenor and +Violoncello, and confess to you that I think this work above all that +I have composed, they are neither in the Stile of Mozart, or Haydn, +nor that of Pleyel, they are in the Stile of Dussek and I will hope +make some noise in the Musical World—the Price for the Propriety of +them in Britain is 60 guineas, wich I think highly moderate +considering the scarcity of good new Quartettos—I have particularly +chosen you Sir for the publication of this work, because I allways +found you very reasonable in the few Business I have had the pleasure +to make with you, and as my Contract with Clementi & Co. finishes the +4th November this year, I should be very glad to continue with you the +publication of all my Works in futur—These Quartettos are for you a +publication so advantagous that I have not the least doubt but you +will make the Bargain of them, since there is such a long time that +nothing has been published of my composition—I wish them to appear +about the middle of January, and to be dedicated <i>to His Royal +Highness the Prince Louis of Prussia</i> with whom I am at this moment at +the Army against the French—If you wish to write to me, give the +letter to the Gentelmen who shall deliver to you the quartettos—I beg +You to give my best greetings to Mr. Crassier, Sheener, Tonkinson and +all Those that remember me, and believe me,</p> +<p style="text-align: right"> +Your very obedient Servant,</p> +<p style="text-align: right">and sincere friend,</p> +<p style="text-align: right"><span class="smcap">Dussek</span>,</p> +<p style="text-align: right"> +Privy Secretary to His Royal H<sup>s</sup>.<br /> +the Prince Louis of Prussia.<br /> +</p> +<p> +The above letter is addressed to Mr. Birchal, Music Seller, New Bond +Street, London.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>Musical Times</i>, September and October 1877.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Here is one, in the 8th Variation— +</p><p> +<img src="images/music091.png" alt="Woelfl, 8th Variation" width="555" height="148" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music091.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music091.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + <p> + </p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Mendelssohn, too, complained that Dussek was a +prodigal.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> The one in D minor has often been performed at the +Popular Concerts.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> 1822-1892.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> The original title is: "Sonata per il Cembalo ò +Fortepiano di F.W. Rust, 1788."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> It is curious to note that in the supplement of the +Breitkopf & Härtel edition of Beethoven's works there are two little +pieces entitled "Lustig und Traurig."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> E. Bach published six easy clavier sonatas in 1765, but +Neefe probably refers to earlier and more important works.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Besides those mentioned, he published in 1774 six new +sonatas, also variations on the theme "Kunz fand einst einen armen +Mann."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> "As your Royal Highness seemed to be pleased with the +sonata in C minor, I thought it would not appear too bold to surprise +you with the dedication of it."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> The opening theme of that same symphony— +</p><p> +<img src="images/music092.png" width="600" height="74" alt="Haydn, opening theme" /> +</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music092.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music092.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + <p> + <img src="images/music093.png" alt="Haydn, opening theme" width="600" height="68" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music093.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music093.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + <p> + </p><p> +recalls, curiously, the last movement of Beethoven's 8th Symphony; and +still more so in the form in which he first sketched it— +</p><p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music094.png" alt="Beethoven, 8th Symphony, last movement" width="301" height="87" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music094.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music094.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + <p style="text-align: center"> + </p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Schindler, by the way, relates in his <i>Biography of +Beethoven</i> (3rd ed. 2nd Part, p. 212) that, already in 1816, when +there was a proposal made by Hoffmeister to Beethoven to issue a new +edition of his pianoforte music, the master conceived the intention of +indicating the poetic idea ("Poetische Idee") underlying his various +works. And the biographer adds: "This term (<i>i.e. poetic idea</i>) +belongs to Beethoven's epoch, and was used by him as frequently as +was, for example, the expression 'poetic contents' by others—in +opposition to works which only offer an harmonic and rhythmic play of +tones. Writers on æsthetics of our day declaim against the latter +term; <i>with</i> good reason, if it refer to programme-music; <i>without</i> +reason, if they extend their negation to all Beethoven's music, and +deny its poetic contents. Whence that tendency, which so frequently +manifests itself, and that strong desire to give pictorial +explanations, especially of the Beethoven symphonies and sonatas, if +they contained nothing but a well-ordered harmonic and rhythmic play +of tones, and if they—or, at least, some of them—were not based on +some special idea? What other composer creates this almost +irresistible desire?"</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Mr. E. Pauer, in his preface to Ernst von Elterlein's +<i>Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas explained for the lovers of the +musical art</i>,—a valuable and interesting book,—remarks: "Herr von +Elterlein's design is not so much to describe the beauties of +Beethoven's sonatas, as to direct the performer's attention to these +beauties, and to point out the <i>leading and characteristic features of +each separate piece</i>" (the italics are ours).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> The Finale of a Sonata in A flat by Cramer, one of +three dedicated to Haydn, is said to have suggested to Beethoven the +Finale of <i>his</i> Sonata in A flat (Op. 26). Dr. Erich Prieger, who has +recently published a facsimile of the autograph of Beethoven's sonata, +in his preface quotes some passages from the Cramer Finale, which +certainly seem to show that the Bonn master was to some extent +influenced by his predecessor. Here is the second of the three +passages quoted:— +</p><p style="text-align: center"> +<img src="images/music095.png" alt="Cramer, Sonata in A flat, Finale" width="424" height="172" /></p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To hear this music (MIDI), click +<a href="music/music095.midi">here</a>.</p> + +<p style="text-align: center">To view the Lilypond source file, click +<a href="music/music095.ly">here</a>.</p> + + + + <p style="text-align: center"> + </p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" Sonata would have long been +forgotten but for Dussek's "Plus Ultra." See + <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">chapter</a> on "Predecessors +of Beethoven."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> In Steibelt's two sonatas (Op. 62), for instance, the +airs "If a body meet a body," "Jesse Macpharlane," and "La +Chrantreuse" [Transcriber's Note: So in original, probably should be + "Chartreuse"] are introduced. In his Op. 40 we also find "The +Caledonian Beauty," "The Maid of Selma," "'Twas within a mile of +Edinbro' town," and "Life let us cherish." Woelfl's sonatas (Op. 35, +38) also contain Scotch airs, and his "Ne plus Ultra" has variations +on "Life let us cherish."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> 1773-1853, court organist at Heldburghausen.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> 1766-1826, court organist at Freising.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Notice, in each case, the falling interval in the +second and fourth bar.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Verstohlen geht der Mond auf, blau, blau Blümelein, +etc.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The long arpeggio leading up to the first note is +omitted.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> In the British Museum copy the "XII. Sonate da Chiesa, +Opera Quinta" of Bassani are bound up with "Sonate a Tre" by Giacomo +Sherard. In plain English, the latter composer was a certain James +Sherard, an apothecary by profession. The Bassani sonatas here +mentioned were published at Amsterdam. Hawkins tells us that "an +ordinary judge, not knowing that they were the work of another, might +mistake them for compositions of Corelli." The first violin book has +the following entry:—"Mr. Sherard was an apothecary in Crutched +Friars about the year 1735, performed well on the violin, was very +intimate with Handel and other Masters." This copy, which possibly +belonged to Sherard, contains also the following, written apparently +by the person into whose hands the book passed:—"Wm. Salter, surgeon +and apothecary, Whitechapel High Street." The various sonatas, too, +are marked in pencil—some as <i>good</i>; others, <i>very good</i>. The date, +1789, is also given—the year, probably, in which the volumes became +the property of W. Salter.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> These sonatas were afterwards published at Amsterdam as +Corelli's, being marked as his Opera Settima. On the title-page was +written "Si crede che Siano State Composte di Arcangelo Corelli avanti +le sue altre Opere."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> See + <a href="#CHAPTER_V">chapter</a> on Haydn.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> She was surely the daughter of François Hippolite +Barthélémon (son of a Frenchman and of an Irish lady), who was on +intimate terms with Haydn, to whom the sonata above mentioned is +dedicated.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Samuel Wesley (1766-1837), nephew of the Rev. John +Wesley, was a gifted musician, and is specially remembered for his +enthusiastic admiration of John Sebastian Bach. The letters which he +wrote to Benjamin Jacob on the subject of his favourite author were +published by his daughter in 1875. He also, in conjunction with C.F. +Horn, published an edition of Bach's "Wohltemperirtes Clavier."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> He is described on the title-page as "formerly Composer +to several Cathedral Churches in France." Buée's name is neither in +Fétis nor the Pougin Supplément.</p></div> + + + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. 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mode 100644 index 0000000..dd8e8d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/images/pasquini.jpg diff --git a/17074-h/music/music001.ly b/17074-h/music/music001.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..777a510 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music001.ly @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key f \major + \time 4/2 + %Transcriber's Note: Time signature in original text was 4/4, but there are four half-notes to the measure. +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + c'1 bf2 a2 | g2 b4\rest f4 a8 g8 a8 bf8 c2 \break + b4\rest g4 a4 bf4 c2 c2 | bf2 a2 g2 b4\rest c4 \break + d8 c8 d8 e8 f2 d1\rest | R1*4/2 \break + R1*4/2 | R1*4/2 | \break + \override Rest #'style = #'classical b1\rest f4\rest f4 a8[ g8 a8 bf8] | c2 a2 g1 \break + b1\rest b2\rest b4\rest f4 | a8 g8 a8 bf8 c4 c4 bf2 a2 \break + g2 f2 b1\rest | d2\rest d4\rest c4 bf2 a2 \break + g4 g4 a8 g8 a8 b8 c2 d2\rest | d2\rest d4\rest c4 bf2 a2 \break + g2 d'2\rest d2\rest d4\rest g,4 | a8 g8 a8 bf8 c2 d2\rest d4\rest f,4 \break + a8 g8 a8 bf8 c2 d2\rest c2( | c4) bf4 a2 g1 | \once \override NoteHead #'style = #'baroque a\breve\fermata \bar "||" + } + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + R1*4/2 | r1 c2\rest f2 + ef2 d2 c2 c4\rest c4 | d8 c8 d8 e8 f1 ef2 + d2 c4 c4 d8 c8 d8 e8 f2 | R1*4/2 + R1*4/2 | r2 c2 d8 c8 d8 e8 f2 + ef2 d2 c2 f2 | e2 f1 e2 + f2 r4 f4 ef2 d2 | c2 r4 c4 d8[ c8 d8 e8] f2 + s2 s2 s1 | r2 c2 d8 c8 d8 e8 f4 d4 + e2 f2 g2 r4 e4 | f8 e8 f8 g8 a2 d,8 c8 d8 e8 f2 + e8 d8 e8 f8 g2 c,1\rest | r2 a'2 g2 f2 + e2 r4 c4 e8 d8 e8 f8 g2~ | g2 f1 e2 | \once \override NoteHead #'style = #'baroque f\breve +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + R1*4/2 | R1*4/2 + R1*4/2 | f,1\rest f2\rest c'2 + bf2 a2 g2 f4\rest f4 | a8 g8 a8 bf8 c2 r4 g4 a4 bf4 + c2 c2 bf2 a2 | g1 f4 f4 a8[ g8 a8 bf8] + c2 bf2 a2 f2\rest | g4\rest g4 a8 g8 a8 bf8 c1 + R1*4/2 | R1*4/2 + a2\rest a4\rest f4 a8 g8 a8 bf8 c2 | bf2 a2 g2 f2 + e2 d2 c2 c'2 | bf2 a2 g2 a8[ g8 a8 bf8] + c2 r4 c4 bf4 a4 g2 | r4 f4 a8 g8 a8 bf8 c2 f,2\rest + f1\rest f4\rest c4 ef8[ d8 ef8 f8] | g4 g4 a8 g8 a8 bf8 c1 | \once \override NoteHead #'style = #'baroque c\breve +} + +iv = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iv" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + R1*4/2 | R1*4/2 + R1*4/2 | R1*4/2 + R1*4/2 | f1 \stemDown ef2 d2 + c2 r4 c4 d8 c8 d8 e8 \tieDown f2~ | f2 ef2 d1 + c4 c4 d4 ef4 f2 d2 | \once \override NoteHead #'style = #'baroque c\breve + R1*4/2 | r1 b2\rest d4\rest f4 + ef2 d2 c2 r4 c4 | d8 c8 d8 e8 f2 c1\rest + R1*4/2 | R1*4/2 + b2\rest c2 d2 e2 | f2 r4 f4 ef2 d2 + \override NoteHead #'style = #'baroque c\breve | c\breve | f,\breve_\fermata +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iii + \iv + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 2 = 100} +}
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music001.midi b/17074-h/music/music001.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cabd096 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music001.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music002.ly b/17074-h/music/music002.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30e907d --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music002.ly @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 4/4 + \key bf \major + f8 g16 a16 \stemUp bf4 a8 bf16 c16 d4 | \stemDown c8 [f8 bf,8 ef8] \stemUp a,8 [d8 g,8 c8] | f,8 bf8 bf8 a8 bf4^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music002.midi b/17074-h/music/music002.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b8c692 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music002.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music003.ly b/17074-h/music/music003.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1f86233 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music003.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 3/8 + \key f \major + \set Staff.instrument = \markup{ \italic { (a) } } r8 f8 f8 | f8 g16 f16 e16 f16 | g8 g8 g8^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music003.midi b/17074-h/music/music003.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c033088 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music003.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music004.ly b/17074-h/music/music004.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0991121 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music004.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 3/8 + \key f \major + \set Staff.instrument = \markup{ \italic { (b) } } \stemUp e'16 d16 c16 d16 e16 f16 | g8 e8 c8^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t } diff --git a/17074-h/music/music004.midi b/17074-h/music/music004.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5076255 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music004.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music005.ly b/17074-h/music/music005.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..daf54bf --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music005.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key d \major + \time 3/8 + e'16^\markup { \italic {Presto.}} cs16 d16 b16 a8^\trill + } + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t } diff --git a/17074-h/music/music005.midi b/17074-h/music/music005.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4a692f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music005.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music006.ly b/17074-h/music/music006.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..50e7965 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music006.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \key e \major + \time 2/4 + { \stemUp <gs'' b>4 <fs a>4 | \appoggiatura a16 <e gs>4 s4 \bar "" } \\ + { s4 s4 \grace s16 \stemDown e,8[ b8 e,8 e8_8] } + >> + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music006.midi b/17074-h/music/music006.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..650dbd0 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music006.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music007.ly b/17074-h/music/music007.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..628e81a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music007.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \key e \major + \time 2/4 + { \stemUp <ds' fs>4 <e gs>4 | <ds fs>4 s4 \bar "" } \\ + { \stemUp b4 b4 \stemDown b8[ b,8 b8 b8] } + >> + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music007.midi b/17074-h/music/music007.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c7b353e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music007.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music008.ly b/17074-h/music/music008.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7f086a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music008.ly @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { +\relative c' << + \new Staff { + \cadenzaOn + <e g c>2:8 <e g c>4. \bar "" + } + + \new Staff { + \clef bass + \cadenzaOn + \repeat "tremolo" 4 {c,,16 c'16} <c, c'>4. \bar "" + } >> + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music008.midi b/17074-h/music/music008.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e62f6a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music008.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music009.ly b/17074-h/music/music009.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4885625 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music009.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 2/4 + ef,16 bf'16 a16 bf16 ef,16 bf'16 a16 bf16 | c,16 a'16 g16 a16 c,16 a'16 g16 a16^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music009.midi b/17074-h/music/music009.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7509cee --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music009.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music010.ly b/17074-h/music/music010.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ffac54 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music010.ly @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 4/4 + d'4 d,8. d16 d4 \override Rest #'style = #'classical r4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music010.midi b/17074-h/music/music010.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..13faece --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music010.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music011.ly b/17074-h/music/music011.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f7d3ca0 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music011.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key d \major + \time 3/8 + d8 d8 fs8 | d8 a'8 fs8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music011.midi b/17074-h/music/music011.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6fbd01c --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music011.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music012.ly b/17074-h/music/music012.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ea08ab --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music012.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key f \major + \time 4/4 + \cadenzaOn + \autoBeamOff g'16[ a8. bf16] \bar "|" \stemUp c8. d16 bf8.^\trill[ a16] a8. \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "\"Bible\" Sonata, No. 2. Kuhnau." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music012.midi b/17074-h/music/music012.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e273086 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music012.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music013.ly b/17074-h/music/music013.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb698b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music013.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key bf \major + \time 4/4 + \cadenzaOn + \autoBeamOff g'16[ a8. bf16] \stemUp c4. c8 \bar "|" c4. d8 bf4.^\trill a8 \bar "|" a4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "Collection I., Suite 7, Ouverture. Handel." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music013.midi b/17074-h/music/music013.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..040dc97 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music013.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music014.ly b/17074-h/music/music014.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..653e8e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music014.ly @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key ef \major + \time 4/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + f4 b8\rest c8 d4 b8\rest d8 | bf4 b8\rest bf8 ef4 b8\rest ef8 | c4. s8 + } + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + c4 s8 <f a>8 <f bf>4 s8 <f bf>8 | g4 s8 g8 <g c>4 s8 <g c>8 | a4. s8 +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceOne + f,8 g8 a8 f8 bf8 c8 d8 bf8 | \stemDown ef8 f8 g8 ef8 c8 d8 ef8 c8 | f8 g8 a8 g8^"etc." +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iii + >> + >> + \header { + piece = "\"Bible\" Sonata, No. 6." + opus = "Kuhnau." + } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music014.midi b/17074-h/music/music014.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..999af11 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music014.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music015.ly b/17074-h/music/music015.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..835e8e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music015.ly @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \relative c' << + \new Staff { + \key bf \major + \time 4/4 + \stemDown <g' bf d>4. <bf d>8 <g c ef>4. <bf d>8 | <a c>4. <a c>8 <f bf d>4. <a c>8 + } + + \new Staff { + \key bf \major + \clef bass + \stemUp g,8 f8 ef8 d8 c8 d8 ef8 c8 | f8 ef8 d8 c8 bf8 c8 d8 bf8 + } +>> + + \header { + piece = "Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille." + opus = "Handel." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music015.midi b/17074-h/music/music015.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7a010b --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music015.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music016.ly b/17074-h/music/music016.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0603ab4 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music016.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c { + \clef bass + \key ef \major + \time 4/4 + \partial 4*3 bf'4 ef,4 g4 | af4 c4 f,4 a4 | bf4 d4 g,4 b4 | c8 g8 f8 g8 af8 g8 f4 | ef4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "\"Bible\" Sonata, No. 6." + opus = "Kuhnau." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music016.midi b/17074-h/music/music016.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..146c30a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music016.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music017.ly b/17074-h/music/music017.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..575c2b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music017.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c { + \clef bass + \key bf \major + \time 4/4 + \partial 4*3 bf'4 c4 ef,4 | f4 a4 bf4 d,4 | ef4 g4 a4 c,4 | d4 fs4 g4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille." + opus = "Handel." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music017.midi b/17074-h/music/music017.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f39b181 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music017.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music018.ly b/17074-h/music/music018.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b60929c --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music018.ly @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \key bf \major + \time 2/2 + { \stemUp f'2 f2 | d2 d2 \break + bf2 bf2 | ef2 d2 | c2 } \\ + { \stemUp d2 c2 | bf2 a2 \break + g2 f4 \stemDown \tieUp bf4~ | bf4. a8 \stemUp bf8 a16 g16 f8 g8 | a2 } \\ + { \stemDown bf4 f8 bf8 a8_\trill g8 a8 f8 | g4 d8 g8 f8_\trill ef8 f8 d8 \break + ef4 bf8 ef8 d8 c8 d8 bf8 | c2 bf8 c8 d8 e8 | f2 \bar ""} + >> + } + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 160 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music018.midi b/17074-h/music/music018.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4123927 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music018.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music019.ly b/17074-h/music/music019.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b628fee --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music019.ly @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \key bf \major + \time 2/2 + { \stemUp f'2 f2 | d2 d2 \break + bf2 bf4. c16 d16 | ef8. f16 d8. ef16 c4 \bar "" } \\ + { \stemUp d2 c2 | bf2 a2 | + g2 f4 \stemDown <d bf'>4 | a'4 bf4 \stemUp a4 } \\ + { \stemDown bf8 d8 bf8 d8 a8 c8 a8 c8 | g8 bf8 g8 bf8 f8 a8 f8 a8 | + ef8 g8 ef8 g8 d8 f8 s4 | c4 bf4 f'4 } + >> + } + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 88} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music019.midi b/17074-h/music/music019.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..18db527 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music019.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music020.ly b/17074-h/music/music020.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..53cb3c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music020.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c, { + \clef bass + \time 3/4 + c8. c16 d8. d16 e4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music020.midi b/17074-h/music/music020.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7da9725 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music020.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music021.ly b/17074-h/music/music021.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f7ddcb --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music021.ly @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key c \major + \time 4/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + b'8\rest^"Il combáttere frà l'uno e l'altro, e la loro contésa." c,8 c4 d8 b'8\rest d,4 | e8 b'8\rest e,4 d8 e8 f4 \break + e4^\trill g16 f16 g16 f16 e8 b'8\rest e,16 d16 e16 d16 | c8 b'8\rest f16 e16 f16 e16 d16 g16 f16 g16 d16 e16 f16 g16 \break + e4 b'4\rest b4\rest c16 bf16 c16 bf16 | a8 b8\rest a16 g16 a16 g16 f8 b8\rest bf16 a16 bf16 a16 \break + g16 c16 bf16 c16 g16 a16 bf16 c16 a4 b4\rest | b16\rest \stemDown f'16 ef16 f16 \stemUp c16 d16 ef16 f16 <bf, d>4 b4\rest \break + b8\rest f16 f16 f8 f8 <g bf>8 g16 g16 g8 g8 | <a c>4 <a c>16 <g bf>16 <a c>16 <g bf>16 a8 b8\rest <g bf>16 <f a>16 <g bf>16 <f a>16 \break + \cadenzaOn g4 g16[_( f16 e16 d16)] e16[_( d16 c16 b16)] c8[ d32 e32 f32 g32 a32 b32 c32 d32] \stemDown e32[ f32 e32 d32 e8] \cadenzaOff \bar "|" \break + b8\rest \stemUp e,8 f4 g4 f4 | c4 c4 c4 b4 \break + b'16\rest g16 g16 f16 f16 f16 f16 e16 e2 | b'16\rest f16 f16 f16 f16 c16 c16 c16 c4 s4 | R1 \bar "||" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + s4 s4 s4 \stemUp b4 | \stemDown c8 s8 c4 b8[ c8] c8[ b8] | + c4 e16 d16 e16 d16 c8 s8 c16 bf16 c16 bf16 | s2 s2 | + c4 s4 s4 a'16 g16 a16 g16 | f8 s8 f16 e16 f16 e16 d8 s8 g16 f16 g16 f16 | + e8 r8 s4 f4 s4 | s4 s4 f4 s4 | + s8 d16 d16 d8 d8 d8 e16 e16 e8 e8 | e4 e8 e8 f8 s8 d8 d8 | + \cadenzaOn e4 s16 s16 s16 s16 s16 s16 s16 s16 s8 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s32 s8 \cadenzaOff | + s8 c16 bf16 \stemUp c4 \stemDown c2 | \stemUp c4 c4 c4 b4 | + b2 \stemDown b16\rest c16 c16 bf16 s4 | s2 s2 | s2 s2 +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + f8\rest <f a>8 <f a>4 <f bf>8 f8\rest s4 | g8 f8\rest a4 f8 g8 f4 | + g4 f4\rest f8\rest s8 s4 | a8 f8\rest f4\rest b8 f8\rest d4\rest | + g4 s8 s4 <f, a c>8 f'4\rest | \stemDown c'8 r8 c8 c8 r4 d8 d8 | + s8 f,8\rest f4\rest \stemUp c'4 s4 | s4 f,4\rest s2 | + s4 s4 s8 f8\rest s4 | s2 s2 | + \cadenzaOn s4 f4\rest s16 s16 s16 s16 s8 f2\rest \cadenzaOff | + s4 af8 g16 f16 e4 f4 | g4 af4 g2 | + \stemDown <g, d' g>2 s4 \stemUp bf'16 bf16 bf16 af16 | \stemDown <c, f af>2 s4 \stemUp bf'8.^\trill af16 | \stemUp <f, c' f a>2 f'2\rest +} + +iv = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iv" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + s8 s8 s4 s8 s8 g'4 | s8 s8 s4 s4 s4 | + s4 s4 s8 s8 s4 | s8 s8 s4 s8 s4 s8 | + r8 s8 s4 s8 s8 s4 | s8 s8 s4 s2 | + s8 s8 s4 s4 s4 | s2 s2 | + s4 s4 s8 s8 s4 | s2 s2 | + \cadenzaOn s4 s4 s4 s8 s2 \cadenzaOff | + s2 r8 s8 \stemUp c,4 | \stemDown c8 g'8 \stemUp d4 \stemDown ef8 d8 \stemUp d4 | + s2 \stemDown <c g'>2 | s2 f4 e4 | s2 s2 +} + +v = \context Staff \relative c, { + \context Voice = "v" + \voiceThree + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \stemDown f8\rest f16 f16 f8 f8 bf8 g16 g16 g8 g8 | c8 a16 a16 a8 a8 d8[ c8] d8[ d16 d16] | + c4 s4 s8 \stemUp <c, c'>16 <c c'>16 <c c'>8 <c c'>8 | \stemUp f8 d16 d16 d8 d8 g8 g8\rest s4 | + s4 \stemUp <c, c'>16[ <c c'>16] <c c'>8[ <c c'>8] s8 s4 | s8 \stemUp f16 f16 f8 f8 \stemDown bf8 g16 g16 g8 g8 | + c8 s8 s4 r16 f16 e16 f16 \stemUp c16 f16 a,16 c16 | f,4 s4 f'16\rest \stemDown bf16 a16 bf16 f16 bf16 d,16 f16 | + \stemUp bf,4 bf16 a16 bf16 a16 g8 s8 c16 bf16 c16 bf16 | a8 a16 a16 a8 a8 d8 g,16 g16 g8 g8 | + \cadenzaOn c4_"Vien tirata la selce colla frombola nella fronte del gigante" s4 s2 s4 s8 \cadenzaOff | + s4_"casca Goliath." s4 s8 \stemDown c16 bf16 af8 g16 f16 | e4 fs4 g2 | + s2 s2 | s2 <c g'>2 | s2 g2\rest +} + +\score { +\context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iii + \iv + \v + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} +} + +%%coding utf-8
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music021.midi b/17074-h/music/music021.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0702bb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music021.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music022.ly b/17074-h/music/music022.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8dc6793 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music022.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 4/4 + \key bf \major + r8 g8 g8 g8 bf8 bf8 bf8 bf8 | \stemUp cs,2 \stemDown r8 f8 f8 f8 | af8 af8 af8 af8 \stemUp b,2 \bar "||" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 96} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music022.midi b/17074-h/music/music022.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b82eb51 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music022.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music023.ly b/17074-h/music/music023.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de4c581 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music023.ly @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \relative c' << + \new Staff { << + \key bf \major + \time 3/4 + { \stemUp <f bf d f>4 <f bf d>4 <g c ef>4 | <a c>4 <g bf>4 <f a>4 } \\ + { s4 s4 s4 | c2. } + >> } + + \new Staff { + \key bf \major + \clef bass + \stemUp bf,2 ef4 | f2. + } +>> + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music023.midi b/17074-h/music/music023.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc904b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music023.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music024.ly b/17074-h/music/music024.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8bda48 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music024.ly @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \relative c' { + \new Staff { << + \clef bass + \key bf \major + \time 3/4 + { \stemUp r8 a8 r8 g8 r8 f8 | r8 g8 r8 f8 r8 ef8^"etc." } \\ + { \stemDown f4 ef4 d4 | ef4 d4 c4 } + >> } + } + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music024.midi b/17074-h/music/music024.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f6d8dc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music024.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music025.ly b/17074-h/music/music025.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f75ab0c --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music025.ly @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \relative c' << + \new Staff { << + \key bf \major + \time 3/4 + { \partial 8*2 \stemUp <g' bf>8 <fs bf>8 | bf4 bf4 <bf ef>8 <a ds fs>8 | <ef' g>4 <ds fs>4 <g, ef'>8 <a c fs>8 | ds4 bf4 <bf ef>8 <a ds>8 | c4^\trill bf4 <g c>8 <fs bf>8 | <ef a^\trill>4 <d g>4 \bar ""} \\ + { \partial 8*2 \stemDown ef8 ds8 | <ef g>4 <bf ds fs>4 g'8 fs8 | <ef bf'>4 <bf bf'>4 s4 | <fs' bf>2 g8 fs8 | <ef g>4 <d fs>4 ef8 d8 | c4 bf4 } + >> } + \new Staff { + \key bf \major + \clef bass + \partial 8*2 s8 s8 | s4 s4 s4 | s4 s4 c8 a8 | bf2. | s4 s4 s4 | s4 s4 + } +>> + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music025.midi b/17074-h/music/music025.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d4289a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music025.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music026.ly b/17074-h/music/music026.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d254b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music026.ly @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key c \major + \time 4/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \partial 16*8 r16 \stemDown b'16 c16 a16 d16 b16 e16 b16 | c16 a16 d16 b16 e16 b16 c16 a16 d4 d16 d16 c16 b16 \break + a16 e'16 f16 d16 g16 e16 a16 e16 f16 d16 g16 e16 a16 e16 f16 cs16 | d4 \autoBeamOff \stemUp a32[ d32 c32 b32 a32 g32 f32 e32] d32[ a'32 g32 f32 e32 d32 c32 b32] \change Staff=bass\voiceOne a32_([ \change Staff=treble\voiceOne \stemDown d'32 c32 b32 a32 g32 f32 e32]) | \stemUp d4 s4 \bar "" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceOne + \partial 2 \stemUp a2~ | a1~ | a1~ | a2~ a2 | a2 +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceTwo + \partial 2 \stemDown f2~ | f1~ | f1~ | f2~ f2 | f2 +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \ii + \iii + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92} +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music026.midi b/17074-h/music/music026.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d2f5efe --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music026.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music027.ly b/17074-h/music/music027.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b9d3902 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music027.ly @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { +\relative c' { << + \new Staff { << + \time 4/4 + { \cadenzaOn \autoBeamOff ef4 d4 c32_([ d32 ef32 d32 c32 af'32 g32 f32 ef32 d32 c8]) s32 s32 \bar "|" c32_([d32 ef32 d32 c32 af'32 g32 f32 ef32 d32 c8]) c32_([ d32 ef32 d32 c32 af'32 g32 f32 ef32 d32 c8]) \bar "|" } \\ + {\cadenzaOn c4 b4 s4 s4 | s2 s4. } + >> } + + \new Staff { << + \clef bass + { \cadenzaOn \stemDown f4 g4 \stemUp g2 | af2 s4. } \\ + { \cadenzaOn s4 s4 \stemDown ef2 | f2 s4. } + >> } +>> } + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music027.midi b/17074-h/music/music027.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a57e8a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music027.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music028.ly b/17074-h/music/music028.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c0b8d66 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music028.ly @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + r16 c'16 c16 c16 c8 g8 e4 r4 | r16 a16 a16 a16 a8 e8 c4 r4 | + r16 f16 f16 g16 a16 g16 a16 b16 \stemUp c16 g16 c8 \stemDown c8. b16 | c8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music028.midi b/17074-h/music/music028.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9e8837b --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music028.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music029.ly b/17074-h/music/music029.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aca37fa --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music029.ly @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key f \major + \time 5/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \stemDown b'16\rest g16[ a16 bf16 c16 d16 e16 f16] g4 b,16\rest c,16[ d16 e16 f16 g16 a16 bf16] | c4 b4\rest b4\rest \bar "" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + s2 s2 s4 | f16\rest \stemDown e16[ f16 g16 a16 bf16 c16 \change Staff=treble\voiceOne \stemDown d16] e4 +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \ii + >> + >> + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music029.midi b/17074-h/music/music029.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..710d6fc --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music029.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music030.ly b/17074-h/music/music030.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..baf42c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music030.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \key ef \major + \time 4/4 + \partial 4*3 bf4 ef,4 g4 | af4 c4 f,4 a4 | bf4 d4 g,4 b4 | c8 g8 f8 g8 af8 g8 f4 | ef4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music030.midi b/17074-h/music/music030.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f30f320 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music030.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music031.ly b/17074-h/music/music031.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f7ce950 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music031.ly @@ -0,0 +1,71 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key c \minor + \time 4/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c'' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \partial 8*5 c8 c8. bf16 d16\rest bf16_( bf16) bf16 | bf8. bf16 b16\rest a16_( a16) a16 a8. a16 d16\rest g,16_( g16) g16 \break + g8. f16 b16\rest f16_( f16) f16_( f16) f16_( f16) f16_( f16) f16_( f16) e16 | f4 s4 \bar "" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + \partial 8*5 \stemUp f8 f4 f4 | f2 d4 d4 | + s1 | s4 s4 +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceThree + \partial 8*5 \stemDown c8 d4 d4 | c4 c4 c4 bf4 | + d4. c8 d4 c8 c8 | c4 s4 +} + +iv = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iv" + \voiceOne + \partial 8*5 s8 s2 | s2 s2 | + af'4. af8 g8[ af8] bf8[ bf8] | af4 s4 +} + +v = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "v" + \voiceTwo + \partial 8*5 \stemUp af8 \stemDown d8 c8 d8 e8 | f8[ e8] f8[ f,8] \stemUp bf8[ a8] bf8[ c8] | + \stemDown d8[ c8] d8[ af8] bf8[ g8] \stemUp c8[ c,8] | f8 g8 a8 f8 +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + \iii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iv + \v + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 84 } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music031.midi b/17074-h/music/music031.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..400f213 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music031.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music032.ly b/17074-h/music/music032.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..275f8c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music032.ly @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 4/4 + c8 c,8 r16 c'16 b16 a16 b8 b,8 r16 b'16 a16 g16 | a8[ a,8] \stemUp b8[ g8] \stemDown c16 d16 e16 f16 g8 g,8 | \stemUp c4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 72 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music032.midi b/17074-h/music/music032.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..42bc52f --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music032.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music033.ly b/17074-h/music/music033.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a5ba5f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music033.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \key f \major + \time 3/4 + d8^"Clav. e Ped." d,8 r8 d'8 d8[ c16 bf16] | c8 c,8 r8 c'8 c8[ bf16 a16] | bf8 bf,8 r8 bf'8 bf8[ a16 g16] | a4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 72 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music033.midi b/17074-h/music/music033.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c0287a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music033.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music034.ly b/17074-h/music/music034.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6581529 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music034.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef treble + \time 4/4 + \autoBeamOff + \cadenzaOn r8 e'16[^"Solo." d16] e16[ d16 c16 b16] a8^\markup { \italic { t } } \clef bass \stemUp c,,8 \stemDown d8^\markup { \center-align \tiny { 6 5 } } e8^\markup { \tiny { \sharp } } \bar "|" \stemUp a,8^\markup { \tiny { \sharp } } \clef treble \stemDown a'''16[^"Solo." g16] a16[ g16 f16 e16] \bar "|" d4 \clef bass f,,8^\markup { \tiny { 6 } } g8^\markup { \center-align \tiny { 6 5 } } a8^\markup { \tiny { \sharp } } \bar "|" d,8^\markup { \italic { t } }^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music034.midi b/17074-h/music/music034.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1baf595 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music034.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music035.ly b/17074-h/music/music035.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c2359a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music035.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef treble + \time 6/8 + \autoBeamOff + a8[ b8 c8] d8[ e8 f8] | \clef bass gs,8[ fs8 e8] gs8[ fs8 e8] | a8[^\markup { \tiny { \flat 6 } } g8 a8] b8[^\markup { \center-align \tiny { 6 5 } } a8 b8] | c8[ d8 e8] c8[ b8 c8]^"etc." \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music035.midi b/17074-h/music/music035.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..be9a0e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music035.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music036.ly b/17074-h/music/music036.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..380bcd4 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music036.ly @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 2/2 + \autoBeamOff + \cadenzaOn + \override Rest #'style = #'classical r4 e4^\markup { \tiny { \sharp } } a,4 c4^\markup { \tiny { 6 } } b8[^\markup { \tiny { 7 } } a8] b8[^\markup { \tiny { \sharp 6 } } e,8] a4 f4^\markup { \tiny { 6 } } \bar "|" e4^\markup { \tiny { \sharp etc.} } \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music036.midi b/17074-h/music/music036.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d64fe9 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music036.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music037.ly b/17074-h/music/music037.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed53ef7 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music037.ly @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { +\relative c' << + \new Staff { + \time 3/4 + \key f \major + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + d2 r4 | r8 c8 f8 a8 g8 bf8 \bar "" + } + + \new Staff { + \clef bass + \time 3/4 + \key f \major + d,,,8 d'8 c8 bf8 a8 g8 | f2 s4 + } >> + + \header { + piece = "(Frederick) Sonata 1. First Movement." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music037.midi b/17074-h/music/music037.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e3397f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music037.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music038.ly b/17074-h/music/music038.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..69c4d90 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music038.ly @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 2/4 + ds''4 \clef bass g,,,,,4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music038.midi b/17074-h/music/music038.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed2ed83 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music038.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music039.ly b/17074-h/music/music039.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c012137 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music039.ly @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 2/4 + f''4 \clef bass f,,,,,4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music039.midi b/17074-h/music/music039.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..db3a3f4 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music039.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music040.ly b/17074-h/music/music040.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a3ccd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music040.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 2/4 + \key bf \major + \cadenzaOn + bf''16[ f16 ef16 d16 c16 bf16] f'8[ f,8] \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music040.midi b/17074-h/music/music040.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..08ff456 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music040.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music041.ly b/17074-h/music/music041.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f5efd56 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music041.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \time 2/4 + \key bf \major + r8 <a'' c>8[ <a c>8 <g bf>8^\trill] | <f a>8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music041.midi b/17074-h/music/music041.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..787e949 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music041.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music042.ly b/17074-h/music/music042.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e06e6f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music042.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \key a \major + \time 2/4 + \autoBeamOff + { \partial 8*3 \stemUp \times 2/3 {fs'16[ fs16 fs16]} \times 2/3 {fs16[ fs16 fs16]} \times 2/3 {fs16[ fs16 fs16]} | fs8:32 fs8:32 fs8:32 fs8:32 | + fs8:32 \stemDown \times 2/3 {fs16[ b16 d16]} \times 2/3 {e,16[ as16 cs16]} \times 2/3 {d,16[ gs16 b16^"etc."]} \bar "" } \\ + { \autoBeamOff \partial 8*3 \times 2/3 {d,,16[ fs16 b16]} \times 2/3 {cs,16 [e16 as16]} \times 2/3 {b,16[ d16 gs16]} | \times 2/3 {as,16[ cs16 fs16]} \times 2/3 {b,16[ d16 fs16]} \times 2/3 {as,16[ cs16 fs16]} \times 2/3 {gs,16[ b16 fs16]} | + \times 2/3 {fs16[ as16 cs16]} fs,8:32 fs8:32 fs8:32 } + >> + } + + \midi { \tempo 8 = 132} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music042.midi b/17074-h/music/music042.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f035ae2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music042.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music043.ly b/17074-h/music/music043.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..014af6e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music043.ly @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \time 3/4 + \key d \major + { fs4 d'4 cs4~ | cs4 e4 as,4 \bar ""} \\ + { d,4 fs4 <g b>4~ | <g b>2 e4 } + >> + } + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music043.midi b/17074-h/music/music043.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..88b46e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music043.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music044.ly b/17074-h/music/music044.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..669c873 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music044.ly @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { +\relative c' << + \new Staff { + \time 4/4 + \key f \minor + \stemDown \times 2/3 {f'8 cf8 af8} \stemUp \times 2/3 {cf8 af8 f8} \stemDown \times 2/3 {f'8 cf8 af8} \stemUp \times 2/3 {cf8 af8 f8} | \stemDown \times 2/3 {f'8 df8 bf8} \stemUp \times 2/3 {df8 bf8 \once \override TextScript #'padding = #2.5 f8^"etc."} \bar "" + } + \new Staff { + \clef bass + \time 4/4 + \key f \minor + \override Rest #'style = #'classical ef4 r4 ef4 r4 | df4 f4 + } >> + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music044.midi b/17074-h/music/music044.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..908e647 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music044.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music045.ly b/17074-h/music/music045.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c44215f --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music045.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 3/4 + r8 c8[ b8 a8 g8 f8] | e4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music045.midi b/17074-h/music/music045.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ddd3ff7 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music045.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music046.ly b/17074-h/music/music046.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ff00b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music046.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 3/4 + r8 c,16[ c'16 b,16 b'16 a,16 a'16 g,16 g'16 f,16 f'16] | e,4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music046.midi b/17074-h/music/music046.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..359c470 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music046.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music047.ly b/17074-h/music/music047.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..edf3ee3 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music047.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 2/4 + \partial 16*4 r16 c16 b16 a16 | gs4 e4 \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music047.midi b/17074-h/music/music047.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..28e11ac --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music047.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music048.ly b/17074-h/music/music048.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..768e8ca --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music048.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \time 2/4 + \partial 16*4 r16 a16 c16 e16 | gs,4 e4 \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music048.midi b/17074-h/music/music048.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ffa8c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music048.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music049.ly b/17074-h/music/music049.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93a0d64 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music049.ly @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \relative c' << + \new Staff { + \key f \major + \time 4/4 + \partial 8*1 c'8^\markup { \italic {(a)} } | a'8[ \times 2/3 {g16 f16 e16]} f8[ a,16( c16)] \grace c16 \stemDown bf8\prall a8 r8 f16( a16) \break + \stemUp a16( g16 g8) r8 \stemDown a16( c16) c16( bf16) bf8 r8 c16( ef16) | ef16( d16 d16) <g, bf>16 \stemUp <g bf>16( <f a>16) <f a>16( <e g>16) \times 2/3 {a16[ g16 f16]} f8 r8 \stemDown c''16 a16 \break + a4( g8) c16( g16) g4( f8) d'16( f,16) | f16( e16) c'16 g16 g8[( b32) a32 g32 f32] e4( d8\prall\turn) r8 \bar "||" + } + + \new Staff { + \key f \major + \clef bass + \time 4/4 + \partial 8*1 r8 | \override Rest #'style = #'classical r4 r8 <f,, c'>8 <e c'>8 <f c'>8 r8 <a c>8 | + <bf d>4 <c ef>4 <d f>4 <a f'>4 | <bf f'>4 c4 f,4 f,4 | + r8 <f' c'>8( <e c'>8) r8 r8 \stemDown <e c'>8( <d b'>8) b8 | \stemUp c8 d8 f8 f,8 g8 g'8 r4 + } +>> + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 96 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music049.midi b/17074-h/music/music049.