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diff --git a/16353.txt b/16353.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..838e3b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/16353.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3918 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 421, +January 26, 1884, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 421, January 26, 1884 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16353] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jon Niehof and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 421 + + + + +NEW YORK, JANUARY 26, 1884 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVII., No. 421. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Furcot's Six Horse Power + Steam Engine.--With several figures. 6714 + + Foot Lathes.--With engraving. 6715 + + Endless Trough Conveyer.--2 engravings. 6715 + + Railroad Grades of Trunk Lines. 6715 + + English Express Trains.--Average speed, long runs, etc. 6715 + + Apparatus for Separating Substances Contained in the + Waste Waters of Paper Mills, etc.--2 figures. 6717 + +II. TECHNOLOGY.--An English Adaptation of the American Oil + Mill.--Description of the apparatus, and of the old and + new processes.--Several engravings. 6716 + + Large Blue Prints.--By W.B. Parsons, Jr. 6717 + +III. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electrical Apparatus for Measuring + and for Demonstration at the Munich Exhibition.--With + descriptions and numerous illustrations of the different + machines. 6711 + + A New Oxide of Copper Battery.--By F. De Lalande and S. + Chaperon.--With description and three illustrations. 6714 + +IV. MATHEMATICS, ETC.--To Find the Time of Twilight.--1 figure. 6720 + + A New Rule for Division in Arithmetic. 6725 + + Experiments in Binary Arithmetic. 6726 + +V. ARCHAEOLOGY.--Grecian Antiquities.--With engravings of the + Monument of Philopappus.--Tomb from the Ceramicus.--Tower + of the winds.--The Acropolis.--Old Corinth.--Temple of + Jupiter.--The Parthenon.--Temple of Theseus, etc. 6721 + +VI. NATURAL HISTORY, ETHNOLOGY, ETC.--Poisonous Serpents and + their Venom.--By Dr. Archie Stockwell.--A serpent's mouth, + fangs, and poison gland.--Manner of attack.--Nature of + the venom.--Action of venom.--Remedies. 6719 + + Ethnological Notes.--Papuans.--Negritos. 6720 + +VII. HORTICULTURE, BOTANY, ETC.--The Hornbeams.--Uses to + which the tree is put.--Wood for manufactures.--For + fuel.--Different varieties.--With engravings of the tree + as a whole, and of its leaves, fruit, flowers, etc. 6724 + + Fruit of Camellia Japonica.--1 engraving. 6725 + +VIII. MEDICINE. SANITATION, ETC.--House Drainage and Refuse. + Abstract of a lecture by Capt. Douglas Galton.--Treating + of the removal of the refuse from camps, small towns, and + houses.--Conditions to observe in house drains, etc. 6717 + + Pasteur's New Method of Attenuation. 6718 + + Convenient Vaults. 6719 + +IX. MISCELLANEOUS.--Spanish Fisheries.--Noticeable objects + in the Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition. 6722 + + Duck Shooting at Montauk. 6723 + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR MEASURING AND FOR DEMONSTRATION AT THE MUNICH +EXHIBITION. + + +Apparatus for use in laboratories and cabinets of physics were quite +numerous at the Munich Exhibition of Electricity, and very naturally a +large number was to be seen there that presented little difference +with present models. Several of them, however, merit citation. Among +the galvanometers, we remarked an apparatus that was exhibited by +Prof. Zenger, of Prague. The construction of this reminded us of that +of other galvanometers, but it was interesting in that its inventor +had combined in it a series of arrangements that permitted of varying +its sensitiveness within very wide limits. This apparatus, which Prof. +Zenger calls a "Universal Rheometer" (Fig. 1), consists of a bobbin +whose interior is formed of a piece of copper, whose edges do not +meet, and which is connected by strips of copper with two terminals. +This internal shell is capable of serving for currents of quantity, +and, when the two terminals are united by a wire, it may serve as a +deadener. Above this copper shell there are two identical coils of +wire which may, according to circumstances, be coupled in tension or +in series, or be employed differentially. Reading is performed either +by the aid of a needle moving over a dial, or by means of a mirror, +which is not shown in the figure. Finally, there is a lateral scale, +R, which carries a magnetized bar, A, that may be slid toward the +galvanometer. This magnet is capable of rendering the needle less +sensitive or of making it astatic. In order to facilitate this +operation, the magnet carries at its extremity a tube which contains a +bar of soft iron that may be moved slightly so as to vary the length +of the magnet. Prof. Zenger calls this arrangement a magnetic vernier. +It will be seen that, upon combining all the elements of the +apparatus, we can obtain very different combinations; and, according +to the inventor, his rheometer is a substitute for a dozen +galvanometers of various degrees of sensitiveness, and permits of +measuring currents of from 20 amperes down to 1/50000000 an ampere. +The apparatus may even be employed for measuring magnetic forces, as +it constitutes a very sensitive magnetometer. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER.] + +Prof. Zenger likewise had on exhibition a "Universal Electrometer" +(Fig. 2), in which the fine wire that served as an electrometric +needle was of magnetized steel suspended by a cotton thread. In this +instrument, a silver wire, t, terminating in a ball, is fixed to a +support, C, hanging from a brass disk, P, placed upon the glass case +of the apparatus. It will be seen that if we bring an electrified body +near the disk, P, a deviation of the needle will occur. The +sensitiveness of the latter may be regulated by a magnetic system like +that of the galvanometer. Finally, a disk, P', which may be slid up +and down its support, permits of the instrument being used as a +condensing electrometer, by giving it, according to the distance of +the disks, different degrees of sensitiveness. One constructor who +furnished much to this part of the exhibition was Mr. Th. Edelmann of +Munich, whose apparatus are represented in a group in Fig. 3. Among +them we remark the following: A quadrant electrometer (Fig. 4), in +which the horizontal 8-shaped needle is replaced by two connected +cylindrical surfaces that move in a cylinder formed of four parts; a +Von Beetz commutator; spyglasses with scale for reading measuring +instruments (Fig. 3); apparatus for the study of magnetic variations, +of Lamont (Fig. 3) and of Wild (Fig. 5); different types of the +Wiedemann galvanometer; an electrometer for atmospheric observations +(Fig. 6); a dropping apparatus (Fig. 7), in which the iron ball opens +one current at a time at the moment it leaves the electro-magnet and +when it reaches the foot of the support, these two breakages producing +two induction sparks that exactly limit the length to be taken in +order to measure the time upon the tracing of the chronoscope +tuning-fork; an absolute galvanometer; a bifilar galvanometer (Fig. 8) +for absolute measurements, in which the helix is carried by two +vertical steel wires stretched from o to u, and which is rendered +complete by a mirror for the reading, and a second and fixed helix, so +that an electro-dynamometer may be made of it; and, finally, a +galvanometer for strong currents, having a horseshoe magnet pivoted +upon a vertically divided column which is traversed by the current, +and a plug that may be arranged at different heights between the two +parts of the column so as to render the apparatus more sensitive (Fig. +9). + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER.] + +We may likewise cite the exhibit of Mr. Eugene Hartmann of Wurtzburg, +which comprised a series of apparatus of the same class as those that +we have just enumerated--spyglasses for the reading of apparatus, +galvanometers, magnetometers, etc. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN.] + +Specially worthy of remark were the apparatus of Mr. Kohlrausch for +measuring resistances by means of induction currents, and a whole +series of accessory instruments. + +Among the objects shown by other exhibitors must be mentioned Prof. +Von Waltenhofen's differential electromagnetic balance. In this, two +iron cylinders are suspended from the extremities of a balance. One of +them is of solid iron, and the other is of thin sheet iron and of +larger diameter and is balanced by an additional weight. Both of them +enter, up to their center, two solenoids. If a strong current be +passed into these latter, the solid cylinder will be attracted; but +if, on the contrary, the current be weak, the hollow cylinder will be +attracted. If the change in the current's intensity occur gradually, +there will be a moment in which the cylinders will remain in +equilibrium. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER.] + +Prof. Zenger's differential photometer that we shall finally cite is +an improvement upon Bunsen's. In the latter the position of the +observer's eye not being fixed, the aspect of the spot changes +accordingly, and errors are liable to result therefrom. Besides, +because of the non-parallelism of the luminous rays, each of the two +surfaces is not lighted equally, and hence again there may occur +divergences. In order to avoid such inconveniences, Prof. Zenger gives +his apparatus (Fig. 10) the following form: The screen, D, is +contained in a cubical box capable of receiving, through apertures, +light from sources placed upon the two rules, R and R'. A flaring +tube, P, fixes the position of the eye very definitely. As for the +screen, this is painted with black varnish, and three vertical +windows, about an inch apart, are left in white upon its paper. Over +one of the halves of these parts a solution of stearine is passed. To +operate with the apparatus, in comparing two lights, the central spot +is first brought to invisibility, and the distances of the sources are +measured. A second determination is at once made by causing one of the +two other spots to disappear, and the mean of the two results is then +taken. As, at a maximum, there is a difference corresponding to 3/100 +of a candle between the illumination of the two neighboring windows, +in the given conditions of the apparatus, the error is thus limited to +a half of this value, or 2 per cent. of that of one candle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC +VARIATIONS.] + +Among the apparatus designed for demonstration in lecture courses, we +remarked a solenoid of Prof. Von Beetz for demonstrating the +constitution of magnets (Fig. 11), and in which eight magnetized +needles, carrying mica disks painted half white and half black, move +under the influence of the currents that are traversing the solenoid, +or of magnets that are bought near to it externally. Another apparatus +of the same inventor is the lecture-course galvanometer (Fig. 3), in +which the horizontal needle bends back vertically over the external +surface of a cylinder that carries divisions that are plainly visible +to spectators at a distance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS.] + +Finally, let us cite an instrument designed for demonstrating the +principle of the Gramme machine. A circular magnet, AA', is inserted +into a bobbin, B, divided into two parts, and moves under the +influence of a disk, L, actuated by a winch, M. This system permits of +studying the currents developed in each portion of the bobbin during +the revolution of the ring (Fig. 12). + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER.] + +To end our review of the scientific apparatus at the exhibition we +shall merely mention Mr. Van Rysselberghe's registering +thermometrograph (shown in Figs. 13 and 14), and shall then say a few +words concerning two types of registering apparatus--Mr. Harlacher's +water-current register and Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER.] + +Mr. Harlacher's apparatus was devised by him for studying the deep +currents of the Elbe. It is carried (Fig. 15) by a long, vertical, +hollow rod which is plunged into the river. A cord that passes over a +pulley, P, allows of the apparatus, properly so called, being let down +to a certain depth in the water. What is registered is the velocity of +the vanes that are set in action by the current, and to effect such +registry each revolution of the helix produces in the box, C, an +electric contact that closes the circuit in the cable, F, attached to +the terminals, B. This cable forms part of a circuit that includes a +pile and a registering apparatus that is seen at L, outside of the box +in which it is usually inclosed. In certain cases, a bell whose sound +indicates the velocity of the current to the ear is substituted for +the registering apparatus. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS.] + +Fig. 16 represents another type of the same apparatus in which the +mechanism of the contact is uncovered. The supporting rod is likewise +in this type utilized as a current conductor. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER.] + +It now remains to say a few words about Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph. +This instrument (Fig. 17) is designed for determining the duration of +combustion of different powders, the velocity of projectiles, etc. The +registering drum, T, is revolved by hand through a winch, L, and the +time is inscribed thereon by an electric tuning fork, S, set in motion +by the large electro-magnet, E F. Each undulation of the curves +corresponds to a hundredth of a second. The tuning-fork and the +registering electro-magnets, G and H, are placed upon a regulatable +support, C, by means of which they may be given any position desired. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING THE +CONSTITUTION OF MAGNETS.] + +The style, c, of the magnet, C, traces a point every second in order +to facilitate the reading. The style, b, of the electro-magnet, H, +registers the beginning and end of the phenomena that are being +studied. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF +THE GRAMME MACHINE.] + +The apparatus is arranged in such a way that indications may thus be +obtained upon the drum by means of induction sparks jumping between +the style and the surface of the cylinder. To the left of the figure +is seen the apparatus constructed by Lieutenant Ziegler for +experimenting on the duration of combustion of bomb fuses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING +THERMOMETROGRAPH.] + +Shortly after the drum has commenced revolving, the contact, K, opens +a current which supports the heavy armature, P, of an electro-magnet, +M. This weight, P, falls upon the rod, d, and inflames the fuse, Z, at +that very instant. At this precise moment the electro-magnet, H, +inscribes a point, and renews it only when the cartridge at the +extremity of the fuse explodes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING +THERMOMETROGRAPH.] + +This apparatus perhaps offers the inconvenience that the drum must be +revolved by hand, and it would certainly be more convenient could it +be put in movement at different velocities by means of a clockwork +movement that would merely have to be thrown into gear at the desired +moment. As it is, however, it presents valuable qualities, and, +although it has already been employed in Germany for some time, it +will be called upon to render still more extensive services. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP +CURRENTS IN RIVERS.] + +We have now exhausted the subject of the apparatus of precision that +were comprised in the Munich Exhibition. In general, it may be said +that this class of instruments was very well represented there as +regards numbers, and, on another hand, the manufacturers are to be +congratulated for the care bestowed on their construction.--_La +Lumiere Electrique_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP +CURRENTS IN RIVERS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH.] + + * * * * * + + +COPPER VOLTAMETER. + + +Dr. Hammerl, of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, has made some +experiments upon the disturbing influences on the correct indications +of a copper voltameter. He investigated the effects of the intensity +of the current, the distance apart of the plates, and their +preparation before weighing. The main conclusion which he arrives at +is this: That in order that the deposit should be proportional to the +intensity of the current, the latter ought not to exceed seven amperes +per square decimeter of area of the cathode. + + * * * * * + + +Speaking of steel ropes as transmitters of power, Professor Osborne +Reynolds says these have a great advantage over shafts, for the stress +on the section will be uniform, the velocity will be uniform, and may +be at least ten to fifteen times as great as with shafts--say 100 ft. +per second; the rope is carried on friction pulleys, which may be at +distances 500 ft. or 600 ft. so that the coefficient of friction will +not be more than 0.015, instead of 0.04. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW OXIDE OF COPPER BATTERY. + +By MM. F. DE LALANDE and G. CHAPERON. + + +We have succeeded in forming a new battery with a single liquid and +with a solid depolarizing element by associating oxide of copper, +caustic potash, and zinc. + +This battery possesses remarkable properties. Depolarizing electrodes +are easily formed of oxide of copper. It is enough to keep it in +contact with a plate or a cell of iron or copper constituting the +positive pole of the element. + +Fig. 1 represents a very simple arrangement. At the bottom of a glass +jar, V, we place a box of sheet iron, A, containing oxide of copper, +B. To this box is attached a copper wire insulated from the zinc by a +piece of India rubber tube. The zinc is formed of a thick wire of this +metal coiled in the form of a flat spiral, D, and suspended from a +cover, E, which carries a terminal, F, connected with the zinc; an +India-rubber tube, G, covers the zinc at the place where it dips into +the liquid, to prevent its being eaten away at this level. + +The jar is filled with a solution containing 30 or 40 per cent. of +potash. This arrangement is similar to that of a Callaud element, with +this difference--that the depolarizing element is solid and insoluble. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +To prevent the inconveniences of the manipulation of the potash, we +inclose a quantity of this substance in the solid state necessary for +an element in the box which receives the oxide of copper, and furnish +it with a cover supported by a ring of caoutchouc. It suffices then +for working the battery to open the box of potash, to place it at the +bottom of the jar, and to add water to dissolve the potash; we then +pour in the copper oxide inclosed in a bag. + +We also form the oxide of copper very conveniently into blocks. Among +the various means which might be employed, we prefer the following: + +We mix with the oxide of copper oxychloride of magnesium in the form +of paste so as to convert the whole into a thick mass, which we +introduce into metal boxes. + +The mass sets in a short time, or very rapidly by the action of heat, +and gives porous blocks of a solidity increasing with the quantity of +cement employed (5 to 10 per cent.). + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Fig. 2 represents an arrangement with blocks. The jar V, is provided +with a cover of copper, E, screwing into the glass. This cover carries +two vertical plates of sheet-iron, A, A', against which are fixed the +prismatic blocks, B, B, by means of India rubber bands. The terminal, +C, carried by the cover constitutes the positive pole. The zinc is +formed of a single pencil, D, passing into a tube fixed to the center +of the cover. The India rubber, G, is folded back upon this tube so as +to make an air-tight joint. + +The cover carries, besides, another tube, H, covered by a split +India-rubber tube, which forms a safety valve. + +The closing is made hermetical by means of an India rubber tube, K, +which presses against the glass and the cover. The potash to charge +the element is in pieces, and is contained either in the glass jar +itself or in a separate box of sheet-iron. + +Applying the same arrangement, we form hermetically sealed elements +with a single plate of a very small size. + +The employment of cells of iron, cast-iron, or copper, which are not +attacked by the exciting liquid, allows us to easily construct +elements exposing a large surface (Fig. 3). + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The cell, A, forming the positive pole of the battery is of iron plate +brazed upon vertical supports; it is 40 centimeters long by 20 +centimeters wide, and about 10 centimeters high. + +We cover the bottom with a layer of oxide of copper, and place in the +four corners porcelain insulators, L, which support a horizontal plate +of zinc, D, D', raised at one end and kept at a distance from the +oxide of copper and from the metal walls of the cell; three-quarters +of this is filled with a solution of potash. The terminals, C and M, +fixed respectively to the iron cell and to the zinc, serve to attach +the leading wires. To avoid the too rapid absorption of the carbonic +acid of the air by the large exposed surface, we cover it with a thin +layer of heavy petroleum (a substance uninflammable and without +smell), or better still, we furnish the battery with a cover. These +elements are easily packed so as to occupy little space. + +We shall not discuss further the arrangements which may be varied +infinitely, but point out the principal properties of the oxide of +copper, zinc, and potash battery. As a battery with a solid +depolarizing element, the new battery presents the advantage of only +consuming its element, in proportion to its working; amalgamated zinc +and copper are, in fact, not attacked by the alkaline solution, it is, +therefore, durable. + +Its electromotive force is very nearly one volt. Its internal +resistance is very low. We may estimate it at 1/3 or 1/4 of an ohm for +polar surfaces one decimeter square, separated by a distance of five +centimeters. + +The rendering of these couples is considerable; the small cells shown +in Figs. 1 and 2 give about two amperes in short circuit; the large +one gives 16 to 20 amperes. Two of these elements can replace a large +Bunsen cell. They are remarkably constant. We may say that with a +depolarizing surface double that of the zinc the battery will work +without notable polarization, and almost until completely exhausted, +even under the most unfavorable conditions. The transformation of the +products, the change of the alkali into an alkaline salt of zinc, does +not perceptibly vary the internal resistance. This great constancy is +chiefly due to the