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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 421,
+January 26, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 421,  January 26, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 24, 2005 [EBook #16353]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jon Niehof and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 421
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, JANUARY 26, 1884
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVII., No. 421.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+I.    ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Furcot's Six Horse Power
+      Steam Engine.--With several figures.                        6714
+
+      Foot Lathes.--With engraving.                               6715
+
+      Endless Trough Conveyer.--2 engravings.                     6715
+
+      Railroad Grades of Trunk Lines.                             6715
+
+      English Express Trains.--Average speed, long runs, etc.     6715
+
+      Apparatus for Separating Substances Contained in the
+      Waste Waters of Paper Mills, etc.--2 figures.               6717
+
+II.   TECHNOLOGY.--An English Adaptation of the American Oil
+      Mill.--Description of the apparatus, and of the old and
+      new processes.--Several engravings.                         6716
+
+      Large Blue Prints.--By W.B. Parsons, Jr.                    6717
+
+III.  ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electrical Apparatus for Measuring
+      and for Demonstration at the Munich Exhibition.--With
+      descriptions and numerous illustrations of the different
+      machines.                                                   6711
+
+      A New Oxide of Copper Battery.--By F. De Lalande and S.
+      Chaperon.--With description and three illustrations.        6714
+
+IV.   MATHEMATICS, ETC.--To Find the Time of Twilight.--1 figure.  6720
+
+      A New Rule for Division in Arithmetic.                      6725
+
+      Experiments in Binary Arithmetic.                           6726
+
+V.    ARCHAEOLOGY.--Grecian Antiquities.--With engravings of the
+      Monument of Philopappus.--Tomb from the Ceramicus.--Tower
+      of the winds.--The Acropolis.--Old Corinth.--Temple of
+      Jupiter.--The Parthenon.--Temple of Theseus, etc.           6721
+
+VI.   NATURAL HISTORY, ETHNOLOGY, ETC.--Poisonous Serpents and
+      their Venom.--By Dr. Archie Stockwell.--A serpent's mouth,
+      fangs, and poison gland.--Manner of attack.--Nature of
+      the venom.--Action of venom.--Remedies.                     6719
+
+      Ethnological Notes.--Papuans.--Negritos.                    6720
+
+VII.  HORTICULTURE, BOTANY, ETC.--The Hornbeams.--Uses to
+      which the tree is put.--Wood for manufactures.--For
+      fuel.--Different varieties.--With engravings of the tree
+      as a whole, and of its leaves, fruit, flowers, etc.         6724
+
+      Fruit of Camellia Japonica.--1 engraving.                   6725
+
+VIII. MEDICINE. SANITATION, ETC.--House Drainage and Refuse.
+      Abstract of a lecture by Capt. Douglas Galton.--Treating
+      of the removal of the refuse from camps, small towns, and
+      houses.--Conditions to observe in house drains, etc.        6717
+
+      Pasteur's New Method of Attenuation.                        6718
+
+      Convenient Vaults.                                          6719
+
+IX.   MISCELLANEOUS.--Spanish Fisheries.--Noticeable objects
+      in the Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition.      6722
+
+      Duck Shooting at Montauk.                                   6723
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR MEASURING AND FOR DEMONSTRATION AT THE MUNICH
+EXHIBITION.
+
+
+Apparatus for use in laboratories and cabinets of physics were quite
+numerous at the Munich Exhibition of Electricity, and very naturally a
+large number was to be seen there that presented little difference
+with present models. Several of them, however, merit citation. Among
+the galvanometers, we remarked an apparatus that was exhibited by
+Prof. Zenger, of Prague. The construction of this reminded us of that
+of other galvanometers, but it was interesting in that its inventor
+had combined in it a series of arrangements that permitted of varying
+its sensitiveness within very wide limits. This apparatus, which Prof.
+Zenger calls a "Universal Rheometer" (Fig. 1), consists of a bobbin
+whose interior is formed of a piece of copper, whose edges do not
+meet, and which is connected by strips of copper with two terminals.
+This internal shell is capable of serving for currents of quantity,
+and, when the two terminals are united by a wire, it may serve as a
+deadener. Above this copper shell there are two identical coils of
+wire which may, according to circumstances, be coupled in tension or
+in series, or be employed differentially. Reading is performed either
+by the aid of a needle moving over a dial, or by means of a mirror,
+which is not shown in the figure. Finally, there is a lateral scale,
+R, which carries a magnetized bar, A, that may be slid toward the
+galvanometer. This magnet is capable of rendering the needle less
+sensitive or of making it astatic. In order to facilitate this
+operation, the magnet carries at its extremity a tube which contains a
+bar of soft iron that may be moved slightly so as to vary the length
+of the magnet. Prof. Zenger calls this arrangement a magnetic vernier.
+It will be seen that, upon combining all the elements of the
+apparatus, we can obtain very different combinations; and, according
+to the inventor, his rheometer is a substitute for a dozen
+galvanometers of various degrees of sensitiveness, and permits of
+measuring currents of from 20 amperes down to 1/50000000 an ampere.
+The apparatus may even be employed for measuring magnetic forces, as
+it constitutes a very sensitive magnetometer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL RHEOMETER.]