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e5ecc12 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music049.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music050.ly b/17074-h/music/music050.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..92c9c06 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music050.ly @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \relative c' << + \new Staff { + \key f \major + \time 4/4 + \partial 8*1 c''8^\markup { \italic {(b)} } | bf16( a16) g16( f16) e16( f16) a,16( c16) \grace c16 \stemDown bf8\prall a8 f'4 | \stemUp g,8.[ a32 bf32] a8.[ bf32 c32] c8[( bf16) d16] \stemDown d8[( c16) ef16] \break + ef8[( d16) <g, bf>16] \stemUp <g bf>16( <f a>16) <f a>16( <e g>16) \times 2/3 {a16[^( g16 f16)]} f8 r8 \stemDown c'16 c'16 | c8. a16 a16( g16) c16( b16) d16( c16) r16 g16 g16( f16) d'16( f,16) \break + f16( e16) c'16( gs16) gs8( b32) a32 g32 f32 e4 d8\prall\turn) r8 \bar "" + } + + \new Staff { + \key f \major + \clef bass + \time 4/4 + \partial 8*1 r8 | \override Rest #'style = #'classical r4 r8 <f,, c'>8 <e c'>8 <f c'>8 r8 <a c>8 | <bf d>8 <bf d>8 <c ef>8 <c ef>8 <d f>8 <d f>8 <a f'>8 <a f'>8 | + <bf[ f'>8 bf8] c8[ c8] f,4 f,4 | r8 <f' a>8 <e c'>8 r8 r8 \stemDown <e c'>8( <d b'>8) b8 | \stemUp c8 e8 f8 f,8 g8 g'8 r4 + } +>> + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 96} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music050.midi b/17074-h/music/music050.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..41d1e58 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music050.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music051.ly b/17074-h/music/music051.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9bdc12c --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music051.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \key f \major + \time 3/8 + { <a' c>8 f'8 f8 | \grace {e8[ g8]} f8 e8 r8 | c8 g'8 g8 \grace {g8[ a8]} <bf, g'>8[ <a f'>8^"etc."]} \bar "" \\ + { f4\p <a c>8 | <g bf>4 <g bf>8 | <e bf'>4 <e bf'>8 | f4 } + >> + } + + \midi { \tempo 8 = 63 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music051.midi b/17074-h/music/music051.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..389cb22 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music051.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music052.ly b/17074-h/music/music052.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..251485b --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music052.ly @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { +\relative c' { << + \new Staff { << + \clef treble + \key f \major + \time 4/4 + \once \override TextScript #'padding = #3 + { s8^\markup { \italic {Allegro.} }^\p c'8 d8 ef8 ef8.( g32 f32) ef4 | s8^\mf d8 e8 f8 f8.( a32 g32) f4 | s4 s4 \once \override TextScript #'padding = #2 s4^"etc." \bar "" } \\ + { b,8\rest <ef, g>8 <d f>8 <c g'>8 <b g'>4 <c g'>4 | b'8\rest <f a>8 <e g>8 <d a'>8 <cs a'>4 <d a'>4 | <c' e g bf>4\f^( bf'16)[ g32 f32 e32 d32 c32 bf32] \stemUp a16 s8. } + >> } + + \new Staff { + \clef bass + \key f \major + \time 4/4 + R1 | R1 | r32 c,,32[ d32 e32 f32 g32 a32 bf32] c4( <f, c'>4) + } +>> } + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 110 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music052.midi b/17074-h/music/music052.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..50f8d5c --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music052.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music053.ly b/17074-h/music/music053.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d7ba96 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music053.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { + \new Staff { + \relative c' << + \time 2/4 + \key f \major + \autoBeamOff + { \partial 16*2 a''16[ d16] | c4 bf8 g16[ c16] | bf4 a8^"etc." \bar ""} \\ + { \partial 16*2 r8 | r8 fs,8[ g8] r8 | r8 e8[ f8] } + >> + } + + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music053.midi b/17074-h/music/music053.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb56556 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music053.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music054.ly b/17074-h/music/music054.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc98be7 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music054.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key g \major + \time 2/4 + <g b>4 <b' d es gs>4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music054.midi b/17074-h/music/music054.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e84661a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music054.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music055.ly b/17074-h/music/music055.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..11a0587 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music055.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key e \major + \time 4/4 + <e' gs>16 <ds fs>16 <e gs>16 <cs a'>16 <ds fs>16 <cs e>16 <ds fs>16 <b gs'>16 <cs e>16 <b ds>16 <cs e>16 <a fs'>16 <b ds>16 <a cs>16 <b ds>16 <gs e'>16^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music055.midi b/17074-h/music/music055.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a238692 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music055.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music056.ly b/17074-h/music/music056.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93d5c4e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music056.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + g8 fs4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music056.midi b/17074-h/music/music056.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..32ce38e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music056.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music057.ly b/17074-h/music/music057.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..56b1ee2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music057.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key bf \major + \time 2/4 + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + g'2~ | g4 ef4 | d2~ | d4 f4 | af,2_( | a4) \stemUp bf4 | af2 | g8 r8 r4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 130} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music057.midi b/17074-h/music/music057.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..92724da --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music057.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music058.ly b/17074-h/music/music058.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..55f669f --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music058.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key f \minor + \time 4/4 + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \times 2/3 {r8 c8 df8} \times 2/3 {d8 ef8 e8} \times 2/3 {f8 fs8 g8} \times 2/3 {af8 a8 bf8} | b8 c8 df8 d8 ef8-.( e8-. f8-. fs8-.) \break + g4-.( af4-. a4-. bf4-.) | b4 r4 c4 r4 \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music058.midi b/17074-h/music/music058.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..096d6bd --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music058.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music059.ly b/17074-h/music/music059.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2de333c --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music059.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key bf \major + \time 6/8 + \autoBeamOff + b8[ c8 d8 ef8 f8 g8] | af8[ g8 af8 g8 f8 ef8] \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music059.midi b/17074-h/music/music059.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..75fe838 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music059.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music060.ly b/17074-h/music/music060.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8008432 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music060.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key ef \major + \time 2/4 + \autoBeamOff + b'8([ c8 d8 ef8] | f8[ g8 af8 g8] | af8[ g8 af8 g8]) \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music060.midi b/17074-h/music/music060.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8eac3e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music060.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music061.ly b/17074-h/music/music061.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..632606d --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music061.ly @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { +\relative c' << + \new Staff { + \time 2/4 + \key g \major + \autoBeamOff + <g' b g'>8[ <a c a'>16. <b d b'>32] <c e c'>8[ <a c a'>8] \bar "|" + } + + \new Staff { + \clef bass + \time 2/4 + \key g \major + <g,, g'>4 <a' c>8[ <c e>8] + } >> + + \midi { \tempo 8 = 72 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music061.midi b/17074-h/music/music061.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4604a9d --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music061.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music062.ly b/17074-h/music/music062.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ffef8b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music062.ly @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key f \major + \time 4/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c'' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + s4^\markup { \italic {Poco adagio.} } s4 b4\rest \times 2/3 {a4(-> f8)->} | e4-> b'4\rest b4\rest \times 2/3 {bf4( g8)} \break + f4-> a2-> d4 | e,2 \phrasingSlurUp a4\(( \times 2/3 {a4) g8} | f4\) d'2^"etc." \bar "" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \change Staff=bass\voiceOne r4^\markup {\bold \italic {p} \italic {e legato.}} \times 2/3 {r8 f,8 a8_(} \change Staff=treble\voiceTwo \times 2/3 {d8 f8 d8)} \times 2/3 {a8( cs8 d8)} | e4 \change Staff=bass\voiceOne \times 2/3 {r8 bf8 d8_(} \change Staff=treble\voiceTwo \times 2/3 {e8 g8 e8)} \times 2/3 {bf8( d8 e8)} | s4 \times 2/3 {r8 d8\( e8} \times 2/3 {f8 cs8 d8\)} \times 2/3 {f8 a8 d,8} | \times 2/3 {d8\( cs8 b8} \times 2/3 {cs8\) a8^( b8)} \phrasingSlurDown \times 2/3 {cs8\( e8 f8} \times 2/3 {g8 e8 cs8\)} | d4 f2 +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \once \override TextScript #'padding = #1 + s4 s4 s4 s4 | s4 s4 s4 s4 | s4 f2 s4 | \times 2/3 {e,8^\p f8 g8} a2 \times 2/3 {a8_( cs8 a8)} | s4 bf'2^\sf +} + +iv = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iv" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \stemUp \set tieWaitForNote = ##t \times 2/3 {d,8[~ f8~ a8]~} <d, f a d>2. | \times 2/3 {g8[~ bf8~ d8]~} \stemDown <g, bf d e>2. | \stemUp \times 2/3 {a8[~ d8]~ e8} \stemDown <a, d>2 \stemUp \times 2/3 {gs4^(^\sf_\markup {\tiny {8}} a8^>)_\markup {\tiny {8}}} | \stemDown a,4( \stemUp a2) s4 | \times 2/3 {bf'8[~ d8~ f8]~} \stemDown <bf, d f>2 +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iii + \iv + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 80 } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music062.midi b/17074-h/music/music062.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e350017 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music062.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music063.ly b/17074-h/music/music063.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..315f036 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music063.ly @@ -0,0 +1,83 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key d \major + \time 6/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c'' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \partial 4*1 d4^\mf | cs2 fs,4 fs2 d'4 \break + fs4. g,8 fs8_\markup { \italic {dim.} } fs8 fs2.~ \break + fs4 b4\rest b4\rest \tieDown fs2.~^\markup { \italic {ten. sempre.} } | fs2.~ fs2^\markup { \italic {ten.} } \tieUp fs4~ \break + fs2.~ fs2^\markup { \italic {riten.} } fs4 | fs2. g2( a4) | b1 \bar "||" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \stemUp \partial 4*1 fs4 | e2 cs4 d2 fs4 | + cs'4. s8 s8 s8 d,2. | + d4 s4 s4 s2. | s2. s2 s4 | + \stemDown s4 as4_( b4) \stemUp bs4 \stemDown cs4 e4 | \stemUp d2.\fz e2\> a4\! | fs1 | +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceThree + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \partial 4*1 d4 | cs2 fs,4 fs2 d'4_\markup { \italic {cres.} } | + e4.\sf s8 s8_\markup { \italic {dim.} } s8 \tieDown fs,2.~ | + fs4 s4 s4 s2.\sf | s2. s2 \stemDown fs4~\sf | + fs2._( fs2) <fs as>4\pp | \change Staff=bass\voiceOne \stemUp \override Stem #'length = #22 <fs b>2. <g b>2_( a4) | <b d>1^\pp | +} + +iv = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iv" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \partial 4*1 as8 b8 | as8[ fs8 as8^\p fs8 as8 fs8] b8[^( fs8 b8 d8)] \grace d16 cs8 b8 | + as8[ fs8 as8 fs8 as8 fs8] b8([ fs8 b8 d8 cs8 b8]) | + \stemDown g'8( fs8) cs'8( b8) g'8( fs8) f,2.\rest | \stemUp <es gs b>2.^( <es gs d'>4) d4\rest d4\rest | + \stemUp fs,2.(^\markup { \italic \bold {p} \italic {cres.} } fs2) fs4 | \stemDown b2. b2. | b1 | +} + +v = \context Staff \relative c, { + \context Voice = "v" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \partial 4*1 s4 | b2.( b4) r4 r4 | + b2.( b4) r4 r4 | + s4 s4 s4 s2. | d'2.\sf( b4\p) s4 s4 | + fs,2 gs4 a4 as4 fs4 | b2. e2. | b1 | +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + \iii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iv + \v + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 80 } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music063.midi b/17074-h/music/music063.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf907d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music063.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music064.ly b/17074-h/music/music064.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c3dd1af --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music064.ly @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key g \major + \time 4/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c'' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \once \override TextScript #'padding = #2 + g8(^\markup { \italic {Adagio.} } \stemDown <ef' g>8[\p <f a>8 <g bf>8]) b,8\rest <g ef'>8( <af f'>8 <bf g'>8) | \stemUp b8\rest g'8 f32[( ef16.) d32( cs16.)] <f, d'>8 <f a e'>8 b4\rest \break + \stemDown b8\rest <fs ds'>8( <g e'>8 <a fs'>8) b8\rest <ds fs>8( <e g>8 <fs a>8) | <e g>8 b'8 a32[( g16.) fs32( e16.)] d16[( c16) <a' c>8-|] b,4\rest \bar "|" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + s2 s2 | s8 bf'8 g8[ g8] s4 s4 | + s2 s2 | s2 s4 s4 +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceOne + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + <ef, ef'>4^\ff f'4\rest \stemDown ef4 f4\rest | <ef ef'>4 <ef ef'>4 <d d'>8^\ff <c c'>8 f4\rest | + <b, b'>4^\p f'4\rest b4 f4\rest | e4 g4 a8-| ds,8-|^\ff \once \override TextScript #'padding = #2 s4^"etc." +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iii + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 80 } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music064.midi b/17074-h/music/music064.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0aabd25 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music064.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music065.ly b/17074-h/music/music065.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e7a27e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music065.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key c \minor + \time 3/4 + \partial 4*1 bf4 | g4_( bf4) ef4~ | ef4( d8) r8 f4 | bf,4( f'4) af4~ | af4 g4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "\"Letter V,\" Pohl, No. 58." + opus = "Haydn." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music065.midi b/17074-h/music/music065.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1655371 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music065.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music066.ly b/17074-h/music/music066.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b2080cb --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music066.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key c \minor + \time 3/4 + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + g2. | g4.( bf8 ef4) | ef2.\( | d4\) r4 r4 | bf2. | bf4.( f'8 af4) | af2.\( | g4\) \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "Op. 10, No. 1." + opus = "Beethoven." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music066.midi b/17074-h/music/music066.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..af3dfd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music066.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music067.ly b/17074-h/music/music067.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dc38144 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music067.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \time 4/4 + \partial 4*1 g4 | c4 d16 c16 b16 c16 e4 c4 | g4.. a16 g4 g4 | + d'4 e16 d16 cs16 d16 f4 d8. b16 | g4.. a16 g4 g4 \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = \markup{ {''In Native Worth''} \italic { (Creation). } } + opus = "Haydn." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music067.midi b/17074-h/music/music067.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ffe4abb --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music067.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music068.ly b/17074-h/music/music068.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea65c7f --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music068.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \time 9/8 + c2.\trill \grace {b32[ c32]} e4( e16.) c32 | g4.( g4) fs16 g16 gs16 a16 bf16 b16 c16 cs16 | + d2.\trill \grace {cs32[ d32]} f4( f16.) d32 | g,4.( g4) g16( a16 bf16 b16 c16 cs16 d16 ds16) \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "Op. 31, No. 1." + opus = "Beethoven." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music068.midi b/17074-h/music/music068.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a33da4d --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music068.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music069.ly b/17074-h/music/music069.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5a8ab16 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music069.ly @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key d \major + \time 3/4 + fs4 fs4 fs4 | e4 fs2 | g2 fs4 | e8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "Op. 2, No. 2." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music069.midi b/17074-h/music/music069.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b0995ba --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music069.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music070.ly b/17074-h/music/music070.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..33a7d41 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music070.ly @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key d \major + \time 3/4 + fs4^\markup { \italic {Andante.} } fs4. e8 | e8( d4) d8 e8 fs8 | g4 g4. fs8 | fs8( e4) \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \header { + piece = "Trio, Op. 97." + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music070.midi b/17074-h/music/music070.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..284c0d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music070.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music071.ly b/17074-h/music/music071.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a301533 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music071.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key c \minor + \time 4/4 + c4^( c16.)[ c32 d16. ef32] ef4^( d8) \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 44} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music071.midi b/17074-h/music/music071.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf37e74 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music071.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music072.ly b/17074-h/music/music072.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7a72e55 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music072.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \time 4/4 + \override Rest #'style = #'classical + \partial 4*2 e4 r4 | r4 e4 fs4 g4 | g2 fs4^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music072.midi b/17074-h/music/music072.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0fd2321 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music072.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music073.ly b/17074-h/music/music073.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f12707a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music073.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key c \minor + \time 2/4 + c4 c4 | c4 bf4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music073.midi b/17074-h/music/music073.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f8be29 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music073.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music074.ly b/17074-h/music/music074.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa10ea2 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music074.ly @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \key fs \major + \time 2/4 + gs'4 b,4 | b4\prall as8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music074.midi b/17074-h/music/music074.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ed7833 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music074.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music075.ly b/17074-h/music/music075.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..502f5df --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music075.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key a \major + \time 2/4 + \partial 8*1 es8 | fs8 cs4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music075.midi b/17074-h/music/music075.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c9a6dd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music075.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music076.ly b/17074-h/music/music076.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a20b92a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music076.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key a \major + \time 3/4 + \partial 16*1 es16 | fs16[ cs8 es16] fs16[ cs8 es16] fs16[ cs16 fs16 gs16] | a16 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music076.midi b/17074-h/music/music076.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ed4576 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music076.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music077.ly b/17074-h/music/music077.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef70662 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music077.ly @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key f \major + \time 3/4 + bf16 g16 fs16 g16 ef'4 cs4\turn | d4 d4 b4\turn | c4 c4 \stemDown a4\turn | bf2 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music077.midi b/17074-h/music/music077.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dd6da09 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music077.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music078.ly b/17074-h/music/music078.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1cd0eea --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music078.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key a \minor + \time 2/2 + \partial 4*1 c4 | \grace {b16[ c16]} b4 a4 e'4. \stemUp c16 a16 | e2. \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music078.midi b/17074-h/music/music078.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6924660 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music078.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music079.ly b/17074-h/music/music079.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ab1b082 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music079.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \clef bass + \key bf \major + \time 4/4 + \partial 8*1 bf,,8 | d''4. d8 d4 ef8 d8 | d4 bf4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music079.midi b/17074-h/music/music079.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9d1f6f --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music079.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music080.ly b/17074-h/music/music080.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..87a1400 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music080.ly @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + c'4. e,,8 e4 f8 g8 | a4 g4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music080.midi b/17074-h/music/music080.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aed29c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music080.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music081.ly b/17074-h/music/music081.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..54adf90 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music081.ly @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \time 9/8 + c'8 r8 e,,8 e8[ f8 g8] a8[ g8]^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music081.midi b/17074-h/music/music081.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f8549bf --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music081.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music082.ly b/17074-h/music/music082.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c63984a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music082.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c, { + \clef bass + \key fs \minor + \time 3/4 + fs4 a4 \times 2/3 {bs4 cs8} \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music082.midi b/17074-h/music/music082.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2c68d21 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music082.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music083.ly b/17074-h/music/music083.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3eb5928 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music083.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key d \major + \time 3/4 + b8^\markup{ \column { \line { Commencement of } \line { Andante theme. } } }[ cs8 d8 as8] \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 92 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music083.midi b/17074-h/music/music083.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ba47a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music083.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music084.ly b/17074-h/music/music084.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b6c8271 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music084.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key d \major + \time 6/8 + b8^"Scherzo."[ cs8 d8] as8 r8 r8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music084.midi b/17074-h/music/music084.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad0b846 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music084.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music085.ly b/17074-h/music/music085.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0da468f --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music085.ly @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c''' { + \key af \major + \time 3/4 + df4. c8 bf4 | r8 af8 g4 f4 | e4 f4 g4 | c,2 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music085.midi b/17074-h/music/music085.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd24ce8 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music085.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music086.ly b/17074-h/music/music086.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..913b801 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music086.ly @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +global = { + \key ef \major + \time 3/4 +} + +i = \context Staff \relative c'' { + \context Voice = "i" + \voiceOne + bf4 af8\trill g8 f8\trill ef8 \bar "" +} + +ii = \context Staff \relative c'' { + \context Voice = "ii" + \voiceTwo + \change Staff=bass\voiceOne \stemUp \override Stem #'length = #22 g,8[ \change Staff=treble\voiceTwo ef'8] d8[ c8 \change Staff=bass\voiceOne \stemUp \override Stem #'length = #22 bf8 a8] +} + +iii = \context Staff \relative c' { + \context Voice = "iii" + \voiceOne + \stemDown g4 f8 ef8 d8 c8 +} + +\score { + \context PianoStaff << + \context Staff = "treble" << + \global + \clef treble + \i + \ii + >> + \context Staff = "bass" << + \global + \clef bass + \iii + >> + >> + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } + \midi { \tempo 4 = 80 } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t } diff --git a/17074-h/music/music086.midi b/17074-h/music/music086.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9f0661 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music086.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music087.ly b/17074-h/music/music087.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e3e841e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music087.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key c \major + \time 4/4 + \partial 8*2 c8. e16 | g4 g4 g4 c4 | c2 b4^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music087.midi b/17074-h/music/music087.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c11af06 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music087.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music088.ly b/17074-h/music/music088.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de309a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music088.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c''' { + \key c \major + \time 4/4 + c2 g8.[ e16 g8. e16] | \grace d8 c16 b16 c16 d16 c8 c8 c4 r8. g16 | + g4. a16 b16 c8 g8 c8 d8 | e8 e16 f16 d8[ d16 e16 c16]^"etc." \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music088.midi b/17074-h/music/music088.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..837f7de --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music088.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music089.ly b/17074-h/music/music089.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d088899 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music089.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + <a' ds fs c'>4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music089.midi b/17074-h/music/music089.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..21644b4 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music089.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music090.ly b/17074-h/music/music090.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1e1647 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music090.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + <g' cs e b'>4 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 100 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music090.midi b/17074-h/music/music090.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d84b33e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music090.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music091.ly b/17074-h/music/music091.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5641dc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music091.ly @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c' { + \key f \major + \time 6/8 + \once \override TextScript #'padding = #4.5 + \stemDown a'16^\markup { \italic {Allegretto.} } f''16 g,,16 f''16 a,,16 f''16 bf,,16 f''16 a,,16 f''16 bf,,16 f''16 | c,16 f'16 f,16 f'16 a,16 f'16 f,16 f'16 c,16 f'16 a,,16 f''16^"etc." \bar "|" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music091.midi b/17074-h/music/music091.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c3dcec --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music091.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music092.ly b/17074-h/music/music092.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..19b3f3b --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music092.ly @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key g \major + \time 2/4 + \autoBeamOff + \partial 8*2 a8[ a8] | a8[ b8] g8 g8 | g4 b8[ b8] | b8[ c8] a8 a8 | a8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 120} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music092.midi b/17074-h/music/music092.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..753370a --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music092.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music093.ly b/17074-h/music/music093.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0f40372 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music093.ly @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key f \major + \time 2/2 + \partial 8*4 \times 2/3 {a8[ a8 a8]} \times 2/3 {a8[ a8 a8]} | a8 bf8 g4-. a8 bf8 g4 | a8 bf8 g4-. \times 2/3 {bf8[ bf8 bf8]} \times 2/3 {bf8[ bf8 bf8]} | bf8( c8) a4-. bf8( c8) a4-. | bf8 c8 a4-. \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 140} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + } +} diff --git a/17074-h/music/music093.midi b/17074-h/music/music093.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e3c537 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music093.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music094.ly b/17074-h/music/music094.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..73d714e --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music094.ly @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +melody = \relative c'' { + \key f \major + \time 2/4 + a2:8 | a8[ bf8 g8] r8 | \stemUp bf2:8 | bf8[ c8 a8] r8 \bar "" +} + +\score { + \new Staff \melody + \midi { \tempo 4 = 140} + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music094.midi b/17074-h/music/music094.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a9fea64 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music094.midi diff --git a/17074-h/music/music095.ly b/17074-h/music/music095.ly new file mode 100644 index 0000000..422abaf --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music095.ly @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +\version "2.6.3" +\include "english.ly" + +\score { +\relative c'' << + \new Staff { + \key af \major + \time 2/4 + \partial 16*2 c16 af16 | g16 af16 ef16 <af c>16 df,16 df'16 d,16 <af' d>16 | ef16 <af ef'>16 e16 <af e'>16 f16[ <af f'>16]^"etc." \bar "" + } + + \new Staff { + \clef bass + \key af \major + \time 2/4 + \partial 16*2 c,16^\ff( af16) | g16( af16 gf16 af16 f16 af16 ff16 af16) | ef16( af16 c,16 af'16 df,16[ af'16]) + } >> + + \midi { \tempo 8 = 140 } + \layout { + indent = 0.0\cm + \context { + \Score + \remove Bar_number_engraver + } + \context { + \Staff \remove Time_signature_engraver + } + } +} +\paper { raggedright = ##t }
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/17074-h/music/music095.midi b/17074-h/music/music095.midi Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a5f4606 --- /dev/null +++ b/17074-h/music/music095.midi diff --git a/17074.txt b/17074.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e117a8d --- /dev/null +++ b/17074.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6889 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. Shedlock + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Pianoforte Sonata + Its Origin and Development + +Author: J.S. Shedlock + +Release Date: November 16, 2005 [EBook #17074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIANOFORTE SONATA *** + + + + +Produced by John Hagerson, Charles Aldarondo, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +THE + +PIANOFORTE SONATA + +ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT + +BY + +J.S. SHEDLOCK, B.A. + +[Illustration: MONUMENT OF BERNARDO PASQUINI IN THE CHURCH OF SAN +LORENZO IN LUCINA ROME + +SKETCHED BY STRITCH HUTTON] + +METHUEN & CO. +36 ESSEX STREET, W.C. +LONDON + + + + +CONTENTS + +CHAP. PAGE + + I. INTRODUCTORY 1 + + II. JOHANN KUHNAU 38 + + III. BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU 71 + + IV. EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES 82 + + V. HAYDN AND MOZART 111 + + VI. PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN 130 + + VII. LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN 160 + +VIII. TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN 192 + + IX. SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT 207 + + X. THE SONATA IN ENGLAND 221 + + XI. MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC. 235 + + INDEX 241 + + + + +PREFACE + + +This little volume is entitled "The Pianoforte Sonata: its Origin and +Development." Some of the early sonatas mentioned in it were, however, +written for instruments of the jack or tangent kind. Even Beethoven's +sonatas up to Op. 27, inclusive, were published for "Clavicembalo o +Pianoforte." The Germans have the convenient generic term "Clavier," +which includes the old and the new instruments with hammer action; +hence, they speak of a _Clavier Sonate_ written, say, by Kuhnau, in +the seventeenth, or of one by Brahms in the nineteenth, century. + +The term "Piano e Forte" is, however, to be found in letters of a +musical instrument maker named Paliarino, written, as we learn from +the valuable article "Pianoforte," contributed by Mr. Hipkins to Sir +George Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, already in the +year 1598, and addressed to Alfonso II., Duke of Modena. The earliest +sonata for a keyed instrument mentioned in this volume was published +in 1695; and to avoid what seems an unnecessary distinction, I have +used the term "Pianoforte Sonata" for that sonata and for some other +works which followed, and which are usually and properly termed +"Harpsichord Sonatas." + +I have to acknowledge kind assistance received from Mr. A.W. Hutton, +Mr. F.G. Edwards, and Mr. E. Van der Straeten. And I also beg to thank +Mr. W. Barclay Squire and Mr. A. Hughes-Hughes for courteous help at +the British Museum; likewise Dr. Kopfermann, chief librarian of the +musical section of the Berlin Royal Library. + +J.S. SHEDLOCK. + +LONDON, 1895. + + + + +THE PIANOFORTE SONATA + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +In history we find certain names associated with great movements: +Luther with the Reformation, or Garibaldi with the liberation of +Italy. Luther certainly posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg +his famous Theses, and burnt the Papal Bull at the gates of that city; +yet before Luther there lived men, such as the scholar Erasmus, who +have been appropriately named Reformers before the Reformation. So, +too, Cavour's cautious policy paved the way for Garibaldi's brilliant +victories. Once again, Leonardo da Vinci is named as the inventor of +chiaroscuro, yet he was preceded by Fra Filippo Lippi. And in similar +manner, in music, certain men are associated with certain forms. +Haydn, for example, is called the father of the quartet; close +investigation, however, would show that he was only a link, and +certainly not the first one in a long evolution. So, too, with the +sonata. The present volume is, however, specially concerned with the +_clavier_ or pianoforte sonata; and for that we have a convenient +starting-point--the Sonata in B flat of Kuhnau, published in 1695. The +date is easy to remember, for in that same year died England's +greatest musician, Henry Purcell. + +Before studying the history of the pianoforte sonata, even in outline, +it is essential that something should be said about the early history +of the _sonata_. That term appears first to have been used in +contradistinction to _cantata_: the one was a piece _sounded_ +(_suonata_, from _sonando_) by instruments; the other, one _sung_ by +voices. The form of these early sonatas (as they appear in Giovanni +Gabrieli's works towards the close of the sixteenth century) was +vague; yet, in spite of light imitations, the basis was harmonic, +rather than contrapuntal. They were among the first fruits of the +Renaissance in Italy. But soon there came about a process of +differentiation. Praetorius, in his _Syntagma musicum_, published at +Wolfenbuettel in 1619, distinguishes between the _sonata_ and the +_canzona_. Speaking generally, from the one seems to have come the +sonata proper; from the other, the suite. During the whole of the +eighteenth century there was a continual intercrossing of these two +species; it is no easy matter, therefore, to trace the early stages of +development of each separately. + +Marpurg, in his description of various kinds of pieces in his +_Clavierstuecke_, published at Berlin in 1762, says: "Sonatas are +pieces in three or four movements, marked merely _Allegro_, _Adagio_, +_Presto_, etc., although in character they may be really an +_Allemande_, _Courante_, and _Gigue_." Corelli, as will be mentioned +later on, gave dance titles in addition to Allegro, Adagio, etc. +Marpurg also states that "when the middle movement is in slow time it +is not always in the key of the first and last movements." This, +again, shows intercrossing. The genuine suite consisted of several +dance movements (Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue) all in the +same key. But we find occasionally in suites, a Fugue or Fuguetta, or +even an Aria or Adagio; and in name, at any rate, one dance movement +has formed part of the sonata since the time of Emanuel Bach. + +In 1611, Banchieri, an Olivetan monk, published at Venice his +_L'Organo suonarino_, a work "useful and necessary to +organists,"--thus runs the title-page. At the end of the volume there +are some pieces, vocal and instrumental (a Concerto for soprano or +tenor, with organ, a Fantasia, Ricercata, etc.), among which are to be +found two _sonatas_, the one entitled, "Prima Sonata, doppio +soggietto," the other "Seconda Sonata, soggietto triplicato." They are +written out in open score of four staves, with mezzo-soprano, alto, +tenor, and bass clefs. To show how the sonatas of those days differed +both in form and contents from the sonata of our century, the first of +the above-mentioned is given in short score. It will, probably, remind +readers of "the first (_i.e._ sonatas) that my (_i.e._ Dr. Burney) +musical inquiries have discovered, viz., some sonatas by Francesco +Turini, which consisted of only a single movement, in fugue and +imitation throughout." + +[Music illustration] + +Turini was organist of Brescia Cathedral, and in 1624 published +_Madrigali a una, due, tre voci, con alcune Sonate e a tre, Ven. +1624_. Between Turini, also Carlo Farina, who published violin +sonatas at Dresden in 1628, and Corelli (_b._ 1653), who brought out +his first work in 1683, one name of great importance is Giovanni +Legrenzi. + +In the eighth volume of Dr. Burney's musical extracts there are two +sonatas, _a tre, a due violini e violone_, by Legrenzi (opera ottava, +1677). The first is in B flat. It commences with a movement in common +time entitled _La Benivoglia_. + +[Music illustration] + +An Adagio in G minor (only six bars) is followed by an Allegro in D +minor, six-eight time, closing on a major chord; then eight bars +common time in B flat (no heading); and, finally, a Presto +(three-four) commencing in G minor and closing in B flat. None of the +movements is in binary form. + +The 2nd Sonata, in D, has five short movements. No. 1 has an opening +of thirty-seven bars in common time, fugato. There is a modulation in +the ninth bar to the dominant, and, later on, a return to the opening +theme and key; in the intervening space, however, in spite of +modulation, the principal key is not altogether avoided. + +Sonatas of various kinds by Legrenzi appeared between 1655 and 1677. +Then there were the "Varii Fiori del Giardino Musicale ouero Sonate da +Camera, etc.," of Gio. Maria Bononcini, father of Battista Bononcini, +the famous rival of Handel, published at Bologna in 1669, and the +sonatas of Gio. Battista Vitali (Bologna, 1677). Giambatista Bassani +of Bologna, although his junior by birth, was the violin master of the +great Corelli. His sonatas only appeared after those of his +illustrious pupil, yet may have been composed before. Of the twelve in +Op. 5, most have many short movements; some, indeed, are so short as +to be scarcely deserving of the name. + +By the time of Arcangelo Corelli, who, as mentioned, published his +first work (Op. 1, twelve sonatas for two violins and a bass) in 1683, +sonatas answered to the definition given by Mattheson in his _Das neu +eroeffnete Orchester_ (1713), in which they are said to consist of +alternate Adagio and Allegro. J.G. Walther, again, in his dictionary +of music,[1] which appeared at Leipzig in 1732, describes a sonata as +a "grave artistic composition for instruments, especially violins." +The idea of grouping movements was already in vogue in the sixteenth +century. Morley in his _Plain and Easy Introduction to Practical +Music_, printed in 1597, speaks of the desirableness of _alternating_ +Pavans and Galliards, the one being "a kind of staid musick ordained +for grave dancing," and the other "a lighter and more stirring kind of +dancing." Contrast was obtained, too, not only by difference in the +character, but also, in the measure of the music; the former was in +common, the latter in triple time. + +With regard to the grouping of movements, Corelli's sonatas show +several varieties. The usual number, however, was four, and the order +generally--slow, fast, slow, fast. Among the forty-eight (Op. 1, 2, 3, +and 4, published 1685, 1690, 1694, and 1700 respectively) we find the +majority in four movements, in the order given above[2]; of the twelve +in Op. 3, no less than eleven have four movements, but-- + +No. 1 (in F) has Grave, Allegro, Vivace, Allegro. +No. 6 (in G), Vivace, Grave, Allegro, Allegro. +No. 10 (in A minor), Vivace, Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. + +There are, however, eight sonatas consisting of _three movements_; and +as this, a century later, became the normal number, we will give the +list:-- + +Op. 1, No. 7 (in C) Allegro, Grave, Allegro. + (Middle movement begins in + A minor, but ends in C.) + +Op. 2, No. 2 (in D minor) Allemanda (Adagio) + Corrente (Allegro), Giga + (Allegro). + +Op. 2, No. 6 (in G minor) Allemanda (Largo), Corrente, + Giga. + +Op. 2, No. 9 (F sharp minor) Allemanda (Largo). + Tempo di Sarabanda (Largo). + Giga (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 8 (D minor) Preludio (Grave). + Allemanda (Allegro). + Sarabanda (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 10 (G) Preludio[3] (Adagio) and Allegro. + Adagio and Grave (E minor). + Tempo di Gavotta (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 11 (C minor) Preludio (Largo). + Corrente (Allegro). + Allemanda (Allegro). + +Op. 4, No. 12 (B minor) Preludio (Largo). + Allemanda (Presto). + Giga (Allegro). + +It is interesting to note that each of the two sonatas (Op. 1, No. 7, +and Op. 4, No. 10), most in keeping with its title of sonata, has the +middle movement in a relative key. Op. 1, No. 7, begins with an +Allegro in common time; and the short Grave is followed by a light +Allegro in six-eight time. The first movement, with its marked return +to the principal key, is very interesting in the matter of form. The +other sonatas with suite titles have all their movements in the same +key. Locatelli in his _XII Sonate_ for flute, published early in the +eighteenth century, has in the first: Andante, Adagio, Presto; also +Nos. 3, 5, etc. So, too, in Tartini's Sonatas (Op. 1) there are also +some in three (No. 3, etc.). But Emanuel Bach commenced with that +number, to which, with few and unimportant exceptions, he remained +faithful; likewise to the slow movement dividing the two quick ones. +The three-movement form used by J.S. Bach for his concertos and +sonatas no doubt considerably influenced his son. But already, in +1668, Diderich Becker, in his _Musikalische Fruelings-Fruechte_, wrote +sonatas for violins, etc. and _continuo_, in three movements. (No. 10, +Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. Again, Sonata No. 19 opens with a movement +in common time, most probably an Allegro; then comes an Adagio, and, +lastly, a movement in six-four, most probably quick _tempo_.) These +sonatas of Becker _a 3_, _4_ or _5_, with _basso continuo_, are +unfortunately only printed in parts. As a connecting link between the +Gabrielis and Corelli, and more particularly as a forerunner of +Kuhnau, Becker is of immense importance. We are concerned with the +clavier sonata, otherwise we should certainly devote more space to +this composer. We have been able to trace back sonatas by German +composers to Becker (1668), and by Italian composers to Legrenzi +(1655); those of Gabrieli and Banchieri, as short pieces, not a group +of movements, are not taken into account. Now, of earlier history, we +do know that Hans Leo. von Hasler, said to have been born at Nuremberg +in 1564, studied first with his father, but afterwards at Venice, and +for a whole year under A. Gabrieli. Italian and German art are thus +intimately connected; but what each gave to, or received from, the +other with regard to the sonata seems impossible to determine. The +Becker sonatas appeared at Hamburg, and surely E. Bach must have been +acquainted with them. Becker in his preface mentions another Hamburg +musician--a certain Johann Schop--who did much for the cause of +instrumental music. Schop, it appears, published concertos for various +instruments already in the year 1644. And there was still another work +of importance published at Amsterdam, very early in the eighteenth +century, by the famous violinist and composer G. Torelli, which must +have been known to E. Bach. It is entitled "Six Sonates ou Concerts a +4, 5, e 6 Parties," and of these, five have three movements (Allegro, +Adagio, and Allegro). + +Corelli was the founder of a school of violin composers, of which +Geminiani,[4] Locatelli,[5] Veracini,[6] and Tartini[7] were the most +distinguished representatives; the first two were actually pupils of +the master. In the sonatas of these men there is an advance in two +directions: sonata-form[8] is in process of evolution from binary +form, _i.e._ the second half of the first section is filled with +subject-matter of more definite character; the bars of modulation and +development are growing in number and importance; and the principal +theme appears as the commencement of a recapitulation. We should like +to say that _binary_ is changing into _ternary_ form; unfortunately, +however, the latter term is used for a different kind of movement. To +speak of a movement in sonata-form, containing three sections +(exposition, development, and recapitulation) as in binary form, seems +a decided misnomer. + +The violinists just mentioned were the last great writers of sonatas +in Italy. Emanuel Bach arose during the first half of the eighteenth +century, and, henceforth, Germany took the lead; Bach was followed by +Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. The influence of the Corelli[9] school +was felt in Germany and also in England. Sonatas were published by +Veracini at Dresden in 1721, and by Tartini and Locatelli at Amsterdam +before 1740. Again Veracini was for a time solo violinist to the +Elector of Dresden (1720-23); Tartini lived for three years at Prague +(1723-26), while Locatelli, during the first half of the eighteenth +century, made frequent journeys throughout Germany. Emanuel Bach, the +real founder of the modern pianoforte sonata, must have been +influenced by their works. + +In a history of the development of the sonata generally, those of +Corelli would occupy an important place, for in them we find not only +fugal and dance forms, but also hints of sonata-form. + +Dr. Parry, in his article on "Sonata" in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary +of Music and Musicians_, has named the Corrente of Corelli's 5th +Sonata in Op. 4 as offering "nearly a miniature of modern binary +form." The well-known Giga Allegro of the 9th Sonata (Op. 5), and the +Allemanda Allegro of the 10th Concerto in C, also present remarkable +foreshadowings. + +Handel, however, furnishes a very striking illustration-- + +In the six "Sonatas or Trios for two Hoboys with a thorough bass for +the harpsichord," said to have been composed already in 1696, we find +quick movements in binary form. In some, the first section offers both +a first and a second subject, while in the second section, after +modulation, there is a return to the opening theme, though quite at +the close of that section. A brief description of one will make the +form clearer. The second Allegro of No. 4 (in F) has two sections. The +first, which ends in the dominant key (C), contains forty-six bars. +The opening theme begins thus:-- + +[Music illustration: _a_] + +At the twenty-ninth bar, a passage leads to the second theme-- + +[Music illustration: _b_] + +This second theme is, in a measure, evolved from the first. In any +case, it is of subordinate character; and it differs slightly as given +by first or second oboe, whereas the principal theme appears in +exactly the same manner for both instruments. + +The second section opens with developments of _b_, and modulation from +C major to D minor; _a_ also is developed, the music passing from the +last-named key back to the opening one. There is a full close in that +key, and then modulation to F. The remaining twenty-two bars give the +first section in condensed form: first and second subjects and +coda.