progressive reduction of the depolarizing electrode +to the state of very conductive metal, which augments its conductivity +and its depolarizing power. + +The peroxide of manganese, which forms the base of an excellent +battery for giving a small rendering, possesses at first better +conductivity than oxide of copper, but this property is lost by +reduction and transformation into lower oxides. It follows that the +copper battery will give a very large quantity of electricity working +through low resistances, while under these conditions manganese +batteries are rapidly polarized. + +The energy contained in an oxide of copper and potash battery is very +great, and far superior to that stored by an accumulator of the same +weight, but the rendering is much less rapid. Potash may be employed +in concentrated solution at 30, 40, 60 per cent.; solid potash can +dissolve the oxide of zinc furnished by a weight of zinc more than +one-third of its own weight. The quantity of oxide of copper to be +employed exceeds by nearly one-quarter the weight of zinc which enters +into action. These data allow of the reduction of the necessary +substances to a very small relative weight. + +The oxide of copper batteries have given interesting results in their +application to telephones. For theatrical purposes the same battery +may be employed during the whole performance, instead of four or five +batteries. Their durability is considerable; three elements will work +continuously, night and day, Edison's carbon microphones for more than +four months without sensible loss of power. + +Our elements will work for a hundred hours through low resistances, +and can be worked at any moment, after several months, for example. It +is only necessary to protect them by a cover from the action of the +carbonic acid of the atmosphere. + +We prefer potash to soda for ordinary batteries, notwithstanding its +price and its higher equivalent, because it does not produce, like +soda, creeping salts. Various modes of regeneration render this +battery very economical. The deposited copper absorbs oxygen pretty +readily by simple exposure to damp air, and can be used again. An +oxidizing flame produces the same result very rapidly. + +Lastly, by treating the exhausted battery as an accumulator, that is +to say, by passing a current through it in the opposite direction, we +restore the various products to their original condition; the copper +absorbs oxygen, and the alkali is restored, while the zinc is +deposited; but the spongy state of the deposited zinc necessitates its +being submitted to a process, or to its being received upon a mercury +support. Again, the oxide of copper which we employ, being a waste +product of brazing and plate works, unless it be reduced, loses +nothing of its value by its reduction in the battery; the +depolarization may therefore be considered as costing scarcely +anything. The oxide of copper battery is a durable and valuable +battery, which by its special properties seems likely to replace +advantageously in a great number of applications the batteries at +present in use. + + * * * * * + + + + +FARCOT'S SIX HORSE POWER STEAM ENGINE. + + +This horizontal steam engine, recently constructed by Mr. E.D. Farcot +for actuating a Cance dynamo-electric machine, consists of a cast iron +bed frame, A, upon which are mounted all the parts. The two jacketed, +cylinders, B and C, of different diameters, each contains a +simple-acting piston. The two pistons are connected by one rod in +common, which is fixed at its extremity to a cross-head, D, running in +slides, E and F, and is connected with the connecting rod, G. The head +of the latter is provided with a bearing of large diameter which +embraces the journal of the driving shaft, H. + +The steam enters the valve-box through the orifice, J, which is +provided with a throttle-valve, L, that is connected with a governor +placed upon the large cylinder. The steam, as shown in Fig. 2 (which +represents the piston at one end of its travel), is first admitted +against the right surface of the small piston, which it causes to +effect an entire stroke corresponding to a half-revolution of the +fly-wheel. The stroke completed, the slide-valve, actuated by an +eccentric keyed to the driving shaft, returns backward and puts the +cylinders, B and C, in communication. The steam then expands and +drives the large piston to the right, so as to effect the second half +of the fly-wheel's revolution. The exhaust occurs through the valve +chamber, which, at each stroke, puts the large cylinder in connection +with the eduction port, M. + +The volume of air included between the two pistons is displaced at +every stroke, so that, according to the position occupied by the +pistons, it is held either by the large or small cylinder. The +necessary result of this is that a compression of the air, and +consequently a resistance, is brought about. In order to obviate this +inconvenience, the constructor has connected the space between the two +pistons at the part, A', of the frame by a bent pipe. The air, being +alternately driven into and sucked out of this chamber, A', of +relatively large dimensions, no longer produces but an insignificant +resistance. + +[Illustration: FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE. + Fig. 1.--Longitudinal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1). + Fig. 2.--Horizontal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1). + Fig. 3.--Section across the Small Cylinder (Scale 0.10 to 1). + Fig. 4.--Section through the Cross Head (Scale 0.10 to 1). + Fig. 5.--Application for a Variable Expanion (Scale 0.10 to 1).] + +As shown in Fig. 5, there may be applied to this engine a variable +expansion of the Farcot type. The motor being a single acting one, a +single valve-plate suffices. This latter is, during its travel, +arrested at one end by a stop and at the other by a cam actuated by +the governor. Upon the axis of this cam there is keyed a gear wheel, +with an endless screw, which permits of regulating it by hand. + +This engine, which runs at a pressure of from 5 to 6 kilogrammes, +makes 150 revolutions per minute and weighs 2,000 kilogrammes. +--_Annales Industrielles_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FOOT LATHES. + + +We illustrate a foot lathe constructed by the Britannia Manufacturing +Company, of Colchester, and specially designed for use on board ships. +These lathes, says _Engineering_, are treble geared, in order that +work which cannot usually be done without steam power may be +accomplished by foot. For instance, they will turn a 24 inch wheel or +plate, or take a half-inch cut off a 3 inch shaft, much heavier work +than can ordinarily be done by such tools. They have 6 inch centers, +gaps 71/2 inches wide and 61/2 inches deep, beds 4 feet 6 inches long by +83/4 inches on the face and 6 inches in depth, and weigh 14 cwt. There +are three speeds on the cone pulley, 9 inches, 6 inches, and 4 inches +in diameter and 11/2 inches wide. The gear wheels are 9/16 inch pitch +and 11/2 inches wide on face. The steel leading screw is 11/2 inches in +diameter by 1/4 inch pitch. Smaller sizes are made for torpedo boats and +for places where space is limited. + +[Illustration: LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD.] + + * * * * * + + + + +ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER. + + +[Illustration] + +The endless trough conveyer is one of the latest applications of +link-belting, consisting primarily of a heavy chain belt carried over +a pair of wheels, and in the intermediate space a truck on which the +train runs. This chain or belt is provided with pans which, as they +overlap, form an endless trough. Power being applied to revolve one of +the wheels, the whole belt is thereby set in motion and at once +becomes an endless trough conveyer. The accompanying engraving +illustrates a section of this conveyer. A few of the pans are removed, +to show the construction of the links; and above this a link and +coupler are shown on a larger scale. As will be seen, the link is +provided with wings, to form a rigid support for the pan to be riveted +to it. To reduce friction each link is provided with three rollers, as +will be seen in the engraving. This outfit makes a fireproof conveyer +which will handle hot ore from roasting kiln to crusher, and convey +coal, broken stone, or other gritty and coarse material. The Link Belt +Machinery Company, of Chicago, is now erecting for Mr. Charles E. +Coffin, of Muirkirk, Md., about 450 ft. of this conveyer, which is to +carry the hot roasted iron ore from the kilns on an incline of about +one foot in twelve up to the crusher. This dispenses with the +barrow-men, and at an expenditure of a few more horsepower becomes a +faithful servant, ready for work in all weather and at all times of +day or night. This company also manufactures ore elevators of any +capacity, which, used in connection with this apparatus, will handle +perfectly anything in the shape of coarse, gritty material. It might +be added that the endless trough conveyer is no experiment. Although +comparatively new in this country, the American _Engineering and +Mining Journal_ says it has been in successful operation for some time +in England, the English manufacturers of link-belting having had great +success with it. + +[Illustration: ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.] + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILROAD GRADES OF TRUNK LINES. + + +On the West Shore and Buffalo road its limit of grade is 30 feet to +the mile going west and north, and 20 feet to the mile going east and +south. Next for easy grades comes the New York Central and Hudson +River road. From New York to Albany, then up the valley of the Mohawk, +till it gradually reaches the elevation of Lake Erie, it is all the +time within the 500 foot level, and this is maintained by its +connections on the lake borders to Chicago, by the "Nickel Plate," the +Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and the Canada Southern and Michigan +Central. + +The Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio roads pass +through a country so mountainous that, much as they have expended to +improve their grades, it is practically impossible for them to attain +the easy grades so much more readily obtained by the trunk lines +following the great natural waterways originally extending almost from +Chicago to New York. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENGLISH EXPRESS TRAINS. + + +The _Journal of the Statistical Society_ for September contains an +elaborate paper by Mr. E. Foxwell on "English Express Trains; their +Average Speed, etc. with Notes on Gradients, Long Runs, etc." The +author takes great pains to explain his definition of the term +"express trains," which he finally classifies thus: (a) The general +rule; those which run under ordinary conditions, and attain a +journey-speed of 40 and upward. These are about 85 per cent. of the +whole. (b) Equally good trains, which, running against exceptional +difficulties, only attain, perhaps, a journey speed as low as 36 or +37. These are about 5 per cent. of the whole. (c) Trains which should +come under (a), but which, through unusually long stoppages or similar +causes, only reach a journey speed of 39. These are about 10 per +cent.[1] of the whole. + + [Footnote 1: 10 per cent. of the number, but not of the mileage, + of the whole; for most of this class run short journeys.] + +He next explains that by "running average" is meant: The average speed +per hour while actually in motion from platform to platform, i.e., the +average speed obtained by deducting stoppages. Thus the 9-hour (up) +Great Northern "Scotchman" stops 49 minutes on its journey from +Edinburgh to King's Cross, and occupies 8 hours 11 minutes in actual +motion; its "running average" is therefore 48 miles an hour, or, +briefly, "r.a.=48." The statement for this train will thus appear: +Distance in miles between Edinburgh and King's Cross, 3921/2; time, 9 h. +0 m.; journey-speed, 43.6; minutes stopped, 49; running average, 48. + +Mr. Foxwell then proceeds to describe in detail the performances of +the express trains of the leading English and Scottish railways--in +Ireland there are no trains which come under his definition of +"express"--giving the times of journey, the journey-speeds, minutes +stopped on way, and running averages, with the gradients and other +circumstances bearing on these performances. He sums up the results +for the United Kingdom, omitting fractions, as follows: + + ========================================================================= + Extent of| | | Average | | | + System | | Distinct | Journey- | Running | Express | + in Miles.| | Expresses.| speed. | Average.| Mileage.| + ---------+-------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------+ + 1773 | North-Western | {54} 82 | 40 | 43 | 10,400 | + | | {28} | | | | + 1260 | Midland | 66 | 41 | 45 | 8,860 | + 928 | Great Northern | {48} 67 | 43 | 46 | 6,780 | + | | {19} | | | | + 907 | Great Eastern | 34 | 41 | 43 | 3,040 | + 2267 | Great Western | 18 | 42 | 46 | 2,600 | + 1519 | North-Eastern | 19 | 40 | 43 | 2,110 | + 290 | Manch., Sheffield,| 49 | 43 | 44 | 2,318 | + | and Lincoln | | | | | + 767 | Caledonian | 16 | 40 | 42 | 1,155 | + 435 | Brighton | 13 | 41 | 41 | 1,155 | + 382 | South-Eastern | 12 | 41 | 41 | 940 | + 329 | Glasgow and | 8 | 41 | 43 | 920 | + | South-Western | | | | | + 796 | London and | 3 | 41 | 44 | 890 | + | South-Western | | | | | + 984 | North British | 11 | 39 | 41 | 830 | + 153 | Chatham and Dover | 9 | 42 | 43 | 690 | + +-----------+----------+---------+---------+ + | 407 | 41 | 44 | 42,683 | + ========================================================================= + +A total of 407 express trains, whose average journey-speed is 41.6, +and which run 42,680 miles at an average "running average" of 44.3 +miles per hour. + +If we arrange the companies according to their speed instead of their +mileage, the order is: + + Average + r.a. Miles + Great Northern. 46 6,780 + Great Western. 46 [2]2,600 + Midland. 45 8,860 + Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln 44 2,318 + London and South-Western. 44 890 + North-Western. 43 10,400 + Glasgow and South-Western. 43 920 + Great Eastern. 43 3,040 + North-Eastern. 43 2,110 + Chatham and Dover. 43 690 + Caledonian. 42 1,155 + South-Eastern. 41 940 + Brighton. 41 1,155 + North British. 31 825 + + [Footnote 2: Not reckoning mileage west of Exeter.] + + +EXPRESS ROUTES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DIFFICULTY OF GRADIENTS, ETC. + + North British, + Caledonian, + Manch., Sheffield & Lincoln, + Midland, + Glasgow and South-Western, + Chatham and Dover, + South-Eastern, + Great Northern, + South-Western, + Great Eastern, + Brighton, + North-Western, + North-Eastern, + Great Western. + + +LONG RUNS IN ENGLAND. + + ======================================================================= + | Number of | Average | Running + | Trains. | Speed. | Averages. + ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------ + | | Miles. | Miles. + Midland. | 104 | 53 | 46 (5,512) + North-Western. | 98 | 60 | 45 (5,880) + Great Northern. | 49 | 73 | 50 (3,616) + Great Western. | 24 | 56 | 48 (1,344) + Great Eastern. | 24 | 56 | 42 (1,362) + Brighton. | 23 | 45 | 42 (1,047) + North-Eastern. | 20 | 56 | 44 (1,120) + South-Western. | 13 | 47 | 44 (615) + South-Eastern. | 12 | 66 | 42 (795) + Chatham and Dover. | 8 | 63 | 45 (504) + Caledonian. | 8 | 59 | 45 (476) + Glasgow and South-Western | 8 | 58 | 44 (468) + Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln. | 8 | 48 | 43 (390) + North British. | 7 | 60 | 40 (423) + ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------ + Total. | 406 | 58 | 45 (23,550) + ======================================================================= + +From this it will be seen that the three great companies run 61 per +cent. of the whole express mileage, and 62 per cent. of the whole +number of long runs. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED OIL MILL. + + +The old and cumbersome methods of crushing oil seeds by mechanical +means have during the last few years undergone a complete revolution. +By the old process, the seed, having been flattened between a pair of +stones, was afterward ground by edge stones, weighing in some cases as +much as 20 tons, and working at about eighteen revolutions per minute. +Having been sufficiently ground, the seed was taken to a kettle or +steam jacketed vessel, where it was heated, and thence drawn--in +quantities sufficient for a cake--in woollen bags, which were placed +in a hydraulic press. From four to six bags was the utmost that could +be got into the press at one time, and the cakes were pressed between +wrappers of horsehair on similar material. All this involved a good +deal of manual labor, a cumberstone plant, and a considerable expense +in the frequent replacing of the horsehair wrappers, each of which +involved a cost of about L4. The modern requirements of trade have in +every branch of industry ruthlessly compelled the abandonment of the +slow, easy-going methods which satisfied the times when competition +was less keen. Automatic mechanical arrangements, almost at every +turn, more effectually and at greatly increased speed, complete +manufacturing operations previously performed by hand, and oil-seed +crushing machinery has been no exception to the general rule. The +illustrations we give represent the latest developments in improved +oil-mill machinery introduced by Rose, Downs & Thompson, named the +"Colonial" mill, and recently we had an opportunity of inspecting the +machinery complete before shipment to Calcutta, where it is being sent +for the approaching exhibition. As compared with the old system of +oil-seed crushing, Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson claim for their +method, among other advantages, a great saving in driving power, +economy of space, a more perfect extraction of the oil, an improved +branding of the cakes, a saving of 50 per cent. in the labor employed +in the press-room, with also a great saving in wear and tear, while +the process is equally applicable to linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, or +similar seeds. In addition to these improvements in the system, the +"Colonial" mill has been specially designed in structural arrangement +to meet the requirements of exporters. The machinery and engine are +self-contained on an iron foundation, so that there is no need of +skilled mechanics to erect the mill, nor of expensive stone +foundations, while the building covering the mill can, if desired, be +of the lightest possible description, as no wall support is required. +The mill consists of the following machinery: A vertical steel boiler, +3 ft. 7 in. diameter, 8 ft. 11/2 in. high, with three cross tubes 71/2 in. +diameter, shell 5/16 in. thick, crown 3/8 in. thick, uptake 9 in. +diameter, with all necessary fittings, and where wood fuel is used +extra grate area can be provided. This boiler supplies the steam not +only for the engine, but also for heating and damping the seed in the +kettle. The engine is vertical, with 8 in. cylinder and 12 in. stroke, +with high speed governors, and stands on the cast iron bed-plate of +the mill. This bed-plate, which is in three sections, is about 30 ft. +long, and is planed and shaped to receive the various machines, which, +when the top is leveled, can be fixed in their respective places by +any intelligent man, and when the machines are in position they form a +support for the shafting. The seed to be crushed is stored in a wooden +bin, placed above and behind the roll frame hopper. The roll frame has +four chilled cast iron rolls, 15 in. face, 12 in. diameter, so +arranged as to subject the seed to three rollings, with patent +pressure giving apparatus. These rolls are driven by fast and loose +pulleys by the shaft above. After the last rolling the seed falls +through an opening in the foundation plate in a screen driven from the +bottom roll shaft by a belt. This conveys the seed in a trough to a +set of elevators, which supply it continuously to the kettle. This +kettle, which is 3 ft. 6 in. internal diameter and 20 in. deep, is +made of cast iron and of specially strong construction. There is only +one steam joint in it, and to reduce the liability of leakage this +joint is faced in a lathe. The inside furnishings of the kettle are a +damping apparatus with perforated boss, upright shaft, stirrer, and +delivery plate, and patent slide. The kettle body is fitted with a +wood frame and covered with felt, which is inclosed within iron +sheeting. The crushed seed is heated in the kettle to the required +temperature by steam from the boiler, and it is also damped by a jet +of steam which is regulated by a wheel valve with indicating plate. +When the required temperature has been obtained, the seed is withdrawn +by a measuring box through a self-acting shuttle in the kettle bottom, +and evenly distributed over a strip of bagging supported on a steel +tray in a Virtue patent moulding machine, where it undergoes a +compression sufficient to reduce it to the size that can be taken in +by the presses, but not sufficient to cause any extraction of the oil. +The seed leaves the moulding machine in the form of a thick cake from +nine to eleven pounds in weight, and each press is constructed to take +in twelve of these cakes at once. The press cylinders are 12 in. +diameter and are of crucible cast steel. To insure strength of +construction and even distribution of strain throughout the press, all +the columns, cylinders, rams, and heads are planed and turned +accurately to gauges, and the pockets that take the columns, in the +place of being cast, as is sometimes usual, with fitting strips top +and bottom, are solid throughout, and are planed or slotted out of the +solid to gauges. The pressure is given by a set of hydraulic pumps +made of crucible cast steel and bored out of the solid. One of the +pump rams is 21/2 in. diameter, and has a stroke of 7 in. This ram gives +only a limited pressure, and the arrangements are such as to obtain +this pressure upon each press in about fourteen seconds. This pump +then automatically ceases running, and the work is taken up by a +second plunger, having a ram 1 in. diameter and stroke of 7 in., the +second pump continuing its work until a gross pressure of two tons per +square inch is attained, which is the maximum, and is arrived at in +less than two minutes. For shutting off the communication between the +presses, the stop valves are so arranged that either press may be let +down, or set to work without in the smallest degree affecting the +other. The oil from the presses is caught in an oil tank behind, from +which an oil pump, worked by an eccentric, forces it in any desired +direction. The cakes, on being withdrawn from the press, are stripped +of the bagging and cut to size in a specially arranged paring machine, +which is placed off the bed-plate behind the kettle, and is driven by +the pulley shown on the main shaft. The paring machine is also fitted +with an arrangement for reducing the parings to meal, which is +returned to the kettle, and again made up into cakes. The presses +shown have corrugated press plates of Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson's +latest type, but the cakes produced by this process can have any +desired name or brand in block letters put upon them. The edges on the +upper plate, it may be added, are found of great use in crushing some +classes of green or moist seed. The plant, of which we give +illustrations opposite, is constructed to crush about four tons of +seed per day of eleven hours, and the manual labor has been so reduced +to a minimum that it is intended to be worked by one man, who moulds +and puts the twenty-four cakes into the presses, and while they are +under pressure is engaged paring the cakes that have been previously +pressed. In crushing castor-oil seed, a decorticating machine or +separator can be combined with the mill, but in such a case the engine +and boiler would require to be made larger.