+
+Prof. Zenger likewise had on exhibition a "Universal Electrometer"
+(Fig. 2), in which the fine wire that served as an electrometric
+needle was of magnetized steel suspended by a cotton thread. In this
+instrument, a silver wire, t, terminating in a ball, is fixed to a
+support, C, hanging from a brass disk, P, placed upon the glass case
+of the apparatus. It will be seen that if we bring an electrified body
+near the disk, P, a deviation of the needle will occur. The
+sensitiveness of the latter may be regulated by a magnetic system like
+that of the galvanometer. Finally, a disk, P', which may be slid up
+and down its support, permits of the instrument being used as a
+condensing electrometer, by giving it, according to the distance of
+the disks, different degrees of sensitiveness. One constructor who
+furnished much to this part of the exhibition was Mr. Th. Edelmann of
+Munich, whose apparatus are represented in a group in Fig. 3. Among
+them we remark the following: A quadrant electrometer (Fig. 4), in
+which the horizontal 8-shaped needle is replaced by two connected
+cylindrical surfaces that move in a cylinder formed of four parts; a
+Von Beetz commutator; spyglasses with scale for reading measuring
+instruments (Fig. 3); apparatus for the study of magnetic variations,
+of Lamont (Fig. 3) and of Wild (Fig. 5); different types of the
+Wiedemann galvanometer; an electrometer for atmospheric observations
+(Fig. 6); a dropping apparatus (Fig. 7), in which the iron ball opens
+one current at a time at the moment it leaves the electro-magnet and
+when it reaches the foot of the support, these two breakages producing
+two induction sparks that exactly limit the length to be taken in
+order to measure the time upon the tracing of the chronoscope
+tuning-fork; an absolute galvanometer; a bifilar galvanometer (Fig. 8)
+for absolute measurements, in which the helix is carried by two
+vertical steel wires stretched from o to u, and which is rendered
+complete by a mirror for the reading, and a second and fixed helix, so
+that an electro-dynamometer may be made of it; and, finally, a
+galvanometer for strong currents, having a horseshoe magnet pivoted
+upon a vertically divided column which is traversed by the current,
+and a plug that may be arranged at different heights between the two
+parts of the column so as to render the apparatus more sensitive (Fig.
+9).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ZENGER'S UNIVERSAL ELECTROMETER.]
+
+We may likewise cite the exhibit of Mr. Eugene Hartmann of Wurtzburg,
+which comprised a series of apparatus of the same class as those that
+we have just enumerated--spyglasses for the reading of apparatus,
+galvanometers, magnetometers, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--EXHIBIT OF TH. EDELMANN.]
+
+Specially worthy of remark were the apparatus of Mr. Kohlrausch for
+measuring resistances by means of induction currents, and a whole
+series of accessory instruments.
+
+Among the objects shown by other exhibitors must be mentioned Prof.
+Von Waltenhofen's differential electromagnetic balance. In this, two
+iron cylinders are suspended from the extremities of a balance. One of
+them is of solid iron, and the other is of thin sheet iron and of
+larger diameter and is balanced by an additional weight. Both of them
+enter, up to their center, two solenoids. If a strong current be
+passed into these latter, the solid cylinder will be attracted; but
+if, on the contrary, the current be weak, the hollow cylinder will be
+attracted. If the change in the current's intensity occur gradually,
+there will be a moment in which the cylinders will remain in
+equilibrium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--EDELMANN'S QUADRANT ELECTROMETER.]
+
+Prof. Zenger's differential photometer that we shall finally cite is
+an improvement upon Bunsen's. In the latter the position of the
+observer's eye not being fixed, the aspect of the spot changes
+accordingly, and errors are liable to result therefrom. Besides,
+because of the non-parallelism of the luminous rays, each of the two
+surfaces is not lighted equally, and hence again there may occur
+divergences. In order to avoid such inconveniences, Prof. Zenger gives
+his apparatus (Fig. 10) the following form: The screen, D, is
+contained in a cubical box capable of receiving, through apertures,
+light from sources placed upon the two rules, R and R'. A flaring
+tube, P, fixes the position of the eye very definitely. As for the
+screen, this is painted with black varnish, and three vertical
+windows, about an inch apart, are left in white upon its paper. Over
+one of the halves of these parts a solution of stearine is passed. To
+operate with the apparatus, in comparing two lights, the central spot
+is first brought to invisibility, and the distances of the sources are
+measured. A second determination is at once made by causing one of the
+two other spots to disappear, and the mean of the two results is then
+taken. As, at a maximum, there is a difference corresponding to 3/100
+of a candle between the illumination of the two neighboring windows,
+in the given conditions of the apparatus, the error is thus limited to
+a half of this value, or 2 per cent. of that of one candle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--WILD'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MAGNETIC
+VARIATIONS.]
+
+Among the apparatus designed for demonstration in lecture courses, we
+remarked a solenoid of Prof. Von Beetz for demonstrating the
+constitution of magnets (Fig. 11), and in which eight magnetized
+needles, carrying mica disks painted half white and half black, move
+under the influence of the currents that are traversing the solenoid,
+or of magnets that are bought near to it externally. Another apparatus
+of the same inventor is the lecture-course galvanometer (Fig. 3), in
+which the horizontal needle bends back vertically over the external
+surface of a cylinder that carries divisions that are plainly visible
+to spectators at a distance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ELECTROMETER FOR ATMOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS.]