[10] + +It would be interesting to trace the influences acting on the youth +Handel at the time when he wrote these sonatas. Most probably they +were Johann Philipp Krieger's[11] sonatas for violins and bass; N.A. +Strungk's sonatas published at Dresden in 1691; and more especially +Agostino Steffani's "Sonate da Camera" for two violins, alto, and +bass, published in 1683. An opera by the last-named, which appeared at +Hanover in 1699, has an "Air de Ballet," which contains the first +notes of "Let the bright Seraphim"; besides, it is known that Handel +culled ideas and "conveyed" notes from works of other composers; also, +that he turned them to the best account. + +In the same year in which Corelli published his Op. 1 (1683), Domenico +Scarlatti, the famous harpsichord player, was probably born; in the +history of development his name is the principal one of importance +between Corelli and Emanuel Bach. In the matter of technique he +rendered signal service, but, for the moment, we are concerned with +his contribution towards development. Scarlatti does not seem to have +ever considered the sonata in the sense of a work consisting of +several contrasting movements; all of his are of only one movement. +The title "sonata" as applied to his pieces is, therefore, misleading. +Whether the term was actually used by the composer himself seems +doubtful. The first thirty of the sixty Scarlatti sonatas published by +Breitkopf & Haertel appeared during the lifetime of the composer at +Madrid. They are dedicated to John the Just, King of Portugal, and are +merely entitled + + _Essercizi per Gravicembalo._ + +In editions of the eighteenth century the composer's pieces are styled +Lessons or Suites. However, twelve published by J. Johnson, London, +are described on the title-page as _Sonatas modernas_. + +From the earliest days of instrumental music dance tunes were divided +into two sections. The process of evolution is interesting. In the +earliest specimens, such as the _Branle_ given in the Orchesographie +of Thoinot Arbeau, we find both sections in the same key, and there is +only one theme. The movement towards the dominant note in this +_Branle_ may be regarded as a latent modulation. In time the first +section was developed, and the latent modulation became real; then, +after certain intermediate stages, the custom was established of +passing from the principal to the dominant key (or, in a minor piece, +to the relative major or dominant minor), in which the first section +closed. But in Corelli,[12] and even in Scarlatti,[13] we find, +occasionally, a return to an earlier stage (_i.e._ a first section +ending in the same key in which it commenced). In most of his pieces +Scarlatti modulates to the dominant; in minor, to the relative major. +Some exceptions deserve mention. In the Breitkopf & Haertel collection, +No. 26, in A major, passes to the minor key of the dominant; and No. +11, in C minor, modulates to the minor key of the dominant, but the +section closes in the major key of the dominant. + +Scarlatti's sonatas consist, then, of one movement in binary form of +the early type. Only in a few of these pieces is there a definite +second subject; in none, a return to the opening theme. [Music +illustration] In No. 26 there is just a return to the first bar (see +second section, bar 11), but the previous ten bars show no modulation, +and one can scarcely speak of thematic development. After the few bars +of development and modulation, in some cases, the second section is +found to consist merely of a repetition of some part of the first +section, the key being tonic instead of dominant. This is, +practically, embryonic sonata-form. The tonic and dominant portions of +the first section are becoming differentiated; but the landmark, +_i.e._ the return to the opening theme in the second section which +divides binary from sonata form, is, in Scarlatti, non-existent. His +first sections often consist of a principal theme and passages, also +phrases indirectly connected with the opening one; sometimes of a +chain of short phrases more or less evolved from the opening thought +(see Nos. 1, 21, 29). (These and the numbers which follow refer to the +Breitkopf & Haertel edition of sixty Scarlatti sonatas.) The composer +often passes through the minor key of the dominant (in the first +section) before arriving at the major; sometimes the major is +introduced only late in the section (Nos. 7, 17, etc.), or minor +remains (No. 26). We meet with a similar proceeding in Beethoven. +Minor pieces often pass to the dominant minor, but end in major +(_i.e._, first section). In Scarlatti there is, for the most part, no +second subject, but frequently (Nos. 5, 7, 9, etc.) a concluding +phrase which can, at times, be traced to the opening theme. Sonata 6, +in F, shows a second subject of a certain independence. The best +examples are to be found in Nos. 24 and 29 (in A and E); in these the +character of the second subject differs from that of the first, and it +is also in a minor key, which offers still another contrast. + +And now a word or two respecting Scarlatti's method of development. He +alters figures (Nos. 12 and 54), extends them (Nos. 9 and 54), but +often merely repeats passages on the same degrees as those of the +first section, or on different ones. He makes use of imitation (Nos. 7 +and 36). Sometimes he evolves a phrase from a motive (No. 11). In No. +19 the development assumes a certain importance. It commences, not, as +in most cases, with the opening theme or figure of the first section, +but with a group of semiquaver notes which appears later in that +section. In No. 20 Scarlatti preserves the rhythm, but with total +change of notes (No. 20)-- + +[Music illustration] + +The same number gives another interesting specimen of change of +rhythm. In No. 48 he picks out an unimportant group of notes, and +works it by imitation and sequence. There are some interesting +specimens of development in the thirty sonatas printed from +manuscripts in the possession of Lord Viscount Fitzwilliam by Robert +Birchall. Scarlatti's development bars are seldom many in number. + +After modulation and development, the music slides, as it were, into +some phrase from the first section,[14] and allowance being made on +account of difference of key (there the music was passing, or had +passed from tonic; here it is returning to that key), the rest is more +or less a repetition of the first section. _More or less_: sometimes +the repetition is literal; at other times there is considerable +deviation; and shortenings are frequent. With regard to style of +writing for the clavier--a few canonic imitations excepted--there is +no real polyphony. Most of the sonatas are in only two parts. The +composer revels in rapid passages (runs, broken chords, simple and +compound), wide leaps, difficult octaves, crossing of hands, and, of +course, short shakes innumerable. Domenico Scarlatti was indeed one of +the most renowned _virtuosi_ on the clavier. Handel met him at Rome in +1708, and Cardinal Ottoboni persuaded them to compete with each other. +We are told that upon the harpsichord the victory was doubtful, but +upon the organ, Scarlatti himself confessed the superiority of his +rival.[15] + +Johann Kuhnau published a sonata for clavier in 1695, and this was +followed up by a set of seven sonatas ("Frische Fruechte") in 1696, and +a few years later (1700) by the seven "Bible" Sonatas. That he was the +first composer who wrote a sonata for the clavier is a point which +cannot be overlooked, and in the evolution of the sonata he occupies +an interesting position. In the "Frische Fruechte" there is, as Dr. +C.H. Parry truly remarks in his excellent article "Sonata" in Sir G. +Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, an awakening sense of the +relation and balance of keys; but in the "Bible" Sonatas the form and +order of the movements is entirely determined by the Bible stories. As +specimens of programme-music they are altogether remarkable, and will, +later on, be described in detail; they do not, however, come within +the regular line of development. It was, of course, natural that such +a new departure should attract the notice of John Sebastian Bach, who +was Kuhnau's immediate successor as cantor of St. Thomas' School, +Leipzig, and Spitta, in his life of Bach, refers to that composer's +_Capriccio sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo_, and +reminds us that "Kuhnau as well as so many others had some influence +on Bach." Of course, among the "so many others," Froberger's name--as +we shall see later on from Kuhnau's preface--deserves a prominent +place. In addition to what Kuhnau says, Mattheson has recorded that +"Froberger could depict whole histories on the clavier, giving a +representation of the persons present and taking part in them, with +all their natural characters." When writing the Capriccio above named, +Spitta believes that Bach was specially influenced by the last of the +"Bible" Sonatas (we may perhaps add that Spitta tells us that Bach +was intimately acquainted with Kuhnau). He indeed says: "We might +doubt the early origin of the Capriccio if its evident 'dependence' on +Kuhnau did not solve the mystery." Then, again, in a Sonata in D by +Bach, published in the Bach Gesellschaft edition, Spitta calls +attention to the opening subject in D, and does not hesitate to +declare that "it is constructed on the pattern of a particular part of +the story of Jacob's marriage" (the 3rd of the "Bible" Sonatas). His +description of the Bach sonata would, doubtless, have attracted more +notice but for the fact that copies of the Kuhnau sonatas were +extremely rare; they were, we believe, never reprinted since the +commencement of the eighteenth century. The first two have now been +published by Messrs Novello & Co. The Kuhnau influence on Bach seems, +however, to have been of short duration; for, after these juvenile +attempts, as Spitta observes, "he never again returned to this branch +of music in the whole course of a long artistic career extending over +nearly fifty years." The fugue form absorbed nearly the whole +attention of that master; and the idea of programme-music remained in +abeyance until Beethoven revived it a century later.[16] Emanuel Bach +inherited some of his father's genius, and he may instinctively have +felt the utter hopelessness of following directly in his footsteps. +J.S. Bach had exhausted the possibilities of the fugue form. It was +perhaps fortunate for Emanuel Bach that, while still young, he left +his father's house. After residing for a few years at +Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he entered the service of Frederick the Great; +and at the court of that monarch he came, at any rate, directly under +Italian influence. + +An interesting link between Kuhnau and E. Bach is Mattheson, who +published at Hamburg in 1713 a sonata dedicated to the one who can +best play it (_derjenigen Persohn gewidmet, die sie am besten spielen +wird_). The work itself not being available, the following description +of it by J. Faisst (_Caecilia_, vol. 25, p. 157) may prove +interesting:--"It (_i.e._ the sonata) consists of only one movement, +which, considering its evidently intentional wealth of technique, +might be named a Toccata. But in form this one movement clearly +belongs to the sonata order, and, in fact, holds a middle place +between the tendencies towards sonata-form (the term taken in the +narrower sense of form of one single movement) noticeable in Kuhnau, +and the more developed shape which this form has assumed within recent +times. We have here three sections. In the opening one, the theme, +after its first exposition in the key of G, forms the basis of various +passages, and then appears in the key of the dominant, followed again +by passages of larger extent and richer contents; finally, in +abbreviated form, it reappears in the tonic. The second section +commences in the parallel key, E minor, with passages which recall +those of the first section, and continues with the theme in the same +key; afterwards theme and passages are developed through the keys of A +minor, C major, G major, D major and B minor; in the last, in which +the theme occurs, there is a full close. As third section the first is +taken _Da Capo_." It is evident from a remark made by Mattheson in his +_Der volkommene Capellmeister_, which appeared at Hamburg in 1739, +that some of the sonatas written during the transition period, between +Corelli and E. Bach, are lost, or, at any rate, have not been +discovered.[17] Mattheson says: "During the last years successful +attempts have been made to write sonatas for the clavier (formerly +they were for violins or instruments of that kind); still, up to now, +they have not the right form, and are capable of being touched (_i.e._ +played) rather than of touching: they aim at the movement of fingers +rather than of hearts."[18] + +A little later than Mattheson (_i.e._ in 1721), Pier Giuseppo Sandoni, +husband of the famous vocalist Cuzzoni, published at London "Sonate +per il Cembalo," dedicated to the Duchess of Pembroke. No. 1, in D +minor, has three movements, an Allemande, Largo, and Giga Presto; they +are all short, and in two sections; and, as a rule, the writing is in +two parts. No. 2, in F, opens with an Allegro of peculiar form. It +has four sections, each of which is repeated; the first (seven bars) +modulates to the key of C, closing thus-- + +[Music illustration] + +The second section (also consisting of seven bars) soon modulates to D +minor, closing in that key in a manner similar to the first. The third +section (ten bars) consists of modulation and slight development, and +closes in A minor. The fourth section (fifteen bars) passes by means +of broken chords (in imitation of the last bar of the previous +section) through various keys, ending in the same fashion as the first +section, only, by way probably of intensification at the end, there +are seven instead of four quaver chords; the section, of course, ends +in F. This movement in the matter of form offers an interesting link +between Kuhnau and E. Bach. The second movement is a minuet, with +variations; it certainly has a beginning, but seems endless. The 3rd +Sonata, in A, resembles No. 1 in form, also in grouping of movements. + +And in addition to the sonata of Mattheson, the Sei Sonatine per +Violino e Cembalo, di Georgio Philippo Telemann, published at +Amsterdam in 1721, will give us an approximate idea of the clavier +sonata between Kuhnau and Emanuel Bach. Each number, by the way, is +headed--title-page notwithstanding--a sonata. No. 1, in A major, +consists of four movements, Adagio, Allegro, Largo, Allegro, and all +the four are in binary form. The second is naturally the most +important; the others are very short and simple. In this Allegro, +besides the allusion in the dominant key to the theme at the opening +of the second section there is a return to it, after modulation, in +the principal key. Some of the other sonatas are longer, but No. 1 +represents, roughly, the other five as to form and contents. No. 6, in +F, by the way, has only three movements: Vivace, Cantabile, and +Presto. + +The "Sonate per Gravicembalo, novamente composte," published by +Giovanni Battista Pescetti in 1739, deserve notice, since they +appeared three years before the six sonatas dedicated by Emanuel Bach +to Frederick the Great. They are nine in number. In style of writing, +order, and character of movements, they bear the stamp of the period +in which they were written. Most of the movements in binary form are +of the intermediate type, _i.e._ they have the principal theme in the +dominant at the beginning of the exposition section, and again, later +on, in the principal key. There is considerable variety in the order +and number of movements. No. 1, for instance, has an Adagio, an +Allegro, and a Menuett with variations. No. 2, in D, has four +movements: Andante, Adagio, Allegro, Giga; the short Adagio is in D +minor. No. 3, in G minor: Presto and A Tempo Giusto (a dignified +fugue). The influence of Handel is strong, also that of Scarlatti. +Bars such as the following-- + +[Music illustration] + +foreshadow, in a curious manner, the _Alberti_ bass. + +A great number of clavier sonatas were written about the time during +which Emanuel Bach flourished: his first sonatas appeared in 1742, his +last in 1787. An interesting collection of no less than seventy-two +sonatas (sixty-seven by various composers; five anonymous), issued in +twelve parts, under the title _Oeuvres melees_ (twelve books, each +containing six sonatas), was published by Haffner at Wuerzburg, +somewhere between 1760 and 1767. And another collection of symphonies +and sonatas, principally by Saxon composers, was published at Leipzig +in 1762 under the title _Musikalisches Magazin_. We will give the +names of some of the chief composers, with titles of their works, +adding a few other details. It is difficult in some cases to ascertain +the year of publication; and it is practically impossible to say when +the sonatas were actually composed:-- + + BACH, Wilh. Friedemann. Sei sonate, No. 1,[19] D + major (Dresden, 1745). Sonata in C (published in Litolff's + _Maitres du Clavecin_), and others in D and G (autographs), + and in F, A, and B flat (manuscripts). + + BACH, Joh. Ernst. Two sonatas (in _Oeuvres + melees_). + + NICHELMANN, Christoph. Sei brevi sonate, etc., Op. + 2; Nuremberg (between 1745-1756). + + HASSE. Two sonatas in E flat and B flat + (manuscript; on one is the date of 1754). Two sonatas, one + in D minor (only one Lento movement); the other in D major + (only one Allegro movement in old binary form). These are + both in the Leipzig collection named above. + + BENDA, Georg. Sei sonate (Berlin, 1757). Sonatas in + G, C minor, and G, also seven sonatinas (Vermischte + Clavierstuecke, Gotha, 1780). + + WAGENSEIL, Georg. Sonata (_Oeuvres melees_). Six + sonatas for the harpsichord (with accompaniment for a + violin).[20] Opera prima. (A. Hummel, London.) + + SCHAFFRATH, Christoph.[21] Six sonates, Op. 2 + (published by Haffner, Nuremberg, 1754). + + MOZART, Leopold. Three sonatas (_Oeuvres melees_). + + MUeTHEL, Joh. Gottfr. Three sonatas, etc. (Haffner, + Nuremberg, about 1753); three sonatas (autograph). + + UMSTATT, Joseph.[22] One sonata (_Oeuvres melees_). + Sonata consisting of only a Minuetto, Trio, and Gigue + (Leipzig collection). And the two Italians-- + + GALUPPI. Sonate per cembalo (London); and + + PARADIES, P. Domenico. Twelve sonate di + gravicembalo (London). + + GRETRY, Belgian composer (1741-1813), wrote "Six + sonates pour le clavecin" (1768), to which, unfortunately, + we have not been able to gain access. + +From the two collections, etc., may be gathered many facts of +interest. First, as regards the number and character of movements in a +sonata. Emanuel Bach kept, for the most part, to three: two fast +movements, divided by a slow one.[23] In the second of his Leipzig +collections (1780), there are two with only two movements (Nos. 2 and +3; a few bars connecting the two movements of No. 3). But among other +composers there are many examples; in some sonatas, the first movement +is a slow one; in others, both movements are quick, in which case the +second one is frequently a minuet.[24] All twelve sonatas of Paradies +have only two movements. + +Of sonatas in three movements, some commence with a slow movement +followed by two quick movements.[25] (In one instance, in E. Bach's +sonatas, the 1st Collection, No. 2, in F, we even find two slow +movements followed by a quick one, Andante, Larghetto, Allegro assai.) +But the greater number had the usual order:--Allegro or Allegretto, +Andante or Adagio, and Allegro or Presto. Thus Hasse, Nichelmann, +Benda, and other composers. Now in E. Bach's Wuertemberg sonatas we +found all three movements were in the same key, and there are similar +cases in Hasse, Fried. Bach, Joh. Ernst Bach, etc.; but for the most +part, the middle (slow) movement was in some nearly related key; in a +sonata commencing in major--in the relative, or tonic minor, or minor +under-dominant; and even (as in a sonata by Adlgasser) in the +upper-dominant. Joh. C.F. Bach, in one instance, selected the minor +key of the upper-dominant, and there are examples of more remote keys +(E. Bach, Coll. of 1780, No. 1). With sonatas commencing in minor, the +key selected for the middle movement was generally the relative major +of the under-dominant, or that of the tonic; sometimes even tonic +major. A very extraordinary example of a remote key is to be met with +in Bach's Collection of 1779, No. 3: his opening movement is B minor, +but his middle one, G minor.[26] + +It should be mentioned with regard to sonatas in three movements +commencing in a minor key, that the last generally (in works of this +period) remains and ends in minor. In modern sonatas the major is +often found, at any rate before the close (see Beethoven, Op. 10, No. +1, etc.). + +Baldassare Galuppi, born in 1706 on the island of Burano, near Venice, +was a pupil of Lotti's. Two sets of six "Sonate per il cembalo" of +his were published in London. We cannot give the date, but may state +that a sonata of his in manuscript bears the date 1754 (whether of +copy or composition is uncertain; anyhow, the year given acts as +limit). The variety in the number of the movements of the published +sonatas (one has four, some have three, some two, while No. 2 of the +first set has only one) points to a period of transition. This alone, +apart from the freshness and charm of the music, entitles them to +notice. Much of the writing is thin (only two parts), and, +technically, the music far less interesting than the Scarlatti pieces. +Some of the phrases and figures, and the occasional employment of the +Alberti bass, tell, however, of the new era soon about to be +inaugurated by Haydn. There is one little feature in the 1st Sonata of +the first set which may be mentioned. In the second section of the +Adagio (a movement in binary form) of that sonata, the theme appears, +as usual then, at the beginning of the second section, and, later on, +reappears in the principal key, but it starts on the fourth, instead +of the eighth quaver of the bar. + +There was great variety in the order of movements. Sometimes a slow +movement was followed by two quick movements;[27] and the third +movement was frequently a minuet. The quick movement sometimes came in +the middle (Galuppi, Sonata in B flat), sometimes at the beginning +(E. Bach, Coll. 1781, No. 3), sometimes at the end (E. Bach, Coll. +1779, No. 2). Then, again, sometimes all, but frequently two of the +three movements, were connected, _i.e._ the one passed to the other +without break. + +So much for sonatas in two or three movements. But among the _Oeuvres +melees_ there are no less than twenty which have four movements--some +in the old order: slow, fast, slow, fast; others in a new order: +Allegro, Andante or Adagio, Minuet, and Allegro or Presto.[28] Thus +Wagenseil,[29] Houpfeld, J.E. Bach, Hengsberger, and Kehl. Sometimes +(as in Seyfert and Goldberg) the Minuet came immediately after the +Allegro[30] (see Beethoven chapter with regard to position of Minuet +or Scherzo in his sonatas). In a sonata by Schaffrath, the opening +Allegro is followed by a Fugue. Again (in Spitz, Zach, and Fischer) +the following order is found: Allegro, Andante, Allegro, Minuet. In +Fischer all the movements are in one key; only the Trio of the Minuet +is in the tonic minor. In Spitz the Andante is in the under-dominant, +the other movements being in the principal key. In Zach the Andante is +in the minor tonic, and the third movement in the upper-dominant. It +is well to notice that _in none of these four-movement sonatas are the +movements connected_. The same thing is to be observed in Beethoven, +with exception, perhaps, of Op. 110. In the _Oeuvres melees_ there is +only one instance of a sonata in _five_ movements by Umstatt. It +consists of an Allegro, Adagio (in the dominant), Fugue Allegro (in +the relative of dominant), a Minuet in the principal key, with Trio in +relative minor; and, finally, a Presto. By way of contrast, we may +recall the two sonatas of Hasse, in one movement, already mentioned, +and also the last of Emanuel Bach's six sonatas of 1760. + +The works of many of the composers named in connection with +differences in the number and order of movements are forgotten; and, +in some cases, indeed, their names are not even thought worthy of a +place in musical dictionaries. Yet these variations are of great +moment in the history of development. And this for a double reason. +First, many of the works must have been known to E. Bach, and yet he +seems to have remained, up to the last, faithful to the three-movement +plan. One or two of his sonatas have only two movements, none, +however, has four. Secondly, the experiment of extending the number to +more than three, practically passed unheeded by Dussek, Clementi, +Mozart,[31] Haydn,[32] and by all the composers of importance until +Beethoven. The last-named commenced with sonatas in four movements; +but, as will be seen in a later chapter, he afterwards became partial +to the scheme of three movements. + +Let us now consider, and quite briefly, movements in binary form; +again, in this matter, some instructive facts will be gathered from +the works of Bach's contemporaries. As in Scarlatti, so here we find +the first of the two sections into which such a movement is divided, +ending in one case[33] in the tonic, but, as a rule, in the dominant. +There is, however, an instance of the close in the under-dominant +(Muethel, No. 2 of the Sonatas of 1780), and in E. Bach, in the +relative minor of the under-dominant (Sonatas of 1780, No. 3, Finale). +In a minor key, the first section closed either in the key of the +relative major, or that of the dominant minor[34]--much more +frequently the former. + +Now, in proportion as the second part of the first section grew more +definite, so also did the approach to it. Everyone knows the pause so +frequently to be found in Haydn and Mozart, on the dominant of the +dominant, _i.e._ if the key of the piece were C-- + +[Music illustration] + +It is instructive to compare the less formal methods of approaching +the new key in E. Bach and his contemporary Paradies; with them it was +generally by means of a half-close. It must be remembered that E. Bach +frequently has a movement quite on Scarlatti lines, _i.e._ without a +definite second subject;[35] also that the second subject in Bach's +time was, as a rule, of secondary importance. But, curiously, in the +Finale of a sonata written by Leopold Mozart (father of the great +genius), after a half cadence on the dominant of the dominant, _tempo_ +and measure change (from Presto two-four, to Andante three-four, the +latter remaining until the end of the first section), and the same +occurs in the recapitulation section; by this means the second theme +was made specially prominent. In a sonata of Scarlatti's, in D, +commencing + +[Music illustration] + +there is a definite second subject in, by the way, the minor key of +the dominant, and it is divided from the first by two bars in common +time (a descending scale and a shake on a semibreve). And then again, +in No. 12 of the "Libro de XII. Sonatas Modernas para Clavicordio," +the second subject is divided from the first by two bars of common +time (the piece is in Scarlatti's favourite measure, three-eight), an +ascending scale and a shake. There are clear examples of a second +subject, besides E. Bach, in Eberlin, Fleischer, J.C. Bach, and J.C.F. +Bach. Yet even in Haydn's sonatas one cannot always speak of a second +subject. The further history of the development of the contents of the +second half of the first section shows, as it were, a struggle between +two ideals. One was _kinship_, _i.e._ the endeavour to present the +secondary matter in strong relationship to the opening one (the +opening notes or bars of a real second subject were, indeed, +frequently the same, allowance being made, of course, for difference +of key); the other was _contrast_, _i.e._ the endeavour to obtain +variety. Haydn was more affected by the first; Mozart by the second. +In Beethoven the two are happily combined. It is important to notice +the closing bars of many first sections of the period of which we are +speaking. For instance, in E. Bach, the first movement of the sonata +in each of the Collections of 1781 and 1783 has a concluding theme +(as in the sonata of Scarlatti, and frequently evolved from the +opening theme). Though in the complementary key, it cannot count as +"the second subject." It appears after the complementary key has been +ushered in by one cadence, and after having apparently run its course, +it has been wound up by another. Then, again, the portion between the +cadences just mentioned is at times filled with a true theme, so that +the concluding one, like the cave of Abraham's field of Machpelah, is +in reality an appendency. _Sometimes there are several_: the +enlargement of the exposition section by Beethoven, and still more +modern composers, so that it contains sometimes three, and even more +themes, is practically an exposition section on Scarlatti lines, only +on a larger scale: the figure has become a phrase, mere connecting +passages have acquired organic meaning. The second section of +Scarlatti's movement in binary form contained a few bars of +development and modulation. Then a return was made to the opening key +of the piece, _but never to the opening theme_; and in that key a +portion more or less great, more or less varied, according to +circumstances, was repeated. That return to the opening theme is, as +we have already said, the landmark which divides binary from sonata +form. + +In sonatas of the middle of the eighteenth century the modulation +section (in a major key) ended in various ways,--on the dominant +chord (of the principal key), on the tonic chord of the relative +minor, the under-dominant, or even on the tonic itself of the +principal key. Later on, Haydn and Mozart kept, for the most part, to +the dominant chord. Beethoven, on account of the distant, and often +abrupt, modulations of his middle sections, generally marked the +approach to the recapitulation by clear, and often prolonged, dominant +harmony; sometimes, however, the return of the principal theme comes +as a surprise. The recapitulation always remained more or less +faithful to the exposition. It is interesting to note how little the +character and contents of the recapitulation section have been +affected in modern times by the growth of the development section. In +the matter of balance the two sections of movements in binary form are +more satisfactory than the two sections (two, so far as outward +division is concerned) of modern sonatas. The grain of mustard-seed in +the parable grew into a tree, and so, likewise, have the few bars of +modulation of early days grown into an important section. However +difficult to determine the exact moment at which a movement in +sonata-form really ceased to be binary, there seems no doubt that that +moment has now passed. We have already noted when the change +commenced. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +JOHANN KUHNAU + + +This remarkable musician was born, April 1660,[36] at Geysing, where +his grandfather, who, on account of his religious opinions, had been +forced to leave Bohemia, had settled. Already in his ninth year young +Kuhnau showed gifts for science and art. He had a pleasing voice, and +first studied under Salomon Kruegner, and afterwards under Christian +Kittel,[37] organist of the Elector at Dresden. His next teachers were +his brother Andreas Kuhnau, Alexander Hering,[38] and Vincenzo +Albrici. In 1680 the plague broke out at Dresden, and Kuhnau returned +to his parents. He then went to Zittau with a certain Erhard Titius, +who had been _Praefectus_ at the Kreuzschule, Dresden, and received +help from the court organist, Moritz Edelmann, also from the +"celebrated" Weise. A motet of Kuhnau's was given at Zittau under his +direction. After the death of Titius, Kuhnau resided for a time in the +house of J.J. von Hartig, judge at Zittau. In 1682 he went to Leipzig, +where D. Scherzer endeavoured to obtain for him the post of organist +at St. Thomas'; Kuehnel, however, was appointed. The latter died in +1684, and was succeeded by Kuhnau, who in 1700 also became cantor of +St. Thomas'. He devoted much of his time to jurisprudence. Among other +things, he wrote a curious satire, entitled _Der musikalische +Quacksalber_, published in 1700. There remain in manuscript, +_Tractatus de tetrachordo_ and _Introductio ad compositionem +musicalem_. Kuhnau had many pupils; we know of two who afterwards +became distinguished men. The one was Christoph Graupner (1683-1760), +who in 1710 became capellmeister at Darmstadt. In 1722, on the death +of Kuhnau, Graupner,[39] who had been prize scholar under him, +presented his testimonials, was examined, and seemed likely to become +cantor as his teacher's successor. Meanwhile, however, John Sebastian +Bach offered himself as candidate, and as Dr. Pepusch before Handel at +Cannons in 1710, so did Graupner retire before his great rival. +Mattheson, in his _Ehren-Pforte_ (p. 410), tells us that "as a +composer for the clavier, Graupner may rank as one of the best of his +time." He wrote suites and sonatas for clavier. Johann Friedrich Fasch +(1688-1758 or 9), the second pupil, soon after leaving Leipzig, where +he had enjoyed Kuhnau's instruction from 1701-7, went to Italy, and on +his return studied for a short time with Graupner. Fasch then filled +various posts, until in 1722 (the very year indeed of Kuhnau's death) +he became capellmeister at Anhalt Zerbst, where he remained until his +death. His son, Carl Friedrich Christian, was the founder of the +Berlin _Singakademie_. In 1756 Emanuel Bach had something to do with +Fasch's appointment as clavecinist to Frederick the Great. The father, +who was then seventy years of age, and who, like old Sebastian Bach, +lived with the fear of God before his eyes, opposed the wish of his +son to enter the service of the infidel king. Emanuel, who wished the +younger Fasch to come to Berlin, wrote to the father to say "that in +the land over which Frederick the Great ruled, one could believe what +one liked; that the king himself was certainly not religious, but on +that very account esteemed everyone alike." Bach offered to take young +Fasch into his house, and to preserve him as much as possible from +temptation. With regard to Graupner, it would be interesting to know +whether in any of his sonatas (the autographs of which are, we +believe, at Darmstadt) he worked at all on Kuhnau's lines. And with +regard to Fasch, one would like to know whether he ever conversed with +Emanuel Bach about his father, who taught him theory, and about Johann +Kuhnau, his father's renowned teacher. It is from such by-paths of +history that one sometimes learns more than from statements showing +how son descended from sire, and how pupils were directly influenced +by their teachers. + +But it is as a musician that we are now concerned with Kuhnau, and, in +the first place, as the composer of the earliest known sonata for the +clavier. In 1695 he published at Leipzig-- + +"Sieben Partien aus dem Re, Mi, Fa, oder Terzia minore eines jedweden +Toni, benebenst einer _Sonata_ aus dem B. Denen Liebhabern dieses +Instrumenten zu gar besondern Vergnuegen aufgesetzet." That is-- + +Seven Partitas based on the Re, Mi, Fa, or minor third of each mode, +together with a Sonata in B flat, for the especial gratification of +lovers of this instrument. + +With respect to this sonata, Kuhnau remarks in his preface: "I have +added at the end a Sonata in B flat, which will please amateurs; for +why should not such things be attempted on the clavier as well as on +other instruments?" In such modest fashion was ushered into the world +the first sonata for clavier, or, at any rate, the earliest with which +we are acquainted.[40] + +Mattheson, in _Das neu eroeffnete Orchester_ (1713), speaks about the +_revival_ of clavier sonatas, so that it is not quite certain whether +that B flat Sonata was actually the first.[41] During the seventeenth +century, sonatas were written for various instruments, with a figured +bass for the cembalo. + +It will, of course, be interesting to trace the influences acting upon +Kuhnau. They were of two kinds: the one, Italian; the other, German. +Corelli deserves first mention; and next, the Italian organist and +composer, Vincenzo Albrici,[42] capellmeister to the Elector of Saxony +from 1664-88, and afterwards organist of St. Thomas', Leipzig, who is +known to have encouraged Kuhnau when young, and to have helped him to +learn the Italian language. But German influence must also have been +strong. Of Froberger special mention will be made later on. There was +one man, Diderich Becker, who published sonatas for violins and bass +already in 1668, and these, if we mistake not, must have been well +known to Kuhnau. Apart from the character of the music, the title of +the work, _Musikalische Fruelings Fruechte_, and the religious style of +the preface, remind one of Kuhnau's "Frische Fruechte," also of his +preface to the "Bible" Sonatas. It is curious to find the quaint +expression "unintelligent birds" used first by Becker, and afterwards +by Kuhnau. + +Let us describe briefly the above-mentioned B flat Sonata. The first +movement is in common time, but the composer gave it no heading. It is +generally supposed (Becker, Rimbault, Pauer) to be an Allegro; +_moderato_ might well be added, for the stately, Handelian-like (the +anachronism must be excused) music will scarcely bear a rapid _tempo_. +The movement opens with an eight-bar phrase, closing on the dominant. +Then the music, evolved from previous material, passes rapidly through +various related keys. After this modulation section there is a cadence +to F major, and in this, the dominant key, something like a new +subject appears, though it is closely allied to the first. A return is +soon made to the principal key, but there is no repetition of the +opening theme. After a cadence ending on the tonic (B flat), and two +coda-like bars, comes a fugal movement, still in the same key. The +vigorous subject, the well-contrasted counterpoint, the interesting +episodes, and many attractive details help one to forget the monotony +of key so prevalent in the days in which this sonata was written. +This, and indeed other fugues of Kuhnau show strong foreshadowings of +Handel and Bach; of this matter, however, more anon. The counterpoint +to the third entry of the subject is evolved from the opening subject +of the sonata. The third movement consists of a fine Adagio in E flat, +in the key of the subdominant and in three-four time. Then follows a +short Allegro in three-four time, of polyphonic character. At the +close of the movement Kuhnau has written the opening chords of the +first movement with the words _Da Capo_. A similar indication is to be +found in one of the "Frische Fruechte" Sonatas. This repetition, also +the third movement leading directly to the fourth, and the thematic +connection mentioned above, would seem to show that the composer +regarded the various sections of his sonata as parts of a whole. + +In addition, Kuhnau wrote thirteen sonatas. The "Frische Clavier +Fruechte," or "Sieben Suonaten von guter Invention u. Manier auf dem +Clavier zu spielen," were published in 1696, and later editions in +1710 and 1724. In a quaint preface the composer tells us that in +naming his "Fresh Fruits" "sonatas," he kept in mind all kinds of +_inventiones_ and changes (Veraenderungen) by which so-called sonatas +are superior to mere partitas. Already a century before this preface +was written, Praetorius had distinguished between two classes of +instrumental music: the one, grave; the other, gay. The composer has +also a word to say about the graces or ornaments, the "sugar which +sweetens the fruits." In modern reprints of Kuhnau the sugar is +sometimes forgotten.[43] These "Frische Fruechte" were followed by six +"Bible" Sonatas in 1700. The former, both as regards form and +contents, are remarkable. Kuhnau was a man of deeper thought and +loftier conception than Emanuel Bach, but he was fettered by fugal +forms,[44] and was fighting against them much in the same spirit in +which Beethoven, a century later, fought against sonata-form, in the +most general sense of that term. Beethoven was not only the more +gifted, but he profited by the experiments of his predecessors, and he +enjoyed the advantage of a vastly improved technique; Haydn, Mozart, +Clementi, and others were the stepping-stones by which he rose to +higher things. Kuhnau's attempts at sonata writing were bold, often +rugged; and his experiments in programme-music, extraordinary. The +latter were soon forgotten, while the clever, clear-formed sonatas of +Emanuel Bach served as a gratification to the age in which he lived, +and as guides to the composers who followed him. The "Frische +Fruechte," standing between Corelli and Emanuel Bach, are of interest. +The fugal element is still strong; and we find, not so much the smooth +style of Corelli as the vigorous style of Froberger and other +composers of North Germany. In character of subject-matter and in form +there is decided advance as compared with the B flat Sonata. Kuhnau +still seems rather limited in figures, and therefore repeats +himself;[45] then again his movements do not always show gradation of +interest. Their order and number are, indeed, perplexing, and not +always satisfactory. The 2nd Sonata, in D, for instance, commences +with a fine Allegro, followed first by a short Adagio, commencing in +the relative minor, and intermixed with short presto passages, and +then by a lively movement in six-eight time. These three would form an +admirable sonata, yet the composer does not end here. There is still +another short Adagio, and a concluding movement; and in spite of some +fine passages, these appendages form a decided anti-climax. Similar +instances are to be found in the other sonatas. + +Now for a few words concerning their form. Some of the opening +movements (for instance, those of Nos. 1, 2) are practically based on +fugue-form, with which, by the way, sonata-form is allied. + +The first movement of No. 4, in C minor, is of interest, both in its +resemblances to, and differences from, modern sonata-form. It has +_four_ sections:-- + + _a._ Eleven bars, beginning and ending in C minor, and + containing a characteristic theme. + + _b._ Eleven bars, beginning in E flat (_i.e._ relative major + of opening key) and closing in G minor (_i.e._ key of minor + dominant). It contains a theme rhythmically allied to the + principal theme. _This section is repeated._ + + _c._ Nine-and-a-half bars, opening in C minor, and passing + to, and closing in E flat. It contains imitative passages + evolved from the principal theme. + + _d._ Exact repetition of first section, only with a close on + the major chord. + +The last movement of the 6th Sonata, in B flat, offers a still more +striking resemblance to sonata-form; the various sections are better +balanced; the middle or development section (with its close strettos) +is particularly noticeable; also the recapitulation, which is not +literal, as in the above example. The slow movements--occasionally +very short--follow no particular plan. The fugal element is always +more or less present, but some of the other movements have somewhat of +a suite character; No. 6, indeed, opens with a _Ciaccona_. There is a +certain formality about Kuhnau's music, and, for reasons already +mentioned, he is occasionally monotonous. But there is an independent +spirit running through his sonatas, and a desire to escape from the +trammels of tradition which are quite refreshing. And there is a +nobility in the style and skill in the workmanship which remind us of +the great Bach. There are, indeed, resemblances to Bach, also to +Handel. Scheibe, in his _Critischer Musikus_, mentions Kuhnau, in +conjunction with Keiser, Telemann, and Handel, as one of the greatest +composers of the eighteenth century. The mention of Kuhnau together +with Handel deserves note. The constant discoveries which are being +made of Handel's indebtedness to other composers suggest the thought +that perhaps Kuhnau was also laid under contribution. No one, we +think, can hear the "Bible" Sonatas without coming to the conclusion +that Handel was acquainted with the works of his illustrious +predecessor. We will just place side by side three passages from the +"Bible" Sonatas of Kuhnau with three from a harpsichord suite of +Handel-- + +[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 2. KUHNAU.] + +[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Ouverture. +HANDEL.] + +[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU.] + +[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille. +HANDEL.] + +[Music illustration: "Bible" Sonata, No. 6. KUHNAU.] + +[Music illustration: Collection I., Suite 7, Passacaille. +HANDEL.] + +It should be noticed that the three Handel quotations are all from the +same suite. We do not mean to infer that the above passages from +Handel are plagiarisms, but merely that the Kuhnau music was, +unconsciously, in his mind when he wrote them. + +C.F. Becker, in his _Hausmusik in Deutschland_, has suggested that +these sonatas were known also to Mozart, and begs us to look on this +picture, the opening of a Vivace movement in Kuhnau's 6th Sonata:-- + +[Music illustration] + +and on this, from _The Magic Flute_:-- + +[Music illustration] + +Faisst, however, justly observes that though the harmonic basis is the +same in both, with Kuhnau the under-part is melody, whereas with +Mozart it is the reverse. He also accuses Becker--and justly, as +readers may see by turning to the passage in the _Zauberfloete_--of not +having represented the passage quite honestly. Reminiscence hunters +need to be very careful. + +In these sonatas, as compared with the one in B flat, the thematic +material is of greater importance; and so, too, in the slow movements +the writing is simpler and more melodious. + +The rapid rate at which they were composed deserves mention. Kuhnau +seems to have had the ready pen of a Schubert. In the preface to these +"Frische Fruechte" he says: "I wrote these seven sonatas straight off, +though attending at the same time to my duties (he was _juris +practicus_, also organist of St. Thomas'), so that each day one was +completed. Thus, this work, which I commenced on the Monday of one +week, was brought to an end by the Monday of the following week." + +Kuhnau's second (and, so far as we know, last) set of sonatas bears +the following title:-- + +Musikalische Vorstellung +Einiger +Biblischer Historien +In 6 Sonaten +Auf dem Klavier zu spielen +Allen Liebhabern zum Vergnuegen +Verfueget +von +Johann Kuhnauen. + +That is-- + +Musical Representation +of some +Bible Stories +In 6 Sonatas +To be performed on the Clavier +For the gratification of amateurs +Arranged +by +Johann Kuhnau. + +Kuhnau was not the originator of programme-music. In the so-called +_Queen Elizabeth Virginal Book_,[46] in the Fitzwilliam Library, there +is a Fantasia by John Munday, who died 1630, in which there is given a +description of weather both fair and foul. Again, Froberger, who died +in 1667, is said to have been able, _on the clavier_, to describe +incidents, ideas, and feelings; there is, indeed, in existence a +battle-piece of his. And then Buxtehude (_d._ 1707) wrote a set of +seven Suites for clavier, in which he is said to have represented the +nature and characteristics of the planets; these are, unfortunately, +lost. With Froberger's music, at any rate, Kuhnau was familiar. In a +long preface to these Bible stories, the composer refers to the +subject of programme-music. He reminds us how from ancient times +musicians have tried to rival the masters of rhetoric, sculpture, and +painting in terms of their own art. And he expressly refers to +programme pieces, and even to sonatas by the "distinguished +Froberger[47] and other excellent composers." The essence of his long, +elaborate, and, at times, somewhat confused argument (it must be +remembered that he was discussing a very difficult subject; and, also, +that he was the first to write about it) is as follows:--He believes +music capable by itself of producing wonderful effects, but in special +cases, requiring the assistance of words. Music, he tells us, can +express sadness or joy; for that no words are necessary. When, +however, some individual--as in his sonatas--is referred to, words +become essential, _i.e._ if one is to distinguish between the +lamentation of a sad Hezekiah, a weeping Peter, or a mourning +Jeremiah. In other language, words are necessary to render the emotion +definite. Kuhnau gives a quaint illustration of the absolute necessity +of words in certain cases; and that illustration is of particular +interest, inasmuch as it points to still earlier, and possibly, +clavier sonatas. "I remember," says our author, "hearing a few years +ago a sonata composed by a celebrated Chur-Fuerst capellmeister, to +which he had given the title, 'La Medica.' After--so far as I can +recall--describing the whines of the patient and of his relations, the +running of the latter to the doctor, the pouring forth of their +sorrow, there came, finally, a Gigue, under which stood the words, +'The patient is progressing favourably, but has not quite recovered +his health.' At this some mocked, and were of opinion that, had it +been in his power, the author might well have depicted the joy at a +perfect recovery. So far, however, as I could judge, there was good +reason for adding words to the music. The sonata commenced in D minor; +in the Gigue there was constant modulation towards G minor. At the +final close, in D, the ear was not satisfied, and expected the closing +cadence in G." In this wise was the partial recovery expressed in +tones, and explained in words. + +Except for the unmistakable seriousness of the author, this +description might be taken as a joke, just as in one of the "Bible" +Sonatas the deceit of Jacob is expressed by a deceptive cadence; but +such extreme examples serve to emphasise the author's declaration +that, at times, words are indispensable. Before noticing the sonatas +themselves, one more quotation in reference to the same subject must +be made from this interesting preface. The humblest scholar, Kuhnau +tells us, knows the rule forbidding consecutive perfect consonances, +and he speaks of certain strict _censores_ who expose the clumsiness +of _musical poets_ who have refused to be bound by that rule. "But," +says Kuhnau, in lawyer-like language: "_Cessante ratione prohibitionis +cessat ipsa prohibitio_." The term _musical poets_ (the italics are +ours) is a remarkable one; Kuhnau himself, of course, was one of them. + +Philipp Spitta, in his _Life of J.S. Bach_, devotes one short +paragraph to the Bible stories, and gives one or two brief quotations +from the second; but they certainly deserve a longer notice. + +The 1st Sonata is entitled "The Fight between David and Goliath." It +opens with a bold section, intended, as we learn from a +superscription, to represent _the bravado of Goliath_. The giant's +characteristic theme, on which the whole section is built, is as +follows:-- + +[Music illustration] + +Then follows a section in A minor. A Chorale represents the prayer to +God of the terrified Israelites, while the palpitating quaver +accompaniment stands for the terror which seized them at sight of the +giant; the harmonies are very striking. This Chorale setting should be +compared with one by Bach (Spitta's _Life of Bach_, English edition, +vol. i. p. 216), said to owe its existence to the influence of Georg +Boehm, organist at Lueneburg at the commencement of the eighteenth +century. Next comes a little pastoral movement (C major, three-four +time) expressive of David's