--_The Engineer_. + +[Illustration: AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL.] + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING SUBSTANCES CONTAINED IN THE WASTE WATERS OF +PAPER MILLS, ETC. + + +For extracting such useful materials as are contained in the waste +waters of paper mills, cloth manufactories, etc., and, at the same +time, for purifying such waters, Mr. Schuricht, of Siebenlehn, employs +a sort of filter like that shown in the annexed Figs. 1 and 2, and +underneath which he effects a vacuum. + +[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1.] + +The apparatus, A, is divided into two compartments, which are +separated by a longitudinal partition. Above the stationary bottom, a, +there is arranged a lattice-work grating or a strong wire cloth, b, +upon which rests the filtering material, c, properly so called. The +reservoir is divided transversely by several partitions, d, of +different heights. The liquor entering through the leader, f, +traverses the apparatus slowly, as a consequence of the somewhat wide +section of the layer. But, in order that it may traverse the filtering +material, it is necessary that, in addition to this horizontal motion, +it shall have a downward one. As far as to the top of the partitions, +d, there form in front of the latter certain layers which do not +participate in the horizontal motion, but which can only move +downward, as a consequence of the permeability of the bottom. It +results from this that the heaviest solid particles deposit in the +first compartment, while the others run over the first partition, d, +and fall into one of the succeeding compartments, according to their +degree of fineness, while the clarified water makes its exit through +the spout, g. When the filtering layer, c, has become gradually +impermeable, the cock, i, of a jet apparatus, k, is opened, in order +to suck out the clarified water through the pipe, r.--_Dingler's +Polytech. Journ., after Bull. Musee de l'Industrie_. + +[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2.] + + * * * * * + + + + +LARGE BLUE PRINTS. + +By W.B. PARSONS, JR., C.E. + + +I send you a description of a device that I got up for the N.Y., L.E., +and W.R.R. division office at Port Jervis, by which I overcame the +difficulties incident to large glasses. The glass was 58 inches long, +84 inches wide, and 3/8 inch thick. It was heavily framed with ash. In +order to keep the back from warping out of shape, I had it made of +thoroughly seasoned ash strips 1" x 1". Each strip was carefully +planed, and then they were glued and screwed together, while across +the ends were fastened strips with their grain running transversely. +This back was then covered on side next to the glass with four +thicknesses of common gray blanketing. Instead of applying the holding +pressure by thumb cleats at the periphery, it was effected by two long +pressure strips running across the back placed at about one quarter +the length of the frame from the ends, and held by a screw at the +center. The ends of these strips were made so as to fit in slots in +the frame at a slight angle, so that as the pressure strips were +turned it gave them a binding pressure at the same time. In other +words, it is the same principle as is commonly used to keep backs in +small picture frames. This arrangement, instead of holding the back at +the edges only, and so allowing the center to fall away from the +glass, distributed it evenly over the whole surface and always kept it +in position. The frame was run in and out of the printing room on a +little railway on which it rested on four grooved brass sheaves, one +pair being at one end, while the other was just beyond the center, so +the frame could be revolved in direction of its length without +trouble. In order to raise the heavy back, I had a pulley-wheel +fastened to the ceiling, through which a rope passed, with a ring that +could be attached to a corresponding hook at the side of the back, in +order to hoist it or lower it. Although that is an extremely large +apparatus, yet by means of the above device it was worked easily and +rapidly, and gave every satisfaction. + +The solution used was of the same proportions as had been adopted in +the other engineering offices of the road: + + Citrate iron and ammonium 1-7/8 oz. + Red prussiate potash (C.P.) 1-1/4 oz. + +Dissolve separately in 4 oz. distilled water each, and mix when ready +to use. But by putting mixture in dark bottle, and that in a tight box +impervious to light, it can be kept two or three weeks. + +In some frames used at the School of Mines for making large blue +prints a similar device has been in use for several years. Instead, +however, of the heavy and cumbrous back used by Mr. Parsons, a light, +somewhat flexible back of one-quarter inch pine is employed, covered +with heavy Canton flannel and several thicknesses of newspaper. The +pressure is applied by light pressure strips of ash somewhat thicker +at the middle than at the ends, which give a fairly uniform pressure +across the width of the frame sufficient to hold the back firmly +against the glass at all points. This system has been used with +success for frames twenty-seven by forty-two inches, about half as +large as the one described by Mr. Parsons. A frame of this size can be +easily handled without mechanical aids. Care should be taken to avoid +too great thickness and too much spring in the pressure strips, or the +plate glass may be broken by excessive pressure. The strips used are +about five-eighths of an inch thick at the middle, and taper to about +three-eighths of an inch at the ends. + +The formulae for the solution given by Whittaker, Laudy, and Parsons +are practically identical so far as the proportions of citrate of iron +and ammonia and of red prussiate of potash, 3 of the former to 2 of +the latter, but differ in the amount of water. Laudy's formula calls +for about 5 parts of water to 1 of the salts, Whittaker's for 4 parts, +and Parson's for a little more than 2 parts. The stronger the solution +the longer the exposure required. With very strong solutions a large +portion of the Prussian blue formed comes off in the washwater, and +when printing from glass negatives the fine lines and lighter tints +are apt to suffer. The blue color, however, will be deep and the +whites clear. With weak solutions the blues will be fainter and the +whites bluish. Heavily sized paper gives the best results. The +addition of a little mucilage to the solution is sometimes an +advantage, producing the same results as strength of solution, by +increasing the amount adhering to the paper. With paper deficient in +sizing the mucilage also makes the whites clearer.--_H.S.M., Sch. of +M. Quarterly._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HOUSE DRAINAGE AND REFUSE. + + +A course of lectures on sanitary engineering has been delivered during +the past few weeks before the officers of the Royal Engineers +stationed at Chatham, by Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. + +The refuse which has to be dealt with, observed Captain Galton, +whether in towns or in barracks or in camp, falls under the following +five heads: 1, ashes; 2, kitchen refuse; 3, stable manure; 4, solid or +liquid ejections; and 5, rainwater and domestic waste water, including +water from personal ablutions, kitchen washing up, washings of +passages, stables, yards, and pavements. In a camp you have the +simplest form of dealing with these matters. The water supply is +limited. Waste water and liquid ejection are absorbed by the ground; +but a camp unprovided with latrines would always be in a state of +danger from epidemic disease. One of the most frequent causes of an +unhealthy condition of the air of a camp in former times has been +either neglecting to provide latrines, so that the ground outside the +camp becomes covered with filth, or constructing the latrines too +shallow, and exposing too large a surface to rain, sun, and air. The +Quartermaster-General's regulations provide against these +contingencies; but I may as well here recapitulate the general +principles which govern camp latrines. Latrines should be so managed +that no smell from them should ever reach the men's tents. To insure +this very simple precautions only are required: + +1. The latrines should be placed to leeward with respect to prevailing +winds, and at as great a distance from the tents as is compatible with +convenience. 2. They should be dug narrow and deep, and their contents +covered over every evening with at least a foot of fresh earth. A +certain bulk and thickness of earth are required to absorb the +putrescent gas, otherwise it will disperse itself and pollute the air +to a considerable distance round. 3. When the latrine is filled to +within 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. of the surface, earth should be thrown +into it, and heaped over it like a grave to mark its site. 4. Great +care should be taken not to place latrines near existing wells, nor to +dig wells near where latrines have been placed. The necessity of these +precautions to prevent wells becoming polluted is obvious. Screens +made out of any available material are, of course, required for +latrines. This arrangement applies to a temporary camp, and is only +admissible under such conditions. + +A deep trench saves labor, and places the refuse in the most +immediately safe position, but a buried mass of refuse will take a +long time to decay; it should not be disturbed, and will taint the +adjacent soil for a long time. This is of less consequence in a merely +temporary encampment, while it might entail serious evils in +localities continuously inhabited. The following plan of trench has +been adopted as a more permanent arrangement in Indian villages, with +the object of checking the frightful evil of surface pollution of the +whole country, from the people habitually fouling the fields, roads, +streets, and watercourses. Long trenches are dug, at about one foot or +less in depth, at a spot set apart, about 200 or 300 yards from +dwellings. Matting screens are placed round for decency. Each day the +trench, which has received the excreta of the preceding day, is filled +up, the excreta being covered with fresh earth obtained by digging a +new trench adjoining, which, when it has been used, is treated in the +same manner. Thus the trenches are gradually extended, until +sufficient ground has been utilized, when they are plowed up and the +site used for cultivation. The Indian plow does not penetrate more +than eight inches; consequently, if the trench is too deep, the lower +stratum is left unmixed with earth, forming a permanent cesspool, and +becomes a source of future trouble. It is to be observed, however, +that in the wet season these trenches cannot be used, and in sandy +soil they do not answer. This system, although it is preferable to +what formerly prevailed--viz., the surface defilement of the ground +all round villages and of the adjacent water courses--is fraught with +danger unless subsequent cultivation of the site be strictly enforced, +because it would otherwise retain large and increasing masses of +putrefying matter in the soil, in a condition somewhat unfavorable to +rapid absorption. These arrangements are applicable only to very rough +life or very poor communities. + +The question of the removal of kitchen refuse, manure, etc., from +barracks next calls for notice. The great principle to be observed in +removing the solid refuse from barracks is that every decomposable +substance should be taken away at once. This principle applies +especially in warm climates. Even the daily removal of refuse entails +the necessity of places for the deposit of the refuse, and therefore +this principle must be applied in various ways to suit local +convenience. In open situations, exposed to cool winds, there is less +danger of injury to health from decomposing matters than there would +be in hot, moist, or close positions. In the country generally there +is less risk of injury than in close parts of towns. These +considerations show that the same stringency is not necessarily +required everywhere. Position by itself affords a certain degree of +protection from nuisance. The amount of decomposing matter usually +produced is also another point to be considered. A small daily product +is not, of course, so injurious as a large product. Even the manner of +accumulating decomposing substances influences their effect on health. +There is less risk from a dung heap to the leeward than to the +windward of a barrack. The receptacles in which refuse is temporarily +placed, such as ash pits and manure pits, should never be below the +level of the ground. If a deep pit is dug in the ground, into which +the refuse is thrown in the intervals between times of removal, rain +and surface water will mix with the refuse and hasten its +decomposition, and generally the lowest part of the filth will not be +removed, but will be left to fester and produce malaria. In all places +where the occupation is permanent the following conditions should be +attended to: + +1. That the places of deposit be sufficiently removed from inhabited +buildings to prevent any smell being perceived by the occupants. 2. +That the places of deposit be above the level of the ground--never dug +out of the ground. The floor of the ash pit or dung pit should be at +least six inches above the surface level. 3. That the floor be paved +with square sets, or flagged and drained. 4. That ash pits be covered. +5. That a space should be paved in front, so as to provide that the +traffic which takes place in depositing the refuse or in removing it +shall not produce a polluted surface. + +In towns those parts of the refuse which cannot be utilized for manure +or otherwise are burned. But this is an operation which, if done +unskillfully, without a properly constructed kiln, may give rise to +nuisance. One of the best forms of kiln is one now in operation at +Ealing, which could be easily visited from London. + +_The removal of excreta from houses._--The chief object of a perfect +system of house drainage is the immediate and complete removal from +the house of all foul and effete matter directly it is produced. The +first object--viz., removal of foul matter, can be attained either by +the water closet system, when carried out in this integrity; but it +could, of course, be attained without drains if there was labor enough +always available; and the earth closet or the pail system are +modifications of immediate removal which are safe. Cesspools in a +house do not fulfill this condition of immediate removal. They serve +for the retention of excremental and other matters. In a porous soil +it endangers the purity of the wells. The Indian cities afford +numerous examples of subsoil pollution. The Delhi ulcer was traced to +the pollution of the wells from the contaminated subsoil; and the soil +in many cities and villages is loaded with niter and salt, the +chemical results of animal and vegetable refuse left to decay for many +generations, from the presence of which the well water is impure. +There are many factories of saltpeter in India whose supplies are +derived from this source; and during the great French wars, when +England blockaded all the seaports of Europe, the First Napoleon +obtained saltpeter for gunpowder from the cesspits in Paris. Cesspools +are inadmissible where complete removal can be effected. Cesspits may, +however, be a necessity in some special cases, as, for instance, in +detached houses or a small detached barrack. Where they cannot be +avoided, the following conditions as to their use should be enforced: + +1st. A cesspit should never be located under a dwelling. It should be +placed outside, and as far removed from the immediate neighborhood of +the dwelling as circumstances will allow. There should be a ventilated +trap placed on the pipe leading from the watercloset to the cesspit. +2d. It should be formed of impervious material so as to permit of no +leakage. 3d. It should be ventilated. 4th. No overflow should be +permitted from it. 5th. When full it should be thoroughly emptied and +cleaned out; for the matter left at the bottom of a cesspit is liable +to be in a highly putrescible condition. + +Where a cesspit is unavoidable, perhaps the best and least offensive +system for emptying it is the pneumatic system. This is applicable to +the water closet refuse alone. The pneumatic system acts as follows: A +large air-tight cylinder on wheels, or, what answers equally, a series +of air-tight barrels connected together by tubes about 3 in. diameter, +placed on a cart, brought as near to the cesspit as is convenient; a +tube of about the same diameter is led from them to the cesspit; the +air is then exhausted in the barrels or cylinder either by means of an +air pump or by means of steam injected into it, which, on +condensation, forms a vacuum; and the contents of the cesspit are +drawn through the tube by the atmospheric pressure into the cylinder +or barrels. A plan which is practically an extension of this system +has been introduced by Captain Liernur in Holland. He removes the +faecal matter from water closets and the sedimentary production of +kitchen sinks by pneumatic agency. He places large air-tight tanks in +a suitable part of the town, to which he leads pipes from all houses. +He creates a vacuum in the tanks, and thus sucks into one center the +faecal matter from all the houses. Various substitutes have been tried +for the cesspit, which retain the principle of the hand removal of +excreta. The first was the combination of the privy with an ashpit +above the surface of the ground, the ashes and excreta being mixed +together, and both being removed periodically. The next improvement +was the provision of a movable receptacle. Of this type the simplest +arrangement is a box placed under the seat, which is taken out, the +contents emptied into the scavenger's cart, and the box replaced. The +difficulty of cleansing the angles of the boxes led to the adoption of +oval or round pails. The pail is placed under the seat, and removed at +stated intervals, or when full, and replaced by a clean pail. In +Marseilles and Nice a somewhat similar system is in use. They employ +cylindrical metal vessels furnished with a lid which closes +hermetically, each capable of holding 11 gallons. The household is +furnished with three or four of these vessels, and when one is full +the lid is closed hermetically, the vessel thus remaining in a +harmless condition in the house till taken away by the authorities and +replaced by a clean one. The contents are converted into manure. In +consequence of the offensiveness of the open pail, the next +improvement was to throw in some form of deodorizing material daily. +In the north of England the arrangement generally is that the ashes +shall be passed through a shoot, on which they are sifted--the finer +fall into the pail to deodorize it, the coarser pass into a box, +whence they can be taken to be again burned--while a separate shoot is +provided for kitchen refuse, which falls into another pail adjacent. + +Probably the best known contrivance for deodorizing the excreta is the +dry earth system as applied in the earth closet, in which advantage is +taken of the deodorizing properties of earth. Dry earth is a good +deodorizer; 11/2 lb. of dry earth of good garden ground or clay will +deodorize such excretion. A larger quantity is required of sand or +gravel. If the earth after use is dried, it can be applied again, and +it is stated that the deodorizing powers of earth are not destroyed +until it has been used ten or twelve times. This system requires close +attention, or the dry earth closet will get out of order; as compared +with water closets, it is cheaper in first construction, and is not +liable to injury by frost; and it has this advantage over any form of +cesspit--that it necessitates the daily removal of refuse. The cost of +the dry earth system per 1,000 persons may be assumed as follows: Cost +of closet, say, L500; expense of ovens, carts, horses, etc., L250; +total capital, L750, at 6 per cent. L37 10_s._ interest. Wages of two +men and a boy per week, L1 12_s._; keep of horses, stables, etc., 18_s._; +fuel for drying earth, 1_s._ 6_d._ per ton dried daily, L1 10_s._; cost of +earth and repairs, etc., 14_s._; weekly expenses, L4 14_s._ Yearly +expenses, L247 (equal to 4_s._ 11_d._ per ton per annum); interest, L37 +10_s._--total, L284 10_s._, against which should be put the value of the +manure. But the value of the manure is simply a question of carriage. +If the manure is highly concentrated, like guano, it can stand a high +carriage. If the manuring elements are diffused through a large bulk +of passive substances, the cost of the carriage of the extra, or +non-manuring, elements absorbs all profit. If a town, therefore, by +adding deodorants to the contents of pails produces a large quantity +of manure, containing much besides the actual manuring elements--such +as is generally the case with dry earth--as soon as the districts +immediately around have been fully supplied, a point is soon reached +at which it is impossible to continue to find purchasers. The dry +earth system is applicable to separate houses, or to institutions +where much attention can be given to it, but it is inapplicable to +large towns from the practical difficulties connected with procuring, +carting, and storing the dry earth. + +With the idea that if the solid part of the excreta could be separated +from the liquid and kept comparatively dry the offensiveness would be +much diminished, and deodorization be unnecessary, a method for +getting rid of the liquid portion by what is termed the Goux system +has been in use at Halifax. This system consists in lining the pail +with a composition formed from the ashes and all the dry refuse which +can be conveniently collected, together with some clay to give it +adhesion. The lining is adjusted and kept in