+
+Finally, let us cite an instrument designed for demonstrating the
+principle of the Gramme machine. A circular magnet, AA', is inserted
+into a bobbin, B, divided into two parts, and moves under the
+influence of a disk, L, actuated by a winch, M. This system permits of
+studying the currents developed in each portion of the bobbin during
+the revolution of the ring (Fig. 12).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--WIEDEMANN'S CURRENT BREAKER.]
+
+To end our review of the scientific apparatus at the exhibition we
+shall merely mention Mr. Van Rysselberghe's registering
+thermometrograph (shown in Figs. 13 and 14), and shall then say a few
+words concerning two types of registering apparatus--Mr. Harlacher's
+water-current register and Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--WIEDEMANN'S BIFILAR GALVANOMETER.]
+
+Mr. Harlacher's apparatus was devised by him for studying the deep
+currents of the Elbe. It is carried (Fig. 15) by a long, vertical,
+hollow rod which is plunged into the river. A cord that passes over a
+pulley, P, allows of the apparatus, properly so called, being let down
+to a certain depth in the water. What is registered is the velocity of
+the vanes that are set in action by the current, and to effect such
+registry each revolution of the helix produces in the box, C, an
+electric contact that closes the circuit in the cable, F, attached to
+the terminals, B. This cable forms part of a circuit that includes a
+pile and a registering apparatus that is seen at L, outside of the box
+in which it is usually inclosed. In certain cases, a bell whose sound
+indicates the velocity of the current to the ear is substituted for
+the registering apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--WIEDEMANN'S GALVANOMETER FOR STRONG CURRENTS.]
+
+Fig. 16 represents another type of the same apparatus in which the
+mechanism of the contact is uncovered. The supporting rod is likewise
+in this type utilized as a current conductor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--ZENGER'S DIFFERENTIAL PHOTOMETER.]
+
+It now remains to say a few words about Prof. Von Beetz's chronograph.
+This instrument (Fig. 17) is designed for determining the duration of
+combustion of different powders, the velocity of projectiles, etc. The
+registering drum, T, is revolved by hand through a winch, L, and the
+time is inscribed thereon by an electric tuning fork, S, set in motion
+by the large electro-magnet, E F. Each undulation of the curves
+corresponds to a hundredth of a second. The tuning-fork and the
+registering electro-magnets, G and H, are placed upon a regulatable
+support, C, by means of which they may be given any position desired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--VON BEETZ'S SOLENOID FOR DEMONSTRATING THE
+CONSTITUTION OF MAGNETS.]
+
+The style, c, of the magnet, C, traces a point every second in order
+to facilitate the reading. The style, b, of the electro-magnet, H,
+registers the beginning and end of the phenomena that are being
+studied.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--APPARATUS FOR DEMONSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF
+THE GRAMME MACHINE.]
+
+The apparatus is arranged in such a way that indications may thus be
+obtained upon the drum by means of induction sparks jumping between
+the style and the surface of the cylinder. To the left of the figure
+is seen the apparatus constructed by Lieutenant Ziegler for
+experimenting on the duration of combustion of bomb fuses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING
+THERMOMETROGRAPH.]
+
+Shortly after the drum has commenced revolving, the contact, K, opens
+a current which supports the heavy armature, P, of an electro-magnet,
+M. This weight, P, falls upon the rod, d, and inflames the fuse, Z, at
+that very instant. At this precise moment the electro-magnet, H,
+inscribes a point, and renews it only when the cartridge at the
+extremity of the fuse explodes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--VAN RYSSELBERGHE'S REGISTERING
+THERMOMETROGRAPH.]
+
+This apparatus perhaps offers the inconvenience that the drum must be
+revolved by hand, and it would certainly be more convenient could it
+be put in movement at different velocities by means of a clockwork
+movement that would merely have to be thrown into gear at the desired
+moment. As it is, however, it presents valuable qualities, and,
+although it has already been employed in Germany for some time, it
+will be called upon to render still more extensive services.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP
+CURRENTS IN RIVERS.]
+
+We have now exhausted the subject of the apparatus of precision that
+were comprised in the Munich Exhibition. In general, it may be said
+that this class of instruments was very well represented there as
+regards numbers, and, on another hand, the manufacturers are to be
+congratulated for the care bestowed on their construction.--_La
+Lumiere Electrique_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--HARLACHER'S APPARATUS FOR STUDYING DEEP
+CURRENTS IN RIVERS.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--VON BEETZ'S CHRONOGRAPH.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+COPPER VOLTAMETER.
+
+
+Dr. Hammerl, of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, has made some
+experiments upon the disturbing influences on the correct indications
+of a copper voltameter. He investigated the effects of the intensity
+of the current, the distance apart of the plates, and their
+preparation before weighing. The main conclusion which he arrives at
+is this: That in order that the deposit should be proportional to the
+intensity of the current, the latter ought not to exceed seven amperes
+per square decimeter of area of the cathode.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Speaking of steel ropes as transmitters of power, Professor Osborne
+Reynolds says these have a great advantage over shafts, for the stress
+on the section will be uniform, the velocity will be uniform, and may
+be at least ten to fifteen times as great as with shafts--say 100 ft.