courage and of his confidence in God. Then +a tone-picture is given of the encounter; the heavy tread of the +Philistine is heard in the bass, while semiquaver passages, evolved +from a figure in the preceding movement, evidently portray the +spirited youth. One realistic bar scarcely needs the explanation given +by Kuhnau that it is the slinging of the stone which smote the +Philistine in his forehead; and the same may be said of the "Goliath +falls" in the following bar:-- + +[Music illustration: Il combattere fra l'uno e l'altro, e la loro +contesa. Vien tirata la selce colla frombola nella fronte del +gigante. Casca Goliath.] + +This section, limited to sixteen bars, is not only an early, but a +notable specimen of programme-music; it is realistic, but not in the +least ridiculous. Rapid passages with points of imitation tell of the +flight of the Philistines. A bright movement (still in C) bears the +superscription, "The joy of the Israelites at their victory"; in it +there is an allusion to the pastoral movement. Maidens then advance, +with timbrels and instruments of music, to meet the victor, and the +sonata concludes with a stately Minuet, similar in character to the +Minuet in the Overture to Handel's _Samson_; the people are dancing +and singing for joy. + +The 2nd Sonata presents to us a very different picture. Here we have +the melancholy of Saul driven away by means of music. There are a few +realistic effects, such as the paroxysms of madness of Saul, and the +casting of the javelin; but the subject is one which readily lends +itself to real musical treatment. The music of the 1st Sonata was +principally objective; here, however, it is principally subjective. In +the first part of the work the music depicts, now the sadness, now the +rage of the monarch. The opening is worthy of Bach, and presents, +indeed, a foreshadowing of the opening of the 16th Prelude of the +"Well-tempered Clavier." Spitta mentions the fine fugue, with the +subject standing for the melancholy, the counter-subject for the +madness of the king; and he justly remarks that these two images of +Saul "contain the poetical germ of a truly musical development." The +"dimly brooding" theme of the fugue brings to one's mind the "Kyrie +eleison" fugue of Mozart's _Requiem_; also the theme of the Allegro of +Beethoven's Sonata in C minor (Op. 111), notwithstanding the fact that +Kuhnau's is slow and sad, but Beethoven's, fast and fiery. Here is the +first half of the former-- + +[Music illustration] + +Let not our readers be deceived by the word "fugue." The movement is +no mere formal scholastic piece of writing such as one might expect; +the preluding of David on his harp, the "javelin" episode, the +paroxysms of rage give to it rather the character of a free fantasia. +One word with regard to the paroxysm passages. We quoted above a +sentence from the preface respecting the violation of the rule +respecting consecutive consonances by certain "poet musicians." +Kuhnau, under this plural mask, was, as we have mentioned, certainly +referring to himself, for in another part of the preface he specially +calls attention to the consecutive fifths by which he depicts the +disordered mind of King Saul. This first movement, opening in G minor, +ends on the chord of G major. We now come to a movement (B flat) +entitled "The Refreshing Melody from David's Harp." The following is +part of David's soothing theme:-- + +[Music illustration] + +At first it is not heard in its entirety. The sweet singer of Israel +plays it, or sometimes only the first two bars, in various keys, and +with varied harmonisation, as if watching the king and trying the +effect on him of different modulations. Besides in the principal key, +it appears several times, and in succession, in the relative minor, +then in the minor key of the supertonic. The key of the subdominant +enters with refreshing effect; after that, a return is made to the +principal key, which continues until the close of the movement. +Between each delivery of the theme, occur passages similar to the +following:-- + +[Music illustration] + +as if to denote the restlessness of the king. And as the character of +the music, especially towards the close, suggests _piano_ and +_pianissimo_, it would seem as though intended to express the gradual +healing power of the music. As a piece of abstract music, the movement +appears long, but not if the dramatic situation be kept well in mind. +At length the sounds of the harp cease, and a closing, peaceful, and +dignified movement in G minor tells of Saul's now tranquil state of +mind. + +The 3rd Sonata, entitled "The Marriage of Jacob," opens with a +delightful Gigue; over it stands the superscription, "The joy of the +family of Laban at the arrival of their relation Jacob." The beginning +of the second section has, as usual, the subject inverted. The music +is gay and sparkling. Then comes a section illustrative of Jacob's +seven years' service for a wife. The music expresses effort and +fatigue, but by way of musical contrast sprightly bars intervene from +time to time, to represent happy moments when the lovers meet. Further +on we have the bridal-song of the companions of Rachel: a short, +quaint, and delicate movement in minor and in triple time. It +commences thus:-- + +[Music illustration] + +A short section follows, full of rapid semiquaver passages and points +of imitation (such a mode of procedure is frequently adopted by the +composer); and then comes a sudden change in the character of the +music. No _tempo_ is marked, but, evidently, it must not be rapid. It +is a tone-picture of the deception practised by Laban upon Jacob when +he substituted Leah in place of Rachel. At first, it is a free +recitative. A quotation of a few bars will give a good idea of the +extraordinary harmonies and rhythmical figures:-- + +[Music illustration] + +And again-- + +[Music illustration] + +The Fugue, short and vigorous, has a characteristic theme:-- + +[Music illustration] + +A new section expresses Jacob's happiness until he discovers the +deceit practised on him. The exact moment of displeasure is indicated +by a superscription; the latter, however, was scarcely necessary--the +notes speak for themselves. For there are reminiscences of the Laban +recitative, of the fugue theme, and also (in augmentation) of the +counter-subject. This is, indeed, an early instance of the employment +of representative themes. The composer then naively orders the section +descriptive of the wedding festivities to be repeated, to illustrate +the second marriage of Jacob with the beloved Rachel. + +The 4th Sonata deals with Hezekiah's mortal sickness and recovery. It +is shorter than the preceding ones, and of simpler structure. It opens +with slow, sad music: the prophet of God has summoned the king to +prepare for death. His ardent prayer to heaven is naturally expressed +by a well-known Chorale, supported by most effective polyphonic +harmony. After a short thematic working of a figure from the Chorale, +the latter is submitted to fresh treatment: the movement (in six-four +time) somewhat resembles the old Corrente. The sonata concludes with a +lively movement in binary form. It is intended to depict the king's +joy at his recovery. There are a few bars _adagio_ in each section: +Hezekiah recalls the past. This is the only one of the sonatas which, +as abstract music, would be satisfactory without any programme. + +No. 5 is entitled "Gideon, the Saviour of Israel." From a musical +point of view it is the least interesting of the set, yet it contains +some curious programme effects. It will be remembered that a sign +from heaven was given to Gideon: the fleece was to be covered with +dew, but the ground to remain dry; the next night, however, the order +of things was reversed. Kuhnau expresses the latter by giving a theme +in _contrary motion_. This may almost be described as punning in +music. The composer, however, meant it seriously; from the tone of his +preface, and the narration, with comments, which he has prefixed to +each sonata, in addition to the explanatory words over the music +itself, it is clear that his aim was to elucidate and intensify the +Bible stories by means of his art. He was a man, apparently, of deep +religious belief. + +The battle-picture is a curiosity, but, as music, of little value. The +flight of the Midianites is depicted in the following primitive +manner:-- + +[Music illustration] + +The 6th (and last) Sonata bears the title, "The Tomb of Jacob." We +have, at first, mournful music: the sons of the Patriarch are standing +round the deathbed. At length Jacob dies, and they "ponder over the +consequences of the sad event." A quiet, expressive theme + +[Music illustration] + +is then treated fugally, and with marked effect. Then comes the +journey from Egypt to the land of Canaan. The bass, progressing in +quavers, expresses motion. From time to time a curious syncopated +semiquaver figure is heard in the upper part: it may be intended to +represent sobbing. The following quotation, including one of these +"sobbing" passages, will give a good idea of the character of this +section-- + +[Music illustration] + +A short, solemn phrase is headed, "The Burial of Israel." Then a +finely worked-out fugal section depicts the great grief of the +bystanders. It is in four parts, but in one place the addition of a +fifth part and stretto treatment render the feeling of grief more +intense. A peaceful closing section in the major key and in triple +time expresses the consoled minds of the survivors. + +From this _resume_ of these "Bible" Sonatas, it will be seen that they +have nothing in common with the ordinary sonata of the time in which +they were written. They were bold attempts at programme-music; and, +as we have already said, the form is entirely determined by the +subject-matter. + +In the old edition of these "Bible" Sonatas, in addition to the +preface of which we have made mention, Kuhnau has related the Bible +stories in his own characteristic language. We give a translation of +the first two, as specimens. + + +I. _The Combat between David and Goliath_ + +The portrait given in Scripture of great Goliath is something quite +uncommon: a monster of nature appears, a giant, tall as a tree. Six +ells will not suffice to measure his length; the high helmet of brass +which he wears on his head makes him appear still taller; and the +scaly coat of mail, the greaves of brass placed about his legs, +together with the enormously heavy shield which he carries, also his +strong spear, tipped with iron, like unto a weaver's beam, +sufficiently show that he is of mighty strength, and that all these +exceedingly heavy loads do not inconvenience him in the slightest. If +the mere description of this man creates fear, how much greater will +not the terror of the poor Israelites be when the living image of this +their enemy appears before them. For he stands before them in his +brazen armour, rivalling the sun in brilliancy, makes with the +rustling of his armour a terrible din, and snorts and bellows as if he +would devour them at one mouthful; his words sound in their ears like +dreadful thunder. He holds in contempt his enemies and their equipage, +and demands that a hero be sent out to him from their camp; this +combat is to show whose shoulders shall bear the yoke of bondage. By +this means he imagines that the sceptre will soon pass from the +Israelites to the Philistines. But a miracle is about to happen! When +courage fails all the heroes of Israel, when the giant has only to +show himself, to cause them to flee, when, also, the terrible warrior +continues, according to his custom, to pour contempt on the enemy, +David, a slim, courageous stripling, a simple shepherd-boy, then +appears, and offers to fight the bully. He is accused of rashness. +This, however, troubles David but little; he adheres firmly to his +heroic resolution, and seeks audience of King Saul. By God's help, he +had fought with a bear and a lion who had taken from him a lamb, had +snatched the prey from the jaws of these cruel beasts, and, further, +had slain them. Thus he hoped would end the struggle with this bear +and lion of a Philistine. Strongly relying upon God, he advances +towards the powerful giant, with a sling, and with some specially +selected pebbles. Then the Philistines think to themselves, "Now will +the great hero blow away the enemy like a speck of dust, or kill him +as he would a fly." All at once Goliath becomes terrible in his rage, +and raves, uttering frightful oaths at David, declaring that he is +treated as if he were a dog, and that David comes to him with +shepherd's staff, and not with weapons worthy of a warrior. David, +however, is fearless. He relies on his God, and prophesies to the +enemy that, though without sword, spear, or shield, he will cast +Goliath to the ground; that he will cut off his head, and leave his +carcase as food for birds and wild beasts. Hereupon David rushes at +the Philistine, wounds him in the forehead with a sharp stone cast +from his sling, so that Goliath falls to the ground. Before he has +time to rise, David, making use of his opportunity, slays him with his +own sword, and bears away from the field of battle, the hewn-off head +as a trophy of victory. As formerly the Israelites fled before the +snorting and stamping of the great Goliath, so now flee the +Philistines in consequence of the victory of young David. Thus they +give opportunity to the Israelites to pursue them, and to fill the +roads with the corpses of the slain fugitives. It is easy to imagine +how great must have been the joy of the victorious Hebrews. In proof +of it, we learn how women came forth from the cities of Judea, with +drum, fiddle, and other musical instruments, to meet the victors, and +sang alternately: "Saul hath slain his thousands, but David his ten +thousands." + +Thus the sonata expresses-- + +1. The stamping and defying of Goliath. + +2. The terror of the Israelites, and their prayer to God at sight of +the terrible enemy. + +3. The courage of David, his desire to humble the pride of the giant, +and his childlike trust in God. + +4. The contest of words between David and Goliath, and the contest +itself, in which Goliath is wounded in the forehead by a stone, so +that he falls to the ground and is slain. + +5. The flight of the Philistines, and how they are pursued by the +Israelites, and slain by the sword. + +6. The exultation of the Israelites over their victory. + +7. The praise of David, sung by the women in alternate choirs. + +8. And, finally, the general joy, expressing itself in hearty dancing +and leaping. + + +II. _David curing Saul by means of Music_ + +Among the heavy blows dealt to us at times by God, for holy reasons, +are to be counted bodily sicknesses. Of these one can in a real sense +say that they cause pain. Hence the invention of that physician of +Padua was by no means ridiculous, who thus represented in +picture-form, over his house-door, the various sicknesses: a man +attacked by many dogs and gesticulating wildly, through pain. To each +of these dogs was given a name, and each acted accordingly. The dog, +Gout, was biting the man's foot; the dog, Pleurisy, his loins; Stone, +his kidneys; Colic, his belly, and so on. Finally, a great sheep-dog, +representing daily fever, had thrown the man to the ground. The +inventor could easily have known (for that he did not require any +special experience) that sicknesses act upon men in a manner not less +gentle. By the exercise of patience, pain can at length be conquered, +although the soul, so intimately combined with the body, must feel it +not a little. But when the soul is attacked by sickness, patience +always gives way; for bodily, cannot in any way be compared with +mental, suffering. Inner anguish shows itself in restless gestures. +Scripture takes us into a lazaretto of such afflicted persons. Among +others, we meet with a royal and singular patient. Saul is his name. +Of him we read: "The spirit of the Lord departed from Saul, and he was +vexed by an evil spirit from the Lord." Where God is absent, and the +Evil One present, there must dwell all manner of evil. The hateful +aspect of this man in his paroxysms of pain can readily be imagined. +His eyes turn the wrong way, and sparks of fire, so to speak, dart out +one after the other; his face is so disfigured, that human features +can scarce be recognised; his heart casts forth, as it were, a wild, +stormy sea of foam. Distrust, jealousy, envy, hatred, and fear burst +forth from him. Especially does the javelin, constantly flying from +his hand, show that his heart rages fiercely with anger. To sum up: +his soul-sickness is so great that the marks of hellish tortures can +be clearly traced. At lucid intervals (_lucidis intervallis_) or quiet +hours, the tortured king realises his indescribable evil; and he +therefore seeks after a man who can cure him. But under such +extraordinary circumstances can help be hoped for? From human arts, +Saul could not expect any salvation. But God sometimes works wonders +among men. So he sends to him a noble musician, the excellent David, +and puts uncommon power into his harp-playing. For when Saul, so to +speak, is sweating in the hot bath of sadness, and David plays only +one little piece, the king is at once refreshed, and brought into a +state of repose. + +Thus the sonata represents-- + +1. Saul's sadness and madness. + +2. David's refreshing harp-playing, and + +3. Tranquillity restored to the king's mind. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +BERNARDO PASQUINI: A CONTEMPORARY OF J. KUHNAU + + +In the year 1637 was born at Massa de Valnevola (Tuscany) Bernardo +Pasquini,[48] who is said to have been one of the most distinguished +performers on the organ and also the harpsichord. He studied under +Loreto Vittori and Antonio Cesti, but his real master was evidently +Palestrina, whose scores young Bernardo studied with fervent zeal. He +was appointed organist of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, and, according +to the monument erected to his memory by his nephew, Bernardo +Ricordati, and his pupil, Bernardo Gaffi, in the church of San Lorenzo +in Lucina of that city, the composer was for a time in the service of +Battista, Prince Borghese. The inscription runs thus:-- + +"D.O.M. + +"Bernardo Pasquino Hetrusco e Massa Vallis Nevolae Liberianae Basilicae +S.P.Q.R. Organedo viro probitate vitae et moris lepore laudatissimo qui +Excell. Jo. Bap. Burghesii Sulmonensium Principis clientela et +munificentia honestatus musicis modulis apud omnes fere Europae +Principes nominis gloriam adeptus anno sal. MDCCX. die XXII. Novembris +S. Ceciliae sacro ab Humanis excessit ut cujus virtutes et studia +prosecutus fuerat in terris felicius imitaretur in coelis. Bernardus +Gaffi discipulus et Bernardus Ricordati ex sorore nepos praeceptori et +avunculo amantissimo moerentes monumentum posuere. Vixit annos LXXII. +menses XI. dies XIV." + +Pasquini enjoyed reputation as a dramatic composer, and the success of +an opera of his performed at the Teatro Capranica, Rome, during the +festivities in honour of Queen Christina of Sweden (1679), is +specially noted; or, according to Mendel, he wrote two successful +operas, one for the opening of the Teatro Capranica, and a second for +the festivals. He also wrote an oratorio: _La Sete di Christo_. +Pasquini died in the year 1710. + +But, it will be asked, Why is he mentioned in a book which is +concerned with the sonata? It is known that he was a skilful performer +on the harpsichord, and some Toccatas and Suites of his appear to have +been published in a collection of clavier music at Amsterdam in 1704. +Fetis, in his _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, even states that +he wrote sonatas for _gravicembalo_. Here are his words:-- + +"Landsberg possedait un recueil manuscrit original de pieces d'orgue +de Pasquini, dont j'ai extrait deux toccates, composees en 1697. Ce +manuscrit est indique d'une maniere inexacte dans le catalogue de la +bibliotheque de ce professeur (Berlin, 1859) de cette maniere: +Pasquini (Bernardo) _Sonate pei Gravicembalo_ (libro prezioso). Volume +grosso _E scritto di suo (sua) mano in questo libro_. Ce meme +catalogue indique aussi de Bernard Pasquini: _Saggi di +contrapunto_--Anno 1695. Volume forte. _E scritto di suo (sua) mano in +questo libro_. Malheureusement ces precieux ouvrages sont passes en +Amerique avec toute la bibliotheque musicale du professeur Landsberg." + +Whether these precious volumes actually went to America seems +doubtful. Anyhow both volumes are now safely housed in the Berlin +Royal Library. It may be mentioned that the first contains no real +sonata: its contents consist principally of suites, toccatas, +variations, and fugues. + +In the story of Italian instrumental music, Pasquini is little more +than a name. The fourth volume of A.W. Ambros' _History of Music_ +concludes thus:--"So ist uns von dem geruehmten Meister nichts +geblieben, als seine Name u. seine stolze Grabschrift in San Lorenzo +in Lucina." (Thus of the famous master (_i.e._ Pasquini) nothing +remains except his name and his proud monument in San Lorenzo in +Lucina). The writer of the article "D. Scarlatti," in Sir George +Grove's _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, remarks that the famous +harpsichord player and composer "has been called a pupil of Bernardo +Pasquini." But he considers this "most improbable, seeing that +Pasquini was of the school of Palestrina, and wrote entirely in the +contrapuntal style, whereas Domenico Scarlatti's chief interest is +that he was the first composer who studied the peculiar +characteristics of the free style of the harpsichord." + +Of Pasquini as a performer on the harpsichord, Mattheson relates "how +on his visit to Rome he found Corelli playing the violin, Pasquini the +harpsichord, and Gattani the lute, all in the orchestra of the +Opera-house." And, once more, in the notice of Pasquini in the same +dictionary, we are informed that the composer "exercised a certain +influence on German musicians." In C.F. Weitzmann's _Geschichte des +Clavierspiels_ there is an interesting reference to some Toccatas of +Pasquini published in "Toccates et suites pour le clavecin de MM. +Pasquini, Paglietti et Gaspard Kerle, Amsterdam, Roger, 1704." A +Toccata was published (most probably one of those in the above work) +by I. Walsh in his + +Second Collection +of +Toccates, Vollentarys and Fugues +made on purpose for the +Organ and Harpsichord +Compos'd by +Pasquini, Polietti +and others +The most Eminent Foreign Authors. + +Of Polietti,[49] court organist at Vienna before J.S. Bach was born, +Emil Naumann has, by the way, given an interesting account in an +article "Ein bisher unbekannt gebliebener Vorgaenger Seb. Bach's unter +den Italienern" (_Neue Berl. Mus.-Ztg._ Jahrgang 29). The Toccatas of +Pasquini, published by Roger, and a so-called "Sonata,"[50] printed by +Weitzmann in the work just referred to, constitute, we believe, all +that has hitherto appeared in print of this composer. + +And yet surely Pasquini may lay claim to a place in the history of +instrumental music and the sonata, for he not only wrote suites, but +also sonatas for the harpsichord, or, to be quite exact, for two +harpsichords. Some, at any rate, of his music is to be found in the +British Museum. There are three volumes (Add. MSS. 31,501-3). On the +fly-leaf of the first is written:-- + +"Ad Usum Bernardi Felicij Ricordati de Baggiano in Etruria." + +Then comes in pencil a note probably made when the volumes came into +the possession of the British Museum:-- + +"These are original MSS. by the hand of Bernardo Pasquini, 1637-1710, +the greatest organist of Italy in the second half of the 17th century, +and written for his nephew B. Ricordati. They are the only MSS. of +Pasquini known to be in Europe. This vol. is dated at the end, Dec. +3, 1704; at the beginning, May 6, 1703." + +And now for its contents. The first piece is a short suite,[51] +consisting of a Tastata (the old term for Prelude), a Corrente and an +Aria; and it shows that Pasquini could write homophonic as well as +polyphonic music. Then follows a piece in the key of D major, headed + + "A due Cembali, 1704, Bernardo Pasquini," + +which consists of three movements. First one commencing with chords, +after which, fugal imitation. Next we have a fugal movement, like the +preceding one, in common time; lastly, one in six-eight time. All +three movements are in the same key. The part for each cembalo is +written on a separate stave, the one below the other. Only the bass +notes are written, and the upper parts are indicated by figures. But +this will be clearer presently, for we shall give one or more +illustrations. At the close of the six-eight movement is written +_fine_, and on the following page another piece begins in C major, +marked merely 2a, commencing thus:-- + +[Music illustration] + +This theme reminds one of Bach's Adagio from the 2nd Organ Concerto-- + +[Music illustration] + +or even Handel's "Along the Monster Atheist strode."[52] The movements +of this second piece are similar in structure and character to those +of the first. Next we have a piece of lighter character in two +movements, and, apparently, for one cembalo: there is, of course, only +one bass part (figured). At the commencement is merely marked _Basso +continuo_. The following piece is headed 3a Sonata (3rd Sonata). It is +in the key of D minor, and it has three movements, all in the same +key. Now, as all the pieces for _two cembali_ in the volume after this +are marked as sonatas, coupled with the fact that before this 3rd +Sonata there are two pieces for two cembali, the latter of which is +marked 2a (second), we may conclude that these two are also sonatas. +The piece for one cembalo between the 2nd and 3rd Sonatas is, as we +have remarked, of lighter character, and was possibly considered a +suite. After the 3rd Sonata comes a fourth, then a _Basso continuo_ +(containing, however, by exception, more than one suite), and so on, +alternately, until the 14th Sonata is reached. Then follows the last +piece in the volume. The superscription, "For one _or_ two +cembali,"[53] leads us to believe that the preceding _Basso continuo_ +numbers were intended for one cembalo. It should be stated that +movements in binary form are rare among the sonatas, frequent among +the _Basso continuo_ pieces,--another reason for considering the +latter suites. + +The structure of the 3rd Sonata[54] is extremely simple. The first, +probably an Allegro moderato, opens with a bold characteristic phrase, +which is repeated in the second bar by the second cembalo; points of +imitation, in fact, continue throughout the movement. At the seventh +bar there is modulation to the dominant, and at the ninth, to the +subdominant, in which the opening theme recurs. A stately antiphonal +passage leads back to the principal key, and the movement concludes +with a cadence such as we find in many a work of Bach's or Handel's. +The Adagio opens with short phrases for each instrument alternately. A +new subject in the relative major is treated in imitative fashion. +After a return to the opening theme, also an allusion to the second +theme, a new figure is introduced, but the movement soon comes to a +close. This slow movement brings to one's mind "The Lord is a Man of +War," and the major section of the duet, "Thou in Thy Mercy," in +Handel's _Israel in Egypt_. The third movement, in structure, much +resembles the first; the music is broad and vigorous. The closing bars +suggest the stringendo passage and presto bars in the coda of the +Scherzo of the "Choral Symphony." Of course it is disappointing to +have only the bass parts for each instrument. The volume, as we have +already stated, was for the use of Ricordati, and probably the uncle +and nephew performed these sonatas together. Musicians will be able to +write out the figured basses, and thus form some idea of the music. +The figures are an outline of what was in the composer's mind; but +these basses, like those of Bach and Handel, so simple, so clear to +the composers who penned them, will always remain more or less a _crux +criticorum_. It will be noticed that the three movements, as in some +of Corelli's sonatas, are all in the same key. + +We now give the opening bars of the three movements of the piece for +one or two cembali:-- + +[Music illustration] + +All the other sonatas are more or less after the pattern of the one +given. The other two volumes contain suites, airs with variations, +arias, and a quantity of short figured basses, apparently as studies. + +Before closing this short chapter we will add a word or two about +Italian music for the harpsichord at the beginning of the eighteenth +century. A recent writer remarks that "Domenico Scarlatti seems to +spring full-armed into the view of history." But his father, the +renowned opera-writer, Alessandro Scarlatti, wrote music for the +harpsichord, also his pupil, Gaetano Grieco, who succeeded him as +Professor at the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesu Cristo (Naples) in +1717. The influence of the master can be clearly traced in the music +of the pupil; and, if one may judge from the simpler character of +Grieco's music[55] as compared with that of D. Scarlatti, he, too, was +a predecessor. Grieco is said to have been born about 1680; D. +Scarlatti was born in 1683; but this, of course, decides nothing as to +the dates of their compositions. The harpsichord music of G. Grieco +has both character and charm, and it is indeed strange that none of +his pieces have been included either in the _Tresor des Pianistes_, +the _Maitres du Clavecin_, or Pauer's Collections of old music. + +This chapter is headed: "A Contemporary of Kuhnau." The latter +published all his known sonatas by the year 1700, while the dates +assigned to the Pasquini sonata volume are, as we have seen, 1703-4. +But at that time Pasquini was over sixty years of age; it is therefore +more than probable that he was really the predecessor of the German +master as a writer of clavier sonatas. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +EMANUEL BACH AND SOME OF HIS CONTEMPORARIES + + +Carl Phillip Emanuel, third son of J.S. Bach, was born at Weimar, 8th +or 14th March, 1714, and died at Hamburg, 14th December, 1788. He +studied composition and clavier-playing with his father. His brother, +Wilhelm Friedemann, his senior by four years, went through a similar +course, but learnt, in addition, the violin under J.G. Graun. +Emanuel's attention, however, was concentrated on the one instrument; +and to this we probably owe the numerous clavier sonatas which he +wrote, and which paved the way for those of Haydn, Mozart, and +Beethoven. In his twenty-first year (1735) Emanuel left his father's +house in order to study jurisprudence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder; three +years later, however, he went to Berlin, and as cembalist entered the +service of Frederick the Great (1740).[56] Already in his father's +house, the young student saw and heard many distinguished musicians; +he himself has told us that no musician of any note passed through +Leipzig without seeking an opportunity to meet his father, so famed as +composer and as performer on the organ and clavier. And again, +afterwards, at the Court of Prussia, he came into contact with the +most notable composers and performers of his day. From among these may +be singled out C.H. Graun (composer of the "Tod Jesu") and Georg +Benda.[57] Graun was already in the service of Frederick when the +latter was only Crown Prince.[58] It would be interesting to learn the +special influences acting upon Emanuel before he published his first +set of sonatas in 1742, but this is scarcely possible. The collection +of symphonies[59] or sonatas published at Leipzig in 1762, mentioned +in our introductory chapter, gives, however, some idea of the music +of that period; and it is possible that many of the numbers were +written before Emanuel Bach published his first works. The "Sammlung +Vermischte Clavierstuecke fuer geuebte und ungeuebte Spieler," by Georg +Benda, may also be mentioned; it is of great interest, especially the +Sonata in C minor. The character of the music and style of writing for +the instrument constantly remind one of Emanuel Bach. Benda, born in +1721, joined the King of Prussia's Band in 1742, and soon became known +as an experienced performer on the harpsichord. Unfortunately it is +impossible to ascertain the dates of composition of the various pieces +of this collection, and thus to find out whether Benda was an imitator +of Bach or _vice versa_; the collection itself was only published at +Gotha in 1780. + +The Italian taste in music which prevailed at the Prussian Court[60] +had undoubtedly a marked influence on Bach, and one for good. The +severe counterpoint of the North German school and the suave melody of +the Sunny South blended together with happy results. + +It is customary to speak _en bloc_ of Emanuel Bach's sonatas; if, +however, the earlier be compared with some of the later ones, +interesting differences may be detected, and developments traced. But +the composer's artistic career, unfortunately, does not show a steady, +regular advance such as we find in J.S. Bach or Beethoven. C.H. +Bitter, his biographer and enthusiastic admirer, has to confess that +he was a practical man, and that he wrote at times to please pupils +and amateurs; while, occasionally, his aim may have been pecuniary +gain. + +Of his early period, we shall notice the "Sei Sonate per Cembalo," +dedicated to Frederick II. of Prussia (1742), and the Wuertemberg +Sonatas, published in 1745. Of his middle period, the "Sechs Sonaten +fuers Clavier mit veraenderten Reprisen," Berlin, 1760, and the "Sechs +leichte Sonaten," Leipzig, 1766. And of his latter period, the six +collections of "Sonaten fuer Kenner u. Liebhaber," published at Leipzig +between 1779 and 1787. With regard, however, to the last-named, it +must be remembered that some are of a comparatively early date. Thus +the 3rd Sonata of the 3rd Collection, one of the finest of Bach's +works, was composed in 1763, while the collection itself only appeared +in 1781. But a table of dates will be given further on. + +If some of the best sonatas written after 1760 be compared with those +of 1742, there will be found in the later works more character in the +subject-matter, also movements of greater length. Practice, too, had +improved the composer's style of writing. The later Bach did not +return to the principal theme in such a crude, nay, lawless, fashion +as the following:-- + +[Music illustration: (Frederick) Sonata 1. First Movement.] + +In these "Frederick" Sonatas there is as yet no tendency to enharmonic +and other surprise modulation such as Bach afterwards displayed. Then +as to technique, we find here octaves and large chords comparatively +rare,[61] while scale passages are more restricted. Like Beethoven, +Emanuel Bach seized hold of additional notes to the keyboard. In 1742 +his highest and lowest notes, apparently, were-- + +[Music illustration] + +but afterwards-- + +[Music illustration] + +In the introductory chapter we noted the change with regard to the +number of movements of a sonata which took place between 1683, when +Corelli published his first sonatas, and 1740, when E. Bach composed +his first set. Instances were given of sonatas in three movements by +Corelli, but with that composer _four_ was the normal number; with E. +Bach, _three_. This change came about in great measure through the +concerto. From E. Bach, we are able to show the links in the chain of +development: Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; but though between +Kuhnau, the first writer of sonatas for the clavier, and Bach, B. +Pasquini wrote, as mentioned in the last chapter, sonatas in three +movements, yet we have no knowledge that Bach was acquainted with +them. Kuhnau, in fact, however interesting a phenomenon in the musical +firmament, is not necessary to explain the appearance of Bach. Joh. +Sebastian Bach was undoubtedly acquainted with the "Bible" Sonatas. He +must have admired them, but he may have been afraid of the freedom of +form which they displayed, and of their tendency to programme-music; +and perhaps he did not speak of them to his sons, lest they should be +led astray. For, as we have already mentioned, Sebastian Bach seems to +have yielded for a moment to the Kuhnau influence, but, if we may +judge from his subsequent art-work, he did not feel satisfied that it +was a good one. + +In 1742, E. Bach dedicated the six sonatas (composed in 1740) to +Frederick the Great. The title-page runs thus:-- + +Sei Sonate +per Cembalo +che all' Augusta Maesta +di +Frederico II. +Re di Prussia +D.D.D. +l'Autore +Carlo Filippo Emanuele Bach +Musico di Camera di S.M. +Alle spese di Balth. Schmid +in Norimberga. + +And in the obsequious dedication, the composer describes them as works +"debolissimo Talento mio." As Bach's earliest published sonatas, they +are, for our purpose, of special interest. Their order is as +follows:-- + +Sonata 1, in F Poco Allegro, Andante, Vivace. + " 2, " B flat Vivace, Adagio, Allegro assai. + " 3, " E Poco Allegro, Adagio, Presto. + " 4, " C minor Allegro, Adagio, Presto. + " 5, " C Poco Allegro, Andante, Allegro assai. + " 6, " A Allegro, Adagio, Allegro. + +The first and last movements of all six are in binary form. In the +five major sonatas, the first sections close in the key of the +dominant, and in the one minor sonata (No. 4), in the relative major. +The opening movement of each sonata is in early sonata-form: the +second section starts with the principal theme, or a brief allusion +to it; but then, after a short development with modulation, there is a +return to the principal key and to the principal theme.[62] The final +movements, on the other hand, are of the usual _suite_ order. Of +interest and, indeed, of importance in our history of development are +the contents of the first section of the opening movements. In some of +the Scarlatti sonatas (see No. 56) there is to be found a fairly +definite second subject in the dominant key, or, in the case of a +minor piece, in the dominant minor or relative major. Here the process +of differentiation is continued; in the 2nd Sonata the contrast +between the two subjects is specially marked. We give the opening bar +of each-- + +[Music illustration] + +In most of the developments the composer steers clear of the principal +key, so that at the return of the principal theme it may appear fresh. +To such a method, since Beethoven, we are quite accustomed; but it is +curious how little attention--even with the example of E. Bach before +him--Haydn paid to such an effective means of contrast in some of his +early sonatas. In Bach's No. 6, in A, the development assumes unusual +magnitude; it is even longer than the first section. And it is not +only long, but interesting. One passage, of which we quote a portion, +has rather a modern appearance:[63]-- + +[Music illustration] + +The return of the principal theme is preceded by an unexpected entry +of the opening bars in B minor,--a first sign of that humour which +afterwards formed so prominent a feature in Bach's music. And the +theme itself, after the opening notes, is dealt with in original +fashion. + +The middle movements of Nos. 2, 3, 5, and 6 are in the key of the +relative minor; that of No. 1 is in the tonic minor, and that of No. 4 +(C minor), in the relative major. No. 1, twice interrupted by a +recitative (upper part and figured bass),[64] is dignified, yet +tender, and, in form, original. The Adagio, in C sharp minor, of No. 3 +is a movement of singular charm; it is based on imitation, but, though +old in style, it breathes something of the new spirit, or rather--for +there is nothing new under the sun--of the old Florentine spirit which +freed music for a time from the fetters of polyphony. The genius of +Johann Sebastian Bach gained the victory over form, and, in fact, +exhausted fugue-form. It is in the clever, but dry fugues of some of +his contemporaries and, especially, successors, that one can feel the +absolute necessity for a new departure. This Adagio is, as it were, a +delicate remembrance, and one not unmixed with sadness, of the +composer's immortal parent. + +The light, lively final movements need no description. All the music +of these sonatas is written in two or three parts or voices; +occasionally there are chord passages in which for the moment the +number is increased. We have dwelt somewhat in detail on this work, as +it appears to be little known. + +There is a sonata in the key of D major, published in the 3rd +Collection (1763) of Marpurg's _Clavierstuecke_ (p. 10), by E. Bach, +which was written in the same year (1740), but earlier than the +"Frederick" Sonatas. C.H. Bitter remarks that if the year of +composition were not known, it would certainly pass as a much later +work. The first movement reminds one of Beethoven's terse, bold style. +Bitter refers to the freedom with which the thoughts are expressed, to +the melodious character of the Andante, and to the humour of the +Finale. He might also have referred to the style of writing for the +instrument, which suggests a later date. + +In 1745 (?) appeared the Wuertemberg Sonatas (so called because they +were dedicated to Bach's pupil, the _Duca di Wirtemberg e Teckh_, as +he is named on the title-page of the original edition). These sonatas +are marked as Opera seconda. They were offered by the composer to the +Duke in recognition of the many favours shown to him "at the time when +I had the honour of giving you lessons in music at Berlin."[65] Of +these sonatas we have only been able to have access to the two +preserved in the British Museum; the others are probably of similar +character. + +No. 1, in E flat, opens with an Adagio, followed by an Allegro assai +(E flat), and then by a Menuet alternato and Trio, both in E flat, and +with the former _da capo_. The first and second movements are in old +binary form; the Allegro shows the influence of D. Scarlatti. The +Minuet is fresh and pleasing. It is evident, taking E. Bach himself +as standard, that this is a suite rather than a sonata. + +No. 2, in B flat, is of similar character and construction. Both +sonatas are old in form, but more modern in their subject-material and +style of writing than those dedicated to the King of Prussia. In the +latter there is a solidity not to be found here; in its place we have +lightness, almost merriment; they were written, one would almost +think, expressly for the amusement of the Duke. The rapid semi-quaver +passages (as in No. 1) and the crossing of hands (as in No. 2) tell in +no undecided manner of the influence of Scarlatti. The exceedingly +light and graceful Minuets remind one of the kinship between the +composer and Haydn. + +In a letter to Forkel, dated 10th February 1775, Bach writes as +follows:-- + +"Die 2 Sonaten, welche Ihren Beyfall vorzueglich haben, sind die +einzigen von dieser Art, die ich je gemacht habe. Sie gehoeren zu der, +aus dem H-moll, die ich Ihnen mitschickte, zu der aus dem B, die Sie +nun auch haben, u. zu 2en aus der Hafner-Wuertembergischen Sammlung, u. +sind alle 6 anno 1743, im Toeplitzer Bade von mir, der ich damahls sehr +gicht-bruechig war, auf einem Claviacord mit der kurzen Octav +verfertiget."[66] + +It would be interesting to know the two sonatas belonging to this +period, "the only ones of the kind that I have ever written." In the +catalogue of musical remains of E. Bach, published two years after his +death, the opening bars are given of a Sonata in B minor (see above +letter) written at Toeplitz in 1743-- + +[Music illustration] + +This, surely, must be the one mentioned in the above letter. + +In 1760, Bach published six sonatas with varied repeats (_mit +veraenderten Reprisen_), dedicated to Princess Amelia of Prussia. In +the preface the composer remarks that "nowadays change or repetition +is indispensable." He complains that some players will not play the +notes as written, even the first time; and again, that players, if the +changing on repetition is left to them, make alterations unsuitable to +the character of the music. These sonatas are of great historic +interest. This preface, also the evident necessity for additional +(inner part) notes at times, especially in the slow movements of E. +Bach and other composers of that day, make one feel that, as it now +stands, much of Bach's music is a dead letter. Here we are face to +face with a question which in a kindred matter has given rise to much +controversy. If the music is to produce its proper effect, something +must be done. To that (in the case of Emanuel Bach's sonatas) all +reasonable musicians must agree. Yet not, perhaps, as to what that +something should be. According to certain authorities, only additions +should be made which are strictly in keeping with the spirit of the +age in which the music was written. Some, on the other hand, would +bring the music up to date; they think it better to clothe +eighteenth-century music in nineteenth-century dress, than to ask +musicians with nineteenth-century ears to listen to patched-up +eighteenth-century music. The second plan would not be approved by +musicians who hold the classical masters in veneration; with a little +modification, the first one, however, ought to meet with general +acceptance. We may write in keeping with the spirit of a past age, but +the music must now be played on an instrument of different character, +compass, and quality of tone; so surely in making additions (and, so +far as certain ornaments are concerned, alterations) these things +ought to be taken into consideration. A certain latitude should, +therefore, be allowed to the transcriber; hard-and-fast rules in such +a delicate task are impossible. The late Dr. Buelow edited six of +Emanuel Bach's sonatas,[67] and though he was well acquainted with the +composer's style of writing, his anxious desire to present the music +in the most favourable light sometimes led him to make changes of +which even lenient judges would not approve. The matter is an +interesting one, and we may therefore venture to refer somewhat in +detail to one passage. In the 3rd Sonata (F minor) of the 3rd +Collection, the passage-- + +[Music illustration] + +has been changed by Buelow: he has altered the C flat in the second +half of the first bar into a C natural, thus smoothing down the hard +progression to the key of B flat minor. Now this very passage had +already, nearly a hundred years previously, attracted the notice of +Forkel, who admitted that, apart from the context, it jarred against +his musical feeling. But he had thought over the composer's intention +in writing that sonata, and had come to the conclusion that, in the +opening Allegro, Bach wished to express indignation.[68] He therefore +asks: "Are the hard, rough, passionate expressions of an angry and +indignant man beautiful?" In this case, Forkel was of opinion that the +hard modulation was a faithful record of what the composer wished to +express.[69] The natural order of history seems inverted here. One +would have expected Forkel to look upon the music from an abstract, +but Buelow from a poetical point of view. C.H. Bitter--also on purely +musical grounds--condemns Buelow's alterations. He says:--"Even +weaknesses of great masters, among which the passages in question are +not to be counted, still more so, special peculiarities, should be +left untouched. What would become of Beethoven, if each generation of +musicians, according to individual judgment, arrogated to itself the +right, here and there, of expunging hardnesses, smoothing down +peculiarities, and softening even sharp points with which, from time +to time, we come into unpleasant contact? Works of art must be +accepted as they are." + +The first part of Bitter's argument is sound; but, unfortunately for +the last, the writer in his life of Emanuel Bach and his brothers +insists on the necessity of _not_ accepting Emanuel's clavier works +_as they are_. + +He quotes a passage from the Andante of the 4th Sonata of the second +set of the "Reprisen Sonaten," and comes to the natural conclusion +that it was only an outline requiring filling up. + +With all his faults, one cannot but admire the spirit in which Buelow +worked. He felt the greatness of the old masters, regretted the +limited means which they had at their command, also the stenographic +system in which they were accustomed to express their thoughts; and he +sought, therefore, to make use of modern means, and thereby was +naturally tempted to introduce modern effects. The restoration of the +old masters is a difficult and delicate task, and in most cases, one +may add, a thankless one. In the matter of transcription, however, it +is important to distinguish between a Buelow and a Tausig: the one +displayed the intelligence of an artist; the other, the +thoughtlessness of a _virtuoso_. + +But what, it may be asked, is the character of the changes made by +Bach? The matter is of interest; by examining these sonatas, we get +some idea of the difference between letter and spirit. However, from +what we have said above, a mere imitation of these changes, in playing +Bach's music, would, in its turn, be letter rather than spirit. + +As a rule the bass remains the same, though plain crotchets may become +quavers, as in extract from Sonata 1 given below, or notes turned into +broken octaves-- + +[Music illustration] + +or, at times, some very slight alteration may occur, such as-- + +[Music illustration] + +In the upper parts the changes are similar to those found in the +variations of Haydn and Mozart. An illustration will be better than +any explanation, and we accordingly give a brief extract from the 1st +Sonata: first the five bars of the Allegretto, as at the opening, then +as they are changed-- + +[Music illustration] + +The publication of the set of six Leipzig collections of sonatas, +etc., commenced in 1779; but thirteen years previously, the composer +had published a set of "Sechs Leichte Clavier Sonaten," and these, in +one or two respects, are curious. The opening movement of No. 6 has no +double bars, and, therefore, no repeat of the first section. And +again, it has a coda pausing on the dominant chord and followed by an +Andantino. This second movement, peculiar in form and modulation, ends +on the dominant of F, leading directly to the Presto. + +The opening of the Larghetto of No. 2-- + +[Music illustration] + +was probably the prototype of many a theme of the classical masters. + +The works by which Emanuel Bach is best known are the six collections +of sonatas, rondos, and fantasias published at Leipzig between +1779-1787. The composer died in 1788. The 1st Collection (1779) bears +the title "Sechs Claviersonaten fuer Kenner und Liebhaber," and, in +fact, contains six sonatas. But "nebst einigen Rondos" (together with +some Rondos) was already added to the title-page of the 2nd and 3rd +Collections; and to the remaining ones, the still further addition of +"Freye Fantasien." + +For the sake of reference, the list of sonatas is subjoined-- + + Coll. +(1779) 1 Sonata in C 1773 Hamburg. + " " " F 1758 Berlin. + " " " B minor 1774 Hamburg. + " " " A (Buelow No. 3) 1765 Potsdam. + " " " F 1772 Hamburg. + " " " G (Buelow No. 4) 1765 Potsdam. +(1780) 2 " " G 1774 Hamburg. + " " " F 1780 Hamburg. + " " " A (Buelow No. 2) 1780 Hamburg. +(1781) 3 " " A minor 1774 Hamburg. + " " " D minor (Buelow No. 5) 1766 Potsdam. + " " " F minor (Buelow No. 1) 1763 Berlin. +(1783) 4 " " G 1781 Hamburg. + " " " E minor 1765 Berlin. +(1785) 5 " " E minor 1784 Hamburg. + " " " B flat 1784 Hamburg. +(1787) 6 " " D 1785 Hamburg. + " " " E minor 1785 Hamburg. + +Without copious musical examples, an analysis of these eighteen +sonatas would prove heavy reading. It will, therefore, be easier for +the writer, and certainly pleasanter for his readers, to give a +somewhat "freye Fantasia" description of them, laying emphasis +naturally on points connected with the special purpose in view.