position by a means of a +core or mould, which is allowed to remain in the pails until just +before they are about to be placed under the seat; the core is then +withdrawn, and the pail is left ready for use. The liquid which passes +into the pail soaks into this lining, which thus forms the deodorizing +medium. The proportion of absorbents in a lining 3 in. thick to the +central space in a tub of the above dimensions would be about two to +one; but unless the absorbents are dry, this proportion would be +insufficient to produce a dry mass in the tubs when used for a week, +and experience has shown that after being in use for several days the +absorbing power of the lining is already exceeded, and the whole +contents have remained liquid. There would appear to be little gain by +the use of the Goux lining as regards freedom from nuisance, and +though it removes the risk of splashing and does away with much of the +unsightliness of the contents, the absorbent, inasmuch as it adds +extra weight which has to be carried to and from the houses, is rather +a disadvantage than otherwise from the manurial point of view. + +The simple pail system, which is in use in various ways in the +northern towns of England, and in the permanent camps to some extent +at least, and of which the French "tinette" is an improved form, is +more economically convenient than the dry earth system or the Goux or +other deodorizing system, where a large amount of removal of refuse +has to be accomplished, because by the pail system the liquid and +solid ejections may be collected with a very small, or even without +any, admixture of foreign substances; and, according to theory, the +manurial value of dejections per head per annum ought to be from 8_s._ +to 10_s._ The great superiority, in a sanitary point of view, of all the +pail or pan systems over the best forms over the old cesspits or even +the middens is due to the fact that the interval of collection is +reduced to a minimum, the changing or emptying of the receptacles +being sometimes effected daily, and the period never exceeding a week. +The excrementitious matter is removed without soaking in the ground or +putrefying in the midst of a population. + +These plans for the removal of excreta do not deal with the equally +important refuse liquid--viz., the waste water from washing and +stables, etc. As it is necessary to have drains for the purpose of +removing the waste water, it is more economical to allow this waste +water to carry away the excreta. In any case, you must have drains for +removing the fouled water. Down these drains it is evident that much +of the liquid excreta will be poured, and thus you must take +precautions to prevent the gases of decomposition which the drains are +liable to contain from passing into your houses. + +There is a method which you might find useful on a small scale to +which I will now draw your attention, as it is applicable to detached +houses or small barracks--viz., the plan of applying the domestic +water to land through underground drains, or what is called subsoil +irrigation. This system affords peculiar facilities for disposing of +sewage matter without nuisance. There are many cases where open +irrigation in close contiguity to mansions or dwellings might be +exceedingly objectionable, and in such cases subsoil irrigation +supplies a means of dealing with a very difficult question. This +system was applied some years ago by Mr. Waring in Newport, in the +United States. It has recently been introduced into this country. + +The system is briefly as follows: The water from the house is carried +through a water-tight drain to the ground where the irrigation is to +be applied. It is there passed through ordinary drain pipes, placed 1 +ft. below the surface, with open joints, by means of which it +percolates into the soil. Land drains, 4 ft. deep, should be laid +intermediately between the subsoil drains to remove the water from the +soil. The difficulty of subsoil irrigation is to prevent deposit, +which chokes the drains; and if the foul domestic water is allowed to +trickle through the drains as it passes away from the house it soon +chokes the drains. It is, therefore, necessary to pass it in flushes +through the drains, and this can be best managed by running the water +from the house into one of Field's automatic flush tanks, which runs +off in a body when full. + +When you have water closet and drainage, the great object to be +attained in house drainage is to prevent the sewer gas from passing +from the main sewer into the house drain. It was the custom to place a +flap at the junction of the house drain with the sewer; but this flap +is useless for preventing sewer gas from passing up the house drain. +The plan was therefore adopted of placing a water trap under the water +closet basin or the sink, etc., in direct communication with the +drain. The capacity of water to absorb sewer gas is very great, +consequently the water in the trap would absorb this gas. When the +water became warm from increase of temperature, it would give out the +gas into the house; when it cooled down at night, it would again +absorb more gas from the soil pipe, and frequent change of temperature +would cause it to give out and reabsorb the gas continually. + +These objections have led to the present recognized system--viz., 1st, +to place a water trap on the drain to cut off the sewer gases from the +foot of the soil pipe; and, next, to place an opening to the outer air +on the soil pipe between the trap and the house to secure efficient +disconnection between the sewer and the house. It is, moreover, +necessary to produce a movement of air and ventilation in the house +drain pipes to aerate the pipe and to oxidize any putrescible products +which may be in it. To do this, we must insure that a current of air +shall be continually passing through the drains; both an inlet and an +outlet for fresh air must be provided in the portions of the house +drain which are cut off from the main sewer, for without an inlet and +outlet there can be no efficient ventilation. This outlet and inlet +can be obtained in the following manner: In the first place, an outlet +may be formed by prolonging the soil pipe at its full diameter, and +with an open top to above the roof, in a position away from the +windows, skylights, or chimneys. And, secondly, an inlet may be +obtained by an opening into the house drain, on the dwelling side of +and close to the trap, by means of the disconnecting manhole or +branch-pipe before mentioned, or where necessary by carrying up the +inlet by means of a ventilating pipe to above the roof. The inlet +should be equal in area to the drain pipe, and not in any case less +than 4 in. in diameter. If it were not for appearance and the +difficulty of conveying the excreta without lodgments, an open gutter +would be preferable to a closed pipe in the house. This arrangement is +based on the principle that there should be no deposit in the house +drains. Therefore the utmost care should be taken to lay the house +drains in straight lines, both in plan and gradient, and to give the +adequate inclination. + +The following are desirable conditions to observe in house drains: 1. +As to material of pipes. House drains should be made either of glazed +stoneware pipes or fireclay pipes with cement joints, or preferably of +cast iron pipes jointed with carefully-made lead joints, or with +turned joints and bored sockets. I say preferably of cast iron. In New +York the iron soilpipe, with joints made with lead, is now required by +the municipal regulations. It is a stronger pipe than a rainwater +pipe. The latter will often be found to have holes. A lead joint +cannot be made properly in a weak pipe, therefore the lead joint is to +some extent a guarantee of soundness. Lead pipes will be eaten away by +water containing free oxygen without carbonic acid, therefore pure +rainwater injures lead pipes. An excess of carbonic acid in water will +also eat away lead. You will find that in many cases pinholes appear +in a soilpipe, and when inside a house that allows sewer gas to pass +into the house. Moreover, lead is a soft material; it is subject to +indentations, to injury from nails, to sagging. A cast-iron pipe, when +coated with sewage matter, does not appear to be subject to decay; and +if of sufficient substance it is not liable to injury. When once well +fixed, it has no tendency to move. I would, therefore, advocate cast +iron in lieu of lead soilpipes. In fixing the soilpipe which is to +receive a water-closet, the trap should form part of the fixed pipe; +so that if there is any sinking the down pipe will not sink away from +the trap. It is, however, not sufficient to provide good material. +There is nothing which is more important in a sanitary point of view +than good workmanship in house drainage. In this matter, it is on +details that all depends. Just consider; the drain pipes under the +best conditions of aeration contain elements of danger, and those +pipes are composed of a number of parts, at the point of junction of +any one of which the poison may escape into the house. You thus +perceive how necessary it is first to reduce the poison to a minimum +by cutting off the sewer gas which might otherwise pass from the +street sewer to the house drain, and in the next place being most +careful in the workmanship of every part of your house drains and +soilpipes. Reduce your danger where you can by putting your pipes +outside. But you cannot always do that--for instance, at New York and +in Canada they would freeze. + +All drain pipes should be proved to be watertight by plugging up the +lower end of the drain pipe and filling it with water. In no case +should a soilpipe be built inside a wall. It should be so placed as to +be always accessible. 2. The pipes should be generally 4 in. diameter. +In no instance need a drain pipe inside a house exceed 6 in. in +diameter. 3. Every drain of a house or building should be laid with +true gradients, in no case less than 1/100, but much steeper would be +preferable. When from circumstances the drain is laid at a smaller +inclination, a flush tank should be provided. They should be laid in +straight lines from point to point. At every change of direction there +should be reserved a means of access to the drain. 4. No drain should +be constructed so as to pass under a dwelling house, except in +particular cases when absolutely necessary. In such cases the pipe +should be of cast iron, and the length of drain laid under the house +should be laid perfectly straight--a means of access should be +provided at each end; it should have a free air current passing +through it from end to end, and a flush tank should be placed at the +upper end. 5. Every house drain should be arranged so as to be +flushed, and kept at all times free from deposit. 6. Every house drain +should be ventilated by at least two suitable openings, one at each +end, so as to afford a current of air through the drain, and no pipe +or opening should be used for ventilation unless the same be carried +upward without angles or horizontal lengths, and with tight joints. +The size of such pipes or openings should be fully equal to that of +the drain pipe ventilated. 7. The upper extremities of ventilating +pipes should be at a distance from any windows or openings, so that +there will be no danger of the escape of the foul air into the +interior of the house from such pipes. The soilpipe should terminate +at its lower end in a properly ventilating disconnecting trap, so that +a current of air would be constantly maintained through the pipe. 8. +No rainwater pipe and no overflow or waste pipe from any cistern or +rainwater tank, or from any sink (other than a slop sink for urine), +or from any bath or lavatory, should pass directly to the soilpipe; +but every such pipe should be disconnected therefrom by passing +through the wall to the outside of the house, and discharging with an +end open to the air. I may mention here that the drainage arrangements +of this Parkes Museum in which we are assembled were very defective +when the building was first taken. Mr. Rogers Field, one of the +committee, was requested to drain it properly, and it has been very +successfully accomplished. + +I would now draw your attention to some points of detail in the +fittings for carrying away waste water. + +First, with regard to lavatories. As already mentioned, every waste +pipe from the sink should deliver in the open air, but it should have +an opening at its upper end as well as at its lower end, to permit a +current of air to pass through it; and it should be trapped close to +the sink, so as to prevent the air being drawn through it into the +house; otherwise you will have an offensive smell from it. I will give +you an instance: At the University College Hospital there are some +fire tanks on the several landings. The water flows in every day, and +some flows away through the waste pipes; these pipes, which carry away +nothing but fresh London water to empty in the yard, got most +offensive simply from the decomposition of the sediment left in them +by the London water passing through them day after day. A small waste +pipe from a bath or a basin is a great inconvenience. It should be of +a size to empty rapidly--for a bath 2 inches, a basin 11/2, inches. +There are other points connected with fittings to which I would call +your attention. The great inventive powers which have been applied to +the w.c. pan are an evidence of how unsatisfactory they all are. Many +kinds of water-closet apparatus and of so-called "traps" have a +tendency to retain foul matter in the house, and therefore, in +reality, partake more or less of the nature of small cesspools, and +nuisances are frequently attributed to the ingress of "sewer gas" +which have nothing whatever to do with the sewers, but arise from foul +air generated in the house drains and internal fittings. The old form +was always made with what is called a D-trap. Avoid the D-trap. It is +simply a small cesspool which cannot be cleaned out. Any trap in which +refuse remains is an objectionable cesspool. It is a receptacle for +putrescrible matter. In a lead pipe your trap should always be smooth +and without corners. The depth of dip of a trap should depend on the +frequency of use of the trap. It varies from 1/2 inch to 31/2 inches. When +a trap is rarely used, the dip should be deeper than when frequently +used, to allow of evaporation. In the section of a w.c. pan, the +object to be attained is to take that form in which all the parts of +the trap can be easily examined and cleaned, in which both the pan and +the trap will be washed clean by the water at each discharge, and in +which the lever movement of the handle will not allow of the passage +of sewer gas. + +And now just a few personal remarks in conclusion. I have had much +pleasure in giving to my old brother officers in these lectures the +result of my experience in sanitary science. In doing so, I desired +especially to impress on you who are just entering your profession the +importance of giving effect to those principles of sanitary science +which were left very much in abeyance until after the Crimean war. I +have not desired to fetter you with dogmatic rules, but I have sought, +by general illustrations, to show you the principles on which sanitary +science rests. That science is embodied in the words, pure earth, pure +air, pure water. In nature that purity is insured by increasing +movement. Neither ought we to stagnate. In the application of these +principles your goal of to-day should be your starting-post for +to-morrow. If I have fulfilled my object, I shall have interested you +sufficiently to induce some of you at least to seize and carry forward +to a more advanced position the torch of sanitary science. + + * * * * * + + + + +PASTEUR'S NEW METHOD OF ATTENUATION. + + +The view that vaccinia is attenuated variola is well known, and has +been extensively adopted by English physicians. If the opinion means +anything, it signifies that the two diseases are in essence one and +the same, differing only in degree. M. Pasteur has recently found that +by passing the bacillus of "rouget" of pigs through rabbits, he can +effect a considerable attenuation of the "rouget" virus. He has shown +that rabbits inoculated with the bacillus of rouget become very ill +and die, but if the inoculations be carried through a series of +rabbits, a notable modification results in the bacillus. As regards +the rabbits themselves, no favorable change occurs--they are all made +very ill, or die. But if inoculation be made on pigs from those +rabbits, at the end of the series it is found that the pigs have the +disease in a mild form, and, moreover, that they enjoy immunity from +further attacks of "rouget." This simply means that the rabbits have +effected, or the bacillus has undergone while in them, an attenuation +of virulence. So the pigs may be "vaccinated" with the modified virus, +have the disease in a mild form, and thereafter be protected from the +disease. The analogy between this process and the accepted view of +vaccinia is very close. The variolous virus is believed to pass +through the cow, and there to become attenuated, so that inoculations +from the cow-pox no longer produce variola in the human subject, but +cow-pox (vaccinia). As an allied process, though of very different +result, mention may be made of some collateral experiments of Pasteur, +also performed recently. Briefly, it has been discovered that the +bacillus of the "rouget" of pigs undergoes an increase of virulence by +being cultivated through a series of pigeons. Inoculations from the +last of the series of pigeons give rise to a most intense form of the +disease. It will be remembered that the discovery of the bacillus of +"rouget" of pigs was due to the late Dr. Thuillier.--_Lancet._ + + * * * * * + + +Very few persons realize the necessity of cultivating an equable +temper and of avoiding passion. Many persons have met with sudden +death, the result of a weak heart and passionate nature. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONVENIENT VAULTS. + + +This is a subject which will bear line upon line and precept upon +precept. Many persons have availed themselves of the cheap and easy +means which we have formerly recommended in the shape of the daily use +of absorbents, but a larger number strangely neglect these means, and +foul air and impure drainage are followed by disease and death. Sifted +coal ashes and road dust are the remedy, kept in barrels till needed +for use. A neat cask, filled with these absorbents, with a +long-handled dipper, is placed in the closet, and a conspicuous +placard directs every occupant to throw down a dipper full before +leaving. The vaults, made to open on the outside, are then as easily +cleaned twice a year as sand is shoveled from a pit. No drainage by +secret, underground seams in the soil can then poison the water of +wells; and no effluvia can arise to taint the air and create fevers. +On this account, this arrangement is safer and better than +water-closets. It is far cheaper and simpler, and need never get out +of order. There being no odor whatever, if properly attended to, it +may be contiguous to the dwelling. An illustration of the way in which +the latter is accomplished is shown by Fig. 1, which represents a neat +addition to a kitchen wing, with hip-roof, the entrance being either +from the kichen through an entry, or from the outside as shown by the +steps. Fig. 2 is a plan, showing the double walls with interposed +solid earth, to exclude any possible impurity from the cellar in case +of neglect. The vaults may be reached from the outside opening, for +removing the contents. In the whole arrangement there is not a vestige +of impure air, and it is as neat as a parlor; and the man who cleans +out the vaults say it is no more unpleasant than to shovel sand from a +pit. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +Those who prefer may place the closet at a short distance from the +house, provided the walk is flanked on both sides with evergreen +trees; for no person should be compelled to encounter drifting snows +to reach it--an exposure often resulting in colds and sickness. A few +dollars are the whole cost, and civilization and humanity demand as +much.