+per second; the rope is carried on friction pulleys, which may be at
+distances 500 ft. or 600 ft. so that the coefficient of friction will
+not be more than 0.015, instead of 0.04.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW OXIDE OF COPPER BATTERY.
+
+By MM. F. DE LALANDE and G. CHAPERON.
+
+
+We have succeeded in forming a new battery with a single liquid and
+with a solid depolarizing element by associating oxide of copper,
+caustic potash, and zinc.
+
+This battery possesses remarkable properties. Depolarizing electrodes
+are easily formed of oxide of copper. It is enough to keep it in
+contact with a plate or a cell of iron or copper constituting the
+positive pole of the element.
+
+Fig. 1 represents a very simple arrangement. At the bottom of a glass
+jar, V, we place a box of sheet iron, A, containing oxide of copper,
+B. To this box is attached a copper wire insulated from the zinc by a
+piece of India rubber tube. The zinc is formed of a thick wire of this
+metal coiled in the form of a flat spiral, D, and suspended from a
+cover, E, which carries a terminal, F, connected with the zinc; an
+India-rubber tube, G, covers the zinc at the place where it dips into
+the liquid, to prevent its being eaten away at this level.
+
+The jar is filled with a solution containing 30 or 40 per cent. of
+potash. This arrangement is similar to that of a Callaud element, with
+this difference--that the depolarizing element is solid and insoluble.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+To prevent the inconveniences of the manipulation of the potash, we
+inclose a quantity of this substance in the solid state necessary for
+an element in the box which receives the oxide of copper, and furnish
+it with a cover supported by a ring of caoutchouc. It suffices then
+for working the battery to open the box of potash, to place it at the
+bottom of the jar, and to add water to dissolve the potash; we then
+pour in the copper oxide inclosed in a bag.
+
+We also form the oxide of copper very conveniently into blocks. Among
+the various means which might be employed, we prefer the following:
+
+We mix with the oxide of copper oxychloride of magnesium in the form
+of paste so as to convert the whole into a thick mass, which we
+introduce into metal boxes.
+
+The mass sets in a short time, or very rapidly by the action of heat,
+and gives porous blocks of a solidity increasing with the quantity of
+cement employed (5 to 10 per cent.).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Fig. 2 represents an arrangement with blocks. The jar V, is provided
+with a cover of copper, E, screwing into the glass. This cover carries
+two vertical plates of sheet-iron, A, A', against which are fixed the
+prismatic blocks, B, B, by means of India rubber bands. The terminal,
+C, carried by the cover constitutes the positive pole. The zinc is
+formed of a single pencil, D, passing into a tube fixed to the center
+of the cover. The India rubber, G, is folded back upon this tube so as
+to make an air-tight joint.
+
+The cover carries, besides, another tube, H, covered by a split
+India-rubber tube, which forms a safety valve.
+
+The closing is made hermetical by means of an India rubber tube, K,
+which presses against the glass and the cover. The potash to charge
+the element is in pieces, and is contained either in the glass jar
+itself or in a separate box of sheet-iron.
+
+Applying the same arrangement, we form hermetically sealed elements
+with a single plate of a very small size.
+
+The employment of cells of iron, cast-iron, or copper, which are not
+attacked by the exciting liquid, allows us to easily construct
+elements exposing a large surface (Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+The cell, A, forming the positive pole of the battery is of iron plate
+brazed upon vertical supports; it is 40 centimeters long by 20
+centimeters wide, and about 10 centimeters high.
+
+We cover the bottom with a layer of oxide of copper, and place in the
+four corners porcelain insulators, L, which support a horizontal plate
+of zinc, D, D', raised at one end and kept at a distance from the
+oxide of copper and from the metal walls of the cell; three-quarters
+of this is filled with a solution of potash. The terminals, C and M,
+fixed respectively to the iron cell and to the zinc, serve to attach
+the leading wires. To avoid the too rapid absorption of the carbonic
+acid of the air by the large exposed surface, we cover it with a thin
+layer of heavy petroleum (a substance uninflammable and without
+smell), or better still, we furnish the battery with a cover. These
+elements are easily packed so as to occupy little space.
+
+We shall not discuss further the arrangements which may be varied
+infinitely, but point out the principal properties of the oxide of
+copper, zinc, and potash battery. As a battery with a solid
+depolarizing element, the new battery presents the advantage of only
+consuming its element, in proportion to its working; amalgamated zinc
+and copper are, in fact, not attacked by the alkaline solution, it is,
+therefore, durable.
+
+Its electromotive force is very nearly one volt. Its internal
+resistance is very low. We may estimate it at 1/3 or 1/4 of an ohm for
+polar surfaces one decimeter square, separated by a distance of five
+centimeters.