[70] + +In the matter of tonality there are some curiosities. When Beethoven's +1st Symphony appeared, the opening bars of the introduction became +stumbling-stones to the pedagogues of that day. The work was, without +doubt, in the key of C major; yet, instead of opening with the tonic +chord of that key, the composer led up to it through the keys of the +subdominant, relative minor, and dominant. No wonder that such a +proceeding surprised conventional minds, and that the critics warned +Beethoven of the danger of "going his own way." But his predecessor, +Emanuel Bach, had also strayed from the pedagogic path, a narrow one, +yet, in the end, leading to destruction. In the first book (1779), the +5th Sonata (as shown by the whole of the movement, with exception of +the two opening bars) is in the key of F major, yet the first bar is +in C minor (minor key of the dominant) and the second, in D minor +(relative minor of the principal key). + +[Music illustration] + +There were, no doubt, respecters of tonality also in Emanuel Bach's +day, to whom such free measures must have seemed foolhardy. While +composing this sonata Bach was, apparently, in daring mood. The slow +middle movement in D minor opens with an inversion of the dominant +ninth, and the Finale in F thus-- + +[Music illustration] + +Of the character of the first section of movements in binary form we +have already spoken in the introductory chapter. + +In the matter of development, the Bach sonatas are in one respect +particularly striking; the composer seems to have resolutely turned +away from the fugal style, and in so doing probably found himself +somewhat hampered. Like the early Florentine reformers, Bach was +breaking with the past, and with a mightier past than the one on which +the Florentines turned their back; like them, he, too, was occupied +with a new form. Not the music itself of the first operas, but the +spirit which prompted them, is what we now admire; in E. Bach, +too,--especially when viewed in the light of subsequent history,--we +at times take the will for the deed. + +We meet with much the same kinds of development as in Scarlatti: +phrases or passages taken bodily from the first section and repeated +on different degrees of the scale, extensions of phrases, and +passage-writing based on some figure from the exposition, etc. The +short development section of the Sonata in G (Collection No. 6) offers +examples of the three methods of development just mentioned. Bach, +like Scarlatti, was a master of his instrument, and even when--as was +said of Mendelssohn--he had nothing particular to say, he always +managed to say that little well. E. Bach has already much to suffer in +the inevitable comparison with Beethoven; and the fact that we have +the full message of the one, but not of the other, no doubt +accentuates the difference. + +In many ways Bach reminds one of Beethoven. There are unexpected +fortes and pianos, unexpected crescendos and diminuendos. Of such, the +noble Larghetto in F minor of the Sonata in F (Collection 1779, No. 2) +offers, indeed, several fine examples. Particularly would we notice +the passage just before the return of the opening theme; it begins +_ff_, but there is a gradual decrease to _pp_; the latter seems +somewhat before its time, and therefore surprises. Then, again, we +meet with out-of-the-way modulations. Bach was extremely fond of +enharmonic transitions,[71] and the same can be said of Beethoven in +both his early and his late works. The means employed by the two +composers may be the same, but the effect is, of course, always more +striking in Beethoven, whose thoughts were deeper, and whose means of +expressing them were in every way more extended. And once again, in +some of the forms of melody, in figures and passages, traces can be +found of connection between the two masters. To our thinking the bond +of union between E. Bach and Beethoven is stronger than the +oft-mentioned one between the early master and Haydn: Haydn was +practically Bach's pupil; Beethoven, his spiritual heir. This it is +which gives interest to any outward resemblances which may be +detected, not the resemblances themselves. + +In Bach's six sonatas of 1742 the movements are detached. But the +opening movement (an Andante in sonata form) of the 2nd Sonata of the +Leipzig Collection of 1779 ends with a few bars in canonic form (and +with quaint Bebung effect), leading without break to the following +Larghetto. The next sonata also connects the second with the third +movement. In the above case the change was merely from the key of +tonic major to that of minor; but here the movement is in G minor, and +an enharmonic modulation leads to the dominant of B minor, key of the +final movement. The sonata begins in B minor, and the choice of the +remote key of G minor for the middle movement is somewhat curious. +Sonata No. 4 connects first and second movements; and the third is +evidently meant to follow without pause. It must, however be +remembered that the majority of the Leipzig sonatas do not have the +various movements thus connected. It therefore seems to have been an +experiment rather than a settled plan. Examples of the connection of +movements are also to be found in Nichelmann and J.C.F. Bach. The same +thing may be seen in some of Haydn's sonatas (Nos. 18, 22, etc.), +while Beethoven offers a remarkable instance in his sonata, Op. 57. + +The 1st Sonata of the 2nd Collection passes from the first to the +second movement (Allegretto, G minor; Larghetto, F sharp minor) in a +curious manner, by enharmonic means. The last bar has-- + +[Music illustration] + +The quotation is in abbreviated form. The second chord would, of +course, be taken at first as dominant minor ninth on G. The 1st Sonata +of the 4th Collection is not striking as music, and certainly not of +sufficient importance to justify serious inquiry into the peculiar +order of keys for the three movements (G, G minor, and E major). + +With regard to the number of movements, all except two of the eighteen +sonatas have three; the second and third of the 2nd Collection have +only two. + +John Christian Bach, or the "London" Bach, as he was called, dedicated +his fifth work, consisting of six sonatas "Pour le clavecin ou +pianoforte," to Ernst, Duke of Mecklenburg. This cannot have been +before 1759, as that was the year in which the composer came to +London. He describes himself on the title-page as--"Maitre de Musique +de S.M. la Reine d'Angleterre." These sonatas, as we learn from the +dedication, were written for the "amusement" of the Duke. The first, +third, and fourth have each only two movements. They remind us less of +E. Bach than of Haydn's early style. There is some very fresh, +pleasing writing in them. No. 5 has some excellent practising +passages, and perhaps the following-- + +[Music illustration] + +may have suggested to Cramer his first study. The middle movement of +No. 6 is a vigorous double Fugue; the whole sonata is, indeed, one of +the finest of the set. + +A Sonata in D, by Wilhelm Friedmann Bach, is commented on by Dr. Parry +in his "Sonata" dictionary article. There is another one in C major, a +fresh and vigorous example of a musician whose powers were never fully +developed. + +The sonatas of Pietro Domenico Paradies (_b._ 1710), a contemporary of +E. Bach, are of interest. They were published in London by John +Johnson, and bear the title, "Sonate di gravicembalo dedicate a sua +altezza reale la principessa da Pier Domenico Paradies Napolitano." +The edition bears no date; but the right of printing and selling +granted by George II. bears the date November 28, 1754. A second +edition was published at Amsterdam in 1770. The sonatas are twelve in +number, and consist of only two movements of various character: some +have an Allegro or Presto, followed by a Presto, Allegro, or Gigue; +and sometimes (as in Nos. 9 and 11) the second movement is an Andante. +In other sonatas the first movement is in slow time. These +two-movement sonatas would seem to form an intermediate stage between +Scarlatti and Emanuel Bach. As a matter of fact, however, the latter, +as we have seen, had published clavier sonatas in three movements long +before the appearance of those of Paradies. In some of the movements +in binary form Paradies shows an advance on Scarlatti (see Nos. 1 and +10), for in the second section there is a return, after modulation, to +the principal theme. Some have the theme in the dominant key at the +commencement of that section, others not. Thus we see various stages +represented in these sonatas. The music is delightfully fresh, and, +from a technical point of view, interesting. The influence of +Scarlatti both in letter and spirit is strongly felt. In some of the +movements (_cf._ first movement of No. 8 and of No. 12) there is a +feature which Paradies did not inherit from Scarlatti, _i.e._ the +so-called Alberti bass. Of such a bass Scarlatti gives only slight +hints. Alberti, said to have been its inventor, was a contemporary of +Paradies, and the latter may have learnt the trick from him: there are +many examples of its use. In Alberti, "VIII Sonate Opera Prima,"[72] +the opening Allegro of No. 2 has it in forty-four of the forty-six +bars of which it consists, and, besides, each section is repeated. +That convenient form of accompaniment soon came into vogue. It occurs +frequently in the sonatas and concertos of J.C. Bach and Haydn, but it +is in the works of second-rate composers that one sees the full use, +or rather abuse, made of it. No. 8 of the Paradies sonatas is +particularly attractive, and the second movement forms a not +unpleasant reminiscence of Handel's so-called "Harmonious Blacksmith" +variations. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +HAYDN AND MOZART + + +I.--Haydn + +This composer, to whom is given the name of "father of the symphony +and the quartet," was born at Rohrau, a small Austrian village on the +Leitha, in the night between 31st March and 1st April 1732. At a very +early age the boy's sweet voice attracted the notice of G. Reuter, +capellmeister of St. Stephen's, Vienna, and for many years he sang in +the cathedral choir. In 1749 he was dismissed, the alleged cause being +a practical joke played by him on one of his fellow-choristers. He +was, as Sir G. Grove relates in his article "Haydn" in the _Dictionary +of Music and Musicians_, thrown upon the world "with an empty purse, a +keen appetite, and no friends." Haydn took up his abode in an attic in +the old Michaelerhaus. But it chanced that Metastasio lived in the +same building, and the famous poet took an interest in the penniless +composer, and, among other things, taught him Italian. Metastasio was +extremely fond of music, and we know from his letters that the flowing +compositions of his countrymen delighted him more than the learned +music of Germany. Then Haydn made the acquaintance of Porpora, who +gave him instruction in composition and in the art of singing. And he +is also supposed to have studied the works of San Martini, an Italian +composer in the service of Prince Esterhazy. In addition, Italian +music was much played and much admired in Vienna. Emanuel Bach also, +as we have seen, came under Italian influence, but not until he had +finished his studies under his father's guidance. Once more, we may +conclude that Haydn, before he commenced writing clavier sonatas, had +made acquaintance with those of Paradies and of Alberti. These early +Italian influences should be noted, for one is apt to think rather of +the young composer as plodding through Fux's "Gradus" and playing +Emanuel Bach's sonatas on his "little worm-eaten clavier." During his +last years Haydn told his friend Griesinger that he had diligently +studied Emanuel Bach, and that he owed very much to him. From the +painter Dies, in his biographical notice of the master, we also learn +how fond he was of playing Emanuel Bach's sonatas. And this influence +was undoubtedly not only a strong, but a lasting one; in 1788, the +year in which E. Bach died, Haydn wrote to Artaria, begging the latter +to send him that master's last two works for clavier. + +In reference to Haydn, musicians are apt to speak merely of his +sonatas, whereas those of Beethoven are generally described by their +key, or their opus number; or as belonging to one of the three +periods into which that master's art-work is usually divided. There is +good reason for this difference. Haydn's sonatas are not of equal +importance with those of his successor; and then some are +old-fashioned, others second-rate. Beethoven's sonatas are by no means +all of equal merit, yet there is not one but has some feature, whether +of form, or development, or technique, by which it may be +distinguished. And yet a close and careful study of Haydn's sonatas +will show that he, too, had his periods of apprenticeship, mastery, +and maturity. Let not our readers take alarm. We are not going to +analyse his thirty-five sonatas, or to enter into minute details. But +we shall try, by selecting some of the most characteristic works, to +show how the master commenced, continued, and concluded. + +The earliest of the published sonatas,[73] No. 1 (33), is somewhat of +a curiosity. It consists of four movements: an Allegro in G major; a +Minuetto and Trio, G major and minor; an Adagio in G minor; and an +Allegro molto in G major. It is the only sonata of Haydn's which +contains four movements. The plaintive Trio and the Scarlatti-like +Finale are attractive. + +In the year 1774, J.J. Hummel, at Amsterdam, published six sonatas, +the last three of which appear to have been originally written for +pianoforte and violin;[74] and in 1776 six more were printed by +Longman & Broderip as Op. 14. These may serve as specimens of Haydn's +early style; and in them, by the way, the composer was accused of +imitating, nay, caricaturing, E. Bach. + +In the _European Magazine_ for October 1784 there appeared an account +of Joseph Haydn, "a celebrated composer of music," in which occurs the +following:-- + +"Amongst the number of professors who wrote against our rising author +was Philipp Emanuel Bach of Hamburgh (formerly of Berlin); and the +only notice Haydn took of their scurrility and abuse was to publish +lessons written in imitation of the several styles of his enemies, in +which their peculiarities were so closely copied, and their extraneous +passages (particularly those of Bach of Hamburgh) so inimitably +burlesqued, that they all felt the poignancy of his musical wit, +confessed its truth, and were silent." + +Further on the writer mentions the sonatas of Ops. 13 and 14 as +"expressly composed in order to ridicule Bach of Hamburgh"; nay, he +points to the second part of the second sonata in Op. 13 and the whole +of the third sonata in the same work by way of special illustration. + +There are many resemblances to E. Bach in Haydn,--notes wide apart, +pause bars, surprise modulations, etc.,--and this is not more +extraordinary than to find resemblances between Mozart and Beethoven; +but the charge of caricature seems unfair. Besides, it is scarcely +likely that Haydn, who owed so much to Bach, would have done any such +thing. It must be remembered that at the date of the _European +Magazine_ in question, E. Bach had not yet published any of the six +Leipzig Collections ("Sonaten fuer Kenner," etc.), by which he is best +known at the present day. + +Of the six sonatas, Op. 13, the first three are Nos. 8 (26), 9 (27), +10 (28) in Pohl's thematic catalogue (_Joseph Haydn_, vol. ii.). The +other three have not been reprinted in modern collections. In the +first three the keys and order of movements are as follow:-- + + No. 1. Allegro moderato in C; Adagio, F; Finale, Presto. + + No. 2. Allegro moderato in E; Andante, E minor; Finale, + Tempo di Menuetto. + + No. 3. Allegro moderato in F; Larghetto, E minor; Presto. + +These sonatas are interesting as music, and the workmanship is +skilful. If one can get over the thinness of the part-writing, +especially in the slow movements, there is much to enjoy in them. The +style of movement--Tempo di Menuetto--in No. 2 recalls Emanuel Bach's +"Wuertemberg" sonatas of 1745. + +Here are the numbers of the sonatas of Op. 14: 11 (20), 12 (21), 13 +(22), 14 (23), 15 (24), 16 (25). And here are the keys and movements-- + + No. 1. Allegro con brio in G; Minuetto, G; Trio, G minor; + Presto. + + No. 2. Allegro moderato in E flat; Minuetto, E flat; Trio, E + flat minor; Presto. + + No. 3. Moderato in F; Adagio, B flat; Tempo di Menuetto. + + No. 4. Allegro in A; Adagio; Tempo di Minuetto con + Variazione. + + No. 5. Moderato in E; Presto. + + No. 6. Allegro moderato in B minor; Tempo di Minuetto; + Presto. + +During the eighteenth century, both in Italy and Germany, sonatas in +two movements were common, but with Haydn the reduction in No. 5 +probably was made on practical, and not artistic grounds. Schindler +once asked Beethoven why he had only two movements to his Sonata in C +minor (Op. 111), and the master replied--probably with a twinkle in +his eye--that he had not had time for a third. + +If these sonatas of 1776 be compared with earlier ones (1767), an +immense improvement in the development sections will be observed. In +the earliest but one of the master's sonatas--No. 2 (30)--the whole of +the middle section is in the principal key. No. 4 (Op. 14) has all +three movements connected,--a plan, as we have already seen, adopted +by E. Bach in some of his sonatas. The sonata in question is in the +key of A major. The Allegro ends with an arpeggio dominant chord, and +still in the same bar follows the dominant chord of the relative key +of F sharp minor, leading directly to the Adagio; this movement, in +its turn, closes on the dominant chord of A, the key, of course, of +the final movement (Tempo di Minuetto con Variazioni). + +In 1780 six sonatas were published by Artaria, and dedicated to the +sisters Franziska and Marianne v. Auenbrugger. They are Nos. 20 (1), +21-24 (10-13), and 7 (14). No. 20 (1) is a bright little work. No. 21 +(10) (C sharp minor) opens with an interesting movement.[75] The +sonata ends with a beautiful Menuetto and Trio, in which the composer +comes very near to Beethoven. The middle movement is a Scherzando, and +thereby hangs a little tale. No. 24 (13) commences with the same +theme. When Haydn sent the sonatas to his publisher he called +attention to this resemblance, and, in fact, requested that it should +be mentioned on the inner side of the title-page. And he added: "I +could, of course, have chosen a hundred other ideas in place of this +one; but in order not to run any risk of blame on account of this +intentional trifle (which the critics, and especially my enemies, will +regard in a bad light), I make this _avertissement_. Or please add +some note of a similar kind, otherwise it may prove detrimental to the +sale." No. 22 (11) has an opening Allegro in Haydn's brightest +manner. The short Largo is quaint and expressive; the _ff_ chord of +the Neapolitan sixth is of fine effect. The movement ends on the +dominant chord, and thus leads without break to the lively Presto +Finale. The concluding movement of the next sonata displays a +crispness and vigour which remind one of Haydn's great successor. +Already in connection with these six sonatas have we mentioned +Beethoven. And from this period onwards the kinship between the two +composers becomes more evident. Haydn, however, did not, like +Beethoven, rise steadily higher and higher; great moments came, as it +were, by fits and starts. He wrote in season and out of season; _nulla +dies sine linea_ seems to have been his motto. With Beethoven, a later +work, unless it be one of his few _pieces d'occasion_, means a fuller +revelation of his genius. + +We will now pass on to the latest period, represented by two great +sonatas, both in the key of E flat. The one was written for the +composer's friend and patron, Frau v. Genziger. The opening Allegro +shows earnest, deep feeling, while at the close of the recapitulation +Haydn makes us feel the full power of his genius; the passage +irresistibly recalls moments in the first movement of the +"Appassionata"; those stately reiterated chords, those solemn pauses, +have a touch of mystery about them. It is interesting to see how the +second theme is evolved from the principal subject of the movement; by +a slight modification the character of the music is quite changed; +what was stately is now light and graceful. The Adagio cantabile is +one of the purest examples of a style of music which has become a +thing of the past. The full and sustained tone of modern instruments +has rendered unnecessary those turns, arpeggios, and numerous +ornaments with which the composers of the last century tried to make +amends for the fleeting tones of their harpsichords and clavichords. +Haydn and Mozart were skilful in this art of embellishment, though +sometimes it was unduly profuse; this Adagio of Haydn's is a model of +sobriety. The bold minor section, which Frau v. Genziger, by the way, +found rather troublesome to play, offers an effective contrast to the +major. A graceful Tempo di Menuetto brings the work to an effective +close. The other Sonata in E flat[76] is much more difficult to play. +The writing is fuller, and it contains passages which even a modern +pianist need not disdain. It is really strange that the sonata is not +sometimes heard at the Popular Concerts. In the opening Allegro the +exposition section contains more than the two orthodox themes, and the +development section assumes considerable magnitude; the latter is +full of clever details and bold modulations. The key of the Adagio is +E major, but this is of course the enharmonic equivalent of F flat. +Brahms, in his last Sonata for Violoncello and Pianoforte in F, has +the slow movement in F sharp. This has been spoken of as a novelty, +yet Haydn, as we see, had already made the experiment; and similar +instances may be found in Schubert and Beethoven, though not in their +pianoforte sonatas. The Finale Presto reminds one by the style of +writing, and by a certain quaint humour, of Emanuel Bach; but there +are some bold touches--_sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, prolongation +of phrases, long dwelling on one harmony, etc.--which anticipate +Beethoven. Traces of the past, foreshadowings of the future; these are +familiar facts in evolution. + + +II.--Mozart + +Before Mozart had reached the age of twenty he wrote six sonatas for a +certain Baron Duernitz, who, by the way, forgot to send the promised +payment in return. Of these, Otto Jahn remarks that "their healthy +freshness and finished form entitle them still to be considered as the +best foundation for a musical education." Freshness is indeed the best +term to describe both the thematic material and the developments. Four +of them (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5) consist of the usual three movements; +No. 4 commences with a long Adagio in two sections, each of which is +repeated. Two graceful Minuets (the second taking the place of a Trio) +follow, and the third movement is an Allegro in sonata-form. No. 6 has +for its second movement a Rondeau en Polonaise, and for its third, a +Theme with variations. The Rondo of No. 3 (in B flat) is unusually +long; it contains two episodes, one in the relative minor, the other +in the subdominant. The next three sonatas (in C, A minor, and D) are +of greater importance. They are all said to have been written at +Mannheim. The first was most probably the one mentioned in a letter of +1777 written by Mozart to his father. He describes a public concert +given on the 22nd of October, and says: "Then I played alone the last +Sonata in D, then my Concerto in B flat, then a Fugue in C minor, and +a splendid Sonata in C major out of my own head, with a Rondo at the +end." The "last Sonata in D" was the last of the set of six noticed +above. In reference to the Sonata in C, the expression "out of my own +head" would seem to indicate that it had not at that time been written +out. Mozart was right to speak of the work as "splendid." The bold +opening subject, the well-contrasted second theme, the short but +masterly development, the original leading back to the principal +subject, and the many variations in the recapitulation section, fully +justify his qualification. The slow movement is full of charm, and the +Rondo, with its elaborate middle section, is of the highest interest. +The 2nd Sonata, in A minor, is, next to the one in C minor, Mozart's +finest effort in this department of musical literature. And there is a +story connected with it. Capellmeister Cannabich's eldest daughter +Rosa had captivated the young composer; he wrote to his father about +her, and described her as "a pretty, charming girl," and added, "she +has a staid manner and a great deal of sense for her age (the young +lady was only thirteen); she speaks but little, and when she does +speak, it is with grace and amiability." On the very next day after +his arrival in Mannheim he began to write this sonata for her. The +Allegro was finished in one day. Young Danner, the violinist, asked +him about the Andante, and Mozart replied: "I mean to make it exactly +like Mdlle. Rose herself." This was the picture to which he worked. +One of Beethoven's finest sonatas, the C sharp minor, was inspired by +a beautiful girl: a strong appeal to the emotions calls forth a +composer's best powers. Mozart's first movement was written on 31st +October, and the Rondo on 8th November. The Allegro maestoso presents +many points of interest. The opening theme with its dotted motive is +prominent throughout the movement; the transition passage to the key +of the relative major is based on it, and so is the coda to the +exposition section. Again, in the development and recapitulation +sections it forms a striking feature, while in the final coda it is +intensified by reiteration of the dotted figure, and also by the rise +from the dominant to the tonic. The slow movement, with its expressive +themes, graceful ornamentation, and bold middle section, was not +surpassed by Mozart even in his C minor Sonata. The Presto closes the +work in worthy manner; it forms a contrast to the first movement, and +yet is allied to it in sentiment. The passionate outburst at the +close, with the repeated E's, seems almost a reminiscence of the +Allegro theme. There are two features in the development section of +that movement which point to Beethoven: the one is the augmentation in +the seventh bar of the quaver figure in the two preceding bars; the +other, the phrase containing the shake which is evolved from an +earlier one by curtailment of its first note. The 3rd Sonata, though +in many ways attractive, will not bear comparison with the other two. +In 1779, at Vienna, Mozart composed, among other sonatas, the +beautiful one in A major,--the first example, perhaps, of a sonata +commencing with a theme and variations. This first movement is very +charming, but the gem of the work is the delicate Menuetto; the Trio +speaks in tender, regretful tones of some happy past. The Alla Turca +is lively, but not far removed from the commonplace. + +From among the symphonies of Mozart, the three (in G minor, E flat, +and C) which he wrote in 1788 stand out with special prominence; and +so, from the sonatas, do the three in A minor (1778), C minor (1784), +and F (1788). In the first, as regards the writing, virtuosity +asserts itself, and in the third, contrapuntal skill; but in the +second, the greatness of music makes us forget the means by which that +greatness is achieved. The Sonatas in A minor and F are wonderful +productions, yet they stand a little lower than the C minor. The +nobility and earnestness of the last-named give it a place near to +Beethoven's best sonatas. We might say equal, were it not that the +writing for the instrument is comparatively thin; however noble the +ideas, they are but inadequately expressed. This C minor Sonata is +remarkable for its originality, simplicity, and unity; Mozart +possessed qualities which mark creative art of the highest kind. In +writing some of his pianoforte sonatas, he had the public, or pupils, +more or less in his mind; and though he did not become a mere +sonata-maker, like some of his contemporaries, his whole soul was not +always in his work; of this the inequalities in his music give +evidence. In some movements (especially the closing ones) of the +sonatas, the subject-matter is often trivial, and the passage-writing +commonplace. The silkworm produces its smooth, regular ball of silk +without effort, and in like manner Mozart could turn out Allegros, +Rondos, sets of variations _a discretion_. The Sonata in C minor, to +our thinking, is the only one in which he was entirely absorbed in his +art; the only one in which the ideal is never marred by the real. The +last movement is no mere Rondo, but one which stands in close +relationship to the opening Allegro; they both have the same tragic +spirit; both seem the outpouring of a soul battling with fate. The +slow movement reveals Mozart's gift of melody and graceful +ornamentation, yet beneath the latter runs a vein of earnestness; the +theme of the middle section expresses subdued sadness. The affinity +between this work and Beethoven's sonata (Op. 10, No. 1) in the same +key is very striking. + +Mozart composed his C minor Sonata towards the end of the year 1784. +The C minor Fantasia, which precedes it in some editions, was not +written until the middle of 1785. The two, however, were published +together by Mozart himself. It is impossible to consider this a new +experiment in sonata-form, as regards grouping of movements; the unity +of character and feeling between Fantasia and Sonata no doubt led to +their juxtaposition. The Fantasia is practically complete in itself; +so too is the Sonata. The two are printed separately in Breitkopf & +Haertel's edition of Mozart's works. + +Haydn and Mozart represent an important stage in sonata history: they +stand midway between Emanuel Bach and Beethoven. It is usual to look +upon Bach as the founder, Haydn and Mozart as the builders-up, and +Beethoven as the perfecter of the sonata edifice. Such a summing-up is +useful in that it points to important landmarks in the evolution of +the sonata; yet it is only a rough-and-ready one. Bach was something +more than a founder, while Beethoven, to say the least, shook the +foundations of the edifice. Haydn and Mozart would seem to be fairly +described, for traces of scaffolding are all too evident in their +works, yet they found the building already raised. Some of it, +however, appeared to them in rococo style, and so they gradually +rebuilt. And they not only altered, but enlarged and strengthened. Of +rebuilding and alteration, their slow movements and finales give +evidence; and of enlargement, all the three sections of movements in +so-called sonata-form. Their subject-matter, as it grew in importance, +grew in compass. This in itself, of course, enlarged the exposition +section; but the transition passage from first to second theme, and +the rounding-off of the section, both grew in proportion. The joints, +too, of the structure were strengthened: the half cadence no longer +sufficed to divide first from second subject, or, after development, +to return to the principal theme; then, again, the wider scope of the +development itself demanded more striking harmonies, more forcible +figuration, and more varied cadences. + +The subject-matter, we have said, became more important; it differed +also in character. The themes of Emanuel Bach, for the most part, seem +to be evolved from harmonic progressions and groupings of notes; those +of his successors, rather the source whence springs melody and +figuration. The one uttered broken phrases; the others, complete +musical sentences. Italian fashion prevailed during the second half +of the eighteenth century much as it did in the first. The simple +charm and warmth of the music of the violin-composers had penetrated +the contrapuntal crust which covered Emanuel Bach's heart; and the +feeling that he could never hope to rival his father must have +rendered him all the more willing to yield to it. But the influence of +his father could not be wholly cast aside, and Emanuel was, as it +were, drawn in opposite directions; it is really wonderful what he +actually achieved. True lovers of John Sebastian Bach know well that +his music, though of a contrapuntal character, is by no means dry; but +the formal aspect of it must have made its mark on the son ere he +could feel the power, and realise the splendour of his father's +genius. + +Haydn and Mozart, on the other hand, were born and bred in the very +midst of Italian music. Of Haydn's early days we have already spoken, +and those of Mozart were not unsimilar. Otto Jahn, in his life of that +composer, says of the father Leopold, that "his ideas were firmly +rooted in the traditions of Italian music"; so firmly, indeed, that he +could not appreciate the mild innovations of a Gluck. This paternal +influence was deepened, besides, by Mozart's early visits to Italy. + +Then, again, so far as we can make out, the clavier compositions of +John Sebastian Bach, and, especially the "Well-tempered Clavier," were +unknown both to Haydn and Mozart in their days of childhood and early +manhood. What a difference in the case of Beethoven, who, it will be +remembered, could play the greater number of the forty-eight Preludes +and Fugues before he was twelve years of age! The beauty of Italian +music not only impressed Haydn and Mozart, but kindled their creative +faculties; while its simple, rhythmical character probably aided them +materially in giving utterance to their thoughts and feelings. Nature +had bestowed on them in rich measure the gift of melody, and they soon +began to compose. + +Emanuel Bach, we have said, was drawn in two opposite directions. +Haydn and Mozart, though they were spared this dual influence, had, +however, to face a difficulty. They found a form ready to hand, yet +one which, as we have attempted to show, required modifications of +various kinds. The former had to make the old fit in with the new; but +the latter, the new with the old. Hence their inspiration was +handicapped. They were to some extent constructing as well as +creating; and then their sense of order, balance, and proportion was +so strong, that they often turned out movements more remarkable for +their clearness of form than for the strength of their contents. + +Mozart profited by Haydn's early attempts, and his best sonatas are +vastly superior to most of Haydn's. After Mozart's death, and even for +some years before, Haydn seemed to have caught much of the spirit of +the younger composer. He showed this especially in his London +symphonies, but also in one or two of his later sonatas. "This mutual +reaction," says Jahn, "so generously acknowledged by both musicians, +must be taken into account in forming a judgment on them." + +Haydn, though fully conscious of his own powers, practically +acknowledged the superiority of his brother-artist. On learning of +Mozart's death, he exclaimed: "Posterity will not see such talent for +a century to come!"--a prophecy which, at the time it was uttered, +seemed likely of fulfilment. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +PREDECESSORS OF BEETHOVEN + + +I. Muzio Clementi + +Muzio Clementi, born at Rome in 1752, was brought to England by +Alderman Beckford, father of the author of _Vathek_, and at Fonthill +Abbey he had leisure to study the works of Handel, John Sebastian +Bach, Emanuel Bach, Domenico Scarlatti, and Paradies. Clementi, like +Scarlatti, was a _virtuoso_; but although both indulged largely in +technical display, they were true and intelligent artists. In +Scarlatti, the balance between his musical ideas and the form in which +they were presented was almost perfect; in Clementi, virtuosity often +gained the ascendency over virtue. With the latter, however, as indeed +with E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and many other composers, the necessity +of earning a living, and therefore of writing for "long" ears, mixed +with the love of fame, produced works which, like the old Eden tree, +contained both good and evil. To judge such great men really fairly, +the chaff ought to be separated from the wheat; and the chaff ought +to be thoroughly removed, even at the risk of sometimes losing a +portion of wheat. + +To the true lover of music, choice selections are more precious than +complete collections; the latter are, of course, necessary to those +whose business it is to study the rise and development of the various +composers. The pianoforte sonatas of Mozart, Haydn, Dussek, and +Clementi might be reduced to very moderate compass. To suggest that +any one of Beethoven's thirty-two should be removed out of its place +would now sound flat blasphemy; but art progresses, and some even now +are falling into oblivion. The catalogue of music performed at the +Popular Concerts during the history of the past thirty-five years +shows pretty clearly which sonatas of Beethoven are likely to live +long, and which not. But to return to Clementi. He published his first +three sonatas (Op. 2, Nos. 1-3) in 1770, the year in which Beethoven +was born; and the influence which he exerted over that master was +considerable. In Beethoven's library were to be found many sonatas of +Clementi, and the master's predilection for them is well known. The +world seldom renders full justice to men who prepared the way for +greater than themselves; Pachelbel, Boehm, and Buxtehude, the immediate +predecessors of Bach, and, again, Emanuel Bach, to whom Haydn was so +indebted, and whose works were undoubtedly studied by Beethoven, are +notable examples. This is, of course, perfectly natural: the best only +survives; but musicians who take serious interest in their art ought, +from time to time, to look back and see how much was accomplished and +suggested by men who, in comparison with their mighty contemporaries +and successors, are legitimately ranked as second-rate. Among such, +Clementi holds high place. Beethoven over-shadowed the Italian +composer; but the harsh judgment expressed by Mozart[77] has +contributed not a little, we imagine, to the indifference now shown to +the Clementi sonatas.[78] The judgment was a severe one; but Otto Jahn +relates how Clementi told his pupil Berger that, "at the period of +which Mozart writes, he devoted his attention to brilliant execution, +and in particular to double runs and extemporised passages." And, +again, Berger himself was of opinion that the sonata selected for +performance by Clementi at the memorable contest with Mozart in +presence of the Emperor Joseph the Second (December 1781), was +decidedly inferior to his earlier compositions of the same kind. The +sonata in question was the one in B flat (B. & H., No. 61; Holle, No. +37), of which the opening theme commences in the same manner as the +Allegro of the Overture to the _Magic Flute_. Mozart suffered much +from the predominant Italian influence at court, and the "like all +the Italians" in the letter just mentioned shows, to say the least, a +bitter spirit. But the letter was a private one, probably hastily +written. The judgment expressed was formed from an inferior work; in +any case, it must not be taken too seriously. Mozart, by the way, was +not the only composer who failed to render justice to his +contemporaries. + +Clementi's sonatas may be roughly divided into three classes. Some he +wrote merely for the display of technique, while some were composed +for educational purposes. But there remain others in which his heart +and soul were engaged, and in these he reaches a very high level. Our +classification is a rough one, for often in those which we consider +his best, there is plenty of showy technique. With the exception of +Mozart's sonata in C minor, and Haydn's "Genziger" and "London" +sonatas, both in E flat, also some of Rust's, of which we shall soon +have something to say, there are, to our thinking, none which in +spirit come nearer to Beethoven than some of Clementi's. Mr. E. +Dannreuther, in his article on the composer in Sir George Grove's +_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, justly remarks "that a judicious +selection from his entire works would prove a boon." + +In order to trace the relationship between Clementi and Beethoven, it +may be well to state that Clementi in 1783 had published up to Op. 11 +(Sonata and Toccata; the Toccata, by the way, is not included in the +Breitkopf & Haertel edition; it appeared first, we believe, together +with the sonata, in a London edition. Beethoven's first sonatas (Op. +2) appeared only in 1796).[79] By 1802, Clementi had published up to +Op. 40; in which year Beethoven composed two of the three sonatas, Op. +31, Nos. 1-3. Between 1820-21 appeared Clementi's sonata, Op. 46 +(dedicated to Kalkbrenner), and the last set of three sonatas in +(including the "Didone Abbandonata") Op. 50. Beethoven's sonata in E +(Op. 109) appeared in November 1821. Thus Clementi at first influenced +Beethoven, but, later on, the reverse must have been the case. + +Breitkopf & Haertel have published sixty-four sonatas of Clementi; and +of these, sixty-three are to be found in the Holle edition.[80] + +The three sonatas, Op. 2, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (25, 26, 27), have only two +movements, and are principally remarkable for their showy +technique.[81] + +Clementi, of course, was well acquainted with Scarlatti's music, yet +it would perhaps be difficult to point out any direct influence of the +one over the other. In the next three sonatas, Op. 9, Nos. 4, 5, 6 +(11, 28, 12), the first and third are most interesting. In the second, +Clementi indulges in his favourite passages of thirds, sixths, and +octaves; there is, indeed, a Presto movement, a _moto perpetuo_ for +the right hand, in octaves, which, if taken up to time, would tax even +pianists of the present day. The 1st sonata may be noticed for its +bold chords, and its _sforzandos_ on unaccented beats, which sound +Beethovenish. The 3rd sonata reminds us in many ways of the Bonn +master. In the opening Allegro there is a sighing figure-- + +[Music illustration] + +which plays an important part throughout the movement, and therefore +gives a marked character to it. In the development section the bold +contrasts, the powerful chords, the sighing figure in augmentation, +all point to Beethoven. And, curiously enough, the principal theme, +which now appears in major (the sonata is in G minor), reminds one +very strongly of the "Eroica"-- + +[Music illustration] + +It is worth noticing that the "sighing figure" may be traced in the +other two movements of the sonata. The next sonata, No. 10 (44), has +three movements, all in the same key; the Trio of the Minuet is in the +key of the subdominant. In the first movement may be noticed the +extension of a phrase by repetition (_pp_) of its last two notes, a +feature often to be met with in Beethoven (see, for instance, the +first movement of the "Appassionata," development section). + +The piano phrase in the Rondo of No. 11 (45), before the organ point +and the pause bar, is striking. No. 14 (2) is interesting. The broken +octaves at the end of the exposition section, and the return by +ellipsis to the principal theme, call to mind passages in Beethoven's +Op. 22 and Op. 109. Sonata No. 16 (4) has a delightful first movement; +the evolution of the second subject from the first deserves attention. +In No. 18 (51) there is one point to notice. The key of the first +movement is in F, but the principal theme in the recapitulation +section appears in E flat; the second theme, however, according to +rule, in the tonic. + +Sonata No. 19 (52), in F minor, demands more than a passing word. Our +readers will, perhaps, be tired of our noticing foreshadowings of +Beethoven, yet we must add others here. We can assure them, however, +or rather those who are not familiar with Clementi's sonatas, that the +passages to which we call attention only form a small proportion of +those to which we might refer. The first movement (Allegro agitato) is +concise; there is no padding. Every bar of the exposition section may +be termed thematic. The second subject, in the orthodox relative +major, is evolved from the principal theme. And the latter descends, +but the former ascends--a true Beethoven contrast. The coda to the +first section, with its working of a thematic figure in augmentation, +forms a striking feature. At the close of the development section a +long dignified dominant passage seems a preparation for the return of +the principal theme, but the composer has a surprise; after a pause +bar, the _second_ theme appears, and in A flat. A modulation soon +leads back to F minor, and quite in Beethoven fashion-- + +[Music illustration] + +and the exposition coda is repeated in extended form. In the next +movement (Largo e sostenuto) sombre tones still prevail; the key is +that of the dominant minor. There is evident kinship between the first +and last movements; of this the opening bar of the former and the +closing bars of the latter offer signal proof. + +In No. 23 (43) at the end of the last movement, an organ point reminds +us that the full intentions of the composer are not recorded. Thus, in +Clementi's early sonatas at any rate, the interpreter, as in E. +Bach's works, was expected to make additions. In No. 26 (7) the +opening of the theme of the Arietta recalls, and in no vague manner, +the opening of the Finale of Beethoven's Septet. No. 34 (8) is an +excellent sonata; there is considerable freedom in the recapitulation +section. In No. 39 (35) Clementi returns to an old form of sonata: +there are only two movements, a Larghetto and Tempo di Minuetto, and +both in the same key. With sonata No. 41 (32), the first of two +published as Op. 34, Clementi breaks new ground. The idea of +incorporating the subject-matter of an introductory slow movement had +already occurred to Haydn,[82] but Clementi goes to greater lengths. +(It must not be forgotten that Beethoven's "Sonate Pathetique," Op. +13, appeared in 1799; possibly, before Clementi's.) From the opening +characteristic subject of the Largo is evolved the principal subject +of the Allegro _con fuoco_, and there is also relationship between it +and the second subject. In the unusually long development section, a +dramatic passage, evolved from the concluding bars of the Largo, leads +to a slow section in which the opening notes of the Largo are given +out in loud tones, and in the unexpected key of C major (the three +repeated _sforzando_ crotchets remind one of the "fate" notes in the C +minor Symphony); and when the Tempo primo is resumed, the + +[Music illustration] + +also reminds one of + +[Music illustration] + +in the same movement of the above-mentioned Symphony. Then, again, in +an important coda the theme is given out in modified, yet intensified +form. In the Finale of the sonata the Largo still makes its influence +felt. Exception may perhaps be taken to the length of the first +movement, and to the prominence throughout the work, of the principal +key; but the evident desire of the composer to express something which +was inwardly moving him gives great interest to the music. + +The sonata in B minor, Op. 40, is one of Clementi's most finished +productions. The name of Beethoven must again be mentioned; for depth +of meaning, boldness, style of development, and gradation of interest, +the music comes within measurable distance of the greater master. Not +only is there no padding, but here the technique serves a higher +purpose than that of display; there are no formal successions of +thirds, sixths, or octaves, no empty bravoura passages. The long +development section of the first movement, with its bold contrasts, +its varied presentation of thematic material, its peculiar mode of +dealing with fragments of a theme, and its long dwelling on dominant +harmony previous to the return of the principal theme,--all these +things remind one of Beethoven. This movement is followed by a Largo +(_mesto e patetico_) leading to the final Allegro. These two are +intimately connected; and, moreover, the latter includes reminiscences +from the introductory Adagio. After a brief reference to the Largo, +the movement concludes with a passionate Presto coda. In Mr. +Banister's _Life of Macfarren_ we learn that the latter considered the +B minor of Clementi "one of the finest sonatas ever written"; and many +musicians will, probably, agree with him. + +Of the three last sonatas (Op. 50, Nos. 1, 2, and 3), it must be +remembered that when they appeared Beethoven had published up to Op. +106, and possibly Op. 109. If, then, in some of the earlier Clementi +sonatas we spoke of his influence on Beethoven, it is just the reverse +here. Nevertheless, of these sonatas which must have been known to +that master, one may have led him to think again of the idea of +revealing the poetic basis of his sonatas.[83] Clementi gives the +title, "Didone Abbandonata: Scena Tragica" to his work. The +introductory Largo is _sostenuto e patetico_, while the Allegro which +follows bears the superscription, _deliberando e meditando_; the +Adagio is _dolente_; and the Allegro Finale, _agitato e con +disperazione_. The music expresses throughout the sorrow and despair +of the forsaken queen, while certain wild passages (as for example the +coda of the first Allegro) tell also of her anger. This Allegro is an +admirably sustained movement, and, at moments, the composer rises to +the height of his argument. It is interesting, too, from a technical +point of view, for there is no empty display. Whatever degree of +inspiration may be accorded to the music, it will surely be +acknowledged that the composer was full of his theme; that all his +powers of head and heart were engaged in the task of illustration. +This "Dido" sonata, of course, suffers if compared with those of +Clementi's great contemporary; and some of the writing is formal and +old-fashioned, and, at times, too thin to attract the sympathy or to +excite the interest of pianists of the present day, who enjoy the +richer inheritance of Beethoven, the romantic tone-pictures of +Schumann and Brahms, the fascinating miniatures of Chopin, and the +clever glitter of Liszt. Still it does not deserve utter oblivion. +Hear what Fr. Rochlitz says of it in the _Allg. Mus. Zeit._: "It (the +sonata) is indeed a tragic scene, one so clearly thought out and so +definitely expressed, that it is by no means difficult--not only in +each movement, but in its various divisions--to follow literally the +course of changing feeling which is here developed." + +Schindler, with regard to the work, also remarks as follows: "Who +understands nowadays how to interpret this musical soul-picture +(written unfortunately in old stereotyped sonata-form!)? At best, +glancing hastily over it, a pianist carelessly remarks that the +poetical contents of this sonata are only expressed in the title." And +again: "In the year 1827, at Baden, near Vienna, Clementi gave me +details respecting the contents and interpretation of this tone-poem. +A new edition of the work by J. Andre of Offenbach enabled me to +insert a preface with the explanations of the veteran master."[84] And +further, as a tone-picture expressing states of the soul, he knows "of +no other work entitled sonata more worthy of a place beside those of +Beethoven." + + +II. Johann Ludwig Dussek + +This composer comes next to Clementi, in order of time, and, we may +add, of merit. His natural gifts really exceeded those of Clementi; +but the latter made a deep study of his art, and also of the +pianoforte, to which, indeed, like Chopin, he devoted his whole +attention. Dussek was fond of ease and pleasure, and never developed +his powers to the full. It may be noted that both these celebrated +pianists were connected with English music-publishing houses. Clementi +prospered, though not in his first undertaking with Longman & +Broderip; but Dussek was unsuccessful, and left England, so it is +said, to avoid his creditors. There is, indeed, a letter written by +Dussek from Hamburg, dated 12th June, 1801, to Clementi, and apart +from the curious spectacle of these two pianists in commercial +correspondence with each other, the letter is of interest, in that it +belongs to a period of Dussek's life concerning the details of which +there is some uncertainty.[85] Dussek, it may be mentioned, does not +ever appear to have returned to London. In 1803 he became attached to +Prince Louis Ferdinand, to whom he offered advice in pianoforte +playing and composition. There is another letter extant of Dussek's +written in the same year in which that Prince fell on the battlefield +of Saalfeld (13th October, 1806), and this also we will give, as we +believe, like the one above, it has never been published.