--_Country Gentleman_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + + * * * * * + + + + +POISONOUS SERPENTS AND THEIR VENOM. + +By Dr. G. ARCHIE STOCKWELL. + + +Chemistry has made astounding strides since the days of the sixteenth +century, when Italian malice and intrigue swayed all Europe, and +poisons and poisoners stalked forth unblushingly from cottage and +palace; when crowned and mitered heads, prelates, noblemen, beneficed +clergymen, courtiers, and burghers became Borgias and De Medicis in +hideous infamy in their greed for power and affluence; and when the +civilized world feared to retire to rest, partake of the daily repast, +inhale the odors of flower or perfume, light a wax taper, or even +approach the waters of the holy font. These horrors have been laid +bare, their cause and effect explained, and tests discovered whereby +they may be detected, providing the law with a shield that protects +even the humblest individual. Great as the science is, however, it is +yet far removed from perfection; and there are substances so +mysterious, subtle, and dangerous as to set the most delicate tests +and powerful lenses at naught, while carrying death most horrible in +their train; and chief of these are the products of Nature's +laboratory, that provides some sixty species of serpents with their +deadly venom, enabling them in spite of sluggish forms and retiring +habits to secure abundant prey and resent mischievous molestation. The +hideous _trigonocephalus_ has forced the introduction and acclimation +of the mongoose to the cane fields of the Western tropics; the tiger +snake (_Heplocephalus curtus_) is the terror of Australian plains; the +fer de lance (_Craspedocephalus lanceolatus_) renders the paradise of +Martinique almost uninhabitable; the tic paloonga (_Daboii russelli_) +is the scourge of Cinghalese coffee estates; the giant ehlouhlo of +Natal (unclassified) by its presence secures a forbidding waste for +miles about; the far famed cobra de capello (_Naja tripudians_) +ravages British India in a death ratio of one-seventh of one per cent. +of the dense population, annually, and is the more dangerous in that +an assumed sacred character secures it largely from molestation and +retributive justice; and in Europe and America we have vipers, +rattlesnakes, copperheads, and moccasins (_viperinae_ and _crotalidae_), +that if a less degree fatal, are still a source of dread and +annoyance. All these forms exhibit in general like ways and like +habits, and if the venom of all be not generically identical, the +physiological and toxicological phenomena arising therefrom render +them practically and specifically so. Indeed, their attributes appear +to be mere modifications arising from difference in age, size, +development, climate, latitude, seasons, and enforced habits, aided +perhaps by idiosyncrasies and the incidents and accidents of life. + +In delicacy of organism and perfection in mechanism and precision, the +inoculatory apparatus of the venomous reptile excels the most +exquisite appliances devised by the surgical implement maker's art, +and it is doubtful whether it can ever be rivaled by the hand of man. +The mouth of the serpent is an object for the closest study, +presenting as it does a series of independent actions, whereby the +bones composing the upper jaw and palate are loosely articulated, or +rather attached, to one another by elastic and expansive ligaments, +whereby the aperture is made conformatory, or enlarged at will--any +one part being untrammeled and unimpeded in its action by its fellows. +The recurved, hook-like teeth are thus isolated in application, and +each venom fang independent of its rival when so desired, and it +becomes possible to reach points and recesses seemingly inaccessible. + +The fangs proper, those formidable weapons whose threatening presence +quails the boldest opponent, inspires the fear of man, and puts to +flight the entire animal kingdom--lions, tigers, and leopards, all but +the restless and plucky mongoose--and whose slightest scratch is +attended with such dire results, are two in number, one in each upper +jaw, and placed anteriorly to all other teeth, which they exceed by +five or six times in point of size. Situated just within the lips, +recurved, slender, and exceeding in keenness even the finest of +cambric needles, they are penetrated in their longitudinal diameter by +a delicate, hair-like canal opening into a groove at the apex, +terminating on the anterior surface in an elongated fissure. As the +canal is straight, and the tooth falciform, a like groove or +longitudinal fissure is formed at the base, where it is inclosed by +the aperture of the duct that communicates with the poison apparatus. + +At the base of each fang, and extending from a point just beneath the +nostril, backward two-thirds the distance to the commissure of the +mouth, is the poison gland, analogous to the salivary glands of man, +that secretes a pure, mucous saliva, and also a pale straw-colored, +half-oleaginous fluid, the venom proper. Within the gland, venom and +saliva are mingled in varying proportions coincidently with +circumstances; but the former slowly distills away and finds lodgment +in the central portion of the excretory duct, that along its middle is +dilated to form a bulb-like receptacle, and where only it may be +obtained in perfect purity. + +When the reptile is passive, the fangs are arranged to lie backward +along the jaw, concealed by the membrane of the mouth, and thus offer +no impediment to deglutition. Close inspection, however, at once +reveals not only their presence, but also several rudimentary ones to +supply their place in case of injury or accident. The bulb of the +duct, too, is surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of which the +outermost and strongest layer is in connection with a muscle by whose +action both duct and gland are compressed at will, conveying the +secretion into the basal aperture of the fang, at the same time +refilling the bulb. + +When enraged and assuming the offensive and defensive, the reptile +draws the posterior portion of its body into a coil or spiral, whereby +the act of straightening, in which it hurls itself forward to nearly +its full length, lends force to the blow, and at the same instant the +fangs are erected, drawn forward in a reverse plane, permitting the +points to look outward beyond the lips. The action of the compressor +muscles is contemporaneous with the blow inflicted, the venom being +injected with considerable violence through the apical outlets of the +fangs, and into the bottom of the wound. If the object is not +attained, the venom may be thrown to considerable distances, falling +in drops; and Sir Arthur Cunynghame in a recent work on South Africa +relates that he was cautioned not to approach a huge cobra of six feet +or more in length in its death agony, lest it should hurl venom in his +eyes and create blindness; he afterward found that an officer of Her +Majesty's XV. Regiment had been thus injured at a distance of +_forty-five feet_, and did not recover his eyesight for more than a +week.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Presumably the Natal ombozi, or spitting cobra, _Naja + haemachites_, who is fully equal to the feat described.] + +With the infliction of the stroke and expression of its venom, the +creature usually attempts to reverse its fangs in the wound, thereby +dragging through and lacerating the flesh; an ingenious bit of +devilishness hardly to be expected from so low a form of organism; but +its frequent neglect proves it by no means mechanical, and it +frequently occurs that the animal bitten drags the reptile after it a +short distance, or causes it to leave its fangs in the wound. Some +serpents also, as the fer de lance, black mamba, and water moccasin, +are apparently actuated by most vindictive motives, and coil +themselves about the part bitten, clinging with leech-like tenacity +and resisting all attempts at removal. Two gentlemen of San Antonio, +Texas,[2] who were bitten by rattlesnakes, subsequently asserted that +after having inflicted all possible injury, the reptiles scampered +away with unmistakable manifestations of pleasure. "Snakes," remarked +one of the victims, "usually glide smoothly away with the entire body +prone to the ground; but the fellow I encountered traveled off with an +up and down wave-like motion, as if thrilled with delight, and then, +getting under a large rock where he was safe from pursuit, he turned, +and raising his head aloft waved it to and fro, as if saying. 'Don't +you feel good now?' It would require but a brief stretch of the +imagination to constitute that serpent a veritable descendant of the +old Devil himself." + + [Footnote 2: On the authority of N.A. Taylor and H.F. McDaniels.] + +As the first blow commonly exhausts the receptacle of the duct, a +second (the venom being more or less mingled and diluted by the +salivary secretion) is comparatively less fatal in results; and each +successive repetition correspondingly inoffensive until finally +nothing but pure mucus is ejected. Nevertheless, when thoroughly +aroused, the reptile is enabled to constantly hurl a secretion, since +both rage and hunger swell the glands to enormous size, and stimulate +to extraordinary activity--a fortuitous circumstance to which many an +unfortunate is doubtless indebted for his life. The removal of a fang, +however, affects its gland to a degree that it becomes almost +inoperative, until such a time as a new tooth is grown, and again +calls it into action, which is commonly but a few weeks at most; and a +person purchasing a poisonous serpent under the supposition that it +has been rendered innocuous, will do well to keep watch of its mouth +lest he be some time taken unaware. It may be rendered permanently +harmless, however, by first removing the fang, and then cauterizing +the duct by means of a needle or wire, heated to redness; when for +experimental purposes the gland may be stimulated, and the virus drawn +off by means of a fine-pointed syringe. + +In what the venom consists more than has already been described, we +are not permitted to know. It dries under exposure to air in small +scales, is soluble in water but not in alcohol, slightly reddens +litmus paper, and long retains its noxious properties. It has no acrid +or burning taste, and but little if any odor; the tongue pronounces it +inoffensive, and the mucous surface of the alimentary track is proof +against it, and it has been swallowed in considerable quantities +without deleterious result--all the poison that could be extracted +from a half dozen of the largest and most virile reptiles was +powerless in any way to affect an unfledged bird when poured into its +open beak. Chemistry is not only powerless to solve the enigma of its +action, and the microscope to detect its presence, but pathology is at +fault to explain the reason of its deadly effect; and all that we know +is that when introduced even in most minute quantities into an open +wound, the blood is dissolved, so to speak, and the stream of life +paralyzed with an almost incredible rapidity. Without test or +antidote, terror has led to blind, fanatical empiricism, necessarily +attended with no little injury in the search for specifics, and it may +be reasonably asserted that no substance can be named so inert and +worthless as not to have been recommended, or so disgusting as not to +have been employed; nor is any practice too absurd to find favor and +adherents even among the most enlightened of the medical profession, +who have rung all the changes of the therapeutical gamut from +serpentaria[3] and boneset to guaco, cimicifugia, and _Aristolochia +India_ to curare, alum, chalk, and mercury to arsenic; and in the way +of surgical dressings and appliances everything from poultices of +human faeces,[4] burying the part bitten in fresh earth,[5] or +thrusting the member or entire person into the entrails of living +animals, to cupping, ligatures, escharotics, and the moxa. + + [Footnote 3: Serpentaria derives its name from its supposed + antidotal properties, and guaco and _Aristolochia India_ enjoyed + widely heralded but rapidly fleeting popularity in the two Indias + for a season. Tanjore pill (black pepper and arsenic) is still + extensively lauded in districts whose serpents possess little + vitality, but is every way inferior to iodine.] + + [Footnote 4: A Chinese remedy--as might be imagined.] + + [Footnote 5: Still extensively practiced, the first in Michigan, + the latter in Missouri and Arkansas, and inasmuch as one is + cooling and soothing, and the other slightly provocative of + perspiration in the part, are not altogether devoid of + plausibility.] + +Although the wounds of venomous serpents are frequently attended with +fatal results, such are not necessarily invariable. There are times +and seasons when all reptiles are sluggish and inactive, and when they +inflict comparatively trifling injuries; and the poison is much less +virulent at certain periods than others--during chilling weather for +instance, or when exhausted by repeated bites in securing sustenance. +Young and small serpents, too, are less virile than large and more +aged specimens, and it has likewise been observed that death is more +apt to follow when the poison is received at the beginning or during +the continuance of the heated term. + +The action of the venom is commonly so swift that its effects are +manifested almost immediately after inoculation, being at once +conveyed by the circulatory system to the great nervous centers of the +body, resulting in rapid paralysis of such organs as are supplied with +motive power from these sources; its physiological and toxicological +realizations being more or less speedy accordingly as it is applied +near or remote from these centers, or infused into the capillary or +the venous circulation. Usually, too, an unfortunate experiences, +perhaps instantaneously, an intense burning pain in the member +lacerated, which is succeeded by vertigo, nausea, retching, fainting, +coldness, and collapse; the part bitten swells, becomes discolored, or +spotted over its surface with livid blotches, that may, ultimately, +extend to the greater portion of the body, while the poison appears to +effect a greater or less disorganization of the blood, not by +coagulating its fibrine as Fontana surmised, but in dissolving, +attenuating, and altering the form of its corpuscles, whose integrity +is so essential to life, causing them to adhere to one another, and to +the walls of the vessels by which they are conveyed; being no longer +able to traverse the capillaries, oedema is produced, followed by the +peculiar livid blush. Shakespeare would appear to have had intuitive +perception of the nature of such subtle poison, when he caused the +ghost to describe to Hamlet + + "The leprous distillment whose effect + Bears such an enmity to the blood of man + That swift as quicksilver, it courses through + The natural gates and alleys of the body + And with sudden vigor it doth posset + And curd like eager droppings into milk, + The thin and wholesome blood: so did it mine + And a most instant tetter marked about + Most lazar like, with vile and loathsome crust + All my smooth body." + +It is not to be supposed, however, that all or even a major portion of +the blood disks require to be changed or destroyed to produce a fatal +result, since death may supervene long before such a consummation can +be realized. It is the capillary circulation that suffers chiefly, +since the very size and caliber of the heart cavities and trunk +vessels afford them comparative immunity. But of the greatly dissolved +and disorganized condition of the blood that may occur secondarily, we +have evidences in the passive haemorrhages that attack those that have +recovered from the immediate effects of serpent poisoning, following +or coincident with subsidence of swelling and induration; and, as with +scurvy, bleeding may occur from the mouth, throat, lungs, nose, and +bowels, or from ulcerated surfaces and superficial wounds, or all +together, defying all styptics and haemastatics. In a case occurring +under the care of Dr. David Brainerd in the Illinois General +Hospital,[6] blood flowed from the gums in great profusion, and on +examination was found destitute, even under the microscope, of the +faintest indications of fibrine--the principle upon which coagulation +depends. The breath, moreover, gave most sickening exhalations, +indicative of decomposition, producing serious illness in those +exposed for any length of time to its influence. We may add, among +other sequelae, aside from death produced through primary and secondary +effects, paralysis, loss of nerve power, impotence, haemorrhage, even +mortification or gangrene. + + [Footnote 6: _Medical Independent_, 1855.] + +The failure in myotic power of the heart and in the muscles of +respiration through reflex influence of par vagum and great +sympathetic nerves, whereby pulmonary circulation is impeded, are +among the earliest of phenomena. Breathing becoming retarded and +laborious, the necessary supply of oxygen is no longer received, and +blood still venous, in that it is not relieved of its carbon, is +returned through the arteries, whereby the capillaries of the brain +are gorged with a doubly poisoned circulation, poisoned by both venom +and carbon. In this we have ample cause for the attending train of +symptoms that, beginning with drowsiness, rapidly passes into stupor +followed by profound coma and ultimate dissolution--marked evidence of +the fact that a chemical agent or poison may produce a mechanical +disease; and autopsical research reveals absolutely nothing save the +general disorganization of blood corpuscles, as already noted. + +Taking circumstantial and pathological evidences into consideration, +the hope of the person thus poisoned rests solely upon lack of +vitality in the serpent and its venom, and in his personal +idiosyncrasies, habits of life, condition of health, etc., and the +varied chapters of accidents. _To look for a specific, in any sense of +the word, is the utmost folly!_ The action of the poison and its train +of results follow inoculation in too swift succession to be overtaken +and counteracted by any antidote, supposing such to be a possible +product, even if administered hypodermically. We have evidence of this +in iodic preparations, iodine being the nearest approach to a perfect +antidote that can be secured by mortal skill, inasmuch, if quickly +injected into the circulation, it retards and restrains the +disorganizing process whereby the continuity of the blood corpuscles +is lost; moreover, it is a marked antiseptic, favors the production of +adhesive inflammation, whereby lymph is effused and coagulated about +the bitten part, and absorption checked, and the poison rendered less +diffusible. But when a remedy is demanded that shall restore the +pristine form, functions, and energy of the disorganized globules, man +arrogates to himself supernal attributes whereby it becomes possible +not only to save and renew, _but to create life_; and we can scarce +expect science or even accident (as some expect) to even rival Nature +and set at defiance her most secret and subtle laws. Such, however, is +the natural outcropping of an ignorant teaching and vulgar prejudice +that feeds and clothes the charlatan and ascribes to savage and +uncultured races an occult familiarity with pathological, +physiological, and remedial effect unattainable by the most advanced +sciences; and whereby the Negro, Malay, Hindoo, South Sea Islander, +and red man are granted an innate knowledge of poisons and their +antidotes more than miraculous. A reward of more than a quarter of a +century's standing, and amounting to several thousand pounds, is +offered by the East India Government for the discovery of a specific +for the bite of the cobra, and for which no claims have ever been +advanced; and the "snake charmers" or jugglers in whom this superior +knowledge is supposed to center are so well aware of the futility of +specifics, and the risk to which they are subjected, that few venture +to ply their calling without a broad-bladed, keen-edged knife +concealed about the person as a means of instant amputation in case of +accident. Medical and scientific associations of various classes, in +Europe, Australia, America, even Africa, and the East and West Indies, +have repeatedly held out the most tempting lures, and indulged in +exhaustive and costly experimentation in search of specifics for the +wounds of vipers, cobras, rattlesnakes, and the general horde of +venomous reptiles; and all in vain. Even the saliva of man, as well as +certain other secretions, is at times so modified by anger as to rival +the venom of the serpent in fatality, and it has no specific; and a +careful analysis of the pathological relations of such poison proves +that further experimentation and expectation is as irrational as the +pursuit of the "philosopher's stone." + +It is an indisputable fact, however, that there are individuals whose +natural or acquired idiosyncrasies permit them to be inoculated by the +most venomous of reptiles without deleterious or unpleasant results, +and Colonel Matthews Taylor[7] knew several persons of this character +in India, and who regarded the bite of the cobra or tic paloonga with +nearly as much indifference as the sting of a gnat or mosquito. Again, +in 1868, Mr. Drummond, a prominent magistrate of Melbourne, +Australia,[8] met with untimely death under circumstances that +attracted no little attention. An itinerant vender of nostrums had on +exhibition a number of venomous reptiles, by which he caused himself +to be successively bitten, professing to secure immunity by reason of +a secret compound which he offered for sale at a round figure. +Convinced that the fellow was an imposter, and his wares valuable only +as a means of depleting the pockets of the credulous, Mr. Drummond +loudly asserted the inefficacy of the nostrum, as well as the +innocuousness of the reptiles, which he assumed to be either naturally +harmless, or rendered so by being deprived of their fangs; and in +proof thereof insisted upon being himself bitten. To this experiment +the charlatan was extremely averse, offering strenuous objections, and +finally conveyed a point blank refusal. But Mr. Drummond's demands +becoming more imperative, and observing that his hesitancy impressed +the audience as a tacit acknowledgment of the allegations, he finally +consented, and placed in the hands of the magistrate a tiger snake, +which he deemed least dangerous, and which instantly struck the +gentleman in the wrist. The usual symptoms of serpent poisoning +rapidly manifested themselves, followed by swelling and lividity of +the part, obstructed circulation and respiration, and coma; and in +spite of the use of the vaunted remedy and the attentions of +physicians the result was most fatal. The vender subsequently conceded +the worthless character of his nostrum, declaring that be enjoyed +exemption from the effects of of serpent poison by virtue of recovery +from a severe inoculation in early life; and he further added he knew +"some people who were born so," who put him "up to this dodge" as a +means of gaining a livelihood. + + [Footnote 7: _Vide_ report to Prof. J. Henry Bennett.] + + [Footnote 8: London _Times_.] + +It is a general supposition that such immunity, when congenital, is +acquired _in utero_ by the inoculation of the parent, and Oliver +Wendell Holmes' fascinating tale of "Elsie Venner" embodies many +interesting features in this connection. Admitting such inoculation +may secure immunity, recent experiments in the action of this as well +as kindred poisons give no grounds for believing it at all universal +or even common, but as depending upon occult physiological or +accidental phenomena. For instance, the writer and his father are +equally proof against the contagion and inoculation of vaccination and +variola, in spite of repeated attempts to secure both, while their +respective mothers suffered terribly with smallpox at periods +subsequent to the birth of their children; and it is well understood +that there are striking analogies between the poisons of certain +contagious fevers and those of venomous serpents, inasmuch as one +attack conveys exemption from future ones of like character. In other +words, many animal poisons, as well as the pathological ones of +smallpox, measles, scarlatina, whooping cough, etc., have the power of +so modifying the animal economy, when it does not succumb to their +primary influence, as to ever after render it all but proof against +them. Witness, for instance, the ravages of the mosquito, that in +certain districts punishes most terribly all new comers, and who after +a brief residence suffer little, the bite no longer producing pain or +swelling. + +Regarding the supposed correlation of serpent poison and the septic +ferments of certain tropical and infectious fevers, they are not +necessarily always contagious. It may be interesting to note that one +Doctor Humboldt in 1852,[9] in an essay read before the Royal Academy +of Medical Sciences at Havana, assumed their proximate identity, and +advocated the inoculation of the poison of one as a prophylactic of +the other. He claimed to have personally inoculated numberless persons +in New Orleans, Vera Cruz, and Cuba with exceedingly dilute venom, +thereby securing them perfect immunity from yellow fever. Aside from +the extraordinary nature of the statement, the fact that the doctor +affirmed, he had never used the virus to an extent sufficient to +produce any of its toxic symptoms, cast discredit over the whole, and +proofs were demanded and promised. This was the last of the