+
+The rendering of these couples is considerable; the small cells shown
+in Figs. 1 and 2 give about two amperes in short circuit; the large
+one gives 16 to 20 amperes. Two of these elements can replace a large
+Bunsen cell. They are remarkably constant. We may say that with a
+depolarizing surface double that of the zinc the battery will work
+without notable polarization, and almost until completely exhausted,
+even under the most unfavorable conditions. The transformation of the
+products, the change of the alkali into an alkaline salt of zinc, does
+not perceptibly vary the internal resistance. This great constancy is
+chiefly due to the progressive reduction of the depolarizing electrode
+to the state of very conductive metal, which augments its conductivity
+and its depolarizing power.
+
+The peroxide of manganese, which forms the base of an excellent
+battery for giving a small rendering, possesses at first better
+conductivity than oxide of copper, but this property is lost by
+reduction and transformation into lower oxides. It follows that the
+copper battery will give a very large quantity of electricity working
+through low resistances, while under these conditions manganese
+batteries are rapidly polarized.
+
+The energy contained in an oxide of copper and potash battery is very
+great, and far superior to that stored by an accumulator of the same
+weight, but the rendering is much less rapid. Potash may be employed
+in concentrated solution at 30, 40, 60 per cent.; solid potash can
+dissolve the oxide of zinc furnished by a weight of zinc more than
+one-third of its own weight. The quantity of oxide of copper to be
+employed exceeds by nearly one-quarter the weight of zinc which enters
+into action. These data allow of the reduction of the necessary
+substances to a very small relative weight.
+
+The oxide of copper batteries have given interesting results in their
+application to telephones. For theatrical purposes the same battery
+may be employed during the whole performance, instead of four or five
+batteries. Their durability is considerable; three elements will work
+continuously, night and day, Edison's carbon microphones for more than
+four months without sensible loss of power.
+
+Our elements will work for a hundred hours through low resistances,
+and can be worked at any moment, after several months, for example. It
+is only necessary to protect them by a cover from the action of the
+carbonic acid of the atmosphere.
+
+We prefer potash to soda for ordinary batteries, notwithstanding its
+price and its higher equivalent, because it does not produce, like
+soda, creeping salts. Various modes of regeneration render this
+battery very economical. The deposited copper absorbs oxygen pretty
+readily by simple exposure to damp air, and can be used again. An
+oxidizing flame produces the same result very rapidly.
+
+Lastly, by treating the exhausted battery as an accumulator, that is
+to say, by passing a current through it in the opposite direction, we
+restore the various products to their original condition; the copper
+absorbs oxygen, and the alkali is restored, while the zinc is
+deposited; but the spongy state of the deposited zinc necessitates its
+being submitted to a process, or to its being received upon a mercury
+support. Again, the oxide of copper which we employ, being a waste
+product of brazing and plate works, unless it be reduced, loses
+nothing of its value by its reduction in the battery; the
+depolarization may therefore be considered as costing scarcely
+anything. The oxide of copper battery is a durable and valuable
+battery, which by its special properties seems likely to replace
+advantageously in a great number of applications the batteries at
+present in use.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FARCOT'S SIX HORSE POWER STEAM ENGINE.
+
+
+This horizontal steam engine, recently constructed by Mr. E.D. Farcot
+for actuating a Cance dynamo-electric machine, consists of a cast iron
+bed frame, A, upon which are mounted all the parts. The two jacketed,
+cylinders, B and C, of different diameters, each contains a
+simple-acting piston. The two pistons are connected by one rod in
+common, which is fixed at its extremity to a cross-head, D, running in
+slides, E and F, and is connected with the connecting rod, G. The head
+of the latter is provided with a bearing of large diameter which
+embraces the journal of the driving shaft, H.
+
+The steam enters the valve-box through the orifice, J, which is
+provided with a throttle-valve, L, that is connected with a governor
+placed upon the large cylinder. The steam, as shown in Fig. 2 (which
+represents the piston at one end of its travel), is first admitted
+against the right surface of the small piston, which it causes to
+effect an entire stroke corresponding to a half-revolution of the
+fly-wheel. The stroke completed, the slide-valve, actuated by an
+eccentric keyed to the driving shaft, returns backward and puts the
+cylinders, B and C, in communication. The steam then expands and
+drives the large piston to the right, so as to effect the second half
+of the fly-wheel's revolution. The exhaust occurs through the valve
+chamber, which, at each stroke, puts the large cylinder in connection
+with the eduction port, M.
+
+The volume of air included between the two pistons is displaced at
+every stroke, so that, according to the position occupied by the
+pistons, it is held either by the large or small cylinder. The
+necessary result of this is that a compression of the air, and
+consequently a resistance, is brought about. In order to obviate this
+inconvenience, the constructor has connected the space between the two
+pistons at the part, A', of the frame by a bent pipe. The air, being
+alternately driven into and sucked out of this chamber, A', of
+relatively large dimensions, no longer produces but an insignificant
+resistance.
+
+[Illustration: FARCOT'S SIX H.P. STEAM ENGINE.
+  Fig. 1.--Longitudinal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 2.--Horizontal Section (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 3.--Section across the Small Cylinder (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 4.--Section through the Cross Head (Scale 0.10 to 1).
+  Fig. 5.--Application for a Variable Expanion (Scale 0.10 to 1).]