[86] The +catalogue of Dussek's works, in Sir G. Grove's _Dictionary of Music +and Musicians_, mentions three quartets for strings (Op. 60: in G, B +flat, and E flat), most probably the works referred to in the second +letter. + +Dussek, born in the year 1761, studied first with his father J.J. +Dussek, and in his twenty-second year received further instruction +from Emanuel Bach; he soon enjoyed great fame as an executant. +Tomaschek, himself a pianist of note, thus speaks of him in his +autobiography:-- + +"There was, in fact, something magical about the way in which Dussek, +with all his charming grace of manner, through his wonderful touch, +extorted from the instrument delicious and at the same time emphatic +tones. His fingers were like a company of ten singers, endowed with +equal executive powers, and able to produce with the utmost perfection +whatever their director could require. I never saw the Prague public +so enchanted as they were on this occasion by Dussek's splendid +playing. His fine declamatory style, especially in _cantabile_ +phrases, stands as the ideal for every artistic performance--something +which no other pianist has since reached." + +The above quotation refers to a concert given at Prague in 1804. + +There is, unfortunately, great confusion in the opus numbers of +Dussek's works; and, moreover, it is difficult, if not impossible, to +give the dates either of composition or publication. Breitkopf & +Haertel have published more than fifty sonatas, but we shall only refer +to some of the more important ones. Dussek, like all the prominent +composers of his time, not even excepting Haydn and Mozart, wrote +music on a practical, rather than on a poetical basis; one of the +letters given above acknowledges this in very frank terms. But to +Dussek's credit be it said, his least valuable works are masterpieces +as compared with those which the sonata-makers, Steibelt, Cramer, and +others, fabricated by the hundred. In Dussek we find great charm and +refinement, while the writing for the instrument is often highly +attractive; but the art of developing themes was certainly not his +strong point. That he was at times careless or indifferent may be seen +from such a bar as the following (Op. 47, No. 1, Litolff ed.; Adagio, +bar 9):-- + +[Music illustration] + +The bar before the return of the principal theme in the Allegro of the +sonata in E flat (Op. 75) furnishes another instance. Again, in the +Allegro of the sonata in A flat, known as "Le Retour a Paris," there +is a passage (commencing fifteen bars before the end of the exposition +section) which, with slight alteration, might have been materially +improved. + +Of the early sonatas, Op. 10, No. 2, in G minor, is an interesting +work. It consists of two well-contrasted movements: an Adagio in +binary, and a Vivace in sonata form. Of the Presto of Op. 10, No. 3, +Professor Prout, in his interesting article, _Dussek's Pianoforte +Sonatas_,[87] says: "Both the first and second principal subjects +remind us irresistibly of that composer (Mendelssohn), while the +phrase at the conclusion of the first part, repeated at the end of the +movement, is almost identical with a well-known passage in the first +movement of the 'Scotch Symphony.' Is the coincidence accidental, or +did Mendelssohn know the sonata, and was he unconsciously influenced +by it?" + +In his three last sonatas (Op. 70, 75, and 77), Dussek rises to a very +high level; he was undoubtedly influenced by the earnestness of +Beethoven, the chivalric spirit of Weber, and the poetry of Schubert. +A new era had set in. These three composers were neither the _fools_ +of princes nor the servants of the public: they were in the world, yet +not of it. They looked upon their art as a sacred thing; and most +probably the shallowness of much of the music produced in such +abundance towards the close of the eighteenth century spurred them on +to higher efforts. Dussek had lived an irregular, aimless sort of +life; he had wandered from one country to another, and had acquired +the ephemeral fame of the _virtuoso_. Perhaps he was a disappointed +man; there is a tinge of sadness about these last sonatas which +supports such a view. Perhaps a feeling that his life was ebbing away +made him serious: his music now shows no trifling. Explain it as you +may, Dussek's three last contributions to sonata literature rank +amongst the best of his day; and the indifference now shown to +them--so far, at least, as the concert platform is concerned--is proof +of ignorance, or bad taste. We say ignorance, because the rising +generation has few, if any, opportunities of hearing this composer's +music. It is eighteen years since his Op. 70 was given at the Popular +Concerts; while twenty-three and twenty-nine years have passed since +Op. 75 and Op. 77 have been played there. + +The sonata in A flat, entitled "Le Retour a Paris," is known in +England as "Plus Ultra," and in an old edition it is dedicated to "Non +plus Ultra." The latter was meant for Woelfl, a famous pianist and +contemporary. His music is now forgotten, and his name is principally +remembered in connection with Beethoven; like the latter, his talent +for improvisation was great. The late J.W. Davidson, in his long and +interesting preface to Brewer & Co.'s edition of Dussek's A flat +sonata, leads us to believe that Dussek's publisher, and not the +composer himself, was responsible for the change of title to "Plus +Ultra." The opus number, too, was changed from 70 to 71. The following +story is also told by Davidson in a preface contributed by him to the +Brewer edition of the Woelfl sonata:--"Who will play it?" asked the +publisher (Well), looking through the music of the composer. "I vill +it blay," replied Woelfl. "Yes, but you won't buy the copies. No one +but yourself or Dussek can play the Allegro, and I doubt if either of +you can play the variations." Woelfl, however, sitting down before an +old harpsichord, convinced the publisher of his error. "What shall we +call it?" asked Well. "Call it 'Ne plus Ultra,'" said Woelfl, rubbing +his hands with joy, and adding, "Now shall we see if Herr von Esch +vill more blay, or Herr Bomdembo make de variation." + +Dussek's "Plus Ultra" (Op. 70) is justly admired; the music is fine, +and in the matter of technique, setting aside a few sensational +passages[88] in Woelfl's sonata, which his very long fingers enabled +him to execute with comparative ease, far surpassed the earlier work. +It must appear strange to many musicians who do not possess a copy of +Woelfl's sonata, that, in any mention of the rivalry between the two +composers, no reference is made to Woelfl's sonata beyond the title. +An examination of the latter, however, would soon solve the mystery. +The plain fact is this: both the music and even the technique are now +absolutely uninteresting. The sonata, in the key of F major, commences +with a brief introductory Adagio, followed by a long, tedious Allegro +abounding in passages of thirds. A brief Andante comes between this +Allegro and the Finale, consisting of flimsy variations on the popular +melody "Life let us Cherish." In a book of small compass such as the +present one, we only wish to dwell upon matters of interest. For some +particular purpose Woelfl's sonatas might possibly prove of importance +and even interest; but not here. The "Non plus Ultra," so far as we +are concerned, may serve to remind us that Woelfl once lived; while +the rest of his music, like some incidents in his life, may be +consigned to oblivion. We cannot say that we have read all his +sonatas, but enough of them, we believe, to judge, generally, of their +contents. + +Professor Macfarren's opinion of Dussek, as composer for the +pianoforte, in the _Imperial Dictionary of Biography_, is so +excellent, that we cannot perhaps do better than quote his words:-- + +"The immense amount of Dussek's compositions for the pianoforte have +by no means equal merit; many of them were written for the mere object +of sale, still more for the purpose of tuition, and some with the +design of executive display. Of those which were produced, however, in +the true spirit of art, expressing the composer's feelings in his own +unrestrained ideas, there exist quite enough to stamp him one of the +first composers for his instrument; and while these are indispensable +in the complete library of the pianist, they are above value to the +student in the development of his mechanism and the formation of his +style. A strong characteristic of the composer is his almost redundant +profusion of ideas;[89] but his rich fecundity of invention is greatly +counterbalanced by diffuseness of design, resulting from the want of +that power of condensation by means of which greater interest is often +given to less beautiful matter." + +And then, again, in an analysis of a Dussek Quintet, he remarks that +in that composer's works we may trace "not only the origin of many of +the most beautiful effects with which later writers have been +accredited, but some of the identical ideas by which these very +writers have made their way into popularity." + + +III. Friedrich Wilhelm Rust + +During the years 1744-45 a young man named Johann Ludwig Anton Rust +went to Leipzig to study jurisprudence and philosophy. But he was also +musical, and played the violin at performances given under the +direction of J.S. Bach. On returning to his home at Woerlitz, Rust +tried to inspire those around him with enthusiasm for the music of +Bach. With his younger brother, Friedrich Wilhelm, he was, at any +rate, successful; for the latter, already at the age of thirteen, was +able to play by heart the whole of the "Well-tempered Clavier." Later +on, young Friedrich went to Halle to study law, and there not only +made the acquaintance of Friedemann Bach, but, in return for attending +to the correspondence of that gifted musician, he received from him +instruction in composition, organ and clavier playing. Afterwards, at +Potsdam, he continued his clavier studies under Emanuel Bach. Surely a +finer training never fell to the lot of any pupil. Schumann recommends +young musicians to make Bach their daily bread; and of that, Rust must +have had full weight. But the list of his teachers is not yet +exhausted; he went to Italy in 1765, and studied the violin under +Tartini. Rust composed operas, cantatas, concertos, and sonatas for +violin,[90] and for pianoforte; the last-named, of which he wrote +eight, now concern us. + +The earliest, entitled "Sonata Erotica," was composed in 1775; this +work, however, was not published until the year 1888 (edited by his +grandson, Dr. Wilhelm Rust,[91] late cantor of St. Thomas'). It is the +first of a series of works extraordinary in many ways--in form, +subject-matter, developments, and technique. With regard to the +last-named, there is something to say, and it had better be said at +once. Dr. E. Prieger, in his interesting pamphlet, _F.W. Rust: Ein +Vorgaenger Beethovens_, remarks as follows:--"While the grandson, full +of enthusiasm, threw his whole soul into the creations of his +ancestor, he gave a reflection, in his edition, of the pictures which +had been vividly formed in his mind." To accomplish this he has +strengthened the writing, and, in some cases, _modernised_ it. Dr. +Prieger, who has seen some, if not all of the autographs, has assured +us that "these additions only concern the exterior, and do not affect +the fundamental, character of the work." This statement is, to a +certain extent, satisfactory, and we receive it thankfully. But a +great deal of the writing is far ahead of the age in which it was +written; it reminds one now of Weber, now of Schumann. Why, one may +ask, did not the editor indicate the additions in smaller notes? Then +it would have been possible to see exactly what the elder Rust had +written, and what the younger Rust had added. At present one can only +marvel at some of the writing, and long to know how much of it really +belongs to the composer. It appears that Rust, as editor of his +grandfather's work, had some intention of describing his editions, +etc., but death, which frequently prevents the best intentioned plans, +intervened. + +The "Sonata Erotica" is noticeable, generally, for its charm, poetry, +and spontaneity. The first movement, an Allegro moderato, is in +sonata-form. The second, in the key of the relative minor, entitled +Fantasie, has in it more of the spirit of Beethoven than of Emanuel +Bach. The Finale is in rondo form; the middle section consists of a +playful Duettino, containing free imitations. + +The next sonata (1777), in D flat, opens with a graceful Allegretto, +and closes with a Tempo di Minuetto, which, for the most part, points +backward rather than forward. The slow movement, Adagio sostenuto, is, +however, of a higher order than either of these. It has Beethovenish +breadth and dignity, yet lacks the power of the Bonn master: those +magic touches by which the latter makes us feel his genius, and +secures gradation of interest up to the very close of a movement. This +Adagio, however, were the date of its composition unknown, might pass +for a very clever imitation of Beethoven's style. + +In 1784, Rust wrote two sonatas, one in F sharp minor, the other in B +flat minor. The latter consists of three movements, and the music, +especially in the Adagio in E flat minor, bears traces of the great +Bach; still there are passages which sound more modern even in this +very Adagio, which points so clearly to him as the source of +inspiration. The modern element, however, admits of explanation, for +Haydn and Mozart, at the time in which the sonata was written, had +appeared in the musical firmament. But in the works we are about to +mention, the composer suggests Beethoven, Weber, and even Schumann. In +writing about Clementi, we were compelled frequently, and at the risk +of wearying our readers, to call attention to foreshadowings of both +the letter and spirit of Beethoven. The cases of Clementi and Rust, +however, are not quite parallel. With the former it was mere +foreshadowing; with exception of a few passages in which there was +note resemblance between the two composers, the music still bore +traces of Clementi's mode of thought and style of writing. But with +Rust, there are moments in which it is really difficult to believe +that the music belongs to a pre-Beethoven period. + +The sonata[92] in D minor (1788) opens with a vigorous yet dignified +Allegro; the graceful Adagio is of eighteenth century type; it is in +the key of the relative major, but closes on the dominant chord of D +minor, leading without break to a final Allegro, full of interesting +details. The movement concludes with an impressive _poco adagio_ coda, +in which Rust makes use of the principal theme of the opening +movement. We will venture on one quotation, although a few bars, +separated from the context, may convey only a feeble impression-- + +[Music illustration] + +The sonata in D major, composed six years later, opens with an +interesting Allegro. The second movement, in B minor, bears the +superscription "Wehklage" (Lamentation). Rust's eldest son, a talented +youth, who was studying at Halle University, was drowned in the river +Saale, 23rd March 1794. Matthisson, the "Adelaide" poet, sent to the +disconsolate father a poem entitled "Todtenkranz fuer ein Kind," to +which Rust sketched music, and on that sketch is based this pathetic +movement, which sounds like some tone-poem of the nineteenth century. +Here is the impressive coda:-- + +[Music illustration] + +There follows a dainty, old-fashioned Minuet, and a curious movement +entitled "Schwermuth und Frohsinn" (Melancholy and Mirth);[93] though +after the "Wehklage" these make little impression. + +During four years (1792-96), Rust was occupied with a sonata in C +minor and major. The work is a remarkable one. It opens with an +energetic Recitativo in C minor, interrupted for a few bars by an +Arioso Adagio in C major. Then comes a Lento in six-four time based on +the celebrated Marlbrook song, a dignified movement containing, among +other canonic imitations, one in the ninth. It leads by means of a +_stringendo_ bar to a brilliant Allegro con brio, a movement of which +both the music and the technique remind one of Beethoven's bravoura +style. A second section of the sonata commences with the recitative +phrase of the opening of the work, only in A minor. This leads to a +highly characteristic Andante, which Dr. Rust, the editor, in a +preface to the published sonata, likens to the "mighty procession" in +Lenau's _Faust_. The Finale consists of an animated Allegro, with a +clever fugato by way of episode; there is still an Allegro maestoso, +which, except for its length and the fact that it contains a middle +section, Cantabile e religioso, we should call a long coda. The whole, +evidently programme-music, is a sonata worked out somewhat on Kuhnau +lines. + +Now, was Beethoven acquainted with Rust's music? Dr. Prieger, in the +pamphlet mentioned above, remarks as follows:--"During the years +1807-27 Wilhelm Karl Rust (_b._ 1787, _d._ 1855), the youngest son of +our master, was in Vienna, and had the good fortune to make the +acquaintance of Beethoven, who was pleased with his playing, and +recommended him as teacher. Among Rust's lady pupils were Baroness +Dorothea Ertmann and Maximiliane Brentano, both of whom belonged to +Beethoven's most intimate circle of friends, and had been honoured by +having works dedicated to them. The younger Rust was gifted with an +extraordinary memory, and therefore it seems more than probable that +he occasionally performed some of his father's works in that circle. +On the other hand, we have Beethoven's energetic nature holding aloof +from anything which might influence his own individuality." + +There, in a few words, is the answer to our question. And it is about +the only one we can ever hope to obtain. Rust was altogether a +remarkable phenomenon, a musician born, as it were, out of due time. +If Beethoven, as seems quite possible, was acquainted with his music, +then Rust exerted an influence over the master quite equal to that of +Clementi. It almost seems as if we ought to say, greater. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN + + +Bach's forty-eight Preludes and Fugues and Beethoven's thirty-two +Sonatas tower above all other works written for the pianoforte; they +were aptly described by the late Dr. Hans v. Buelow, the one as the +Old, the other as the New Testament of musical literature. Each fresh +study of them reveals new points of interest, new beauties; they are +rich mines which it is impossible to exhaust. Bach seemed to have +revealed all the possibilities of fugue-form; and the history of the +last seventy years almost leads one to imagine that Beethoven was the +last of the great sonata writers. To this matter, however, we will +presently return. In speaking of the various composers from Kuhnau +onwards, we have tried to show the special, also the earliest, +influences acting on them; and we shall still pursue the same course +with regard to Beethoven. When he went to Vienna in 1792 he found +himself in the very centre of the musical world. Haydn, though past +sixty years of age, was at the zenith of his fame; and Beethoven, for +a time, studied under him. Mozart had died in the previous year, so +his name was still in everybody's mouth. The early works of Beethoven +give strong evidence of the influence exerted over him by these two +composers. Then Prince Lichnowsky, the friend and pupil of Mozart, and +Baron van Swieten, the patron and friend of both Haydn and Mozart, +were among the earliest to take notice of the rising genius and to +invite him to their musical _matinees_ and _soirees_; and one can +easily guess what kind of music was performed on those occasions. But +the little story of Beethoven remaining at van Swieten's house, after +the guests had departed, in order to "send his host to bed with half a +dozen of Bach's Fugues by way of _Abendsegen_" reminds us of another +strong, and still earlier, influence. At Bonn, under the guidance of +his master, Christian Gottlob Neefe, Beethoven was so well-grounded in +the "Well-tempered Clavier," that already, at the age of twelve, he +could play nearly the whole of it. But, if we are not mistaken, he +also made early acquaintanceship with the sonatas of Emanuel Bach. For +in 1773 Neefe published "Zwoelf Klavier-Sonaten," which were dedicated +to the composer just named. In the preface he says: "Since the period +in which you, dearest Herr Capellmeister, presented to the public your +masterly sonatas, worked out, too, with true taste, scarcely anything +of a characteristic nature has appeared for this instrument.[94] Most +composers have been occupied in writing Symphonies, Trios, Quartets, +etc. And if now and then they have turned their attention to the +clavier, the greater number of the pieces have been provided with an +accompaniment, often of an extremely arbitrary kind, for the violin; +so that they are as suitable for any other instrument as for the +clavier." Then, later on, Neefe acknowledges how much instruction and +how much pleasure he has received from the theoretical and practical +works of E. Bach (we seem to be reading over again the terms in which +Haydn expressed himself towards Bach). May we, then, not conclude that +young Beethoven's attention was attracted to these "masterly sonatas," +and also to those of his teacher Neefe? This is scarcely the moment to +describe the Neefe sonatas.[95] In connection, however, with +Beethoven, one or two points must be noticed. In the third of the +three sonatas which Beethoven composed at the age of eleven, the last +movement is entitled: Scherzando allegro ma non troppo, and twice in +Neefe do we come across the heading, Allegro e scherzando (first set, +No. 5, last movement; and second set, No. 1, also last movement). +Then, again, No. 2 of the second set opens with a brief introductory +Adagio, one, by the way, to some extent connected with the Allegro +which follows. In the 2nd of the above-mentioned Beethoven sonatas +(the one in F minor) there is also a slow introduction; the young +master, no mere imitator, anticipates his own "Sonate Pathetique," and +repeats it in the body of the Allegro movement. Lastly, no one, we +believe, can compare the Neefe variations with those of Beethoven in +the 3rd sonata (in A) without coming to the conclusion that the pupil +had diligently studied his teacher's compositions, which, we may add, +were thoroughly sound, full of pleasing _cantabile_ writing, and, at +times, not lacking in boldness. Let us venture on one quotation of +only four bars from Sonata 1, in G, of the second set of six: it is +the opening of a short Adagio connecting the Allegro with an Allegro e +scherzando-- + +[Music illustration] + +The enharmonic modulation from the second to the third bar reminds one +of E. Bach, who was so fond of such changes; also of a similar one in +the "Pathetique." + +Beethoven wrote thirty-two sonatas, and in the following table the +opus number of each work is given, also the date of its publication; +some have a title, and the greater number a dedication:-- + +Sonata Published Dedicated to + +Op. 2 No. 1 (F minor) 1796. Haydn. + " No. 2 (A) " " + " No. 3 (C) " " +Op. 7 (E flat) 1797. Countess Babette Keglevics. +Op. 10 No. 1 (C minor) 1798. Countess Browne. + " No. 2 (F) " " + " No. 3 (D) " " +Op. 13 (C minor, "Sonate + Pathetique") 1799. Prince Charles Lichnowsky. +Op. 14 No. 1 (E) " Baroness Braun. + " No. 2 (G) " " +Op. 22 (B flat) 1802. Count Browne. +Op. 26 (A flat) " Prince Charles Lichnowsky. +Op. 27 No. 1 (E flat) " Princess Liechtenstein. + " No. 2 (C sharp minor) " Countess Giulietta Guicciardi. +Op. 28 (D) " Joseph de Sonnenfels. +Op. 31 No. 1 (G) 1803. + " No. 2 (D minor) " + " No. 3 (E flat) 1804. +Op. 49 No. 1 (G minor) 1805. + " No. 2 (G) " +Op. 53 (C) " Count Waldstein. +Op. 54 (F) 1806. +Op. 57 (F minor) 1807. Count Brunswick. +Op. 78 (F sharp) 1810. Countess Theresa of Brunswick. +Op. 79 (G) " +Op. 81A (E flat; "Das Lebewohl, + die Abwesenheit, + das Wiedersehn") 1811. Archduke Rudolph. +Op. 90 (E minor) 1815. Count Moritz Lichnowsky. +Op. 101 (A) 1817. Baroness Dorothea Ertmann. +Op. 106 (B flat) 1819. Archduke Rudolph. +Op. 109 (E) 1821. Maximiliane Brentano. +Op. 110 (A flat) 1822. +Op. 111 (C minor) 1823. Archduke Rudolph. + +The autograph of the last sonata does not bear any dedication, but, +from a letter of Beethoven (1st June, 1823) to the Archduke, it is +evident that it was intended for the latter.[96] + +The fanciful name of "Moonlight" to Op. 27 (No. 2), the appropriate +publisher's title of Op. 57, and the poetical superscriptions of Op. +81A, have, without doubt, helped those sonatas towards their +popularity. It does not always happen that the most popular works of a +man are his best; but these in question justly rank among Beethoven's +finest productions. The last five sonatas are wonderful tone-poems; +yet, with the exception, perhaps, of Op. 110, in A flat, as regards +perfection of form and unity of conception, not one equals Op. 27 (No. +2), Op. 31 (No. 2), and Op. 57. Apart from any aesthetic +considerations, the digital difficulties of the last five sonatas +prevent their becoming common property. The brilliant technique of Op. +53 has proved a special attraction to pianists, and it has therefore +become widely known. With this one sonata Beethoven proved his +superiority, even in the matter of virtuosity, over the best pianists +of his day. + +In order to be able to enter fully into the spirit of the music of +great composers, it is necessary to know the history of their lives. +Beethoven's is fairly well known. But it may be worth while to refer, +briefly, to the principal men and women to whom the master dedicated +his pianoforte sonatas. + +Of the thirty-two, as will be seen from the above table, eight have no +dedication. + +In the year 1792 Beethoven left Bonn and went to Vienna. There he +studied counterpoint under Haydn, yet the lessons proved +unsatisfactory. But the fame and influence of the veteran master no +doubt prompted the young artist to dedicate to him the three sonatas, +Op. 2. The title-page of the oldest Vienna edition runs thus:-- + +Trois Sonates pour le Clavecin Piano-forte composees +et dediees +A Mr. Joseph Haydn Docteur en musique par +Louis van Beethoven. + +There was perhaps more of sarcasm than respect in the "Docteur en +musique"; Beethoven is related to have said that he had taken some +lessons from Haydn, but had never learnt anything from him. +Nevertheless he paid heed to his teacher's music. There are in the +sonatas one or two reminiscences of Haydn, which seem to us curious +enough to merit quotation. One occurs in the sonata in C minor (Op. +10, No. 1). We give the passage (transposed) from Haydn, and the one +from Beethoven:-- + +[Music illustration: "Letter V," Pohl, No. 58.[97] HAYDN.] + +[Music illustration: Op. 10, No. 1. BEETHOVEN.] + +And another-- + +[Music illustration: "In Native Worth" (_Creation_). HAYDN.] + +[Music illustration: Op. 31, No. 1. BEETHOVEN.] + +While speaking of reminiscences, a curious one may be mentioned. The +theme of the slow movement of Beethoven's sonata in A (Op. 2, No. 2) +strongly resembles the theme of the slow movement of his own Trio in B +flat (Op. 97):-- + +[Music illustration: Op. 2, No. 2.] + +[Music illustration: Trio, Op. 97. _Andante._] + +In Op. 111, again, the second subject of the Allegro recalls a phrase +in the Presto of the Sonata in C sharp minor. + +Haydn, as the most illustrious composer of that day, stands first; but +the next name worthy of mention is Count Waldstein, a young nobleman +who had been a guide, philosopher, and friend to Beethoven during the +Bonn days. The well-known entry in the young musician's Album just +before his departure for Vienna shows in what high esteem he was held +by Waldstein. Count Ferdinand Waldstein died in 1823. + +Prince Charles Lichnowsky was one of the composer's earliest patrons +after the latter had settled in Vienna. The Prince, descended from an +old Polish family, was born in 1758, and, consequently, was, by twelve +years, Beethoven's senior. He lived mostly in Vienna. In 1789 he +invited Mozart to accompany him to Berlin; and the King's proposal to +name the latter his capellmeister is supposed to have been suggested +by the Prince. Lichnowsky was also a pupil of Mozart's. His wife, +Princess of Thun, was famous for her beauty, her kindly disposition, +and for her skill as a musician. Beethoven had not been twelve months +in Vienna when he was offered rooms in the Prince's house. It was +there that the pianoforte sonatas Op. 2 were first played by their +author in presence of Haydn. Beethoven remained in this house until +1800. In 1799 the "Sonate Pathetique" was dedicated to the Prince, and +in the following year the latter settled on him a yearly pension of +600 florins. In the year 1806 there was a rupture between the two +friends. At the time of the battle of Jena, Beethoven was at the seat +of Prince Lichnowsky at Troppau, in Silesia, where some French +officers were quartered. The independent artist refused to play to +them, and when the Prince pressed the request, Beethoven got angry, +started the same evening for Vienna, and,--anger still burning in his +breast,--on his arrival home, he shattered a bust of his patron. The +composer's refusal to play to the French officers was grounded on his +hatred to Napoleon, who had just won the battle of Jena. Beethoven, +however, became reconciled with the Prince before the death of the +latter in 1814. It should be mentioned that Beethoven's first +published work, the three pianoforte Trios, was dedicated to Prince +Lichnowsky. + +The Archduke Rudolph (1788-1831) was one of the master's warmest +friends, and one of his most devoted admirers. His uncle was Max +Franz, Elector of Cologne, to whose chapel both Beethoven and his +father had belonged. The Archduke was the son of Leopold of Tuscany +and Maria Louisa of Spain; his aunt was Marie Antoinette, and his +grandmother the famous Maria Theresa. He is supposed to have made the +acquaintance of Beethoven during the winter of 1803-4, and then to +have become his pupil. The pianoforte part of the Triple Concerto (Op. +58), commenced in 1804, and published in 1807, is said to have been +written for him. + +Concerning the Countess Giulietta Guicciardi, for whom Beethoven +entertained a hopeless passion, and the Countess Theresa of Brunswick, +to whom he is said to have been secretly engaged for some years, there +is no necessity to enter into detail. Everyone has probably heard of +the famous love-letters, and of the discussion as to which of these +two they were addressed. Maximiliane Brentano was a niece of the +famous Bettine Brentano. + +The Baroness Ertmann was an excellent performer on the pianoforte, and +is said to have been unrivalled as an interpreter of Beethoven's +music. Mendelssohn met her at Rome in 1831, and in a letter describes +her playing of the C sharp minor and D minor Sonatas. + +We must now turn to the sonatas, yet neither for the purpose of +analysis nor of admiration. We shall briefly discuss how far Beethoven +worked on the lines established by his predecessors, and how far he +modified them. And, naturally, the question of music on a poetic basis +will be touched upon. + +The number of movements of which Beethoven's sonatas consist varies +considerably: some have two, some three, others four. The three very +early sonatas dedicated to Maximilian, Archbishop of Cologne, have +only three movements (the second opens with a brief Larghetto, which, +however, really forms part of the first movement). But the four +Sonatas Op. 2 (Nos. 1, 2 and 3) and Op. 7 all have four movements--an +Allegro, a slow movement, a Scherzo or Minuet and Trio, and a final +Allegro or Rondo. There are examples in later sonatas of similar +grouping; but it is an undeniable fact that in some of his greatest +sonatas--Op. 31 (No. 2), Op. 27 (No. 2), Op. 53, Op. 57--he reverts to +the three-movement sonata so faithfully adhered to by Emanuel Bach, +Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi. And there is evidence that the omission +of the Minuet or Scherzo in Op. 10 (Nos. 1 and 2), in Op. 13, and in +others named above, was the result of reflection and not caprice. + +Among sketches for the Sonatas, Op. 10, Beethoven writes: "Zu den +neuen Sonaten ganz kuerze Menuetten" (to the new sonatas quite short +Minuets); and also, a little further on, "Die Menuetten zu den Sonaten +ins kuenftige nicht laenger als von 16 bis 24 Takte" (in future the +Minuets to the sonatas not to exceed from 16 to 24 bars). Then, again, +there are two sketches for a movement of the Minuet or Scherzo kind, +which were almost certainly intended for the Sonata No. 1 in C minor. +One of these was afterwards completed, and has been published in the +Supplement to Breitkopf & Haertel's edition of Beethoven's works. Both +these were finally rejected, yet Beethoven made still another attempt. +There is a sketch for an "Intermezzo zur Sonate aus C moll," and at +the end of the music the composer writes: "durchaus so ohne Trio, nur +ein Stueck" (exactly thus without Trio, only one piece). So the Minuets +were to be short; then the limit of length is prescribed; and, lastly, +an Intermezzo _without_ Trio is planned. The composer proposed, but +his [Greek: daimon] disposed; the Sonata in C minor finally appeared +in print with only an Adagio between the two quick movements. + +Schindler, in reference to the proposal made by Hoffmeister to +Beethoven to edit a new edition of his pianoforte works, tells us that +had that project been carried out, the master, in order to get a +nearer approach to unity, would have reduced some of his earlier +sonatas from four movements to three. And he adds: "He would most +certainly have cut out the Scherzo Allegro from the highly pathetic +sonata for Pianoforte and Violin (Op. 30, No. 2; the first and third +have only three movements), a movement in complete opposition to the +character of the whole. He always objected to this movement, and, for +the reason just assigned, advised that it should be omitted. Had the +scheme been carried out, a small number of Scherzos, Allegros and +Menuets would have been 'dismissed.' In our circle, however, +objections were raised against this proposal; for among these +Scherzos, etc., each of us had his favourite, and did not like the +idea of its being removed from the place which it had long occupied. +The master, however, pointed to the three-movement sonatas--Op. 10 in +C minor, Op. 13, Op. 14, Op. 31 (Nos. 1 and 2), Op. 57, and others. +The last sonatas--Op. 106 and Op. 110--which contain more than three +movements must be judged in quite a different manner" (_Life of +Beethoven_, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 215-16). + +Schindler's statements have sometimes been called in question; the +above, however, bears on it the stamp of truth. + +But how came it to pass that Beethoven's first four sonatas--Op. 2 +(Nos. 1, 2, and 3) and Op. 7--have four movements? That is a question +easier to ask than to answer. Schindler's remark that he followed +custom is difficult to understand. In our introductory chapter we +spoke of twenty sonatas containing four movements written probably +about the middle of the eighteenth century, also of one of Wagenseil's +for clavier with violin accompaniment; yet among the known sonatas of +that period, these form a minority. Woelfl's Sonata in B flat (Op. 15) +has four movements: Allegro, Andante, Scherzo Allegro, and Finale +(theme and variations), but that work appeared shortly after +Beethoven's Op. 2. + +Even Haydn, who is said to have introduced the Minuet into the +Symphony, remained faithful to the three-movement form of sonata. +Beethoven, however, wrote six sonatas consisting of two movements. +This change in the direction of simplicity is striking, for in his +quartets the composer became more and more complex. It seems as if he +were merely intent on exhibiting strong contrast of mood: agitation +and repose, or fierce passion followed by heavenly calm; we are +referring especially to the Sonata in E minor (Op. 90) and to the one +in C minor (Op. 111). The two sonatas of Op. 49--really sonatinas +written for educational purposes--may be dismissed; also Op. 54, in +the composition of which the head rather than the heart of the master +was engaged. Even Op. 78, in F sharp, in spite of the Countess of +Brunswick, to whom it was dedicated, does not seem the outcome of +strong emotion; and therefore we do not take it now into +consideration. The two sonatas (Op. 90 and 111) mentioned above are +strong tone-poems, and the master having apparently said all that he +had to say, stopped. The story, already related, about having no time +to complete Op. 111 must not be taken seriously. Nevertheless, we do +not for one moment imagine that Beethoven was thus reducing the number +of movements, in accordance with some preconceived scheme. + +The D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) and the F minor (Op. 57) sonatas, not to +speak of others, form the apotheosis of the sonata in three movements +as established, though not invented, by Emanuel Bach. To say that +Beethoven was the perfecter of the sonata is true, but it is scarcely +the whole truth. The E minor appears a first great step in the process +of dissolution; the C minor, a second. They were great steps, because +they were those of a very great man. The experiments as to number of +movements of which we spoke in our introductory chapter were +interesting; and with regard to the number, and also the position of +the Minuet before or after the slow movement, those experiments +acquired additional interest, inasmuch as Beethoven seems for a time +to have been affected by them. The two works named are, however, of +the highest importance; in them, if we are not mistaken, are to be +found the first signs of the disappearance, as it were, of the sonata +of three movements, and, perhaps, of the sonata itself, into the +"imperceptible." After Op. 90 Beethoven wrote sonatas in four +movements, but that does not affect the argument, neither does the +fact, that after Beethoven are to be found several remarkable sonatas +with the same number. The process of evolution of the sonata was +gradual; so also will be that of its dissolution. The title of +"sonata" given by Beethoven to his Op. 90 and Op. 111 does not affect +the music one jot; under any other name it would sound as well. You +might call the "Choral Symphony" a Divertimento, and the title would +be considered inappropriate; or a Polonaise, and the name would be +scouted as ridiculous; but the music would still remain great and +glorious. Yet taking into consideration the meaning of the term +"sonata" as understood by Emanuel Bach, Haydn, and Beethoven himself, +it can scarcely be the right one for these tone-poems in two sections. +The sonata-form of the first movement in each case may have suggested +the title. The two early sonatas Op. 27 (Nos. 1 and 2) are both styled +sonata, but with the addition _quasi una fantasia_. And in neither +case was the first movement in sonata-form; the one in E flat does not +even contain such a movement. There are other signs of the process of +disintegration in the later sonatas. Op. 109, in E, is peculiar as +regards the form of the movements of which it is composed; and the +fugues of Op. 101, 106, and 109--a return, by the way, to the +past--show at least an unsettled state of mind. The sonata in A flat +(Op. 110) was probably the germ whence sprang the sonata in B minor of +Liszt--a work of which we shall soon have to speak. + +Beethoven departed from the custom of his predecessors Haydn and +Mozart, and the general practice of sonata-writers before him, in the +matter of tonality. In a movement in sonata-form the rule was for the +second subject to be in the dominant key in the exposition section, +and in the tonic in the recapitulation section, if the key of the +piece was major; but if minor, in the relative major or dominant minor +in the exposition, and in the tonic major or minor in the +recapitulation. Thus, if the key were C major, the second subject +would be first in G major, afterwards in C major; if the key were C +minor, first in E flat major, or G minor, afterwards in C minor or +major. In a minor movement the second subject is found more often in +the relative major than in the dominant minor. The first and third +movements of Beethoven's Sonata in D minor (Op. 31, No. 2) illustrate +the latter; in each case the second subject is in A minor. + +In major keys, besides that of the dominant, Beethoven chose the +mediant (E) in his sonata in C (Op. 53); and in the recapitulation it +occurs first in the sub-mediant (A), and only afterwards, in varied +form, in the orthodox tonic. Then in the B flat sonata (Op. 106) the +second subject occurs in the sub-mediant (G). In the last sonata in C +minor, the second subject is neither in the relative major, nor in the +dominant minor, but in the major key of the sub-mediant. Once again, +in the sonata in D major (Op. 10, No. 3) a second theme is introduced +in the key of the relative minor before the dominant section is +reached. With regard, indeed, to the number of themes and order of +keys, some other movements of the Beethoven sonatas show departures +from the orthodox rules. + +In the important matter of the repeat of the first section of a +movement in sonata-form, we find the master, for the most part, +adhering to the custom delivered unto him by his predecessors. And yet +there were two strong reasons why he might have been tempted to depart +from it. The repetition was a survival from the old dance movements in +binary form. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mozart not only repeated, but +introduced various kinds of ornaments, and even harmonic changes; and +they expected performers to do the same. Beethoven, however, allowed +no such licence--one, indeed, which in the hands of ordinary pianists +would be calculated to spoil rather than to improve the music. Part, +then, of the _raison d'etre_ of the repeat ceased to exist. But a +still stronger temptation to suppress it must have been the +_programme_ or _picture_ which Beethoven had in his mind when he +composed. The repeat, now become almost an empty form, must have +proved at times a fetter to his imagination. In many ways he was bold; +but in this matter strangely conservative. It was only in the sonata +in F minor, Op. 57, that he first ventured to omit the repeat. It is +not to be found in the opening movements of Op. 90 or Op. 110, yet in +his last sonata (Op. 111) the composer almost seems as if he wished to +atone for his previous sins of omission. He had evidently not settled +the question one way or the other; but the fact that in three of his +most poetical works he departed from custom, deserves note. Before his +time the repeat, like the laws of the Medes and Persians, seemed +irrevocably fixed. + +Beethoven added important introductions or codas, or even both, to +some of the movements of his sonatas. Codas are to be found in the +sonatas both of Haydn and Mozart, but not introductory movements; the +idea of the latter, however, did not originate with Beethoven. The +Grave which opens the "Pathetique" (Op. 13) does not merely throw the +listener into the right mood for the Allegro, but the opening phrase-- + +[Music illustration] + +is afterwards made use of in the development section-- + +[Music illustration] + +and, later on, it occurs in double augmentation. + +The _maestoso_ which ushers in the Allegro of the last sonata contains +foreshadowings which are better felt than explained. + +At times the codas of Haydn are interesting,--as, for example, the one +at the end of the first movement of his "Genziger" Sonata in E +flat,--yet they do not present the thematic material in any new or +striking light. With Beethoven it is different. In the Sonata in E +flat (Op. 7) not only is there contrapuntal working, but the principal +theme, just at the close, is, as it were, rounded off, completed. +Similar treatment may be seen in the first movement of the Sonata in D +(Op. 10, No. 3) (here the effect is intensified by contrary motion); +also in the Allegro of Op. 13, and other sonatas; the opening movement +of Op. 57 offers a striking illustration. + +The coda to the first movement of the "Waldstein" Sonata (Op. 53) is +on a most elaborate scale: it is almost as long as the development +section. In the latter, only fragments of the principal theme had been +worked, but in the coda it appears in complete form; fierce chords +seem to retard its progress, and a sinking, syncopated figure is +opposed to it, counteracting its rising, expanding nature. But it +works its way onward and upward, until, as if exhausted by the effort, +two descending scales lead to a quiet delivery of the second theme, +which had not been heard during the development section. Then +principal theme is given for the last time; it has overcome all +obstacles, and proclaims its victory in loud and powerful chords. The +Presto which closes the "Appassionata" (Op. 57) is one of Beethoven's +grandest codas, and all the more wonderful in that it follows a +movement of intense storm and stress. It is a coda, not merely to the +last movement, but to the whole work: it recalls the first, as well as +the third movement. The coda of the first movement of the C minor +Symphony displays similar intensity; there, however, we have an +expression of strong will; here, one of savage despair. The coda of +the first movement of the "Adieux" Sonata (Op. 81A) is another +memorable ending. The farewell notes sound sad in the opening Adagio, +while in the Allegro which follows they are again plaintive, or else +agitated. But in the coda, though still sad, they express a certain +tenderness, and the lingering of friends loth to part. Whatever the +special meaning of the music, the point which we here wish to +emphasise is, that the coda presents thematic material, already amply +developed, in quite a new light. + +In the matter of structure, Beethoven may be said, in the main, to +have followed Haydn and Mozart, but the effect of his music is, +nevertheless, very different. By overlapping of phrases; by very +moderate use of full closes; by making passages of transition +thoroughly thematic; by affinity and yet strong contrast between his +principal and second themes; by a more organic system of development; +by these and other means Beethoven surpassed his predecessors in power +of continuity, intensity, and unity. Then, again, his conception of +tonality was broader, and his harmonies were more varied; the fuller, +richer tone of the pianoforte of his day influenced the character of +his melodies; while the consequent progress of technique, as +exhibited in the works of some of his immediate predecessors and +contemporaries, enabled him to present his thoughts with greater +variety and more striking effect than was possible to either Haydn or +Mozart. + +Once more, Beethoven seemed to be elaborating some central thought; +Haydn and Mozart (with few exceptions), to be deftly weaving together +thoughts so as to obtain pleasing contrasts. In a similar manner, the +first and last movements of a sonata with Beethoven are of kindred +mood, though perhaps of different degree. Haydn and Mozart seem again +to be aiming at contrast; after a dignified opening Allegro and a +soft, graceful slow movement, they frequently wind up with a Finale of +which the chief characteristics are humour, playfulness, and +merriment, so that the listener may part company from them in a +pleasant frame of mind. + +We have been comparing the composer, and to his advantage, with Haydn +and Mozart. But the latter, however, sometimes come within near reach +of the former; and had the means at their disposal been similar, they +might possibly have equalled him. And, on the other hand, Beethoven's +inspiration was sometimes at a comparatively low ebb. Speaking +generally, however, the comparison, we believe, stands good. + +John Sebastian Bach devoted the greater part of his life to the art of +developing themes. His skill was wonderful, and so, too,--considering +the restrictions of the fugue-form,--was the imagination which he +displayed. In Beethoven the old master seems to live again, only under +new and more favourable conditions. Bach was brought up in the way of +the fugue, Beethoven of the sonata; and, it may be added, from these, +respectively, neither ever departed. From early youth onward, our +composer was a deep student of Bach, and assimilated some of his +predecessor's methods. One special feature of Beethoven's mode of +development was to take a few notes, or sometimes merely a figure, +from his theme, and to expand them into a phrase; as, for instance, in +the opening movement of the sonata in C minor (Op. 10, No. 1), in +which + +[Music illustration] + +forms the material for the closing phrase of the exposition section. +And the opening figure of the Finale of the same sonata is employed in +a similar manner at the commencement of the second section of the +movement. The Rondo of Op. 10, No. 3, furnishes good illustrations. +Now let us turn to Bach. In the 13th Fugue of the "Well-tempered +Clavier," the closing notes of the subject + +[Music illustration] + +are expanded, commencing at bar twenty-four, into a melodious phrase. +Also in the Prelude which follows (No. 14) + +[Music illustration] becomes [Music illustration] + +And some magnificent examples might be culled from the noble Preludes +in E flat and B flat minor (Book 1, Nos. 8 and 22). Again, another +special feature of Beethoven is the extension of a phrase by +repetition of the last clause,--a method too familiar to need +quotation. But let us give one illustration from Bach (Book 1, Fugue +6)-- + +[Music illustration] + +The 8th Prelude of Book I has been already mentioned to illustrate one +point, but there are other Beethovenisms in it. + +These comparisons must not be misunderstood; study of Bach +strengthened Beethoven's genius. We are not speaking of bald +imitation, not even of conscious imitation. He not only received the +message of the old master, as a child, but while he was a child; and +that no doubt helped him more than all the works of his predecessors +from Emanuel Bach upwards. It appealed to him strongly, because it was +based on nature. Bach's Fugues are living organisms; they are +expansions of some central thought. Development reveals the latent +power, the latent meaning of the themes; were it merely artificial, no +matter how skilful, it would be letter, not spirit. A clever +contrapuntist once conceived the bold idea of competing with Bach; he +wrote a series of Preludes and Fugues in all the keys, and displayed +wonderful skill in all the arts of counterpoint, canon, and fugue, +while in the matter of elaborate combinations he actually surpassed +Bach (we refer here only to the "Well-tempered Clavier"). But the +result was failure; the laborious work was wasted. Klengel had +mistaken the means for the end; he had worked as a mathematician, not +as a musician. Beethoven felt the true secret of Bach's greatness, and +his own genius taught him how to profit by it. Next to the necessity +of having something of importance to say, something which development +will enhance, the great lesson which Beethoven learnt from Bach was +unity in variety, the "highest law in all artistic creation," as Dr. +H. Riemann well remarks in his _Catechism of Musical AEsthetics_. + +Very many, probably the greater number, of Beethoven's sonatas rest +upon some poetic basis. Bombet, in his _Life of Haydn_, tells us how +that composer sometimes "imagined a little romance, which might +furnish him with musical sentiments and colours"; and the titles which +he gave to many of his symphonies certainly support that statement. At +other times the romance was already to hand, as in the case of the +32nd sonata, which was inspired by Haydn's dear friend, Frau von +Genziger. Of the poetic basis underlying some of Beethoven's sonatas +we have fair knowledge. Schindler, in the second edition of his +_Biography of Beethoven_, gives a few extracts from the Conversation +Books (Conversations Hefte), in which, on account of the master's +deafness, questions or answers were written down by those holding +conversation with him. Beethoven read, and, of course, replied _viva +voce_. We have not, it is true, his words, yet it is possible, at +times, to gather their purport from the context. For instance, there +is a conversation (or rather one half of it) recorded, which took +place in 1823 between the composer and Schindler. The latter says: "Do +you remember how I ventured a few years ago to play over to you the +Sonata Op. 14?--now everything is clear." The next entry runs +thus:--"I still feel the pain in my hand." A footnote explains that +after Schindler had played the opening section of the first movement, +Beethoven struck him somewhat roughly on the hand, pushed him from the +stool, and, placing himself on it, played and _explained_ the sonata. +Then Schindler says: "Two principles also in the middle section of +'Pathetique,'" as if the teacher had called upon him to give +illustrations from other sonatas of what he had explained concerning +Op. 14. But there is another record of a conversation which took place +between Beethoven and Schindler in the very month (March, 1827) in +which the composer died. "As you feel well to-day," says the disciple, +"we can continue our talk concerning the poetic basis ("wieder etwas +poetisiren") of the Trio in B flat." And after some remarks about +Aristotle's views of tragedy, and about the _Medea_ of Euripides, we +come across the following:--"But why _everywhere_ a superscription? In +many movements of the sonatas and symphonies, where feeling and one's +own imagination might dictate, such a heading would do harm. Music +ought not, and cannot, on all occasions give a definite direction to +feeling." Beethoven must have been alluding to some scheme of his for +indicating the nature of the contents of his works, and its boldness +seems to have astonished Schindler. It is possible that Beethoven, +conscious that his end was not far distant, carried away by the +enthusiasm of the moment, and desirous of giving all possible help to +the right understanding of his music, went far beyond the modest lines +by which he was guided when writing his "Pastoral" Symphony.