subject, +however, which soon passed into oblivion, though whether from failure +on the part of the medico to substantiate his assertions, or from the +inanition of his colleagues, it is difficult to determine, though the +presumption is largely in favor of the former. Nevertheless, it is +worthy of consideration and exhaustive experimentation, since it is no +less plausible than the theory which rendered the name of Jenner +famous. + + [Footnote 9: London _Lancet_.] + +Outside of the transfusion of blood, for which there are strong +reasons for believing would be attended with happy results, the sole +remedies available in serpent poisoning are measures looking to the +prompt cutting off of the circulation of the affected part, and the +direct stimulation of the heart's action and the respiratory organs, +until such a time as Nature shall have eliminated all toxical +evidences; and these must necessarily be mechanical. Alcoholic +stimulants are available only as they act mechanically in sustaining +cardiac and pulmonary activity, and where their free use is prolonged +efficacy is quickly exhausted, and they tend rather to hasten a fatal +result. They are devoid of the slightest antidotal properties, and in +no way modify the activity of the venom; and an intoxicated person, so +far from enjoying the immunity with which he is popularly credited, is +far more apt to succumb to the virus than him of unfuddled intellect. +The reasons are obvious. Theoretically, for purely physiological and +therapeutic reasons _amyl nitrite_ should be of incalculable value, +though I have no knowledge of its use in this connection, since its +vapor when inhaled is a most powerful stimulator of cardiac action, +and when administered by the mouth it is unapproached in its control +of spasmodically contracted vessels and muscles. The relief its vapor +affords in the collapse of chloroform anaesthesia, in which dissolution +is imminent from paralyzed heart's action, is instantaneous, and its +effect upon the spasmodic and suffocative sensations of hydrophobia +are equally prompt. Moreover, without further discussing its +physiological functions, it is the nearest approach to an antidote to +certain zymotic poisons, and especially valuable in warding off and +aborting the action of the ferment that gives rise to pertussis, or +whooping cough. _Iodide of ethyl_ is another therapeutical measure +that is worthy of consideration; and _iodoform_ in the treatment of +the sequelae incident to recovery. + +The native population of India, in spite of the contrary accepted +opinion, are remarkably free from resort to nostrums that lay claim to +being antidotes. The person inoculated by the cobra is at once seized +by his friends, and constant and violent exercise enforced, if +necessary at the point of stick, and severe and cruel (but +nevertheless truly merciful) beatings are often a result. In this we +see a direct application, without in the least understanding them, of +the rules laid down to secure certain physiological results, as for +the relief of opium and morphia narcosis, which serpent poisoning +almost exactly resembles. The late Doctor Spillsbury (Physician-General +of Calcutta),[10] while stationed at Jubulpore, Central India, was +informed late one evening that his favorite horse keeper had just been +dangerously bitten by a cobra of unusual size, and therefore more than +ordinarily venomous. He at once ordered his gig, and in spite of the +wails and protestations of the sufferer and his friends, with whom a +fatal result was already a foregone conclusion, the doctor caused his +wrists to be bound firmly and inextricably to the back of the vehicle; +then assuring the man if he did not keep up he would most certainly be +dragged to death, he mounted to his seat and drove rapidly away. Three +hours later, or a little more, he returned, having covered nearly +thirty miles without cessation or once drawing rein. The horse keeper +was found bathed in profuse perspiration, and almost powerless from +excessive fatigue. _Eau de luce_, an aromatic preparation of ammonia, +was now administered at frequent and regular intervals as a diffusible +stimulant, and moderate though constant exercise enforced until near +dawn, when the sufferer was found to be completely recovered. + + [Footnote 10: London _Lancet_.] + +The value of violent and profuse cutaneous transpiration, thereby +securing a rapidly eliminating channel for discharging poison from the +system, is well known; in no other way can action be had so thorough, +speedy, and prompt. Captain Maxwell[11] tells us it was formerly the +custom among the Irish peasantry of Connaught, when one manifested +unmistakable evidences of hydrophobia, to procure the death of the +unfortunate by smothering between two feather beds. In one instance, +after undergoing this treatment, the supposed corpse was seen, to the +horror and surprise of all who witnessed it, to crawl from between the +bolsters, when he was found to be entirely free from his disorder; the +beds, however, were saturated through and through with the +perspiration that escaped the body in the intensity of his mortal +agony. More recently a French physician,[12] recognizing the incubatory +stage of rabies in his own person, resolved upon suicide rather than +undergo its attendant horrors. The hot bath was selected for the +purpose, with a view of gradually increasing its temperature until +syncope should be induced, which he hoped would be succeeded by death. +To his surprise, however, as the temperature of the water rose, his +sensations of distress improved; and the very means chosen for +terminating life became instead his salvation, restoring to perfect +health. Again, Dr. Peter Hood[13] relates that a blacksmith residing in +the neighborhood of his country house was in high repute for miles +about by reason of his cures of rabies. His remedy consisted simply in +forcing the person bitten to accompany him in a rapid walk or trot for +twenty miles or more, after which he administered copious draughts of +a hot decoction of broom tops, as much for its moral effect as for its +value in sustaining and prolonging established diaphoresis. + + [Footnote 11: Wild Sports or the West.] + + [Footnote 12: _L'Union Medicale_--name withheld by request of the + gentleman.] + + [Footnote 13: London _Lancet_.] + +Though the pathological conditions of hydrophobia and serpent +poisoning are by no means parallel, the _rationale_ of the methods +employed in opening the emunctories of the skin are the same; and were +it not for its powerful protracting effect and depressing action upon +the heart, we might perhaps secure valuable aid from jaborandi +(_pilocarpus_), since it stimulates profusely all the secretions; as +it is, more is to be hoped for in the former disorder than in the +latter. It would be desirable also to know what influence the Turkish +bath might exert, and it would seem worthy at least of trial. + + * * * * * + + + + +TO FIND THE TIME OF TWILIGHT. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American_: + +Given latitude N. 40 deg. 51', declination N. 20 deg. 25', sun 18 deg. below the +horizon. To find the time of twilight at that place. In the +accompanying diagram, E Q = equinoctial, D D = parallel of +declination, Z S N a vertical circle, H O = the horizon, P = North +pole, Z = zenith, and S = the sun, 18 deg. below the horizon, H O, +measured on a vertical circle. It is seen that we have here given us +the three sides of a spherical triangle, viz., the co-latitude 49 deg. 9', +the co declination 69 deg. 35', and the zenith distance 108 deg., with which +to compute the angle Z P S. This angle is found to be 139 deg. 16' 5.6". +Dividing this by 15 we have 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., from noon to the +beginning or termination of twilight. Now, in the given latitude and +declination, the sun's center coincides with the horizon at sunset +(allowance being made for refraction), at 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from +apparent noon. Then if we subtract 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from 9 h. 16 m. +24.4 s., we shall have 1 h. 57 m. 55.1 s. as the duration of twilight. +But the real time of sunset must be computed when the sun has +descended about 50' below the horizon, at which point the sun's upper +limb coincides with the line, H O, of the horizon. This takes place 7 +h. 16 m. 30.8 s. mean time. It is hoped the above will be a sufficient +answer to L.N. (See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Dec. 1, 1883, p. 346.) + +B.W. H. + +[Illustration] + + * * * * * + + + + +ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES. + + +The distinguished anthropologist M. De Quatrefages has recently spoken +before the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and we extract from his +discourse on "Fossil Man and Savages" some notes reported in the +_Journal d'Hygiene_: "It is in Oceanica and above all in Melanesia and +in Polynesia where I have looked for examples of savage races. I have +scarcely spoken of the Malays except to bring to the surface the +features which distinguish them among the ethnic groups which they at +times touch, and which in turn frequently mingle with them. I have +especially studied the Papuans and Negritos. The Papuans are an +exclusively Pelasgic race, that many anthropologists consider as +almost confined to New Guinea and the neighboring archipelago. But it +becomes more and more manifest that they have had also periods of +expansion and of dissemination. + +"On one side they appear as conquerors in some islands of Micronesia; +on the other we have shown--M. Hamy and myself--that to them alone can +be assigned the skulls found in Easter Island and in New Zealand. They +have hence touched the east and south, the extremities of the maritime +world. + +"The Negritos, scarcely known a few years ago, and to-day confounded +with the Papuans by some anthropologists, have spread to the west and +northwest. + +"They have left unmistakable traces in Japan; we find them yet in the +Philippines and in many of the islands of the Malay archipelago; they +constitute the indigenous population of the Andaman Islands, in the +Gulf of Bengal. Indeed, they have formerly occupied a great part of +the two peninsulas of India, and I have elsewhere shown that we can +follow their steps to the foot of the Himalayas, and beyond the Indus +to Lake Zerah. I have only sketched here the history of this race, +whose representatives in the past have been the type of the Asiatic +pygmies of whom Pliny and Ctesias speak, and whose _creoles_ were +those Ethiopians, black and with smooth hair, who figured in the army +of Xerxes. + +"I have devoted two long examinations to another black race much less +important in numbers and in the extent of their domain, but which +possess for the anthropologist a very peculiar interest and a sad one. +It exists no more; its last representative, a woman, died in 1877. I +refer to the Tasmanians. + +"The documents gathered by various English writers, and above all by +Bouwick, give numerous facts upon the intellectual and moral character +of the Tasmanians. The complete destruction of the Tasmanians, +accomplished in at most 72 years over a territory measuring 4,400 +square leagues, raises a sorrowful and difficult question. Their +extinction has been explained by the barbarity of the civilized +Europeans, and which, often conspicuous, has never been more +destructively present than in their dealings with the Tasmanians. But +I am convinced that this is an error. I certainly do not wish to +apologize for or extenuate the crimes of the convicts and colonists, +against which the most vigorous protests have been raised both in +England and in the colony itself, but neither war nor social disasters +have been the principal cause of the disappearance of the Tasmanians. +They have perished from that strange malady which Europeans have +everywhere transplanted in the maritime world, and which strikes down +the most flourishing populations. + +"Consumption is certainly one of the elements of this evil. But if it +explains the increase of the death rate, it does not explain the +diminution of births. Both these phenomena are apparent. Captain Juan +has seen at the Marquesas, in the island of Taio-Hahe, the population +fall in three years from 400 souls to 250. To offset this death-rate, +we find only 3 or 4 births. It is evident that at this rate +populations rapidly disappear, and it is the principal cause of the +disappearance of the Tasmanians." + +The lecturer, after alluding to his studies in Polynesia, speaks of +his interest in the western representatives of these races and his +special studies in New Zealand, and referring to the latter continues: + +"One of the most important results of the labors in this direction has +been to establish the serious value of the historical songs preserved, +among the Maoris, by the _Tohungus_, or _wise men_, who represent the +_Aiepas_ of Tahiti. Thanks to these living archives, we have been able +to reconstruct a history of the natives, to fix almost the epoch of +the first arrival of the Polynesians in that land, so distant from +their other centers of population, and to determine their point of +departure." + +Other studies refer to peoples far removed from the preceding. One is +devoted to the Todas, a very small tribe of the Nilgherie Hills, who +by their physical, intellectual, and social characteristics differ +from all the other races of India. "The Todas burn their dead, and we +possess none of their skulls. But thanks to M. Janssen, who has lived +among them, I have been able to fill up this gap." + +The last subject referred to by the lecturer was the Finns of Finland, +whose study reveals the fact that they embrace two ethnic types, one +of which, the _Tavastlanda_, belongs without doubt to the great +Finnish family, spread over Asia as well as in Europe, and a second, +the Karelien, whose representatives possessed the poetic instinct, +which causes M. Quatrefages to ally them with the Aryan race, "to whom +we owe all our epics, from the Ramayana, Iliad, and Eneas to the poems +of to-day." + + * * * * * + + + + +GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. + + +[Illustration: MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS.] + +Although so much has been written about Athens, there is one striking +feature which has been little noticed. This is the beautiful colors of +the Parthenon and Erectheum, the soft mellow yellow which is due to +age, and which gives these buildings when lighted by the setting sun, +and framed by the purple hills beyond, the appearance of temples of +gold. + +[Illustration: TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.] + +Until A.D. 1687 the Parthenon remained almost perfect, and then not +age but a shell from the Venetians falling upon Turkish powder, made a +rent which, when seen from below, makes it look like two temples. + +[Illustration: TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS.] + +The Temple of Theseus is the best preserved and one of the oldest of +the buildings of ancient Athens. It was founded in B.C. 469, and is a +small, graceful, and perfect Doric temple. Having served as a +Christian church, dedicated to St. George, it escaped injury. It +contains the beautiful and celebrated tombstone of Aristion, the +warrior of Marathon. + +[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS.] + +All that remains of Hadrian's great Temple to Zeus (A.D. 132) are a +few standing columns in an open space, which are imposing from their +isolated position. + +[Illustration: OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS.] + +The monument of Philopappus is thought to have been begun A.D. 110, +and for a king in Asia Minor. + +[Illustration: TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS.] + +The Tower of the Winds, erected by Andronicus Cyrrhestes about B.C. +100, contained a weathercock, a sun dial, and a water clock. It is an +octagonal building, with reliefs on the frieze, representing by +appropriate figures the eight winds into which the Athenian compass +was divided. + +[Illustration: THE PANTHENON, ATHENS.] + +In the Street of Tombs the monuments are lying or standing as they +were found; each year shows many changes in Athens, a tomb last year +in the Ceramicus may be this year in a museum. There is a great +similarity in all these tombstones; no doubt they were made +beforehand, as they seldom suggest the idea of a portrait. They +generally represent an almost heroic leave-taking. The friends +standing in the act of saying farewell are receiving presents from the +dead; often in the corner is a crouching slave, and frequently a dog. + +[Illustration: ERECTEUM, ATHENS.] + +Beyond the river Kephiesus, the hill of Colonus, and the groves of the +Academy, is the Pass of Daphne, which was the road to Eleusis, and +along which passed the annual sacred processions in the days of the +Mysteries. Cut there in the rock are the niches for the votive +offerings. This dark Daphne Pass seems still to possess an air of +mystery which is truly in keeping with the rites which were once +observed there. + +[Illustration: NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO +ELEUSIS.] + +[Illustration: TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS.] + +From several points in Athens, on very clear days, may be seen the +great rock fort Acrocorinthus, which is directly above the site of +ancient Corinth. It is now a deserted fort; the Turkish drawbridge and +gate stand open and unused. There are on it remains of a Turkish town; +at one time it was one of the strongest and most important citadels in +Greece. In the middle of the almost deserted, wretched, straggling +village of Old Corinth stand seven enormous massive columns. These are +all that remain of the Temple, and indeed of ancient Corinth. The +pillars, of the Doric order, are of a brown limestone, not of the +country. The Turks and earthquakes have destroyed Old Corinth, and +driven the inhabitants to New Corinth, about one hour and a half's +drive from the Gulf.--_London Graphic_. + +[Illustration: TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS.] + +[Illustration: TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +SPANISH FISHERIES. + + +The Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition was large and well +furnished, there being several characteristic models of vessels. No +certain figures can be obtained of the results of the whole fishing +industry of Spain. It is, however, estimated that 14,202 boats, with a +tonnage of 51,397 tons, were employed during the year 1882. They gave +occupation to 59,974 men, and took about 78,000 tons of fish. The +Government interfere in the fishing industry only to the extent of +collecting and distributing information to the fishermen on subjects +that are most likely to be of use to them in their calling. In +consequence, principally no doubt of this wise policy, we find in +Spain a vigorous and self-reliant class of men engaged in the +fisheries. Some of the most interesting features in the Spanish Court +were the contributions sent by the different fishermen's associations, +and although the Naval Museum of Madrid supplied a collection of +articles that would have formed a good basis in itself for an +exhibition, yet in no other foreign court was the fishing industry of +the nation better illustrated by private enterprise than in that of +Spain. The fishing associations referred to are half benefit societies +and half trading communities. That of Lequeito has issued a small +pamphlet, from which we learn that this body consists of 600 members +divided into three classes, viz., owners of vessels, patrons or men in +charge, and ordinary fishermen. A board of directors, consisting of 22 +owners, and 24 masters of boats or ordinary fishermen, has the sole +control of the affairs of the society. The meetings are presided over +by a majordomo elected triennially, and who must be the owner of a +boat over 40 ft. long. This functionary receives a stipend of 8,000 +reales a year, a sum which sounds more modest when expressed as 80_l_. +He has two clerks, who are on the permanent staff, to help him. His +duties are to keep the books with the assistance of the two clerks, to +take charge of the sales of all fish, recover moneys, and make +necessary payments. In stormy weather he gets up in a watch tower and +guides boats entering the harbor. The _atalayero_ is an official of +the society, whose duty it is to station himself on the heights and +signal by means of smoke, to the boats at sea, the movements of +schools of sardines and anchovies or probable changes of weather. It +is also the duty of this officer to weigh all the bream caught from +the 1st November to the 31st of March, for which he receives a +"gratuity" of 100 pesetas, or say 4_l._, sterling. Two other seneros, +or signalmen, are told off to keep all boats in port during bad +weather, and to call together the crews when circumstances appear +favorable for sailing. Should there be a difference of opinion between +these experts as to the meteorological probabilities, the patrons, or +skippers of the fishing-boats, are summoned in council and their +opinion taken by "secret vote with black and white balls." The +decision so arrived at is irrevocable, and all are bound to sail +should it be so decided; those who do not do so paying a fine to the +funds of the association. The boats carrying the seneros fly a color +by means of which they signal orders for sailing to the other vessels. +These seneros appear to be the Spanish equivalent to the English +admiral of a trawling fleet. + +The boats used by these fishermen are fine craft; one or two models of +them were shown in the Exhibition. A first-class boat will be of about +the following dimensions: Length over all, 45 ft. to 50 ft.; breadth +(extreme), 9 ft. to 10 ft. 3 in.; depth (inside), 3 ft. 10 in. to 4 +ft. The keel is of oak 6 in. by 31/2 in. The stem and stern posts are +also of oak. The planking is generally of oak or walnut--the latter +preferred--and is 3 in. thick, the width of the planks being 41/2 in. +Many boats are now constructed of hard wood to the water line and +Norway pine above. + +The fastenings are galvanized nails 41/2 in. long. The mast-partners and +all the thwarts are of oak 11/2 in. thick and 8 in. wide; the latter are +fastened in with iron knees. Lee-board and rudder are of oak, walnut, +or chestnut; the rudder extends 31/2 ft. to 4 ft. below the keel, and, +in giving lateral resistance, balances the lee-board, which is thrust +down forward under the lee-bow. The rig consists of two lags, the +smaller one forward right in the eyes of the boat; the mainmast being +amidships. The lug sails are set on long yards, the fair-weather rig +consisting of a fore lug with 120 square yards, and a main lug of 200 +square yards. There are six shifts of sail, the main being substituted +for the fore lug in turn as the weather increases, in a manner similar +to that in which our own