+
+As shown in Fig. 5, there may be applied to this engine a variable
+expansion of the Farcot type. The motor being a single acting one, a
+single valve-plate suffices. This latter is, during its travel,
+arrested at one end by a stop and at the other by a cam actuated by
+the governor. Upon the axis of this cam there is keyed a gear wheel,
+with an endless screw, which permits of regulating it by hand.
+
+This engine, which runs at a pressure of from 5 to 6 kilogrammes,
+makes 150 revolutions per minute and weighs 2,000 kilogrammes.
+--_Annales Industrielles_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOT LATHES.
+
+
+We illustrate a foot lathe constructed by the Britannia Manufacturing
+Company, of Colchester, and specially designed for use on board ships.
+These lathes, says _Engineering_, are treble geared, in order that
+work which cannot usually be done without steam power may be
+accomplished by foot. For instance, they will turn a 24 inch wheel or
+plate, or take a half-inch cut off a 3 inch shaft, much heavier work
+than can ordinarily be done by such tools. They have 6 inch centers,
+gaps 71/2 inches wide and 61/2 inches deep, beds 4 feet 6 inches long by
+83/4 inches on the face and 6 inches in depth, and weigh 14 cwt. There
+are three speeds on the cone pulley, 9 inches, 6 inches, and 4 inches
+in diameter and 11/2 inches wide. The gear wheels are 9/16 inch pitch
+and 11/2 inches wide on face. The steel leading screw is 11/2 inches in
+diameter by 1/4 inch pitch. Smaller sizes are made for torpedo boats and
+for places where space is limited.
+
+[Illustration: LATHE FOR USE ON SHIPBOARD.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The endless trough conveyer is one of the latest applications of
+link-belting, consisting primarily of a heavy chain belt carried over
+a pair of wheels, and in the intermediate space a truck on which the
+train runs. This chain or belt is provided with pans which, as they
+overlap, form an endless trough. Power being applied to revolve one of
+the wheels, the whole belt is thereby set in motion and at once
+becomes an endless trough conveyer. The accompanying engraving
+illustrates a section of this conveyer. A few of the pans are removed,
+to show the construction of the links; and above this a link and
+coupler are shown on a larger scale. As will be seen, the link is
+provided with wings, to form a rigid support for the pan to be riveted
+to it. To reduce friction each link is provided with three rollers, as
+will be seen in the engraving. This outfit makes a fireproof conveyer
+which will handle hot ore from roasting kiln to crusher, and convey
+coal, broken stone, or other gritty and coarse material. The Link Belt
+Machinery Company, of Chicago, is now erecting for Mr. Charles E.
+Coffin, of Muirkirk, Md., about 450 ft. of this conveyer, which is to
+carry the hot roasted iron ore from the kilns on an incline of about
+one foot in twelve up to the crusher. This dispenses with the
+barrow-men, and at an expenditure of a few more horsepower becomes a
+faithful servant, ready for work in all weather and at all times of
+day or night. This company also manufactures ore elevators of any
+capacity, which, used in connection with this apparatus, will handle
+perfectly anything in the shape of coarse, gritty material. It might
+be added that the endless trough conveyer is no experiment. Although
+comparatively new in this country, the American _Engineering and
+Mining Journal_ says it has been in successful operation for some time
+in England, the English manufacturers of link-belting having had great
+success with it.
+
+[Illustration: ENDLESS TROUGH CONVEYER.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILROAD GRADES OF TRUNK LINES.
+
+
+On the West Shore and Buffalo road its limit of grade is 30 feet to
+the mile going west and north, and 20 feet to the mile going east and
+south. Next for easy grades comes the New York Central and Hudson
+River road. From New York to Albany, then up the valley of the Mohawk,
+till it gradually reaches the elevation of Lake Erie, it is all the
+time within the 500 foot level, and this is maintained by its
+connections on the lake borders to Chicago, by the "Nickel Plate," the
+Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and the Canada Southern and Michigan
+Central.
+
+The Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio roads pass
+through a country so mountainous that, much as they have expended to
+improve their grades, it is practically impossible for them to attain
+the easy grades so much more readily obtained by the trunk lines
+following the great natural waterways originally extending almost from
+Chicago to New York.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH EXPRESS TRAINS.
+
+
+The _Journal of the Statistical Society_ for September contains an
+elaborate paper by Mr. E. Foxwell on "English Express Trains; their
+Average Speed, etc. with Notes on Gradients, Long Runs, etc." The
+author takes great pains to explain his definition of the term
+"express trains," which he finally classifies thus: (a) The general
+rule; those which run under ordinary conditions, and attain a
+journey-speed of 40 and upward. These are about 85 per cent. of the
+whole. (b) Equally good trains, which, running against exceptional
+difficulties, only attain, perhaps, a journey speed as low as 36 or
+37. These are about 5 per cent. of the whole. (c) Trains which should
+come under (a), but which, through unusually long stoppages or similar
+causes, only reach a journey speed of 39. These are about 10 per
+cent.[1] of the whole.
+
+  [Footnote 1: 10 per cent. of the number, but not of the mileage,
+  of the whole; for most of this class run short journeys.]