[98] But +let us return to the conversation. + +"Good!" says Schindler, "then you will next set about writing an +_angry_ sonata?" Beethoven would seem to have declared even that +possible, for Schindler continues: "Oh! I have no doubt you will +accomplish that, and I rejoice in anticipation." And, then, as if +remembering that his master was an invalid, and that it would not be +right to excite him by prolonging the argument, he added, probably in +a half-jocular manner: "Your housekeeper must do her part, and first +put you into a towering passion." The above extracts show pretty +clearly that the poetic basis of his music was a subject which +Beethoven took pleasure in discussing with his friends. Beethoven's +back was, however, at once up if he found others pushing the matter +too far. Of this we will give an instance. In the year 1782 Dr. +Christian Mueller of Bremen organised concerts among the members of his +family, and, already at the beginning of the nineteenth century, +Beethoven's name figured on the programmes. A friend of the family, +Dr. Carl Iken, who took part in the musical proceedings, was an ardent +admirer of Beethoven's music, and he ventured to draw up explanations +and picture-programmes of the master's works; and these were read out +before the performances of the works in question. It seems, indeed, +that he was the first who felt impelled to give utterance to the +poetical feelings aroused by Beethoven's music. Dr. Iken's intentions +were of the best, and he may often have succeeded in throwing his +audience into the right mood. A poetical programme, if not too +fantastic, would often prove of better effect than the most skilful of +analyses. These "Iken" programmes so delighted Dr. Mueller that he sent +several of them to the master at Vienna. Beethoven read, but his anger +was stirred. He sent for Schindler, and dictated a letter to Dr. +Mueller. It was a friendly but energetic protest against such treatment +of his or anyone else's music. He drew attention to the erroneous +opinions to which it would give birth. _If explanations were needed_, +he declared, _let them be limited to the general characteristics of +the compositions_,[99] which it would not be difficult for cultured +musicians to furnish. Thus relates Schindler, and there seems no +reason to doubt his word. It is to be hoped that Dr. Mueller's letter +will one day be discovered. It was not the plan to which Beethoven +objected, but the manner in which it was carried out. + +Before quitting this subject, let us refer to one or two sonatas +concerning which there are well authenticated utterances of the +master. Schindler once asked him for the key to the Sonatas in D minor +(Op. 31, No. 2) and F minor ("Appassionata"), and Beethoven replied: +"Read Shakespeare's _Tempest_." The reply was laconic. Beethoven, no +doubt, could have furnished further details, but he abstained from so +doing, and in this he was perfectly justified. Then Schindler, growing +bold, ventured a further question: "What did the master intend to +express by the Largo of the Sonata in D (Op. 10, No. 3)?" And the +latter replied that everyone felt that this Largo described the +condition of the soul of a melancholy man, with various nuances of +light and shade. Beethoven's quiet, dignified utterances deserve +special attention in these days of programme-music. It is perhaps well +that he did not carry out his idea of furnishing the clue to the +poetic idea underlying his sonatas. It would, of course, have been +highly interesting to know the sources of his inspirations, but it is +terrible to think of the consequences which would have ensued. +Composers would have imitated him, and those lacking genius would have +made themselves and their art ridiculous. Berlioz went to extremes, +but his genius saved him; and Schumann, a true poet, though inclined +to superscriptions, kept within very reasonable lines. + +It was undoubtedly this poetic basis that so affected the form of +Beethoven's sonatas. The little romances by which Haydn spurred his +imagination were as children's tales compared with the deep thoughts, +the tragic events, and the masterpieces of Plato, Shakespeare, and +Goethe, which in Beethoven sharpened feeling and intensified thought. +The great sonatas of Beethoven are not mere cunningly-devised pieces, +not mere mood-painting; they are real, living dramas. + +In aiming at a higher organisation, he actually became a disorganiser. +"All things are growing or decaying," says Herbert Spencer. And in +Beethoven, so far as sonata and sonata-form are concerned, we seem, as +it were, to perceive the beginning of a period of decay. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +TWO CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN + + +I. Weber + +The two greatest contemporaries of Beethoven were, undoubtedly, Carl +Maria von Weber and Franz Schubert, and both wrote pianoforte sonatas. +Many other composers of that period--some of them possessed of +considerable talent--devoted themselves to that branch of musical +literature: Steibelt (1764-1823), Woelfl (1772-1812), J.B. Cramer +(1771-1858), J.N. Hummel (1778-1837), F.W.M. Kalkbrenner (1788-1849), +and others. Of these, the first three may be named sonata-makers. The +number which they produced is positively alarming; but it is some +consolation to think that a knowledge of their works is not of +essential importance. Steibelt's sonata in E flat (dedicated to Mme. +Buonaparte) was given once at the Popular Concerts in 1860, and +Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" sonata, several times between 1859 and 1873; +not one, however, of the 105 said to have been written by J.B. Cramer +has ever been heard there.[100] Most of these works justly merit the +oblivion into which they have fallen; some are quite second, or even +third rate; others were written merely as show pieces,[101] and are +now, of course, utterly out of date; and many were written for +educational purposes, or to suit popular taste (sonatas containing +variations on national and favourite airs, light rondos, etc.).[102] + +Cramer's studies have achieved world-wide reputation, and, as music, +they are often interesting. Also in his sonatas are to be found many +serious, well-written movements; musical taste has, however, so +changed since the rise of the romantic school, that it is doubtful +whether they would be now acceptable even as teaching pieces. + +Hummel's few sonatas have suffered at the hand of time; but, though +the music be mechanical, and therefore cold, there is much to interest +pianists in the two sonatas in F sharp minor (Op. 81) and D major (Op. +106). These were written after the composer's appointment at Weimar in +1820. His two early sonatas (Op. 13, in E flat, and Op. 20, dedicated +to Haydn) are not easy, yet not so difficult as the two just +mentioned. + +Steibelt and Woelfl both measured themselves with Beethoven in the art +of improvisation. The former was so ignominiously defeated that he +never ventured to meet his rival again. Woelfl, however, fared better. +With his long fingers he could accomplish wonders on the instrument; +but only so far as technique was concerned did he surpass Beethoven. + +Carl Maria v. Weber (1786-1826) in early youth studied the pianoforte +under two able court organists, J.P. Heuschkel[103] and J.N. +Kalcher,[104] both of whom he always held in grateful remembrance. +Under the direction of the latter he wrote some pianoforte sonatas, +which, according to the statement of his son and biographer, M.M. v. +Weber, were accidentally destroyed. Later on he studied under Vogler +and other masters. He became a famous pianist, and at Berlin, in 1812, +composed his 1st Sonata in C (Op. 24). No. 2, in A flat (Op. 39), was +commenced at Prague in 1814, and completed at Berlin in 1816. No. 3, +in D minor (Op. 49), was also written at Berlin, and in the same year. +No. 4, in E minor (Op. 70), occupied the composer between the years +1819 and 1822; it was written at Hosterwitz, near Dresden, during the +time he was at work on his opera _Euryanthe_. + +Weber and Schubert are both classed as contemporaries of Beethoven, +yet the latter was also their predecessor. Of Schubert we shall speak +presently. As regards Weber, it should be remembered that before he +had written his sonata in C (Op. 24) Beethoven had already published +"Les Adieux" (Op. 81A). The individuality of the composer of _Die +Freischuetz_ was, however, so strong, that we meet with no direct +traces of the influence of Beethoven in his pianoforte music. + +The Weber sonatas have been described by Dr. P. Spitta as "fantasias +in sonata-form," and this admirably expresses the character of these +works. Weber followed the custom of his day in writing sonatas, but it +seems as though he would have accomplished still greater things had he +given full rein to his imagination, and allowed subject-matter to +determine form. Like his great contemporary, of whom we have next to +speak, Weber, in spite of Vogler's teaching, was not a strong +contrapuntist; he relied chiefly upon melody, harmonic effects, and +strong contrasts. His romantic themes, his picturesque colouring, +enchant the ear, and the poetry and passion of his pianoforte music, +both intensified by grand technique, stir one's soul to its very +depths; yet the works are of the fantasia, rather than of the sonata +order. We have the letter rather than the true spirit of a sonata. +Place side by side Weber's Sonata in A flat (the greatest of the four) +and Beethoven's D minor or "Appassionata," and the difference will be +at once felt. In the latter there is a latent power which is wanting +in the former. It seems as if one could never sound the depths of +Beethoven's music: fresh study reveals new beauties, new details; the +relation of the parts to the whole (not only of the sections of a +movement, but of the movements _inter se_), and, therefore, the unity +of the whole becomes more evident. We must not be understood to mean +that Weber worked without plan, or even careful thought; but merely, +that the organic structure of his sonatas is far less closely knit +than in those of the Bonn master; there is contrast rather than +concatenation of ideas, outward show rather than inner substance. The +slow movements (with exception of those of the 1st and 2nd Sonatas, +which have somewhat of a dramatic character) and Finales are +satisfactory, _per se_, as music: the former have charm, refinement; +the latter, elegance, piquancy, brilliancy. Now, in these sonatas, +the opening movements seem like the commencement of some tragedy: in +No. 2 there is nobility mixed with pathos; in No. 3, fierce passion; +and in No. 4, still passion, albeit of a tenderer, more melancholy +kind. But in the Finales it is as though we had passed from the +tragedy of the stage to the melodrama, or frivolity of the +drawing-room; they offer, it is true, strong contrast, yet not of the +right sort, not that to which Beethoven has accustomed us. + +Throughout the four sonatas we detect the hand of a great pianist. In +the first, the element of virtuosity predominates; the first and, +especially, the last movement (the so-called Perpetuum mobile) are +show pieces, though of a high order. In the other sonatas the same +element exists, and yet it seldom obtrudes itself; the composer is +merely using, to the full, the rich means at his command to express +his luxuriant and poetical thoughts. In his writing for the instrument +Weber recalls Dussek,--the Dussek of the "Retour a Paris" and +"Invocation" sonatas. The earlier master was also a great pianist, and +filled with the spirit of romance; still he lacked the force and fire +of Weber. Then, again, Dussek, in early manhood, passed through the +classical crucible, whereas Weber was born and bred very much _a la +Bohemienne_; he developed from within rather than from without. It is +easier to criticise than to create. If we cannot place the sonatas of +Weber on the same high level as those of Beethoven, we may at least +say that they take very high rank; also, that in the hands of a great +pianist they are certain to produce a powerful impression. + + +II. Schubert + +The other great contemporary of Beethoven was Franz Schubert, born in +1797, the year in which the former published his Sonata in E flat (Op. +7). Then, again, Schubert's earliest pianoforte sonata was composed in +February 1815, while Beethoven's Sonata in A (Op. 101) was produced at +a concert only one year later (16th February 1816). It is well to +remember these dates, by which we perceive that Beethoven had written +twenty-seven of his thirty-two sonatas before Schubert commenced +composing works of this kind. But though here and there the influence +of the Bonn master may be felt in Schubert, the individuality of the +latter was so strong, that we regard him as an independent +contemporary. The influence of Haydn and Mozart, _plus_ his own mighty +genius, seem almost sufficient to account for Schubert's music. The +new edition of the composer's works published by Messrs. Breitkopf & +Haertel contains fifteen sonatas for pianoforte solo. The first four-- + +No. 1, in E (1815), +No. 2, in C (1815), +No. 3, in A flat (1817), and +No. 4, in E minor (1817), + +had hitherto only been known by name. + +In following the career of a great composer, his first efforts, +however humble, however incomplete, are of interest; but from a purely +musical point of view the Minuets of Nos. 2 and 3 are the most +attractive portions of these sonatas; we catch in them glimpses of +that freshness and romantic beauty which characterise Schubert's later +productions. + +In moments of strong inspiration, Schubert worked wonders, yet the +lack of regular and severe study often makes itself felt. Though +colouring may enhance counterpoint, it will not serve as a substitute +for it. Then there is, at times, monotony of rhythm; and this, to a +great extent, was the result of little practice in the art "of +combining melodies." + +While on the subject of Schubert's failings, we may as well complete +the catalogue. In the later sonatas we meet with diffuseness; and +sometimes a stroke of genius is followed by music which, at any rate +for Schubert, is commonplace. It seems presumption to weigh the +composer in critical balances, and to find him wanting; but he stands +here side by side with Beethoven, and the contrast between the two men +forces itself on our notice. Both were richly endowed by nature. By +training, and the power of self-criticism which the latter brings with +it, Beethoven was able to make the most of his gifts; Schubert, on the +other hand, by the very lavish display which he sometimes made, +actually weakened them. There is no page of musical history more +touching than the one which records how the composer, after having +written wonderful songs, grand symphonies, and other works too +numerous to mention, made arrangements to study with S. Sechter, one +of the most eminent theorists of the day. The composer paid the latter +a visit on the 4th November 1828; but within a fortnight, Schubert was +no longer in the land of the living. When too late, he seems to have +made the discovery which, perhaps, his very wealth of inspiration had +hidden from him up to that moment, namely, that discipline strengthens +genius. One may point out faults in Schubert's art-works, yet his +melodies and harmonies are so bewitching, his music altogether so full +of spontaneity and inspiration, that for the time being one is +spellbound. Schumann was fairly right when he described Schubert's +lengths as "heavenly." + +Three more sonatas were produced in the year 1817, the first in the +unusual key of B major; and here we find a marked advance in +conception and execution. It opens with an Allegro, the total effect +of which, however, is not satisfactory; the principal theme has +dramatic power, and what follows has lyrical charm, but the +development section is disappointing. The Adagio seems like an +arrangement of a lovely symphonic movement; the orchestra, and not the +pianoforte, must have been in the composer's mind when he penned it. +The lively Scherzo, with its quiet Trio, is a little gem. The +clear-cut, concise form of such movements saved Schubert from all +danger of diffuseness; and in them, as Mozart remarked to the Emperor +Joseph, who complained of the number of notes in his opera, _Die +Entfuehrung_, there are "just as many as are necessary." The sonata in +A minor (Op. 164), which consists of three movements, is short and +delightful from beginning to end. In the opening Allegro the second +subject occurs, by way of exception, in the major key of the +submediant. There is much to admire in the 3rd, in E flat, especially +the Minuet and Trio; yet the music is not pure Schubert. About six +years elapsed between this and the next sonata, in A minor (1823). +Schubert had already written his B minor Symphony, and though the +first two movements of the sonata will not compare with those of the +former in loftiness of conception, there is a certain kinship between +the two works. In both there are fitful gusts of passion, a feeling of +awe, and a tone of sadness which tells of disappointed hopes, of lost +illusions. The Finale, though fine, stands on a lower level. During +the years 1825-26, Schubert wrote, besides one in A major (Op. 120), +three magnificent sonatas: one in A minor, dedicated to the Archduke +Rudolph (Op. 42), another in D (Op. 53), and a third in G (Op. 78). In +these three works we have the composer's ripest efforts. The first +movement of the 1st, in A minor, is well-nigh perfect. That opening +phrase-- + +[Music illustration] + +haunts one like a sad dream; and the development section, long, +though not monotonous, is full of it. Without sacrificing his +individuality, Schubert has here caught something of Beethoven's +peculiar method of treating a theme,--that is, of evolving new phrases +from its various sections. The coda, again, has penetrating power, and +the fierce concluding phrase sounds like the passionate resistance of +a proud artist to the stern degrees of fate. The tender melody and +delicate variations of the Andante, the bold Scherzo, with its soft +Trio, and the energetic Finale are all exceedingly interesting; yet +they do not affect us like the first movement, in which lies not only +the majesty, but the mystery of genius. The sonata in D has a vigorous +opening Allegro,--a long, lovely, slow movement,--a crisp Scherzo, but +a peculiar Finale, one which Schumann qualifies as comical +(possirlich). The sonata in G contains some of the composer's most +charming, characteristic music. The opening _moderato e cantabile_ is +a tone-poem of touching pathos. The sad principal theme is supported +by such soft, tender harmonies, that its very sadness charms. In the +development section it assumes a different character. Melancholy gives +place to passion, at times fierce; then calm returns. The coda is one +of the most fascinating ever penned by Schubert. The slow movement and +Menuetto form worthy companions; but with the Finale the composer +breaks the spell. Schumann says: "Keep away from it; it has no +imagination, no enigma to solve." + +The last three sonatas (in C minor, A, and B flat) were composed in +September 1828, not three months before the death of the composer. In +the opening theme of No. 2, determination and confidence are +expressed, while in the Scherzo and Rondo there is even sunshine, +though now and again black clouds flit across the scene. But in the +Adagio, and in all the movements of the other two sonatas, the mood is +either one of sadness, more or less intense, dark despair, or fierce +frenzy. Music can express both joy and sorrow, though the latter seems +more congenial to it. Mournful strains are an echo, as it were, of the +"still, sad music of humanity." Grief, too, sharpens the imagination; +and music produced under its influence stirs a sensitive soul more +powerfully than the brightest, merriest sounds. But these three +sonatas, though they contain wonderful thoughts and some of Schubert's +grandest, and most delicate harmonic colouring, fall short of +perfection. They are too long, not because they cover so many pages, +but because there is a lack of balance; at times, indeed, the composer +seems to lose all sense of proportion. Then, again, the weakness of +Schubert in the art of development is specially felt; the noble +themes, on the whole, lose rather than gain by the loose, monotonous, +and, in some places, even trivial treatment to which they are +subjected. And what is more fatal than a lack of gradation of +interest? In a truly great work of art, be it poem, tragedy, sonata, +or symphony, the author carries his readers or audience along with +him from one point to another,--he gives no time for rest or +reflection; and when he has worked them up to the highest pitch, he +stops, and there is an awakening, as it were, from some wonderful +dream. If afterwards the work be analysed, the pains with which it was +built up can be traced; the powerful effect which it produced will be +found due, not alone to the creative power, the imagination of the +author, but also to his dialectic skill and to his critical faculty. +It is all very well to talk of great works as the fruits of hot +inspiration and not cold intellect. A masterpiece is the outcome of +both; the one provides the material, the other shapes it. Schubert was +an inspired composer, but most of his works, especially those of large +compass, show that he was mastered by moods, not that he was master of +them. It may be said that many who can appreciate beautiful music have +not the bump of intellect strongly developed, and would not therefore +be affected by any such shortcomings; that they would simply enjoy the +music. That is very likely, but here we are analysing and comparing; +and neither the beauty nor even grandeur of the music, nor the effect +which it might produce on certain minds, concerns us. There are many +persons who have had no technical training, but who possess a true +sense of order, proportion, and gradation; and such instinctively feel +that Schubert's sonatas, in spite of their many striking qualities, +are not so great as those of Beethoven. We have referred more than +once to the Popular Concert catalogue, which is a very fair +thermometer of public taste. One can see how seldom the Schubert +sonatas are performed in comparison with those of his great +contemporary. But to refer specially to the three last sonatas now +under notice. The one in B flat (No. 3) was played by Mr. Leonard +Borwick, it is true, on the 3rd February 1894, but the previous date +of performance was 16th January 1882. No. 2, in A, was last given in +1882, and No. 1 has not been heard since 1879. + +The Allegro of the C minor sonata opens with a bold theme, and an +energetic transition passage leads to the dominant of the relative +major key. Of the soft second theme Schubert seems so fond, that he is +loth to quit it; he repeats it in varied form, and still after that, +it is heard in minor. This unnecessarily lengthens the exposition +section, which, in addition, has the repeat mark. The development +section is rather vague, but the coda is impressive: the long +descending phrase and the sad repeated minor chords at the close +suggest exhaustion after fierce conflict. The theme of the Adagio, in +A flat, partly inspired by Beethoven, is noble, and full of tender, +regretful feeling; the opening and close of the movement are the +finest portions. The Minuet and Trio are effective, but the final +Allegro is hopelessly long, and by no means equal to the rest of the +work. + +The first movement of the sonata in A has a characteristic principal +theme, and one in the dominant key of bewitching beauty. The coda +gives a last reminiscence of the opening theme; but its almost defiant +character has vanished away; for it is now played pianissimo. +Schubert, in the importance of his codas, recalls Beethoven; each, +however, made it serve a different purpose. The latter, at any rate in +his Allegro movements, gathers together his strength, as if for one +last, supreme effort. Schubert, on the other hand, seems rather as if +his strength were spent, and as if he could only give a faint echo of +his leading theme. The coda of the first movement of the sonata in A +minor (Op. 42) offers, however, one striking exception. The Andantino +and Scherzo of the A sonata are well-nigh perfect, but the Rondo, in +spite of much that is charming, is of inferior quality and of +irritating length. The 3rd sonata, in B flat, the last of the series, +the _sonate-testament_, as Von Lenz said of Beethoven's Op. 111, has +wonderful moments, yet it contains also lengths which even Schumann +would scarcely have ventured to style "heavenly." We refer +particularly to the first and last movements; the Andante and Scherzo +are beyond criticism. + +These sonatas were written as Schubert was about to enter the Valley +of the Shadow of Death. His spirit was still strong, but his flesh +must have been weak. To turn away from them on account of any +imperfections, would be to lose some of Schubert's loftiest thoughts, +some of his choicest tone-painting. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +SCHUMANN, CHOPIN, BRAHMS, AND LISZT + + +After Beethoven, the first composer of note was Robert Schumann, one +of the founders of the so-called romantic school. In one of his +letters he refers to Beethoven's choral symphony "as the turning-point +from the classical to the romantic period." By reading, Schumann had +cultivated his imagination, but his musical training was irregular; +and, indeed, when he first commenced composing, practically _nil_. If +his soul was stirred by some poem, or tale, or by remembrance of some +dear friend, he sought to express his thoughts and feelings, and on +the spur of the moment. In a letter he writes: "I have been all the +week at the piano, composing, writing, laughing, and crying, all at +once. You will find this state of things nicely described in my Op. +20, the 'Grosse Humoreske,' which is already at the printer's. You see +how quickly I always work now. I get an idea, write it down, and have +it printed; that's what I like. Twelve sheets composed in a week!" And +thus short-tone poems, or a long piece, such as the "Humoreske," of +irregular form, were the result. Now that was not the way in which he +composed his two sonatas. He was two years, off and on, at work on the +first, in F sharp minor (Op. 11), and eight on the other, in G minor +(Op. 22). One may therefore conclude that the fetters of form were a +source of trouble to him. And he can scarcely have felt very +enthusiastic over his task; in 1839, after both sonatas were +completed, he declared that "although from time to time fine specimens +of the sonata species made their appearance, and, probably, would +continue to do so, it seemed as if that form of composition had run +its appointed course." + +Of the two sonatas, the one in F sharp minor is the more interesting. +The Aria is a movement of exquisite simplicity and tenderness, and the +Scherzo, with its _Intermezzo alla burla_, has life and character. But +the Allegro, which follows the poetical introduction, and the Finale +are patchy, and at times laboured. It must not, however, be supposed +that they are uninteresting. The music has poetry and passion, and the +strong passages atone for the weak ones. There were composers at that +time who could produce sonatas more correct in form, and more logical +in treatment, yet not one who could have written music so filled with +the spirit of romance. + +The Sonata in G minor resembles its predecessor both in its strong and +its weak points. Considered, however, as a whole, it is less warm, +less intense. It is unnecessary to describe the two works in detail, +for they must be familiar to all musicians, and especially pianists. A +sympathetic rendering of them will always give pleasure; but in a +history of evolution they are of comparatively small moment. It is +interesting to compare them with the Fantasia in C (Op. 17), a work in +which Schumann displayed the full power of his genius. + +Chopin was another composer whose spirit moved uneasily within the +limits of the sonata. The first which he wrote (we do not reckon the +posthumous one in C minor)--the one in B flat minor--is an impressive +work. There is a certain rugged power in the opening movement, and the +Scherzo is passionate, and its Trio tender. The picturesque March owes +much of its effect to its colouring and contrasts; while the +extraordinary Finale sounds weird and uncanny. In the hands of a great +interpreter the music makes a powerful appeal; yet as a sonata it is +not really great. It lacks organic development, unity. The Sonata in B +minor, though attractive to pianists, is an inferior work. The first +movement, with exception of its melodious second theme, is dry, and +the Finale belongs to the _bravoura_ order of piece. The Scherzo is +light and graceful. The slow movement is the most poetical of the +four, though spun out at too great length. The real Chopin is to be +found in his nocturnes, mazurkas, and ballads, not in his sonatas. + +Among modern sonatas, the three by Brahms (C, Op. 1; F sharp minor, +Op. 2; and F minor, Op. 5) claim special notice. With the exception of +the Liszt Sonata in B minor, which, whatever its musical value, at +least opens up "new paths" in the matter of form, the Brahms sonatas +are the only ones since Schumann which distinctly demand detailed +notice. The composer followed ordinary Beethoven lines; with exception +of the Intermezzo of the 3rd Sonata, the number and order of movement +resemble those of many a Beethoven sonata; while there is enlargement, +not change in the matter of form. Brahms studied the special means by +which his great predecessor, in some instances, sought to accentuate +the unity between various sections of a sonata; he steeped his soul in +the romantic music of Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Schumann, and, +in addition, trained his intellect to grasp the mysteries of +counterpoint, and to perceive the freer modern uses to which it was +put by the classical masters. Brahms' early acquaintance with Liszt +opened up to him, too, the resources of modern technique. And thus, +possessing individuality of his own, in addition to these inheritances +and acquirements, Brahms wrote sonatas, which, though in the main on +old lines, are no mere imitations, pale reflexes of his predecessors. + +The 1st Sonata, in C (Op. 1), has for its opening theme one which has +been said to resemble the opening theme of Beethoven's Op. 106. It +will be well to look on this picture (Beethoven)-- + +[Music illustration] + +and on this (Brahms)-- + +[Music illustration] + +There is resemblance in the matter of rhythm, but the up-beat in +Beethoven constitutes a marked difference; and, besides, the +succession of notes differs in each case. Brahms's theme, already at +the eighth bar, recommences in a key a tone lower; a similar +proceeding, by the way, is to be found in Beethoven's Sonata in G (Op. +31, No 1). After a few points of imitation, and digression through +various keys, we meet with a new theme in A minor, the soft, tender +character of which contrasts well with the bold opening one. But unity +amid diversity is Brahms' aim; and here the contrast does not prevent +a certain kinship between them--one, however, which can be felt rather +than explained.[105] Of another pianissimo phrase, still in A minor, +much use is afterwards made. The prominence given in the exposition +section to the subject-matter styled "secondary," and still more so in +the development section, is peculiar; this feature had certainly not +been copied from Beethoven, who, as a rule, made his first theme of +first importance. Brahms concludes his exposition section in the +opening key of the movement,--a return to early methods; Beethoven +adopted a similar course in the first movement of his Op. 53. Brahms' +development section is comparatively short. Of counterpoint we get a +good illustration in the combinations of both first and second themes; +of colour, in the presentation of the mournful minor theme in the +major key; and of originality, in the bars leading to the +recapitulation. In this last instance, the idea of gradually drawing +closer together the members of a phrase was borrowed from Beethoven, +but not the manner in which it is carried out. In the earlier master +it often stands out as a special feature; here we have, besides, +counter rhythm, and ambiguous modulation. When the principal theme +returns, it is clothed first with subdominant, then with tonic minor +harmony. The movement concludes with a vigorous coda evolved from the +opening theme. Five bars from the end, the first two bars of that +theme are given out in their original form; and then, as if repetition +were not sufficient, a thematic cadence is added, in which the notes +are given in loud tones, in augmented form, and, in addition, with +slackened _tempo_ (_largamente_). The slow movement (Andante) was, we +believe, one of Brahms' earliest efforts at composition; it is said to +have been written by him at the age of fourteen. It consists of a +theme with variations; and the former is based on an old German +Minnelied. The words of the folk song are written beneath the notes, +as if to put the listener into the right mood.[106] We need not dwell +on the variations, in which Beethoven and Schubert are the prevailing +influences, though not to any alarming extent. The music is by no +means difficult; for Brahms, indeed, remarkably easy. The movement +opens in C minor, but closes in C major. A Scherzo follows (E minor, +six-eight time; Allegro molto e con fuoco); it has a trio in C major. +The Scherzo, with its varied rhythm, is full of life; the Trio, +interesting in harmony, and also in the matter of rhythm. The Finale +(another Allegro con fuoco; the young composer has mounted his fiery +Pegasus) opens in C, in nine-eight time, thus-- + +[Music illustration] + +a metamorphosis, in fact, of the opening theme of the sonata. And +later on we have a similar re-presentation of subject-matter from the +first movement. This Finale is musically and technically attractive, +yet scarcely on the same high level as the first movement. But the age +of the composer must be taken into consideration; for quite a young +man, it is a wonderful production. + +The 2nd Sonata (Op. 2) is in F sharp minor. The Allegro non troppo ma +energico is a movement which in its subject-material breathes the +spirit of Chopin: the weird, stormy opening in the principal key may +claim kinship with the opening of the Polish composer's "Polonaise" in +the same key; while a certain strain in the melodious second subject +brings to one's mind a Chopin Nocturne, also in F sharp minor; in +neither case, however, is there anything amounting to plagiarism. The +exposition section is not repeated. The development is clever, though, +perhaps, somewhat formal. Again here, the secondary theme occupies, +apparently, chief attention; but it is supported by a bass evolved +from a principal motive. And in transition passages of the exposition, +and also in the recapitulation section and coda-- + +[Music illustration] + +in one or other shape, makes itself heard; so that, though outwardly +subordinate, its function is important: it binds together various +portions of the movement, and thus promotes union. The Andante which +follows, consists, as in the 1st Sonata, of a theme with variations. +There is nothing novel either in the theme or its mode of treatment. +Certain chords, cadences, figures, suggest Schubert--an idol whom +Brahms has never ceased to worship; and, in one place, the three +staves, and a few passages, show the influence of Liszt, the pianist +_par excellence_ of the days in which this sonata was written; but the +movement has, in addition to romantic charm, individuality. It +commences in B minor; then after a short expressive passage in major, +an arpeggio chord leads directly to the Scherzo; the following shows +the outward connection between the two movements-- + +[Music illustration: Commencement of Andante theme.] + +[Music illustration: Scherzo.] + +This bright, clever Scherzo, with its soft Schubertian trio, need not +detain us. The final Allegro is preceded by a short introduction, in +which the chief theme and other material of the Finale are set forth. +The connection between this and the earlier movements of the sonata is +not evident, like the one, for instance, already noticed, between the +Andante and the Scherzo; with research, and possibly some imagination, +relationship might, however, be traced. We are far from asserting that +movements of a sonata ought to be visibly connected; after all, the +true bond of union must be a spiritual one. But if an attempt be made +in that direction, surely the opening and closing movements are those +which, by preference, should be selected. In his Op. 28 Beethoven +seems to have evolved the themes of all four movements from the first; +in Op. 106 and Op. 109, connection is clear between the first and last +movements. Such an experiment was safe in the hands of Beethoven, and +Brahms has never allowed it to become a mannerism; but second-rate +composers, and superficial listeners run the danger of mistaking the +shadow for the substance. To this matter we shall, however, soon +return. Many references have been made to the composers who have +influenced Brahms, yet we cannot resist naming one more. The opening +section of this Allegro Finale reminds one more than once of the +corresponding section in Clementi's fine Sonata in B minor. The music +of this concluding movement is clever. + +The 3rd sonata (Op. 5) is in F minor. The Allegro opens with a wild, +sinister theme, and one which even casts a shadow over the calm, +hope-inspiring strains afterwards heard in the orthodox key of the +relative major. The tender melodies and soft chromatic colouring which +fill the remainder of the exposition section show strong feeling for +contrast. Again, storm and stress alternate with comparative calm in +the development section. The Andante expressivo bears the following +superscription:-- + + Der Abend daemmert, das Mondlicht scheint + Da sind zwei Herzen in Liebe vereint + Und halten sich selig umfangen. + + --_Sternau_. + +And it offers a delightful tone-picture. The moon "o'er heaven's clear +azure spreading her sacred light," the calm of evening, and happy, +though ever-sighing, lovers: 'tis a scene to tempt poet, painter, and +musician. The last, however, seems to have greatest advantage; music +by imitation and association can describe scenes of nature; and it can +paint, for are not its harmonies colours? But the musician can do what +is possible to neither poet nor painter,--he can make a direct appeal +to the emotions in their own language. The soft, dreamy coda--which, +with its Andante molto, its Adagio, and widened-out closing cadence, +seems to indicate the unwillingness of the lovers to part--has +Schubert colouring and charm. The reminiscence, at the commencement of +this movement, of the middle movement of the "Pathetique" cannot fail +to attract attention. Then, again, the opening of the Scherzo[107]-- + +[Music illustration] + +sounds familiar. It must surely have been this movement in which +someone pointed out to the composer a reminiscence of Mendelssohn. +"Anyone can find that out," was the rough-and-ready reply of Brahms. +But if Mendelssohn be the prevailing influence in the Scherzo, +Schubert has his turn in the Trio. The fourth movement is an +Intermezzo, entitled "Rueckblick" (Retrospect). The opening phrase, and +indeed the whole of the short movement, carries us back to the picture +of the lovers. Some change has taken place: have the lovers grown +cold? or has death divided them? The themes are now sad, and clothed +in minor harmonies. The Finale, perhaps, shows skill rather than +inspiration; with regard to some of the subject-matter, it is, like +the previous movement, also retrospective. + +Liszt's sonata in B minor, dedicated to Robert Schumann, was evidently +written under the special influence of Beethoven's later +sonatas,--perhaps more particularly the one in A flat, Op. 110. There +is by no means unanimity of opinion among musicians with regard to +Liszt's merit as a composer; some consider that his genius has not yet +been properly recognised; others, that he will not for a moment bear +comparison with any one of the great masters who preceded him, and who +wrote for the pianoforte. Among his works which have specially given +rise to discussion stands this B minor Sonata, which has proved a +stumbling-block, both on account of its form and its contents. It +would simplify matters if the one could be discussed without the +other; this, however, is not possible. + +We have hitherto considered the sonata of three movements as typical, +and from that type Liszt's work differs; yet not "so widely, as on a +first hearing or reading may appear." Thus wrote Mr. C.A. Barry in a +remarkably interesting analysis of the sonata which he prepared some +years back for Mr. Oscar Beringer. He remarks further: "All the +leading characteristics of a sonata in three movements are here fully +maintained within the scope of a single movement, or, to speak more +precisely, an uninterrupted succession of several changes of _tempo_, +thus constituting a more complete organism than can be attained by +three distinct and independent movements." + +The idea of passing from one movement to another without break dates +from Emanuel Bach, nay, earlier, from Kuhnau; and Beethoven +occasionally adopted it, and with striking effect. The wretched habit +at concerts of applauding between the movements of a sonata +establishes a break where--at any rate in certain sonatas of +Beethoven--the composer certainly imagined an _uninterrupted_ +succession. The second movement of the "Appassionata" breaks off with +an arpeggio chord of diminished seventh, and the Finale starts on the +same chord. Yet surely after the final tonic chord of the opening +Allegro there should be no break, but only a brief pause. A _fermata_ +in the middle of a movement does not constitute a break, neither need +it at the end. In Beethoven's sonatas we find many movements, +outwardly independent, yet inwardly connected; those of the D minor +and F minor may be named by way of illustration. The composer, +however, in one or two of his works, revived, to some extent, the plan +adopted in the suites of early times, of evolving various movements +from one theme. Such outward connection may help to strengthen a bond +of union already existing, but it will not establish it. The question, +then, of Liszt's "more complete organism" depends, after all, on the +contents of the music. So, too, when, in addition to uninterrupted +succession, Liszt makes the one theme of the slow introduction the +source whence he derives the principal part of his tone-picture, +everything depends on the quality and latent power of this fertilising +germ. Discussion of form _per se_ is an impossibility. This Liszt +sonata stands, however, as a bold attempt to modify a form which, as +we have seen, Schumann thought exhausted (was it for that reason that +Liszt dedicated the work to him?), and one in which so many soulless +compositions were written during the second quarter of the present +century. "La sonate," says Charles Soullier in his _Nouveau +Dictionnaire de Musique Illustre_ "est morte avec le dix-huitieme +siecle qui en a tant produit." Is Liszt's sonata a Phoenix rising from +its ashes? Shall we be able to say "La sonate est morte! Vive la +sonate!" Time will tell. Hitherto Liszt's work has not borne fruit. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE SONATA IN ENGLAND + + +In previous chapters we have been occupied with Italy and Germany. +Without reference to those countries a history of the pianoforte +sonata would be impossible. Italy was the land of its birth; Germany, +that of its growth, and, apparently, highest development. During the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries England furnished notable +composers for the harpsichord. William Byrd and Dr. John Bull are not +only among the earliest, but at the time in which they flourished, +they were the greatest who wrote for a keyboard instrument. At the +beginning of the seventeenth century English music was indeed in a +prosperous state; it was admired at home, and its merits were +acknowledged abroad. H. Peacham, in his _Compleat Gentleman_, +published in the reign of James I., says of Byrd: "For motets and +musicke of piety, devotion, as well as for the honour of our nation, +as the merit of the man, I preferre above all others our Phoenix, Mr +William Byrd, whom in that kind I know not whether any may equall. I +am sure none excell, even by the judgement of France and Italy, who +are very sparing in their commendation of strangers, in regard of that +conceipt they hold of themselves. His 'Cantiones Sacrae,' as also his +'Gradualia,' are mere angelicall and divine; and being of himselfe +naturally disposed to gravity and piety his veine is not so much for +light madrigals or canzonets; yet his 'Virginella,' and some others in +his first set, cannot be mended by the first Italian of them all." +Then at the end of the seventeenth century came Purcell, a genius who +seemed likely to raise English music still higher in the estimation of +foreign musicians. But, alas! he departed ere his powers were matured; +by his death English art sustained a grievous loss, and from that time +declined. The history of instrumental music during the eighteenth +century is dull, and, so far as the pianoforte sonata is concerned, of +little or no importance. Nevertheless, a brief survey of that century +will be attempted, after which reference will be made to a few sonata +composers of the century now drawing to a close. Just as we referred +to the sonatas for strings and harpsichord before commencing the +history of the clavier-sonata proper, so here a few remarks will be +made concerning the sonata before Dr. T.A. Arne--the first composer, +so far as we can trace, who wrote a work of that kind for the +harpsichord alone. + +In 1683 appeared Purcell's Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass, +the very same year in which Corelli published _his_ "Twelve Sonatas" +(Op. 1). In his preface, Purcell frankly admits that "he has +faithfully endeavoured a just imitation of the most famed Italian +masters." Sir J. Hawkins supposes that "the sonatas of Bassani,[108] +and perhaps of some other of the Italians, were the models after which +he formed them." In our introductory chapter we mentioned the sonatas +("a due, tre, quattro, e cinque stromenti") by Vitali (1677); and of +these, Mr. J.A. Fuller-Maitland, in his preface to the Purcell Society +edition of the "Twelve Sonatas" of 1683, remarks that "it is difficult +to resist the conclusion that these were the Englishman's models." +Vitali undoubtedly exerted strong influence; yet Purcell himself +describes his "Book of Sonatas" as "a just imitation of the most fam'd +Italian Masters." These sonatas of 1683, also the ten which appeared +after his death (among which is to be found No. 9, called the "Golden +Sonata") in 1697, are of great importance and interest in the history +of English music, but there is no new departure in them; this, at any +rate in the earlier ones of 1683, is fully acknowledged by the +composer. + +In 1695, John Ravenscroft, a descendant, possibly, of Thomas +Ravenscroft, published at Rome, sonatas for "violini, e violine, o +arciliuto, col basso per l'organo" Opera prima, but they were mere +imitations of Corelli.