Mounts Bay boats reduce canvas. The fair +weather rig requires two masts 42 ft. and 36 ft. long, and yards 28 +ft. and 30 ft. long, respectively. The oars are 16 ft. long, and are +pulled double-banked. Such a boat will cost 90_l._ to 100_l._ fitted for +sea, of which sum the hull will represent rather more than half. These +vessels generally remain at sea for twelve hours, from about three to +four in the morning until the same time in the evening. Tunny, merluza +(a species of cod), and bream are the principal fish taken. The +first-named are caught by hook and line operated by means of poles +rigged out from the boat much in the same way, apparently, as we drail +for mackerel on the southwest coast. A filament of maize straw is used +for bait. The boat sails to a distance of about 90 miles off the land +and run back before the prevailing wind, until they are about nine +miles from the shore or until they lose the fish. When the fisherman +gets a bite the wind is spilled out of the sail so as to deaden the +boat's way. The fish is then got alongside, promptly gaffed, and got +on board. Tunny sells for about three halfpence a pound in Lequeito. +The season extends from June to November. Bream are taken in the +winter and spring, 9 to 12 miles off the coast. They are caught by +hook and line in two ways. The first is worth describing. A line 50 +fathoms long has bent to it snoods with hooks attached, 16 in. apart. +Each man handles three lines. On reaching the fishing ground the line, +to the end of which a stone is attached, is gradually paid out until +soundings are taken; then another stone is attached and the operation +repeated. If a bite is felt the line is slacked away freely, and this +goes on until about 500 fathoms are overboard. When, by the lively and +continuous jerking of the line, the fisherman concludes that he has a +good number of fish on the hooks, he will haul aboard and then prepare +to shoot again. + +The second method of taking the bream is by long lining; fifty of the +lines we have just described being bent together and duly anchored and +buoyed. Spaniards do not much care for this way of fishing, as it is +costly in bait and the gear is often lost in bad weather. Bream sells +at about 31/2d. a pound. Cod are taken during the first six months of +the year, about 9 miles off shore, by hand lines. Sold fresh the price +is about 6_d._ per lb. A small quantity is preserved in tins. Anchovy or +cuttlefish is the bait used; sometimes the two are placed on one hook. + +A smaller description of boat, called traineras, is built especially +for taking sardine and anchovy, although in fine weather they often +engage in the same fishery as the larger boats. The traineras are +light and shapely vessels, with a graceful sheer and curved stem and +stern posts. The keel is much cambered, and the bottom is flat and has +considerable hollow. The usual dimensions vary between: Length, 38 +feet to 42 feet; beam, 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches; depth, 2 feet 6 +inches to 2 feet 10 inches. The sails and gear are much the same as in +the larger boats, excepting that there are only four shifts in place +of six. The largest main lug has an area of about 90 square yards and +the fore lug about 50 square yards. The other sails for heavier +weather are naturally smaller. The largest masts for fine weather are +respectively 36 feet and 22 feet, long. The average cost of one of +these boats and gear is about L122, made up as follows: Hull, L32; +sails, gear, and oars, L30; nets and gear attached, L60. The season +for anchovy fishing commences on the 1st of March and ends 30th of +June; it begins again on the 15th of September, and continues until +the end of the year. Most fish are taken at a distance of about 9 +miles from the land, although they often come in much closer. +Anchovies are sold fresh, or are salted to be sent away, some are used +for bait, and in times of great plenty quantities are put on the land +for manure. The greater part are, however, preserved in barrels or +tins, and are exported to France or England. + +The net used in the capture of anchovies is called _traina_ or _copo_. +It is in principle like the celebrated purse seine of the United +States, but in place of being 200 fathoms long, as are many of the +nets, which, in American waters, will inclose a whole school of +mackerel, it is but 32 to 40 fathoms long. The depth is 7 to 10 +fathoms, and the mesh 3/4 inch. Sardine fishing commences on the 1st of +July and lasts until December. The principal ground is 2 to 10 miles +off shore. The price of sardines on the coast is about 21/2d. per pound. +When the sardines appear in shoals they are taken with the traina in +the same way as anchovies, a net of 1/2-inch mesh being used. Sardines +are also taken by gill nets about 200 feet long and 18 feet wide. When +used in the daytime the fish are tolled up by a bait consisting of the +liver of cod. When the sardines have been attracted to the +neighborhood of the net, bait is thrown on the other side of it. The +fish in their rush for the bait become entangled in the mesh. These +nets are sometimes anchored out all night, in which case no bait is +used. + +A third class of boats of much the same character are of about the +following dimensions: Length, 28 feet to 35 feet; beam, 7 feet 6 +inches to 8 feet; depth, 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet 8 inches. The two +lugs will contain 16 and 30 square yards of canvas respectively. They +are used for sardine catching, when they will carry a crew of four +men, or for taking conger and cod, in which case they will be manned +by eight hands. + +Their cost will average approximately as follows: Hull, L15; gear and +sail, L10; nets and lines, L13; about L40. The conger season extends +from March to June, and from October to November. The fish are taken +by hook and line; sardine and fish known as berdel (which in turn is +taken by a hook covered with a feather) are used as bait. + +There are other smaller fishing boats, among which may be noticed the +_bateler_, a powerful little vessel, 13 feet to 16 ft. long, about 51/2 +ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep. They are sailed by one man, set a good +spread of canvas, and are fast and handy. They are used for taking a +species of cuttlefish which supplies a bait, and is caught by hook and +line, the fishes being attracted by colored threads, at which they +rush, when the hook will catch in their tentacles. There is a small +well in the middle of the boat for keeping the fish alive. None of the +boats on the northern coast of Spain carry ballast. They have flat +hollow floors, and set a large area of of canvas on a shallow draught. +Lobster fishing is pursued in much the same manner as in England, but +often four or five miles from land, and in very deep water. + +One of the most noticeable objects in the Spanish court was a +full-sized boat about 25 ft. long, which had a square hole cut in the +bottom amidships. Through this hole was let down a glass frame in +which was placed a powerful paraffine lamp. The object of this was to +attract the fish. It is said that tunny will be drawn from a distance +of over a hundred yards, and will follow the boat so that they may be +enticed into the nets. Sardines and other fish will follow the light +in shoals. It is claimed that the boat will be useful in diving +operations, for pearl or coral fishing, or for ascertaining the +direction of submarine currents, which can be seen at night by a lamp +to a depth to 25 to 30 fathoms.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DUCK SHOOTING AT MONTAUK. + + +Montauk Point, Long Island, is the most isolated and desolate spot +imaginable during this weather. The frigid monotony of winter has +settled down upon that region, and now it is haunted only by sea fowl. +The bleak, barren promontory whereon stands the light is swept clean +of its summer dust by the violent raking of cold hurricanes across it, +and coated with ice from the wind-dashed spume of the great breakers +hurled against the narrow sand spit which makes the eastern terminus +of the island. The tall, white towered light and its black lantern, +now writhing in frosty northern blizzards, and again shivering in +easterly gales, now glistening with ice from the tempest tossed seas +all about it, and now varnished with wreaths of fog, is the only +habitation worthy of the name for many miles around. Keeper Clark and +his family and assistants are almost perpetually fenced in from the +outside world by the cold weather, and have to hug closely the roaring +fires that protect them in that desolation. + +But for ducks and the duck hunter the lighthouse family would die of +inanition. With the cold weather comes the ducks, and they continue to +come till the warmer blasts of spring drive them to the northward. +Montauk Point is a favorite haunt for this sort of wild fowl. It is a +good feeding ground, is isolated, and there is nearly always a weather +shore for the flocks to gather under. But year by year the point is +being more and more frequented by sportsmen, and the reports of their +successes increase the applicants for lodgings at the light. Some 20 +gunners were out there last week with the most improved paraphernalia +for the sport, and did telling work. Flight shooting is the favorite +method of taking them. The light stands very near the end of the +point, about a sixteenth of a mile to the west, and all migratory +birds in passing south seem to have it down in their log-book that +they must not only sight this structure, but must also fly over it as +nearly as possible. Hence the variety and extent of the flocks which +are continually passing is a matter of interest and wonder to a +student of natural history as well as to the sportsman. Coots, +whistlers, soft bills, old squaws, black ducks, cranes, belated wild +geese, and, in fact, all sorts of northern birds make up this long and +strange procession, and the air is frequently so densely packed with +them as to be actually darkened, while the keen, whistling music of +their whizzing wings makes a melody that comparatively few landsmen +ever hear. Millions of the birds never hesitate at this point in their +flight, although thousands of them do. These latter make the +neighboring waters their home for the rest of the winter. Great flocks +of ducks are continually sailing about the rugged shores, and the +frozen cranberry marshes of Fort Pond Bay, lying to the westward, are +their favorite feeding-grounds. The birds are always as fat as butter +when making their flight, and their piquant, spicy flavor leads to +their being barbecued by the wholesale at the seat of shooting +operations. One of the gunner's cabins has nailed up in it the heads +of 345 ducks that have been roasted on the Point this winter. + +Early morning is the favorite time for shooting. At daybreak the +flights are heavy, and from that time until seven o'clock in the +morning they increase until it seems as though all the flocks which +had spent the night in the caves and ponds on the Connecticut shore +were on the wing and away for the south. By ten o'clock in the +forenoon the flights grow rarer, and the rest of the day only +stragglers come along. A good gunner can take five dozen of these +birds easily in a morning's work, provided he can and will withstand +the inclemency of the weather. + +Keeper Clark never shoots ducks. Scarcely a morning has dawned for two +months but that several of the poor birds have been picked up at the +foot of the light house tower with the broken necks which have mutely +told the story of death, reached by plunging headlong against the +crystal walls of the dazzling lantern overhead the night before. There +is a tendency with such migratory birds as are on the wing at night to +fly very high. But the great, glaring, piercing, single eye of Montauk +light seems to draw into it by dozens, as a loadstone pulls a magnet, +its feathered victims, and they swerve in their course and make +straight for it. As they flash nearer and nearer, the light, of +course, grows brighter and brighter, and at length they dash into what +appears a sea of fire, to be crushed lifeless by the heavy glass, and +they fall to the ground below, ready to be plucked for the oven. +Inside the lantern the thud made by these birds when they strike is +readily felt. Although they are comparatively small, yet so great is +their velocity that the impact creates a perceptible jar, and the +lantern is disfigured with plashes of their blood. Upon stormy and +foggy nights the destruction of birds is found to be greatest. When +the weather is clear and fair many smaller birds, like robins, +sparrows, doves, cuckoos, rail, snipe, etc., will circle about the +light all night long, leaving only when the light is extinguished in +the morning. Large cranes show themselves to be almost dangerous +visitors. Recently one of these weighing 40 pounds struck the wrought +iron guard railing about the lantern with such force as to bend the +iron slats and to completely sever his long neck from his body.--_N.Y. +Times_. + + * * * * * + +[THE GARDEN.] + + + + +THE HORNBEAMS. + + +The genus Carpinis is widely distributed throughout the temperate +regions of the northern hemisphere. There are nine species known to +botanists, most of them being middle-sized trees. In addition to those +mentioned below, figures of which are herewith given, there are four +species from Japan and one from the Himalayan region which do not yet +seem to have found their way to this country; these five are therefore +omitted. All are deciduous trees, and every one is thoroughly +deserving of cultivation. The origin of the English name is quaintly +explained by Gerard in his "Herbal" as follows: "The wood," he says, +"in time, waxeth so hard, that the toughness and hardness of it may be +rather compared to horn than unto wood, and therefore it was called +horne-beam or hardbeam." + +[Illustration: CARPINUS ORIENTALIS.] + +_Carpinus Betulus_,[1] the common hornbeam, as is the case with so +many of our native or widely cultivated trees, exhibits considerable +variation in habit, and also in foliage characters. Some of the more +striking of these, those which have received names in nurseries, etc., +and are propagated on account of their distinctive peculiarities, are +described below. In a wild state C. Betulus occurs in Europe from +Gothland southward, and extends also into West Asia. Although +apparently an undoubted native in the southern counties of England, it +appears to have no claim to be considered indigenous as far as the +northern counties are concerned; it has also been planted wherever it +occurs in Ireland. + + [Footnote 1: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus Betulus, L., Loudon, + "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," vol. iii., p. 2004; Encycl. + of Trees and Shrubs, 917. Boswell Syme, "English Botany," vol. + viii., p. 176, tab. 1293; Koch, "Dendrologie," zweit. theil. + zweit. abtheil., p. 2: Hooker, "Student's Flora of the British + Islands," ed. 2, p. 365. C. Carpinizza, Host., "Flora Austriaca," + ii., p. 626. C. intermedia. Wierbitzsky in Reichb Ic. fl. Germ. et + Helvet., xxii. fig. 1297.] + +[Illustration: CARPINUS AMERICANA.] + +Few trees bear cutting so well as the hornbeam, and for this reason, +during the reign of the topiarist, it was held in high repute for the +formation of the "close alleys," "covert alleys," or the +"thick-pleached alleys," frequently mentioned in Shakespeare and in +the works of other authors about three centuries ago. In the sixteenth +century the topiary art had reached its highest point of development, +and was looked upon as the perfection of gardening; the hornbeam--and +indeed almost every other tree--was cut and tortured into every +imaginable shape. The "picturesque style," however, soon drove the +topiarist and his art out of the field, yet even now places still +remain in England where the old and once much-belauded fashion still +exists on a large scale--a fact by no means to be deplored from an +archaeological point of view. Dense, quaintly-shaped hornbeam hedges +are not unfrequent in the gardens of many old English mansions, and in +some old country farmhouses the sixteenth century craze is still +perpetuated on a smaller scale. + +[Illustration: CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT.] + +Sir J.E. Smith, in his "English Flora," after enumerating the virtues +of the hornbeam as a hedge plant, gives it as his opinion that "when +standing by itself and allowed to take its natural form, the hornbeam +makes a much more handsome tree than most people are aware of." Those +who are familiar with the fine specimens which exist at Studley Park +and elsewhere will have no hesitation in confirming Sir J.E. Smith's +statement. The Hornbeam Walk in Richmond Park, from Pembroke Lodge +toward the Ham Gate, will recur to many Southerners as a good instance +of the fitness of the hornbeam for avenues. In the walk in question +there are many fine trees, which afford a thorough and agreeable shade +during the summer months. + +[Illustration: CARPINUS VIMINEA.] + +In any soil or position the hornbeam will grow readily, except +exceedingly dry or too marshy spots. On chalky hillsides it does not +grow so freely as on clayey plains. Under the latter conditions, +however, the wood is not so good. In mountainous regions the hornbeam +occupies a zone lower than that appropriated by the beech, rarely +ascending more than 1,200 yards above sea level. It is not injured by +frost, and in Germany is often seen fringing the edges of the beech +forests along the bottom of the valleys where the beech would suffer. +Scarcely any tree coppices more vigorously or makes more useful +pollards on dry grass land. + +[Illustration: BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS.] + +On account of its great toughness the wood of the hornbeam is employed +in engineering work for cogs in machinery. When subjected to vertical +pressure it cannot be completely destroyed; its fibers, instead of +breaking off short, double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its +flexibility and fitness for service in machinery (Laslett's "Timber +and Timber Trees"). According to the same recent authority, the +vertical or crushing strain on cubes of 2 inches average 14.844 tons, +while that on cubes of 1 inch is 3.711 tons. + +[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA.] + +A few years ago an English firm required a large quantity of hornbeam +wood for the manufacture of lasts, but failed to procure it in +England. They succeeded, however, in obtaining a supply from France, +where large quantities of this timber are used for that purpose. It +may be interesting to state that in England at any rate lasts are no +longer made to any extent by hand, but are rapidly turned in enormous +numbers by machinery. In France _sabots_ are also made of hornbeam +wood, but the difficulty in working it and its weight render it less +valuable for _sabotage_ than beech. For turnery generally, cabinet +making, and also for agricultural implements, etc., this wood is +highly valued; in some of the French winegrowing districts, viz., Cote +d'Or and Yonne, hoops for the wine barrels are largely made from this +tree. It makes the best fuel and it is preferred to every other for +apartments, as it lights easily, makes a bright flame, which burns +equally, continues a long time, and gives out an abundance of heat. +"Its charcoal is highly esteemed, and in France and Switzerland it is +preferred to most others, not only for forges and for cooking by, but +for making gunpowder, the workmen at the great gunpowder manufactory +at Berne rarely using any other. The inner bark, according to Linnaeus, +is used for dyeing yellow. The leaves, when dried in the sun, are used +in France as fodder; and when wanted for use in water, the young +branches are cut off in the middle of summer, between the first and +second growth, and strewed or spread out in some place which is +completely sheltered from the rain to dry without the tree being in +the slightest degree injured by the operation." (Dict. des Eaux et +Forets, art. Charme, as quoted by London). + +[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA.] + +It hardly seems necessary to dwell upon the value of the hornbeam as a +hedge or shelter plant. In many nurseries it is largely used for these +purposes, the russet-brown leaves remaining on the twigs until +displaced by the new growths in spring. + +_Var. incisa_ (Aiton, "Hortus Kewensis," v., 301; C. asplenifolia, +Hort.; C. laciniata, Hort.).--These three names represent two forms, +which are, however, so near each other, that for all practical +purposes they are identical. A glance at the accompanying figure will +show how distinct and ornamental this variety is. + +[Illustration: HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK).] + +_Var. quercifolia_ (Desf. tabl. de l'ecol. de bot. du Mus. d'hist. +nat., 213; Ostrya quercifolia, Hort.; Carpinus heterophylla, +Hort.)--This form, as will be seen by the figure, is thoroughly +distinct from the common hornbeam; it has very much smaller leaves +than the type, their outline, as implied by the varietal name, +resembling that of the foliage of the oak. It frequently reverts to +the type, and, as far as my experience goes, appears to be much less +fixed than the variety incisa. + +_Var. purpurea_ (Hort.).--The young leaves of this are brownish red; +it is well worth growing for the pleasing color effect produced by the +young growths in spring. Apart from color it does not differ from the +type. + +_Var. fastigiata_ (Hort.).--In this variety the branches are more +ascending and the habit altogether more erect; indeed, among the +hornbeams this is a counterpart of the fastigiate varieties of the +common oak. + +_Var. variegata_, aureo-variegata, albo-variegata +(albo-marmorata).