+
+He next explains that by "running average" is meant: The average speed
+per hour while actually in motion from platform to platform, i.e., the
+average speed obtained by deducting stoppages. Thus the 9-hour (up)
+Great Northern "Scotchman" stops 49 minutes on its journey from
+Edinburgh to King's Cross, and occupies 8 hours 11 minutes in actual
+motion; its "running average" is therefore 48 miles an hour, or,
+briefly, "r.a.=48." The statement for this train will thus appear:
+Distance in miles between Edinburgh and King's Cross, 3921/2; time, 9 h.
+0 m.; journey-speed, 43.6; minutes stopped, 49; running average, 48.
+
+Mr. Foxwell then proceeds to describe in detail the performances of
+the express trains of the leading English and Scottish railways--in
+Ireland there are no trains which come under his definition of
+"express"--giving the times of journey, the journey-speeds, minutes
+stopped on way, and running averages, with the gradients and other
+circumstances bearing on these performances. He sums up the results
+for the United Kingdom, omitting fractions, as follows:
+
+  =========================================================================
+  Extent of|                   |           | Average  |         |         |
+  System   |                   | Distinct  | Journey- | Running | Express |
+  in Miles.|                   | Expresses.|  speed.  | Average.| Mileage.|
+  ---------+-------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------+
+    1773   | North-Western     |   {54} 82 |    40    |    43   |  10,400 |
+           |                   |   {28}    |          |         |         |
+    1260   | Midland           |    66     |    41    |    45   |   8,860 |
+     928   | Great Northern    |   {48} 67 |    43    |    46   |   6,780 |
+           |                   |   {19}    |          |         |         |
+     907   | Great Eastern     |    34     |    41    |    43   |   3,040 |
+    2267   | Great Western     |    18     |    42    |    46   |   2,600 |
+    1519   | North-Eastern     |    19     |    40    |    43   |   2,110 |
+     290   | Manch., Sheffield,|    49     |    43    |    44   |   2,318 |
+           |   and Lincoln     |           |          |         |         |
+     767   | Caledonian        |    16     |    40    |    42   |   1,155 |
+     435   | Brighton          |    13     |    41    |    41   |   1,155 |
+     382   | South-Eastern     |    12     |    41    |    41   |     940 |
+     329   | Glasgow and       |     8     |    41    |    43   |     920 |
+           |   South-Western   |           |          |         |         |
+     796   | London and        |     3     |    41    |    44   |     890 |
+           |   South-Western   |           |          |         |         |
+     984   | North British     |    11     |    39    |    41   |     830 |
+     153   | Chatham and Dover |     9     |    42    |    43   |     690 |
+                               +-----------+----------+---------+---------+
+                               |   407     |    41    |    44   |  42,683 |
+  =========================================================================
+
+A total of 407 express trains, whose average journey-speed is 41.6,
+and which run 42,680 miles at an average "running average" of 44.3
+miles per hour.
+
+If we arrange the companies according to their speed instead of their
+mileage, the order is:
+
+                                   Average
+                                     r.a.     Miles
+  Great Northern.                     46      6,780
+  Great Western.                      46   [2]2,600
+  Midland.                            45      8,860
+  Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln  44      2,318
+  London and South-Western.           44        890
+  North-Western.                      43     10,400
+  Glasgow and South-Western.          43        920
+  Great Eastern.                      43      3,040
+  North-Eastern.                      43      2,110
+  Chatham and Dover.                  43        690
+  Caledonian.                         42      1,155
+  South-Eastern.                      41        940
+  Brighton.                           41      1,155
+  North British.                      31        825
+
+  [Footnote 2: Not reckoning mileage west of Exeter.]
+
+
+EXPRESS ROUTES ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DIFFICULTY OF GRADIENTS, ETC.
+
+  North British,
+  Caledonian,
+  Manch., Sheffield & Lincoln,
+  Midland,
+  Glasgow and South-Western,
+  Chatham and Dover,
+  South-Eastern,
+  Great Northern,
+  South-Western,
+  Great Eastern,
+  Brighton,
+  North-Western,
+  North-Eastern,
+  Great Western.
+
+
+LONG RUNS IN ENGLAND.
+
+  =======================================================================
+                                      | Number of | Average |  Running
+                                      |  Trains.  |  Speed. |  Averages.
+  ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------
+                                      |           |  Miles. |   Miles.
+  Midland.                            |     104   |    53   | 46  (5,512)
+  North-Western.                      |      98   |    60   | 45  (5,880)
+  Great Northern.                     |      49   |    73   | 50  (3,616)
+  Great Western.                      |      24   |    56   | 48  (1,344)
+  Great Eastern.                      |      24   |    56   | 42  (1,362)
+  Brighton.                           |      23   |    45   | 42  (1,047)
+  North-Eastern.                      |      20   |    56   | 44  (1,120)
+  South-Western.                      |      13   |    47   | 44    (615)
+  South-Eastern.                      |      12   |    66   | 42    (795)
+  Chatham and Dover.                  |       8   |    63   | 45    (504)
+  Caledonian.                         |       8   |    59   | 45    (476)
+  Glasgow and South-Western           |       8   |    58   | 44    (468)
+  Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln. |       8   |    48   | 43    (390)
+  North British.                      |       7   |    60   | 40    (423)
+  ------------------------------------+-----------+---------+------------
+             Total.                   |     406   |    58   | 45 (23,550)
+  =======================================================================
+
+From this it will be seen that the three great companies run 61 per
+cent. of the whole express mileage, and 62 per cent. of the whole
+number of long runs.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED OIL MILL.