[109] In 1728 a certain John Humphries published +by subscription "Twelve Sonatas for two violins and a bass"; and +Hawkins, in his _History_, excites curiosity by declaring that they +are "of a very original cast"; he adds, however, "in respect that they +are in a style somewhat above that of the common popular airs and +country dance tunes, the delight of the vulgar, and greatly beneath +what might be expected from the studies of a person not at all +acquainted with the graces and elegancies of the Italians in their +compositions for instruments. To this it must be attributed that the +sonatas of Humphries were the common practice of such small +proficients in harmony as in his time were used to recreate themselves +with music at alehouse clubs and places of vulgar resort in the +villages adjacent to London; of these there were formerly many, in +which sixpence, at most, was the price of admission." We have quoted +this passage at length, because it indirectly confirms our statement +concerning English music of this period. If Hawkins had had anything +better to talk about, he would not have wasted space on the music of +alehouses and "places of vulgar resort." It may, however, be asked +whether Hawkins' report of Humphries' music is trustworthy. Now, +although the sonatas offer nothing of special interest, we may +certainly venture to say that one does not hear such well-written +melodious strains in or near alehouses of the present day. The sonatas +consist, for the most part, of four short movements. First, a slow +introduction, then an Allegro somewhat in the Corelli style. An +Adagio, often very short, separates this from the final movement, an +Allegro in binary form, a Minuet, or a Gigue. This "Humphries" musical +landmark is the only one we have to offer our readers between Purcell +and Dr. Arne. But before proceeding to notice the sonatas of the +latter, let us say something, if not of English music, yet of music in +England during the first half of the eighteenth century. + +Of the influence of Corelli we have already made mention. That +influence was materially strengthened by the two celebrated +violinist-composers, Veracini and Geminiani, who came to London in +1714; the former only paid a short visit; the latter made England his +home. Then a greater composer than the two just mentioned had already +arrived in London; this was Handel, whose Rinaldo had been produced +with wonderful success on the 24th February 1710. The genius of Handel +triumphed over all rivals, whether English or foreign, for well-nigh +half a century; and this fact alone explains the decline of English +art. But there was another strong influence which specially affected +harpsichord music: the Lessons of Domenico Scarlatti had made their +way throughout Europe. Thomas Roseingrave, who went to Italy in 1710, +became acquainted with the composer, and on his return pleaded the +cause of the Italian with an enthusiasm similar to that displayed a +century later by Samuel Wesley for Scarlatti's great contemporary, +J.S. Bach. Roseingrave edited "Forty-two Suites of Lessons for the +Harpsichord" by Scarlatti. Still another Italian influence may be +mentioned. "On the day," says Burney in his _History of Music_, "when +Handel's Coronation Anthem was rehearsed at Westminster Abbey (1727) +San Martini's[110] twelve sonatas were advertised." But Handel and +Scarlatti make up the history of harpsichord music in England during +the first half of the eighteenth century. Burney expressly states that +"the Lessons of the one and the Suites of the other were the only good +music for keyed instruments." + +Thomas Augustine Arne (1710-78) is principally known as a writer of +operas and incidental music to plays, but he also wrote organ +concertos, and sonatas for the harpsichord. The latter, entitled +"VIII. Sonatas or Lessons for the Harpsichord," probably appeared +somewhere about 1750. With this double title it is, of course, +impossible to regard them as serious sonatas. No. 8, for instance, +consists merely of a Minuet with variations! No. 1 opens with an +Andante in binary form, while two bars of Adagio lead to another +Allegro of similar structure. No. 2 is of a similar kind. The binary +form is of the later type, _i.e._ there is a return to the principal +theme in the second section. No. 3 opens with a Prelude, and a note +states that "in this and other Preludes, which are meant as extempore +touches before the Lesson begins, neither the composer nor performer +are oblig'd to a Strictness of Tune." The pleasing Allegro which +follows shows the influence of Scarlatti-Handel. The sonata concludes +with an attractive Minuet and variations. No. 5, with its graceful +Gavotta, and No. 7 might be performed occasionally. Arne's sonatas, if +not great, contain some neat, melodious writing. + +The second half of the century still offers poor results so far as +national music is concerned. We have spoken of Handel and Scarlatti; +but, after them, music in England again fell under foreign rule. In +the very year of Handel's death, John Christian Bach arrived in +London, which he made his home until his death in 1782. During that +period the sonatas of Mozart and Haydn became known; and the two +visits of the latter to England in 1791-92 and 1794-95 gave greater +lustre to his name, and rendered his style still more popular. And all +this foreign influence (strong inasmuch as Haydn and Mozart belonged +to a school with which J.C. Bach was in sympathy) is reflected in the +English music of the period. John Burton published, in 1766, "Ten +Sonatas for the Harpsichord," which are of interest. Some of the +writing recalls Scarlatti, but there are also many touches of harmony +and melody which tell of later times. The introduction of the Alberti +bass is one clear sign of a post-Scarlatti period. Burton paid a visit +to Germany in 1752, and was, we presume, acquainted with Emanuel +Bach's compositions. We may also name six sonatas by I. Worgan, M.B., +published in 1769. At the head of No. 5, the composer remarks: "Lest +the consecutive fifths at the beginning of the theme of this movement +should escape the critic, the author here apprizes him of them." They +are as follows:-- + +[Music illustration] + +The critic of those days must have been very dull if he required such +assistance, and his ear very sensitive if offended by such +consecutives as these. Lastly, we may give the name of a lady, Miss +Barthelemon,[111] whose interesting Sonata in G (Op. 3) was dedicated +to Haydn. + +In the early part of the nineteenth century, John Field, whose +nocturnes are still played and admired, wrote three sonatas (Op. 1), +and dedicated them to Muzio Clementi, his teacher. No. 1 is in E flat; +No. 2, in A; and No. 3, in C minor. They all consist of only two +movements (No. 1, Allegro and Rondo; No. 2, Allegro and Allegro +Vivace; No. 3, Allegro and Allegretto). In the first two sonatas the +two movements are in the same key; in the last, the first movement is +in C minor, the second, in C major. The Rondo of No. 1 contains +foreshadowings of Chopin. Field's music, generally, is old-fashioned, +and not worth revival; none, indeed, of his sonatas have ever been +played at the Monday Popular Concerts. + +Samuel Wesley[112] wrote three sonatas (Op. 3), likewise eight, +dedicated to the Hon. Daynes Barrington, yet we fear that not one of +them would prove acceptable at the present day. One looks in vain for +the name of Wesley in the Popular Concert Catalogue. Cipriani Potter +(1792-1871) deserves a word of mention. Beethoven, writing to Ries, in +London, in 1818, says: "Potter has visited me several times; he seems +to be a good man, and has talent for composition." His Sonata in C +(Op. 1, dedicated to Mrs. Brymer Belcher) consists of three movements: +an Allegro non troppo with a Haydnish theme-- + +[Music illustration] + +an attractive Adagio, and a dainty and pleasing Rondo pastorale. The +influence of Beethoven and Clementi is great; the individuality of +Potter, small. But the sonata is thoroughly well written, and--at any +rate as an educational piece--the Rondo deserves reprinting. + +Sir G.A. Macfarren composed three sonatas for the pianoforte. No. 3, +in G minor, dedicated to Miss Agnes Zimmermann, is a work which +presents several features of interest. In the first long movement (an +Allegro moderato) there is no repeat. The exposition section really +contains three subjects: an opening one in the principal key, a second +in D flat, and a third in the orthodox key of the relative major. The +development section, in which there is some solid counterpoint, is +decidedly clever; much use is made in it of the second subject +mentioned above. The Andante is a movement of simple structure. A +brisk Scherzo, in the making of which Weber and Schumann seem to have +lent a helping hand, leads to a long Finale,--the last, but by no +means the most successful of the four movements. We have just spoken +of influences; Weber may be said to have presided at the birth of the +opening Allegro, and Mendelssohn at that of the Finale. The appearance +in the Finale of the D flat theme from the Allegro deserves note. This +sonata may not be an inspired work, yet it has many excellent +qualities. + +Of Sir Sterndale Bennett's two sonatas, the 1st, in F minor (Op. 13, +dedicated to Mendelssohn), commences with a long movement (Moderato +expressivo), in which there are traces of the master to whom it is +dedicated; it is followed by a clever Scherzo and Trio, a melodious +Serenata, and a weak Presto agitato. The first, second, and last +movements are in F minor, the third in F major. Schumann, in a brief +notice of the work, describes it as excellent. The sonata (Op. 46) +entitled "The Maid of Orleans" commences with an Andante pastorale in +A flat, above which are written the following lines from Act iv. Scene +1 of Schiller's play, _Die Jungfrau von Orleans_:-- + + "Schuldlos trieb ich meine Laemmer + Auf des stillen Berges Hoeh." + + "In innocence I led my sheep + Adown the mountain's silent steep." + +The movement is graceful and pleasing. Then follows an Allegro +marziale:-- + + "Den Feldruf hoer ich maechtig zu mir dringen + Das Schlactross steigt, und die Trompeten klingen." + + Prologue: Scene 4. + + "The clanging trumpets sound, the chargers rear, + And the loud war cry thunders in mine ear." + +Then an "In Prison" section with suitable superscription-- + + "Hoere mich, Gott, in meiner hoechsten Noth," etc. + + Act v. Scene 2. + + "Hear me, O God, in mine extremity." + +Lastly, a Finale-- + + "Kurz ist das Schmerz, und ewig ist die Freude." + + Act v. Scene 14. + + "Brief is the sorrow, endless is the joy." + +The title and the various superscriptions naturally cause the sonata +to be ranked as programme-music, but of a very simple kind. It is easy +to suggest pastoral scenes: a few pedal notes, a certain simplicity of +melody, and a few realistic touches expressive of the waving of +branches of trees, or the meandering of a brook, and the thing is +accomplished. + +Dr. C.H. Parry is an English composer whose name has of late been much +before the public. He has written works both secular and sacred for +our important provincial festivals; also chamber music, songs, etc.; +and all his music shows mastery of form, skill in the art of +development, and eclectic taste. For the present, we are, however, +concerned merely with his sonatas. Like Brahms, he at first composed +pianoforte sonatas: No. 1, in F; No. 2, in A minor and major. Brahms +made a third attempt, but the two just mentioned are all that are +known to us of Dr. Parry's. No. 1 opens with a non troppo Allegro, a +smooth movement of somewhat pastoral character; the music, also the +writing for the instrument, remind one occasionally of Stephen Heller. +A bright, though formal Scherzo, with a well-contrasted Trio in the +key of the submediant, is followed by a melodious Andante and a +graceful, showy Allegretto. + +No. 2 has an introductory movement marked _maestoso_; it is divided +into three sections. The first opens with a phrase of dramatic +character; the second, in the remote key of G sharp minor, contains +two short, expressive, Schumannish themes treated in imitation; the +third has passages leading back to the opening key and phrase. The +Allegro grazioso which follows is a compact little movement; in form +it is orthodox, yet there is no repeat to the exposition section. The +influence of Heller is still felt, but also that of Schumann. Grace +rather than power distinguishes the Adagio con sentimento, in the key +of C sharp minor. The Scherzo is clever and effective, and the +Allegretto cantabile, though the last, is scarcely the best of the +four movements. + +A manuscript Sonata in D flat (Op. 20) by Dr. C.V. Stanford, another +prominent composer of our day, was produced at the Popular Concerts +(4th February 1884). It consists of an Adagio leading to an Allegro +moderato. Then follows an Intermezzo in the key of the relative minor. +An Adagio (F major) leads to the Allegro Finale in D flat major. It is +thus noticed in the _Musical Times_ of March 1884:--"Some listeners +have professed to perceive in the work a deliberate intention to +violate the established laws of form, but we confess that to us no +such design is apparent. In matters of detail, Mr. Stanford shows +himself an independent thinker, but in all essentials his newest work +is as classical in outline as could possibly be desired. The opening +Adagio is exceedingly impressive, and the succeeding Allegro moderato +is worked out with splendid mastery of the subject-matter, the general +effect being that of a lofty design carried into execution by a +thoroughly experienced hand. The succeeding Allegro grazioso, a +modified kind of Scherzo, is vigorous, and the final Allegro commodo, +with its excellent first subject, seems scarcely less important than +the first movement." + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +MODERN SONATAS, DUET SONATAS, SONATINAS, ETC. + + +Some mention, however brief, must be made of various sonatas written +by other contemporaries of the four composers discussed in the last +chapter. After Beethoven, the only work which, from an evolution point +of view, really claims notice is one by Liszt. All other sonatas are +written on classical lines with more or less of modern colouring. Even +M. Vincent d'Indy, one of the advanced French school of composers, has +written a "Petite Sonate dans la forme classique." + +Moscheles, in Germany, and Kalkbrenner, in France: these were once +names of note. Their music is often clever and brilliant, but, to +modern tastes, dry and old-fashioned; much of it, too, is superficial. + +Among still more modern works may be named those of Stephen Heller, +Raff, Rubinstein, Bargiel, and Grieg. The sonatas of Heller are +failures, so far as the name sonata means anything. He was not a +composer _de longue haleine_, and his opening and closing movements +are dull and tedious; some of the middle movements--as, for example, +the two middle ones of the Sonata in C major--are, however, charming. +Bargiel's Sonata in C major (Op. 34) is written somewhat in "Heller" +style, but it is stronger, and, consequently, more interesting than +any of that composer's. + +Raff and Rubinstein both wrote pianoforte sonatas, but these do not +form prominent features in their art-work. + +Grieg's one Sonata in E minor (Op. 7) is a charming, clever +composition; yet as it was with Chopin, so is it with this composer: +his smallest works are his greatest. + +Of duet sonatas there is little more to do than to mention the +principal ones. In the evolution of the sonata they are of little or +no moment. Some, however, are highly attractive. It would be +interesting to know who wrote the first sonata for four hands, but the +point is not an easy one to settle. Jahn, speaking of Mozart's duets, +remarks that "pianoforte music for two performers was then far from +having attained the popularity which it now possesses, especially +among amateurs." We imagine that the + +Sonate +a Quatre mains sur un Clavecin +Compose +par +J.C. Bach +---- +a Amsterdam +chez J. Schnitt Marchand de Musique +dans le Warmoes-straat + +was one of, if not the earliest. The part for the second clavier is +printed under that of the first. The sonata consists of only two +movements: an Allegro and a Rondo. The general style and treatment of +the two instruments reminds one of Mozart, but the music is crude in +comparison. Here is the commencement of the theme of the first +movement-- + +[Music illustration] + +The duet sonatas of Mozart are full of charm and skill, and will ever +be pleasing to young and old. Dussek has written some delightful +works, and Hummel's Op. 92, in A flat, is certainly one of the best +pieces of music he ever wrote. Schubert's two sonatas (B flat, Op. 30; +C, Op. 140) are very different in character: the one is smooth and +agreeable; the other contains some of the noblest music ever penned by +the composer. + +Sonatinas are almost always written for educational purposes. No +description, no analysis of such works, is necessary; only a list of +the best. The "Twelve Sonatinas for the Harpsichord or Pianoforte, for +the use of Scholars" (Op. 12), by James Hook (1746-1827), father of +the well-known humorist, Theodore Hook, deserve honourable mention. +Each number contains only two short movements; they are well written, +and, though old, not dry. Joseph Bottomley, another English composer +(1786-?), also wrote twelve sonatinas for the pianoforte. + +Those of Clementi and Dussek seem destined to perennial life. The +former composed twelve (Op. 36, 37, and 38), the latter six (Op. 20); +and then, of course, of higher musical interest are the sonatinas of +Beethoven (two) and Hermann Goetz (two). From an educational point of +view, however, these are perhaps not of equal value with many others +of inferior quality; but they are full of character and charm. Kuhlau +(1786-1832), on whose name Beethoven wrote the well-known Canon, "Kuhl +nicht lau," composed sonatas which, owing to their fresh, melodious +character and skilful writing, justly take high rank. Op. 20, 55, 59, +60, and 88 have all been edited by Dr. H. Riemann. Among still more +modern composers may be mentioned: Reinecke, whose three sonatinas +(Op. 47), six sonatinas with "the right-hand part within the compass +of five fingers" (Op. 127A), and (Op. 136) the "Six Miniature Sonatas" +(another term for sonatinas) have given satisfaction to teachers, and +enjoyment to many young pupils; also Cornelius Gurlitt, who has proved +a prolific worker in this department of musical literature. His six +sonatinas (Op. 121) and the duet sonatas (Op. 124,--really sonatinas) +are exceedingly useful, and justly popular. Besides these, he has +issued two series of progressive sonatinas: some by Diabelli, Pleyel, +Steibelt, etc.; some from his own pen. Koehler's three sonatinas +(without octaves), A. Loeschhorn's instructive sonatinas, E. Pauer's +National Sonatinas (Ireland, Wales, Italy, etc.), and Xaver +Scharwenka's two sonatinas are likewise of value. + +Among various strange works written under the title of sonata we may +count certain programme pieces. Thus, John Christian Bach, or "Mr. +Bach," as he is named on the title-page, published a sonata "qui +represente La Bataille de Rosbach," and an _N.B._ adds: "Dans cette +Sonate La Musique vous montre le Comencement d'une Bataille le feu des +Cannons et Mousqueterie L'Ataque de la Cavalerie et les L'Amendations +des Blessees." This work consists of one movement (Allegro) in +sonata-form. Except for the title, and the words "Canonade" and "Feu +des Mousqueteries," it would be difficult to guess the subject. The +music, which may be described as a study in the Alberti bass, is +decidedly more correct in form than the French of the title-page. +Then, again, Dussek composed a "Characteristic Sonata" describing "The +Naval Battle and Total Defeat of the Grand Dutch Fleet by Admiral +Duncan on the 11th of October 1797." But he was engaged in a much more +suitable task when he wrote music _expressing the feelings_ of the +unfortunate Marie Antoinette. + +There are three sonatas composed by A. Quintin Buee.[113] No. 3 is +"for two performers on one instrument." In the last movement, the +first performer is "Le Francais," and he rattles along with the +popular tune "Ca ira," while the second, "The Englishman," steadily +plays his national air, "Rule Britannia"; towards the close, _fors +fuat_, "God save the King" and "Ca ira" are combined. + + + + +INDEX + + +ALBERTI, 109, 112. + +Alberti Bass, 26, 30, 33 (note), 109, 110, 239. + +Albrici V. 39, + influence on Kuhnau, 42. + +Ambros A.W. Pasquini, 73. + +Arbeau T. Orchesographie, 15 and 16. + +Arne T.A. 222, 225; _Sonatas_: 226, 227. + + +BACH C.P.E. 9, 12, 29 and (note), 31, 32, 87, 219, 228; + _Sonatas_: "Frederick," 25, 85-91, + Wuertemberg, 85, 92, 93, 115, + "Reprisen," 85, 94-100, + Toeplitz, 93 and 94, + "Leichte," 100, 161 (note), + three-movement, 175, + Leipzig Collections, 85, 101-7; + Beethoven, 86, 105, 106, + Dr. Buelow, 96-8, + Fasch, 40, + Haydn, 93, 114, 115, 125, + Kuhnau, 22, 24, + Marpurg's _Clavierstuecke_, 91 and 92, + Neefe, 161-3. + +Bach J.C. 28 (note), 35, 227, 239; + _Sonatas_: 107, 108, 236. + +Bach J.C.F. 29, 35, 106. + +Bach J.E. 26, 29. + +Bach, J.S. 9, 14 (note), 229 (note); + Organ Concerto, 76, + sonata attributed to, 89 (note), + Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues, 160 and 161, + and fugue-form, 91; + Beethoven, 182-5, + Kuhnau, 20, 21, 48, 87, + Rust, 152. + +Bach W.F. 29; + _Sonatas_: 26, 108. + +Banchieri, 10; + _L'Organo suonarino_ (with sonata) 3-5. + +Banister H.C. Life of Macfarren, 140. + +Bargiel, 235; + _Sonata_: 236. + +Barry C.A. 218. + +Barthelemon Miss, 229 and (note). + +Bassani G. 7, 223 and (note). + +Becker D. 10; + _Sonatas_: 43. + +Becker C.F. Hausmusik in Deutschlande, 49-50. + +Beethoven L. v. 29, 31 and (note), 32, 33, 35, 45, 125, 194, 219; + Reminiscences, 133-140, 167, 168, + patrons and friends, 168-171, + programme-music, 21, + opus numbers, 112, 113, + connection and number of movements, 106 and 107, 171, + poetic basis, 178, 185-191, + exposition section, 36, + approach to recapitulation, 37, + key of second subject, 177, + the "repeat," 178, 179, + Codas and Introductions, 179-181, + central thought, 182, + disorganisation, 191; + _Sonatas_: (Op. 111), 57, 116, 174-6; + table, 164-5; + two-, 174-6, + three-, 172-3, + four-movement, 173-4, + sonatinas, 238; + Symphony in C, 102, 103, + "Eroica," 135, + sketches, 171-2, + theme of Op. 106, 210, 211; + Bach C.P.E. 86, 87, + Bach J.S. 160, 182-5, + Brahms, 210, 211, + Haydn, 166, 167, + Kuhlau, 238, + Kuhnau, 57, + Neefe, 161-3, + Potter, 230, + Scarlatti, 17, + Schindler, 186-8, 190, + Weber, 192, 195-198. + +Benda G. 28, 83 and (note); + _Clavierstuecke_, 84; + _Sonatas_: 27. + +Bennett S. _Sonatas_: 231-32. + +Beringer O. 218. + +Birchall R. 18, 145 (note). + +Bitter C.H. 85, 92, 94 (note); + E. Bach, 97 and 98. + +Boehm G. _Chorale_, 54, 131. + +Bononcini B. 6. + +Bononcini G.M. 6. + +Borwick L. 205. + +Bottomley J. sonatinas, 238. + +Brahms J. 120; + _Sonatas_: 209-18. + Chopin, 214, + Clementi, 216, + Liszt, 210, 214, + Mendelssohn, 217, + Schubert, 214. + +Bossard, 42 (note). + +Buee A.Q. _Sonatas_: 239, 240 and (note). + +Bull Dr. 221. + +Buelow Dr. H. v. and E. Bach's sonatas, 96-8, 160. + +Burney Dr. 4, + Musical Extracts, 6. + +Burton J. _Sonatas_: 228. + +Buxtehude, 131; + Suites, 51 and 52. + +Byrd W. 221, 222. + + +CARLYLE, his "Frederick the Great," 83 (note). + +Chopin F. 229; + _Sonatas_: 209. + +Clementi, M. 33, 45, 119 (note), 130; + _Sonatas_: 131, 132-42, + sonatinas, 238; + Beethoven, 131, 133, 134, + Field, 229, + Macfarren, 140, + Mozart, 132, 133, + Potter, 230, + Scarlatti, 135. + +Corelli A. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 42, 45, 46, 74, 77 + (note), 79, 87, 224. + +Cramer J.B. 108, 146, 192, 193 and (note). + + +DANNREUTHER E. 133. + +Davidson J.W. 149. + +Dussek J.L. 33, 197, 237, 239; + Letters to publishers, 142-5; + _Sonatas_: 146-7, 148,' + _Le Retour a Paris_, 149, + _Plus Ultra_, 150, + sonatinas, 238. + Macfarren, 151-2, + Mendelssohn, 147, + Tomaschek, 145-6, + Woelfl, 149. + + +FAISST J. 50, + Analysis of a Mattheson Sonata, 22-3. + +Farina C. 6. + +Fasch J.F. 40. + +Fasch C.F.C. and E. Bach, 40, 41. + +Ferdinand, Prince Louis, death of 144, 145 (note). + +Fetis F.J. 27, 38, 240 (note), + extract from _Biographie Universelle des Musiciens_, 72-3. + +Field J. _Sonatas_: 229. + +Forkel, Letter from E. Bach to, 93-4, 96, 97. + +Frederick the Great, 22, 40, 41, 82, 83 (note), 85, 88. + +Frescobaldi, 71 (note). + +Froberger J.J. 20, 42, 46, 51, 52. + +Fuller-Maitland J.A. 51 (note), 223. + + +GABRIELI A. 10. + +Gabrieli G. 2, 10. + +Gaffi B. pupil of Pasquini, 71. + +Galuppi, 27, 29, 30 and (note) 31. + +Gasparini, pupil of Pasquini, 77 (note). + +Geminiani, 11, 225. + +Gluck, 28 (note). + +Goethe, 191. + +Goetz H. 238. + +Graun C.H. 83. + +Graun J.G. 82. + +Graupner Chr. 39 ff. + +Gretry, 27. + +Grieco G. 80. + +Grieg E. 235-6. + +Grove Sir G. 20, 27 (note), 73, 111, 133, 145. + +Gurlitt C. 238. + + +HANDEL G.F. 13, 14, 19, 26, 40, 57; + Kuhnau 48-9. + +Hasler H.L. 10. + +Hasse J.A. 28, 29, 84 (note); + _Sonatas_: 27, 32. + +Hawkins Sir J. 223 ff. + +Haydn J. 1, 37, 45, 87, 99, 164, 182, 228; + New era, 30, + anecdote, 117, + programme-music, 185, + European magazine, 114, 115, + father of symphony, 111, + "In Native Worth," 167, + number and connection of movements, 33 and (note), 106, + introductory slow movement, 138, + three-movement form, 174, + approach to dominant section, 34, + second subject, 35, + codas, 179, 189; + _Sonatas_: 113, 115-20; + Bach C.P.E. 93, + Beethoven, 166, 167, + Metastasio, 111, + Porpora, 112. + +Heller S. 233, 235-6. + +Hering A. 38. + +Hook J. sonatinas, 237. + +Hook T. 237. + +Hummel J.N. 192, 194 (Op. 92), 237. + +Humphries J. 224. + + +IKEN Dr. C. Beethoven, 188-9. + +Indy, Vincent d', 235. + + +JAHN Otto, 120, 129, 132, 236. + + +KALKBRENNER F.W.M. 134, 192, 235. + +Keiser, 48. + +Kittel C. 38 and (notes). + +Krieger J.P. 14 and (note). + +Kruegner S. 38 and (note). + +Kuehnel, 39. + +Kuhnau A. 38 and (note). + +Kuhnau J. 10, 22, 38, 219; + Writings and pupils, 39-41, + German and Italian influences, 42, + Bible Stories, 65-70, + Seven Partitas, 41, + Preface to Bible Sonatas, 52-4; + _Sonatas_: (B flat), 43-4, + _Frische Clavier Fruechte_, 44-50, + "Bible," 19-21, 45, 46 (note), 48-9, 51, 54-65. + + +LEGRENZI G. 10; + _Sonatas_: 6. + +Le Tresor des Pianistes, 45 (note), 80, 94 (note). + +Liszt F. 235; + Beethoven, 176 + _Sonata_: 210 and 218-20. + +Locatelli 11, 12; + _Sonatas_: 9. + +Loeschhorn A. sonatinas, 239. + +Lotti, teacher of Galuppi, 29, 77 (note). + + +MACFARREN SIR G.A. 140; + _Sonatas_: 230 and 231; + Dussek, 151 and 152. + +Marpurg, 2, 3. + +Martini San, 112, 226. + +Mattheson, 7, 20, 23, 38 (note), 39 (note), 40 and (note), 42; + Pasquini 74; + _Sonata_: 22-3. + +Matthisson, the poet, 157. + +Mendel, 27, 72. + +Mendelssohn F. 151 (note), 231; + Dussek, 147. + +Morley, 7. + +Moscheles I. 235. + +Mozart L. 34; + _Sonatas_: 27. + +Mozart W.A. 33, 34, 35, 37, 45, 87, 99, 169; + Italian influence, 126-127, + Op. 1, 33 (note), + Requiem, 57, + duets, 236 and 237; + _Sonatas_: 120-5; + Beethoven, 160-1, + Clementi, 132, + Haydn, 127-9, + Kuhnau, 49. + +Muethel J.G. 27, 28 (note), 33, 90 (note). + + +NEEFE C.G. _Sonatas_: 161-3. + +Nichelmann C. 27, 28, 106. + + +PALESTRINA, 71, 73. + +Paradies P.D. 27, 28, 108-110. + +Parry Dr. C.H. 13, 20, 108; + _Sonatas_: 232 and 233. + +Pasquini B. (_see frontispiece by S. Hutton_), 14 (note), 74; + His monument, 71-2; + Operas and oratorio, 72, + Toccatas and Suites, 72, 74-5, + music in Berlin Library, 73, + in British Museum, 75; + _Sonatas_: 76-80; + Fetis, 72-3, + Handel, 77 (note), + Kuhnau, 81. + +Pasquini E. 71 (note). + +Pauer E. 43, 80, 189 (note); + sonatinas, 239. + +Pescetti G.B. _Sonatas_: 25-6. + +Pleyel, 239. + +Poglietti, 74 and (note). + +Potter C. _Sonata_: 130. + +Prieger Dr. E. 153, 159, 193 (note). + +Prout Prof. E. 147. + +Purcell H. 2; + _Sonatas_: 222-4. + + +RAFF J. 235, 236. + +Ravenscroft J. 224. + +Ravenscroft R. 224. + +Reinecke C. 238. + +Riemann Dr. H. 27 (note), 185, 238. + +Rimbault Dr. 43. + +Rochlitz F. 141. + +Rockstro, 77 (note). + +Rubinstein A. 235, 236. + +Rudolph, Archduke, 165, 170, 201. + +Rust Dr. W. 153 and (note). + +Rust F.W. 152 ff. + +Rust J.L.A. 152. + + +SANDONI P.G. _Sonatas_: 23-4. + +Scarlatti A. 77 (note), 80. + +Scarlatti D. 36, 73-4, 77 (note), 80, 89, 226; + _Sonatas_: 15, 16-19; + Bach C.P.E. 92 and 93, + Paradies, 109. + +Schaffrath C. 27 and (note), 31. + +Scharwenka X. 239. + +Scheibe J.A. _Critischer Musikus_, 48. + +Schindler A. 140 (note), 141, 142, 172, 173, 189; + Conversations with Beethoven, 186-8, 190. + +Schop J. 10, 11. + +Schubert F. 120, 195; + _Sonatas_: 198-206, 237. + +Schumann R. 152, 200, 202, 206; + Fantasia, 209; + _Sonatas_: 208-9; + Beethoven, 207. + +Sherard J. 223 (note). + +Shakespeare, 190, 191. + +Schoelcher V. Life of Handel, 19 (note), 77 (note). + +Spenser H. 191. + +Spitta Dr. P. 20, 21, 54, 57, 195. + +Squire W.B. 51 (note). + +Stanford Dr. C.V. _Sonata_: 233-4. + +Steffani A. 77 (note); + _Sonatas_: 14. + +Steibelt D. 192, 193 (note); + sonatinas, 239; + Beethoven, 194. + + +TARTINI G. 9, 11 (note); + _Sonatas_: 12. + +Telemann G.P. 48; + _Sonatas_: 24-5, + sonatinas, 89 (note). + +Tomaschek, account of Dussek's playing, 145-6. + +Turini F. 5-6; + _Sonatas_, 4. + + +UMSTATT J. 27 and (note), 32. + + +VERACINI, 11 and (note), 12, 225. + +Vitali G.B. 7, 223. + +Vogler, Abbe, 195, 196. + + +WAGENSEIL G. 31 and (note), 174; + _Sonatas_: 27. + +Weber C.M. v. 192; + _Sonatas_: 194-8. + +Weber M.M. v. 194. + +Weitzmann C.F. _Geschichte des Clavierspiels_, 74, + Pasquini, 75. + +Wesley S. 226; + _Sonatas_: 229-30. + +Woelfl J. 174, 192; + _Ne Plus Ultra_ Sonata: 149-50, 193 (note); + Beethoven, 194. + +Worgan I. _Sonatas_: 228. + + +ZACH, 31, 32. + +Zimmermann Miss A. 230. + + +MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] _Musikalisches Lexicon oder musikalische Bibliothek._ + +[2] Among the four-movement sonatas of Op. 1, No. 6 (in B minor) has +the peculiar order: Grave, Largo, Adagio, Allegro. + +[3] The Preludio Adagio only consists of four chords, or two bars; the +Adagio, again, only consists of four bars. The sonata, therefore, may +be considered as of three movements. + +[4] 1680-1762. + +[5] 1693-1764. + +[6] 1685-1750 (Veracini is regarded as of the Corelli school, yet it +should not be forgotten that his uncle, Antonio Veracini, is said to +have published "Sonate a tre, due violini e violone, o arciliuto col +basso continuo per l'organo" at Florence, already in 1662). + +[7] 1692-1770. + +[8] It is important to distinguish between _sonata_ and _sonata-form_. +The first movement of a modern sonata is usually in sonata-form; but +there are sonatas (Beethoven, Op. 26, etc.) which contain no such +movement. Sonata-form, as will be shown later on, has been evolved +from old binary form. By _sonata_ is understood merely a group of +movements; hence objection may certainly be taken to the term as +applied to the one-movement pieces of Dom. Scarlatti, which are not +even in sonata-form. + +[9] It must be remembered that Corelli spent some time in Germany +between 1680 and 1683, the latter being the year of publication of his +first sonatas at Rome. + +[10] In J.S. Bach's 2nd Sonata for Flauto traverso and Cembalo (third +movement) there is a return to the opening theme in the second +section; also in the Presto of the sonata for two violins and figured +bass we have an example very similar to the "Hoboy" sonata of Handel. + +[11] Krieger, by the way, studied under Bernardo Pasquini at Rome. + +[12] Cf. Corelli: Corrente in 10th Sonata of Op. 2; also Allemande and +Giga of the next sonata. + +[13] Cf. Scarlatti: No. 10 of the sixty sonatas published by Breitkopf +& Haertel. + +[14] When there is clearly a second subject, that of course offers the +point of return. (See Nos. 24 and 39.) + +[15] See V. Schoelcher's _Life of Handel_, p. 23. + +[16] See, however, chapter on the predecessors of Beethoven. + +[17] See ch. iii. on Pasquini. + +[18] "Seit einigen Jahren hat man angefangen, Sonaten fuer's Clavier +(da sie sonst nur fuer Violinen u. dgl. gehoeren) mit gutem Beifall zu +setzen; bisher haben sie noch die rechte Gestalt nicht, und wollen +mehr geruehrt werden, als ruehren, das ist, sie zielen mehr auf die +Bewegung der Finger als der Herzen." + +[19] The public did not support the undertaking, and the other five +never appeared. + +[20] The copy in the British Museum has no violin part, which was +probably unimportant. + +[21] Emanuel Bach's predecessor as clavecinist at the Prussian Court. + +[22] This name is not in Mendel, Riemann, Grove, nor Brown. Fetis, +however, mentions him as Joseph Umstadt, _maitre de chapelle_ of Count +Bruehl, at Dresden, about the middle of the eighteenth century, and as +composer of _Parthien_, and of six sonatas for the clavecin. + +[23] See, however, the early Wuertemberg sonatas. + +[24] Examples to be found in Rolle, Muethel, and Joh. Chr. Bach, etc. + +[25] Gluck's six sonatas for two violins and a thorough bass, +published by J. Simpson, London (probably about the time when Gluck +was in London, since he is named on title-page "Composer to the +Opera"), have three movements: slow, fast, fast,--the last generally a +Minuet. + +[26] E. Bach did some strange things. One of his sonatas (Coll. of +1783, No. 1) has the first movement in G major, the second in G minor, +and the third in E major. + +[27] Galuppi, No. 4, first set: Adagio, Spiritoso, Giga Allegro. + +[28] Sometimes the last movement was a Tempo di Menuetto, a Polonaise, +or even a Fugue. + +[29] Wagenseil's Op. 1, Sonatas with violin accompaniment. No. 4, in +C, has Allegro, Minuetto, Andante, and Allegro assai. + +[30] As this experiment of Seyfert and Goldberg, in connection with +Beethoven, is of special interest, we may add that Goldberg has all +the movements in the same key, but Seyfert has both the Trio of the +Minuet, and the Andante in the under-dominant. This occurs in two of +his sonatas; in both, the opening key is major. + +[31] There is, however, one curious exception. The first of the two +"Sonates pour le clavecin, qui peuvent se jouer avec l'Accompagnement +de Violon, dediees a Madame Victoire de France, par J.G. Wolfgang +Mozart de Salzbourg, age de sept ans," published at Paris as Op. 1, +has _four_ movements: an Allegro in C (with, by the way, an Alberti +bass from beginning to end, except at the minor chord with organ point +near the close of each section, the place for the extemporised +cadenza), an Andante in F (Alberti bass from beginning to end), a +first and second Menuet, and an Allegro molto, of course, in C. The +brief dedication to Op. 1 is signed:--"Votre tres humble, tres +obeissant et tres petit Serviteur, J.G. Wolfgang Mozart." + +[32] There is one exception: a sonata in G major, one of his earliest. +See chapter on Haydn and Mozart. + +[33] Scheibe; a return for the moment to a practice which was once of +usual occurrence. + +[34] Mention has been made in this chapter of a first section in a +minor piece of Scarlatti's ending in the _major_ key of the dominant. + +[35] In the Sonatas of 1781, for instance, the first movement of No. +2, in F, has a definite second subject, but that is scarcely the case +with the first movement of No. 3, in F minor. + +[36] This is the date given by Mattheson. In some dictionaries we find +1667; this, however, seems to be an error, for that would only make +Kuhnau fifteen years of age when he became candidate for the post of +organist of St. Thomas'. Fetis, who gives the later date (1667), +states that in 1684 Kuhnau became organist of St. Thomas', but adds: +"Quoiqu'il ne fut age que de dix-sept ans." + +[37] This Kittel must surely have been father or uncle of Johann +Christian Kittel, Bach's last pupil. + +[38] Mattheson, in his _Grundlage einer Ehren-Pforte_, published at +Hamburg in 1740, complains that the names of Salomon Kruegner, +Christian Kittel, A. Kuhnau, and Hering are not to be found in the +musical dictionaries. The first and third have not, even now, a place. + +[39] In a letter written by Graupner to Mattheson, the former, after +mentioning that he studied the clavier and also composition under +Kuhnau, says:--"Weil ich mich auch bei Kuhnau, als Notist, von +selbsten ambot, u. eine gute Zeit fuer ihn schrieb, gab nur solches +gewuenschte Gelegenheit, viel gutes zu sehen, u. wo etwa ein Zweifel +enstund, um muendlichen Bericht zu bitten, wie dieses oder jenes zu +verstehen?" ("As I offered myself as copyist to Kuhnau, and wrote some +long time for him, such a wished-for opportunity enabled me to study +much good (music), and, whenever a doubt arose to learn by word of +mouth how this or that was to be understood.") + +[40] In the _Dictionnaire de Musique_ by Bossard (2nd ed. 1705) no +mention is made under the article "Sonata" of one for the clavier, and +yet the above had been published ten years previously. + +[41] See also next chapter. + +[42] Nearly the whole of this composer's works are said to have been +destroyed at the bombardment of Dresden in 1760. + +[43] The sonata is given in _Le Tresor des Pianistes_ with the +ornaments, yet even there more than a dozen have been omitted. + +[44] The clavier by its very nature tended towards polyphony; the +violin towards monody. And, besides, Kuhnau prided himself on the +fugal character of his sonatas. + +[45] Even in the later "Bible" Sonatas, figures from these sonatas +recur. + +[46] Cf. _The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book_, edited by J.A. +Fuller-Maitland and W. Barclay Squire (Breitkopf & Haertel). + +[47] Johann Jakob Froberger died in 1667. + +[48] Meyer thinks he was probably the son of Ercole Pasquini, born +about 1580, and predecessor of Frescobaldi at St. Peter's. + +[49] Weitzmann and other writers, in referring to the work published +at Amsterdam, spell the name Paglietti; it should, however, be +Polietti or Poglietti. + +[50] This piece was printed from a manuscript in the British Museum, +which bears no such title. Judging, however, from the title of the +_libro prezioso_ mentioned on p. 71 [Transcriber's Note: p. 73], that +name may originally have been given to it. + +[51] The suite is printed in the _Pasquini-Grieco Album_ by Messrs. +Novello. + +[52] Pasquini was no doubt one of the many composers who influenced +Handel. When the latter visited Italy before he came to London in +1710, he made the acquaintance of the two Scarlattis (Alessandro and +Domenico), Corelli, and other famous musicians at Rome; of Lotti and +Steffani at Venice; and surely at Naples he must have known Pasquini, +whose name, however, is not to be found either in Schoelcher or +Rockstro. Only Gasparini, who was a pupil of Pasquini's, is mentioned +by the former. + +[53] "Si puo fare a Due Cembali." + +[54] See the _Novello Album_. + +[55] See the _Novello Album_. + +[56] The post was offered to Bach in 1738, while Frederick was as yet +Crown Prince, but he only entered on his duties in 1740. + +[57] The four sons of Hans Georg Benda (Franz, Johann, Georg, and +Joseph) were excellent musicians, and all members of the band of +Frederick the Great. Georg, the third son, composer of _Ariadne_ and +_Medea_, two _duodramas_ which attracted the attention of Mozart, was, +however, the most remarkable. + +[58] Cf. Carlyle's _Frederick the Great_, vol. iv. p. 134:--"Graun, +one of the best judges living, is likewise off to Italy, gathering +singers." + +[59] The symphonies appear to be three-movement overtures transcribed +for clavier. As a rule, the pieces marked as symphonies in this +collection have no double bars, and, consequently, no repeat in the +first movement. A "symphony" of Emanuel Bach is, however, marked as a +"sonata" in the _Six Lessons for the Harpsichord_, published in London +during the eighteenth century. + +[60] The king was extremely fond of Hasse's music, but this composer, +though German by birth, was thoroughly Italian by training. + +[61] Yet, curiously, there is no chord in the later sonatas so large +as the two on page 29 (6th Sonata)-- + +[Music illustration] and [Music illustration] + +which, of course, are played in arpeggio. + +[62] Excepting in the fifth, which, by the way, was, for a long time, +considered to be the composition of J.S. Bach, and was published as +such by J.C. Westphal & Co. This return to the opening theme is to be +found already in the sonatinas for violin and cembalo by G.P. Telemann +published at Amsterdam in 1718. See Allegro of No. 1, in A; the main +theme is given as usual in the key of the dominant at the beginning of +the second section. Then after a modulation to the key of the relative +minor, a return is made to the opening key and the opening theme. + +[63] Similar passages are to be found in the opening Vivace of J.G. +Muethel's 2nd Sonata in G. He was a pupil of J.S. Bach, and either a +pupil or close follower of E. Bach. His six published sonatas are of +great musical interest; in his wide sweeping arpeggios and other +florid passages he shows an advance on E. Bach. His 2nd Arioso with +twelve variations is worth the notice of pianists in search of +something unfamiliar. There are features in the music--and of these +the character of the theme is not least--which remind one strongly of +Beethoven's 32 C minor variations. + +[64] A recitative is also to be found in a Mueller sonata. + +[65] "In tempo in cui ebbi l'onore di darle Lezzione di Musica in +Berlino." + +[66] "The two sonatas, which met with your special approval, are the +only ones of this kind which I have ever composed. They are connected +with the one in B minor, which I sent to you, with the one in B flat, +which you now have also, and with two out of the Hafner-Wuertemberg +Collection; and all six were composed on a Claviacord with the short +octave, at the Toeplitz baths, when I was suffering from a severe +attack of gout." + +A series of six sonatas by E. Bach is in the _Tresor des Pianistes_, +and is said to have been published at Nuremberg in 1744; the work is +also dedicated to the Duke of Wuertemberg, and the Opus number (2) is +also given to it. There is mention of these sonatas in Bitter's +biography of J.S. Bach's sons, but not of the others. + +[67] Sechs ausgewaehlte Sonaten fuer Klavier allem von Carl Philipp +Emanuel Bach bearbeitet und mit einem Vorwort herausgegeben von Hans +von Buelow (Peters, Leipzig). + +[68] In like manner he feels in the Andante, _reflection_, and in the +final Andantino, _melancholy consolation_. + +[69] _Leipziger Mus. Almanack_, 1783. + +[70] The number of sonatas in each collection grew gradually smaller: +first six, then three, lastly two. The dates of composition in the +last column of above table may be studied with advantage: a later date +of publication does not necessarily imply a more advanced work. Thus, +of the three fine sonatas in the 3rd Collection (all of which are +included in the Buelow selection), one was written eighteen, another +fifteen, and the third (though first in order of reckoning), seven +years before the date of publication (1781). + +[71] See particularly the Sonata in G (collection of 1783). + +[72] All of these consist of two movements; in the first, both +movements are marked Andante. + +[73] For the benefit of readers who may not possess Pohl's _J. Haydn_, +we insert in brackets, after the Pohl numbers, those of the Holle +edition. + +[74] Cf. C.F. Pohl's _J. Haydn_, vol. ii. p. 311. They are in the keys +of D, E flat, and A, and are interesting. The Tempo di Menuetto of the +second presents a strict canon in the octave. In the last, too, there +is a curious canon. + +[75] The treble of the tenth bar of the second section has been +frequently printed a third too high. + +[76] This Sonata in E flat (Op. 78) was dedicated to Mrs. Bartolozzi, +wife of the famous engraver, and to her Haydn also dedicated one in C +major, marked as Op. 79,--a bright, clever and showy work, in which +the influence of Clementi is sensibly felt. The development section of +the opening Allegro, together with the return to the principal theme, +is interesting. The Adagio, in the key of the subdominant, is one of +Haydn's best, while the final movement (Allegro molto) is full of life +and humour. + +[77] "Clementi is a charlatan, _like all the Italians_" (Letter to his +sister, June 7, 1783). + +[78] It is thirty-five years since the fine one in B minor was +performed at the Popular Concerts; and eighteen, since a Clementi +sonata has appeared on a Popular Concert programme. + +[79] The three Sonatas in E flat, F minor, and D, dedicated to +Maximilian Frederick, Elector of Cologne, and published at Speyer in +1783, are not here taken into account. + +[80] In mentioning any of them we shall first give the Breitkopf & +Haertel numbers and then the Holle numbers in brackets, so that either +edition may be referred to. + +[81] At the time of their production Dussek was not born, Hummel was +still a child, and Beethoven an infant "mewling and puking in the +nurse's arms," if, indeed, the Beethovens were able to afford the +luxury of a nurse. Even Emanuel Bach had not published any of his +Leipzig Collections, neither had Haydn written his best sonatas. As +Clementi was not only the survivor of Beethoven, but also his +predecessor, a reminder as to the state of the sonata world, when +Clementi first entered it, is not wholly unnecessary. + +[82] London Symphony in E flat, No. 8 (No. 1 in Breitkopf & Haertel +_Catalogue_). + +[83] See p. 187 concerning Beethoven's conversation with Schindler. + +[84] Schindler, _Biography of Beethoven_, 3rd ed. vol. ii. pp. 223-4. + +[85] + +HAMBURGH, _June 12, 1801._ + +MR. CLEMENTI, MON CHER CLEMENTI,-- + +J'ai recu avec un extreme plaisir votre lettre, aussi que +_L'Autoscript_ dans celle de ma femme, je suis extremement touche du +desir que vous temoignez de me revoir a Londres, mais etant une fois +dans le Continent je ne puis resister au desir de faire une visite a +mon Pere, d'autant plus qui je Lui ai deja ecrit que je viendrai pour +Sure le voir cette etee, je scais par Ses lettres qu'il attend ce +moment comme la plus grande, et peut-etre, la derniere jouissance de +sa Vie; tromper dans une pareille attente un Viellard de 70 ans, ce +serait anticiper sur sa mort, d'ailleurs en arrivant en Angleterre +tout de suite je ne ferais egalement que manger mon argent, ou bien +celui de ma femme jusqu'a l'hiver prochain, aussi ma resolution est +prise de faire le Voyage de la Boheme; voire en passant Dresde, Prague +et Vienne, ou je scais que je puis gagner de quoi me defrayer de tout +mon voyage, et au dela: et de revenir a Londres vers le Novembre, vous +pouvez compter ladessus, mais surtout sur le plaisir que j'aurai de +revoir et d'embrasser un ami tel que vous--Mardi prochain part d'ici +pour Londres un commis de Mr. Parish _un des premiers Banquiers d'ici_ +qui vous remetra en mains propres, par un de vos associes, mes trois +nouvelles Sonates,--je suis occupe a metre au net. Les trois +Concertinos qui vous recevrez aussi dans une quinzaine au plus tard, +dont j'espere qui vous serez assez content, etant le meilleur ouvrage +que j'ai jamais fait _in the Selling Way_, adieu mon cher Clementi, +Les oreilles doivent souvent vous tinter, car je parle constamment de +vous a tout le monde, car tout le monde aime qu'on leur parle de leurs +connaissances, or vous etes de la connaissance de tout le monde, +adieu. + +Votre ami, + +DUSSEK. + +MESSRS LONGMAN, CLEMENTI, & CO., GENTELMEN AND FRIENDS,-- + +I beg you would do your possible to send to me the two grand +instruments immediately, for the two Gentelmen whom I have persuaded +to purchase them after they have heard my own, are very impatient +about it, and I am afraid if I do not receive a decided Answer from +you about it or the _connoisement_, wich I may Show them, they will be +induced to Buy some of their German Instruments as they are pretty +well influenced by the Capel Master of this Town who is a tolerable +great As in Music and an illnatured Antianglomane, besides I expect it +as the means to make my Journey to Bohemia, therefore I hope you will +be so good, and make the greatest Speed you can--you will see by the +above that I intend to be in London about November Next, when I will +be very happy to settle with you what may Balance in our account and +to continue faithfull to our agreement. + +Believe me, + +Gentelmen and Friends, + +Yours faithfully, + +DUSSEK. + +You have no Idea how many proposals I have received from London about +my Compositions, some of them will make you Laugh. + +[86] + +AT THE GENERAL QUARTERS OF THE PRUSSIAN ARMY IN SAXONY, _the 4th 8ber +1806_. + +DEAR SIR,-- + +I have lately composed three Quartettos for two Violins, Tenor and +Violoncello, and confess to you that I think this work above all that +I have composed, they are neither in the Stile of Mozart, or Haydn, +nor that of Pleyel, they are in the Stile of Dussek and I will hope +make some noise in the Musical World--the Price for the Propriety of +them in Britain is 60 guineas, wich I think highly moderate +considering the scarcity of good new Quartettos--I have particularly +chosen you Sir for the publication of this work, because I allways +found you very reasonable in the few Business I have had the pleasure +to make with you, and as my Contract with Clementi & Co. finishes the +4th November this year, I should be very glad to continue with you the +publication of all my Works in futur--These Quartettos are for you a +publication so advantagous that I have not the least doubt but you +will make the Bargain of them, since there is such a long time that +nothing has been published of my composition--I wish them to appear +about the middle of January, and to be dedicated _to His Royal +Highness the Prince Louis of Prussia_ with whom I am at this moment at +the Army against the French--If you wish to write to me, give the +letter to the Gentelmen who shall deliver to you the quartettos--I beg +You to give my best greetings to Mr. Crassier, Sheener, Tonkinson and +all Those that remember me, and believe me, + +Your very obedient Servant, + +and sincere friend, + +DUSSEK, + +Privy Secretary to His Royal H^s. the Prince Louis of Prussia. + +The above letter is addressed to Mr. Birchal, Music Seller, New Bond +Street, London. + +[87] _Musical Times_, September and October 1877. + +[88] Here is one, in the 8th Variation-- + +[Music illustration] + +[89] Mendelssohn, too, complained that Dussek was a prodigal. + +[90] The one in D minor has often been performed at the Popular +Concerts. + +[91] 1822-1892. + +[92] The original title is: "Sonata per il Cembalo o Fortepiano di +F.W. Rust, 1788." + +[93] It is curious to note that in the supplement of the Breitkopf & +Haertel edition of Beethoven's works there are two little pieces +entitled "Lustig und Traurig." + +[94] E. Bach published six easy clavier sonatas in 1765, but Neefe +probably refers to earlier and more important works. + +[95] Besides those mentioned, he published in 1774 six new sonatas, +also variations on the theme "Kunz fand einst einen armen Mann." + +[96] "As your Royal Highness seemed to be pleased with the sonata in C +minor, I thought it would not appear too bold to surprise you with the +dedication of it." + +[97] The opening theme of that same symphony-- + +[Music illustration] + +recalls, curiously, the last movement of Beethoven's 8th Symphony; and +still more so in the form in which he first sketched it-- + +[Music illustration] + +[98] Schindler, by the way, relates in his _Biography of Beethoven_ +(3rd ed. 2nd Part, p. 212) that, already in 1816, when there was a +proposal made by Hoffmeister to Beethoven to issue a new edition of +his pianoforte music, the master conceived the intention of indicating +the poetic idea ("Poetische Idee") underlying his various works. And +the biographer adds: "This term (_i.e. poetic idea_) belongs to +Beethoven's epoch, and was used by him as frequently as was, for +example, the expression 'poetic contents' by others--in opposition to +works which only offer an harmonic and rhythmic play of tones. Writers +on aesthetics of our day declaim against the latter term; _with_ good +reason, if it refer to programme-music; _without_ reason, if they +extend their negation to all Beethoven's music, and deny its poetic +contents. Whence that tendency, which so frequently manifests itself, +and that strong desire to give pictorial explanations, especially of +the Beethoven symphonies and sonatas, if they contained nothing but a +well-ordered harmonic and rhythmic play of tones, and if they--or, at +least, some of them--were not based on some special idea? What other +composer creates this almost irresistible desire?" + +[99] Mr. E. Pauer, in his preface to Ernst von Elterlein's +_Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas explained for the lovers of the +musical art_,--a valuable and interesting book,--remarks: "Herr von +Elterlein's design is not so much to describe the beauties of +Beethoven's sonatas, as to direct the performer's attention to these +beauties, and to point out the _leading and characteristic features of +each separate piece_" (the italics are ours). + +[100] The Finale of a Sonata in A flat by Cramer, one of three +dedicated to Haydn, is said to have suggested to Beethoven the Finale +of _his_ Sonata in A flat (Op. 26). Dr. Erich Prieger, who has +recently published a facsimile of the autograph of Beethoven's sonata, +in his preface quotes some passages from the Cramer Finale, which +certainly seem to show that the Bonn master was to some extent +influenced by his predecessor. Here is the second of the three +passages quoted:-- + +[Music illustration] + +[101] Woelfl's "Ne plus Ultra" Sonata would have long been forgotten +but for Dussek's "Plus Ultra." See chapter on "Predecessors of +Beethoven." + +[102] In Steibelt's two sonatas (Op. 62), for instance, the airs "If a +body meet a body," "Jesse Macpharlane," and "La Chrantreuse" +[Transcriber's Note: So in original, perhaps should be "Chartreuse"] +are introduced. In his Op. 40 we also find "The Caledonian Beauty," +"The Maid of Selma," "'Twas within a mile of Edinbro' town," and "Life +let us cherish." Woelfl's sonatas (Op. 35, 38) also contain Scotch +airs, and his "Ne plus Ultra" has variations on "Life let us cherish." + +[103] 1773-1853, court organist at Heldburghausen. + +[104] 1766-1826, court organist at Freising. + +[105] Notice, in each case, the falling interval in the second and +fourth bar. + +[106] Verstohlen geht der Mond auf, blau, blau Bluemelein, etc. + +[107] The long arpeggio leading up to the first note is omitted. + +[108] In the British Museum copy the "XII. Sonate da Chiesa, Opera +Quinta" of Bassani are bound up with "Sonate a Tre" by Giacomo +Sherard. In plain English, the latter composer was a certain James +Sherard, an apothecary by profession. The Bassani sonatas here +mentioned were published at Amsterdam. Hawkins tells us that "an +ordinary judge, not knowing that they were the work of another, might +mistake them for compositions of Corelli." The first violin book has +the following entry:--"Mr. Sherard was an apothecary in Crutched +Friars about the year 1735, performed well on the violin, was very +intimate with Handel and other Masters." This copy, which possibly +belonged to Sherard, contains also the following, written apparently +by the person into whose hands the book passed:--"Wm. Salter, surgeon +and apothecary, Whitechapel High Street." The various sonatas, too, +are marked in pencil--some as _good_; others, _very good_. The date, +1789, is also given--the year, probably, in which the volumes became +the property of W. Salter. + +[109] These sonatas were afterwards published at Amsterdam as +Corelli's, being marked as his Opera Settima. On the title-page was +written "Si crede che Siano State Composte di Arcangelo Corelli avanti +le sue altre Opere." + +[110] See chapter on Haydn. + +[111] She was surely the daughter of Francois Hippolite Barthelemon +(son of a Frenchman and of an Irish lady), who was on intimate terms +with Haydn, to whom the sonata above mentioned is dedicated. + +[112] Samuel Wesley (1766-1837), nephew of the Rev. John Wesley, was a +gifted musician, and is specially remembered for his enthusiastic +admiration of John Sebastian Bach. The letters which he wrote to +Benjamin Jacob on the subject of his favourite author were published +by his daughter in 1875. He also, in conjunction with C.F. Horn, +published an edition of Bach's "Wohltemperirtes Clavier." + +[113] He is described on the title-page as "formerly Composer to +several Cathedral Churches in France." Buee's name is neither in Fetis +nor the Pougin Supplement. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Pianoforte Sonata, by J.S. Shedlock + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PIANOFORTE SONATA *** + +***** This file should be named 17074.txt or 17074.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/7/0/7/17074/ + +Produced by John Hagerson, Charles Aldarondo, Linda Cantoni, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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