--These names represent forms differing so slightly +from each other, that it is not worth while to notice them separately, +or even to treat them as distinct. In no case that I have seen is the +variegation at all striking, and, except in tree collections, +variegated hornbeams are hardly worth growing. + +[Illustration: FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER. CARPINUS BETULUS (Full +grown tree at Chiswick, 45 ft. high in 1844).] + +_Carpinus orientalis_[2] (the Oriental hornbeam) principally differs +from our native species in its smaller size, the lesser leaves with +downy petioles, and the green, much-lacerated bractlets. It is a +native of the south of Europe, whence it extends to the Caucasus, and +probably also to China; the Carpinus Turczaninovi of Hance scarcely +seems to differ, in any material point at any rate, from western +examples of C. orientalis. According to Loudon, it was introduced to +this country by Philip Miller in 1739, and there is no doubt that it +is far from common even now. It is, however, well worth growing; the +short twiggy branches, densely clothed with dark green leaves, form a +thoroughly efficient screen. The plant bears cutting quite as well as +the common hornbeam, and wherever the latter will grow this will also +succeed. In that very interesting compilation, "Hortus Collinsonianus," +the following memorandum occurs: "The Eastern hornbeam was raised from +seed sent me from Persia, procured by Dr. Mounsey, physician to the +Czarina. Received it August 2, 1751, and sowed it directly; next year +(1752) the hornbeam came up, which was the original of all in England. +Mr. Gordon soon increased it, and so it came into the gardens of the +curious. At the same time, from the same source, were raised a new +acacia, a quince, and a bermudiana, the former very different from any +in our gardens." This memorandum was probably written from recollection +long afterward, with an error in the dates, and the species was first +entered in the catalogue as follows: "Azad, arbor persica carpinus +folio, Persian hornbeam, raised from seed, anno 1747; not in England +before." It appears, however, from Rand's "Index" that there was a +plant of it in the Chelsea Garden in 1739. The name duinensis was given +by Scopoli, because of his having first found it wild at Duino. As, +however, Miller had previously described it under the name orientalis, +that one is adopted in accordance with the rule of priority, by which +must be decided all such questions in nomenclature. + + [Footnote 2: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus orientalis. Miller, + "Gardener's Dictionary," ed. 6 1771; La Marck, Dict, i., 107; + Watson, "Dendrologia Britannica," ii., tab. 98; Reich. Ic. fl. + Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig, 1298; Tenore, "Flora Neapolitana," + v., 264; Loudon, Arb. et Fruticet. Brit., iii., 2014, Encycl. + Trees and Shrubs, p. 918; Koch, "Dendrologie." zweit, theil zweit, + abtheil, p. 4. C. duinensis, Scopoli, "Flora Carniolica," 2 ed., + ii., 243, tab. 60; Bertoloni, "Flora Italica," x., 233; Alph. De + Candolle in Prodr., xvi. (ii.), 126.] + +_The American Hornbeam_ [3] also known under the names of blue beech, +water beech, and iron wood, although a less tree than our native +species, which it resembles a good deal in size of foliage and general +aspect, is nevertheless a most desirable one for the park or pleasure +ground, on account of the gorgeous tint assumed by the decaying leaves +in autumn. Emerson, in his "Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," pays a +just tribute to this tree from a decorative standpoint. He says: "The +crimson, scarlet, and orange of its autumnal colors, mingling into a +rich purplish red, as seen at a distance, make it rank in splendor +almost with the tupelo and the scarlet oak. It is easily cultivated, +and should have a corner in every collection of trees." It has +pointed, ovate oblong, sharply double serrate, nearly smooth leaves. +The acute bractlets are three-lobed, halberd-shaped, sparingly +cut-toothed on one side. Professor C.S. Sargent, in his catalogue of +the "Forest Trees-of North America," gives the distribution, etc., of +the American hornbeam as follows: "Northern Nova Scotia and New +Brunswick, through the valley of St. Lawrence and Lower Ottawa Rivers, +along the northern shores of Lake Huron to Northern Wisconsin and +Minnesota; south to Florida and Eastern Texas. Wood resembling that of +ostrya (hop hornbeam). At the north generally a shrub or small tree, +but becoming, in the Southern Alleghany Mountains, a tree sometimes 50 +feet in height, with a trunk 2 feet to 3 feet in diameter." It will +almost grow in any soil or exposition in this country. + + [Footnote 3: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinius caroliniana, Walter, + "Flora Caroliniana," 236; C. americana, Michx. fl. bor. Amer., + ii., 201; Mich. f. Hist. des. Arbres Forestiers de l'Amerique + Septentrionale, iii., 57, tab. 8; Watson, "Dendrologia + Britannica," ii., 157; Gray, "Manual of the Botany of the Northern + United States," p. 457.] + +_Carpinus viminea_[4] is a rather striking species with long-pointed +leaves; the accompanying figure scarcely gives a sufficiently clear +representation of their long, tail-like prolongations. Judging from +the height at which it grows, it would probably prove hardy in this +country, and, if so, the distinct aspect and graceful habit of the +tree would render it a decided acquisition. It is a moderate-sized +tree, with thin gray bark, and slender, drooping warted branches. The +blade of the smooth leave measures from 3 inches to 4 inches in +length, the hairy leaf-stalk being about half an inch long. It is a +native of Himalaya, where it occurs at elevations of from 5000 to 7000 +feet above sea-level. As in our common hornbeam, the male catkins +appear before the leaves, and the female flowers develop in spring at +the same time as the leaves. The hard, yellowish white wood--a cubic +foot of which weighs 50 lb.--is used for ordinary building purposes by +the natives of Nepaul. + + [Footnote 4: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus viminea, Lindl. in Wall. + Plant. Asiat. Rar., ii., p. 4, t. 106; D.C. Prodr., xvi., ii., + 127. Loudon, "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," iii., p. 2014; + Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 919. Brandis, "Forest Flora," + 492.] + +GEORGE NICHOLSON. +Royal Gardens, Kew. + + * * * * * + + + + +FRUIT OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA. + + +The fruiting of the camellia in this country being rather uncommon, we +have taken the opportunity of illustrating one of three sent to us a +fortnight ago by Mr. J. Menzies, South Lytchett, who says: "The fruits +are from a large plant of the single red, grown out of doors against a +wall with an east aspect, and protected by a glazed coping 4 feet +wide. The double, semi-double, and single varieties have from time to +time borne fruit out of doors here, from which I have raised +seedlings, but have hitherto failed to get any variety worth sending +out or naming." + +In the annexed woodcut the fruit is represented natural size. Its +appearance is somewhat singular. It is very hard, and has a glazed +appearance like that of porcelain. The color is pale green, except on +the exposed side, which is dull red. It is furrowed like a tomato, and +on the day after we received it the furrows opened and exposed three +or four large mahogany-brown seeds embedded in hard pulp.--_The +Garden._ + +[Illustration: FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA.] + + * * * * * + +[SCIENCE.] + + + + +A NEW RULE FOR DIVISION IN ARITHMETIC. + + +The ordinary process of long division is rather difficult, owing to +the necessity of guessing at the successive figures which form the +divisor. In case the repeating decimal expressing the _exact_ quotient +is required, the following method will be found convenient: + +_Rule for division_. + +_First._ Treat the divisor as follows: + + If its last figure is a 0, strike this off, and treat what is left + as the divisor. + + If its last figure is a 5, multiply the whole by 2, and treat the + product as the divisor. + + If its last figure is an even number, multiply the whole by 5, and + treat the product as a divisor. + +Repeat this treatment until these precepts cease to be applicable. +Call the result the _prepared divisor_. + +_Second._ From the prepared divisor cut off the last figure: and, if +this be a 9, change it to a 1, or if it be a 1, change it to a 9; +otherwise keep it unchanged. Call this figure the _extraneous +multiplier_. + +Multiply the extraneous multiplier into the divisor thus truncated, +and increase the product by 1, unless the extraneous multiplier be 7, +when increase the product by 5. Call the result the _current +multiplier_. + +_Third._ Multiply together the extraneous multiplier and all the +multipliers used in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor. Use +the product to multiply the dividend, calling the result the _prepared +dividend_. + +_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend cut off the last figure, multiply +this by the current multiplier, and add the product to the truncated +dividend. Call the sum the _modified dividend_, and treat this in the +same way. Continue this process until a modified dividend is reached +which equals the original prepared dividend or some previous modified +dividend; so that, were the process continued, the same figures would +recur. + +_Fifth._ Consider the series of last figures which have been +successively cut off from the prepared dividend and from the modified +dividends as constituting a number, the figure first cut off being in +the units' place, the next in the tens' place, and so on. Call this +the _first infinite number_, because its left-hand portion consists of +a series of figures repeating itself indefinitely toward the left. +Imagine another infinite number, identical with the first in the +repeating part of the latter, but differing from this in that the same +series is repeated uninterruptedly and indefinitely toward the right +into the decimal places. + +Subtract the first infinite number from the second, and shift the +decimal point as many places to the left as there were zeros dropped +in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor. + +The result is the quotient sought. + +_Examples._ + +1. The following is taken at random. Divide 1883 by 365. + +_First._ The divisor, since it ends in 5, must be multiplied by 2, +giving 730. Dropping the O, we have 73 for the prepared divisor. + +_Second._ The last figure of the prepared divisor being 3, this is the +extraneous multiplier. Multiplying the truncated divisor, 7, by the +extraneous multiplier, 3, and adding 1, we have 22 for the current +multiplier. + +_Third._ The dividend, 1883, has now to be multiplied by the product +of 3, the extraneous multiplier, and 2, the multiplier used in +preparing the divisor. The product, 11298, is the prepared dividend. + +_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend, 11298, we cut off the last +figure 8, and multiply this by the current multiplier, 22. The +product, 176, is added to the truncated dividend, 1129, and gives 1305 +for the first modified divisor. The whole operation is shown thus: + + 1 8 8 3 + 6 + ------- + 1 1 2 9|8 + 1 7 6 - + ----- + 1 3 0|5 + 1 1 0 - + ----- + 2|4 0 + 8 8 --- + --- + |9 0 + ----- + 1 9|8 + 1 7 6 - + ----- + 1 9|5 + 1 1 0 - + ----- + 1 2|9 + 1 9 8 - + ----- + 2|1 0 + 2 2 --- + 2 4 + +We stop at this point because 24 was a previous modified dividend, +written under the form 240 above. Our two infinite numbers (which need +not in practice be written down) are, with their difference: + + . . + 10,958,904,058 . . + 10,958,904,109.5890410958904 + ---------------------------- + . . + 51.5890410958904 + . . +Hence the quotient sought is 5.158904109. + +_Example 2._ Find the reciprocal of 333667. + +The whole work is here given: + + 3 3 3 6 6|7 |7 + 2 3 3 5 6 7 - 1 6 3 4 9 6|9 + 2 1 0 2 1 0 3 - + ------------- + 2 2 6 5 5 9|9 + 2 1 0 2 1 0 3 - + ------------- + 2 3 2 8 6 6|2 + 4 6 7 1 3 4 - + ----------- + 7 0 0 0 0 0 + + . . +_Answer_, 0.000002997. + +_Example 3._ Find the reciprocal of 41. + +_Solution._-- + + 4|1 |9 + ----- ----- + 3 7|9 3 3|3 + - 1 1 1 - + ----- + 1 4|4 + 1 4 8 - + ----- + 1 6|2 + 7 4 - + --- + 9 0 + . . +_Answer_, 0.02439. + +C.S. PEIRCE. + + * * * * * + +[SCIENCE.] + + + + +EXPERIMENTS IN BINARY ARITHMETIC. + + +Those who can perform in that most necessary of all mathematical +operations, simple addition, any great number of successive examples +or any single extensive example without consciousness of a severe +mental strain, followed by corresponding mental fatigue, are +exceptions to a general rule. These troubles are due to the quantity +and complexity of the matter with which the mind has to be occupied at +the same time that the figures are recognized. The sums of pairs of +numbers from zero up to nine form fifty-five distinct propositions +that must be borne in memory, and the "carrying" is a further +complication. The strain and consequent weariness are not only felt, +but seen, in the mistakes in addition that they cause. They are, in +great part, the tax exacted of us by our decimal system of arithmetic. +Were only quantities of the same value, in any one column, to be +added, our memory would be burdened with nothing more than the +succession of numbers in simple counting, or that of multiples of two, +three, or four, if the counting is by groups. + +It is easy to prove that the most economical way of reducing addition +to counting similar quantities is by the binary arithmetic of +Leibnitz, which appears in an altered dress, with most of the zero +signs suppressed, in the example below. Opposite each number in the +usual figures is here set the same according to a scheme in which the +signs of powers of two repeat themselves in periods of four; a very +small circle, like a degree mark, being used to express any fourth +power in the series; a long loop, like a narrow 0, any square not a +fourth power; a curve upward and to the right, like a phonographic +_l_, any double fourth power; and a curve to the right and downward, +like a phonographic _r_, any half of a fourth power; with a vertical +bar to denote the absence of three successive powers not fourth +powers. Thus the equivalent for one million, shown in the example +slightly below the middle, is 2^{16} (represented by a degree-mark in +the fifth row of these marks, counting from the right) plus 2^{17} + +2^{9} (two _l_-curves in the fifth and third places of _l_-curves) +plus 2^{18} + 2^{14} + 2^{6} (three loops) plus 2^{19} (the _r_-curve +at the extreme left); while the absence of 2^{3}, 2^{2}, and 2^{1} is +shown by the vertical stroke at the right. This equivalent expression +may be verified, if desired, either by adding the designated powers of +two from 524,288 down to 64, or by successive multiplications by two, +adding one when necessary. The form of characters here exhibited was +thought to be the best of nearly three hundred that were devised and +considered and in about sixty cases tested for economic value by +actual additions. + +In order to add them, the object for which these forty numbers are +here presented in two notations, it is not necessary to know just +_why_ the figures on the right are equal to those on the left, or to +know anything more than the order in which the different forms are to +be taken, and the fact that any one has twice the value of one in the +column next succeeding it on the right. The addition may be made from +the printed page, first covering over the answer with a paper held +fast by a weight, to have a place for the figures of the new answer as +successively obtained. The fingers will be found a great assistance, +especially if one of each hand be used, to point off similar marks in +twos, or threes, or fours--as many together as can be certainly +comprehended in a glance of the eye. Counting by fours, if it can be +done safely, is preferable because most rapid. The eye can catch the +marks for even powers more easily in going up and those for odd powers +(the _l_ and _r_ curves) in going down the columns. Beginning at the +lower right hand corner, we count the right hand column of small +circles, or degree marks, upward; they are twenty-three in number. +Half of twenty-three is eleven and one over; one of these marks has +therefore to be entered as part of the answer, and eleven carried to +the next column, the first one of _l_-curves. But since the curves are +most advantageously added downward, it is best, when the first column +is finished, simply to remember the remainder from it, and not to set +down anything until the bottom is reached in the addition of the +second column, when the remainders, if any, from both columns can be +set down together. In this case, starting with the eleven carried and +counting the number of the _l_-curves, we find ourselves at the bottom +with twenty-four--twelve to carry, and nothing to set down except the +degree mark from the first column. With the twelve we go up the +adjoining loop column, and the sum must be even, as this place is +vacant in the answer; the _r_-curve column next, downward, and then +another row of degree marks. The succession must be obvious by this +time. When the last column, the one in loops to the extreme left, is +added, the sum has to be reduced to unity by successive halvings. Here +we seem to have eleven; hence we enter one loop, and carry five to the +next place, which, it must be remembered, is of _r_-curves. Halving +five we express the remainder by entering one of these curves, and +carry the quotient, two, to the degree mark place. Halving again gives +one in the next place, that of _l_-curves; and the work is complete. + +It is recommended that this work be gone over several times for +practice, until the appearance and order of the characters and the +details of the method become familiar; that, when the work can be done +mechanically and without hesitation, the time occupied in a complete +addition of the example, and the mistakes made in it, be carefully +noted; that this be done several times, with an interval of some days +between the trials, and the result of each trial kept separate; that +the time and mistakes by the ordinary figures in the same example, in +several trials, be observed for comparison. Please pay particular +attention to the difference in the kind of work required by the two +methods in its bearing on two questions--which of them would be easier +to work by for hours together, supposing both equally well learned? +and in which of them could a reasonable degree of skill be more +readily acquired by a beginner? The answer to these questions, if the +comparison be a fair one, is as little to be doubted as is their high +importance. + +_Example in addition by two notations_ + + 77,823,876 + 14,348,907 + 8,654,912 + 5,764,801 + 4,635,857 + 1,594,323 + 6,417,728 + 4,782,969 + 83,886,075 + 34,012,224 + 2,903,111 + 48,828,125 + 1,724,826 + 7,529,536 + 43,344,817 + 10,000,000 + 8,334,712 + 1,953,125 + 11,308,417 + 759,375 + 21,180,840 + 9,765,625 + 18,643,788 + 1,000,000 + 44,739,243 + 1,889,568 + 2,517,471 + 40,353,607 + 4,438,414 + 1,679,616 + 23,708,715 + 11,890,625 + 945,754 + 823,543 + 15,308,805 + 60,466,176 + 30,685,377 + 10,077,696 + 19,416,381 + 43,046,721 + =========== + 740,685,681 + +[Illustration] + +Eight volunteer observers to whom this example has already been +submitted showed wide difference in arithmetical skill. One of them +took but a few seconds over two minutes, in the best of six trials, to +add by the usual figures, and set down the sum, but one figure in all +the six additions being wrong; another added once in ten minutes +fifty-seven seconds, and once in eleven minutes seven seconds, with +half the figures wrong each time. The last-mentioned observer had had +very little training in arithmetical work, but perhaps that gave a +fairer comparison. In the binary figures she made three additions in +between seven and eight minutes, with but one place wrong in the +three. With four of the observers the binary notation required nearly +double the time. These observers were all well practiced in +computation. Their best record, five minutes eighteen seconds, was +made by one whose best record was two minutes forty seconds in +ordinary figures. The author's own best results were two minutes +thirty-eight seconds binary, and three minutes twenty-three seconds +usual. He thus proved himself inferior to the last observer, as an +adder, by a system in which both were equally well trained; but a +greater familiarity (extending over a few weeks instead of a few +hours) with methods in binary addition enabled him to work twice as +fast with them. Of the author's nine additions by the usual figures, +four were wrong in one figure each; of his thirty-two additions by +different forms of binary notation, five were wrong, one of them in +two places. One observer found that he required one minute +thirty-three seconds to add a single column (average of five tried) by +the usual figures, and fifteen seconds to count the characters in one +(average of six tried) by the binary. Though these additions were +rather slow, the results are interesting. They show, making allowance +for the greater number of columns (three and a third times as many) +required by the binary plan, a saving of nearly half; but they also +illustrate the necessity of practice. This observer succeeded with the +binary arithmetic by avoiding the sources of delay that particularly +embarrass the beginner, by contenting himself with counting only, and +not stopping to divide by two, to set down an unfamiliar character, or +to recognize the mark by which he must distinguish his next column. +One well-known member of the Washington Philosophical Society and of +the American Association for the Advancement of Science, who declined +the actual trial as too severe a task, estimated his probable time +with ordinary figures at twenty minutes, with strong chances of a +wrong result, after all. + +These statistics prove the existence of a class of persons who can do +faster and more reliable work by the binary reckoning. But too much +should not be made of them. Let them serve as specimens of facts of +which a great many more are to be desired, bearing on a question of +grave importance. Is it not worth our while to know, if we can, by +impartial tests, whether the tax imposed on our working brains by the +system of arithmetic in daily use is the necessary price of a blessing +enjoyed, or an oppression? If the strain produced by greater +complexity and intensity of mental labor is compensated by a +correspondingly greater rapidity in dealing with figures, the former +may be the case. If, on the contrary, a little practice suffices to +turn the balance of rapidity, for all but a small body of highly +drilled experts, in favor of an easier system, the latter must be. +This is the question that the readers of _Science_ are invited to help +in deciding. The difficulties attending a complete revolution in the +prevalent system of reckoning are confessedly stupendous; but they do +not render undesirable the knowledge that experiment alone can give, +whether or not the cost of that system is unreasonably high; nor +should they prevent those who accord them the fullest recognition from +assisting to furnish the necessary facts. + +Those who are willing to undertake the addition on the plan proposed +or on any better plan, or who will submit it to such acquaintances, +skilled or unskilled, as may be persuaded to take the trouble to learn +the mechanism of binary adding, will confer a great favor by informing +the writer of the time occupied, and number of mistakes made, in each +addition. All observations and suggestions relating to the subject +will be most gratefully received. + +Henry Farquhar. + +Office of U.S. Coast Survey, Washington, D.C. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at +this office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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