+
+
+The old and cumbersome methods of crushing oil seeds by mechanical
+means have during the last few years undergone a complete revolution.
+By the old process, the seed, having been flattened between a pair of
+stones, was afterward ground by edge stones, weighing in some cases as
+much as 20 tons, and working at about eighteen revolutions per minute.
+Having been sufficiently ground, the seed was taken to a kettle or
+steam jacketed vessel, where it was heated, and thence drawn--in
+quantities sufficient for a cake--in woollen bags, which were placed
+in a hydraulic press. From four to six bags was the utmost that could
+be got into the press at one time, and the cakes were pressed between
+wrappers of horsehair on similar material. All this involved a good
+deal of manual labor, a cumberstone plant, and a considerable expense
+in the frequent replacing of the horsehair wrappers, each of which
+involved a cost of about L4. The modern requirements of trade have in
+every branch of industry ruthlessly compelled the abandonment of the
+slow, easy-going methods which satisfied the times when competition
+was less keen. Automatic mechanical arrangements, almost at every
+turn, more effectually and at greatly increased speed, complete
+manufacturing operations previously performed by hand, and oil-seed
+crushing machinery has been no exception to the general rule. The
+illustrations we give represent the latest developments in improved
+oil-mill machinery introduced by Rose, Downs & Thompson, named the
+"Colonial" mill, and recently we had an opportunity of inspecting the
+machinery complete before shipment to Calcutta, where it is being sent
+for the approaching exhibition. As compared with the old system of
+oil-seed crushing, Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson claim for their
+method, among other advantages, a great saving in driving power,
+economy of space, a more perfect extraction of the oil, an improved
+branding of the cakes, a saving of 50 per cent. in the labor employed
+in the press-room, with also a great saving in wear and tear, while
+the process is equally applicable to linseed, cottonseed, rapeseed, or
+similar seeds. In addition to these improvements in the system, the
+"Colonial" mill has been specially designed in structural arrangement
+to meet the requirements of exporters. The machinery and engine are
+self-contained on an iron foundation, so that there is no need of
+skilled mechanics to erect the mill, nor of expensive stone
+foundations, while the building covering the mill can, if desired, be
+of the lightest possible description, as no wall support is required.
+The mill consists of the following machinery: A vertical steel boiler,
+3 ft. 7 in. diameter, 8 ft. 11/2 in. high, with three cross tubes 71/2 in.
+diameter, shell 5/16 in. thick, crown 3/8 in. thick, uptake 9 in.
+diameter, with all necessary fittings, and where wood fuel is used
+extra grate area can be provided. This boiler supplies the steam not
+only for the engine, but also for heating and damping the seed in the
+kettle. The engine is vertical, with 8 in. cylinder and 12 in. stroke,
+with high speed governors, and stands on the cast iron bed-plate of
+the mill. This bed-plate, which is in three sections, is about 30 ft.
+long, and is planed and shaped to receive the various machines, which,
+when the top is leveled, can be fixed in their respective places by
+any intelligent man, and when the machines are in position they form a
+support for the shafting. The seed to be crushed is stored in a wooden
+bin, placed above and behind the roll frame hopper. The roll frame has
+four chilled cast iron rolls, 15 in. face, 12 in. diameter, so
+arranged as to subject the seed to three rollings, with patent
+pressure giving apparatus. These rolls are driven by fast and loose
+pulleys by the shaft above. After the last rolling the seed falls
+through an opening in the foundation plate in a screen driven from the
+bottom roll shaft by a belt. This conveys the seed in a trough to a
+set of elevators, which supply it continuously to the kettle. This
+kettle, which is 3 ft. 6 in. internal diameter and 20 in. deep, is
+made of cast iron and of specially strong construction. There is only
+one steam joint in it, and to reduce the liability of leakage this
+joint is faced in a lathe. The inside furnishings of the kettle are a
+damping apparatus with perforated boss, upright shaft, stirrer, and
+delivery plate, and patent slide. The kettle body is fitted with a
+wood frame and covered with felt, which is inclosed within iron
+sheeting. The crushed seed is heated in the kettle to the required
+temperature by steam from the boiler, and it is also damped by a jet
+of steam which is regulated by a wheel valve with indicating plate.
+When the required temperature has been obtained, the seed is withdrawn
+by a measuring box through a self-acting shuttle in the kettle bottom,
+and evenly distributed over a strip of bagging supported on a steel
+tray in a Virtue patent moulding machine, where it undergoes a
+compression sufficient to reduce it to the size that can be taken in
+by the presses, but not sufficient to cause any extraction of the oil.
+The seed leaves the moulding machine in the form of a thick cake from
+nine to eleven pounds in weight, and each press is constructed to take
+in twelve of these cakes at once. The press cylinders are 12 in.
+diameter and are of crucible cast steel. To insure strength of
+construction and even distribution of strain throughout the press, all
+the columns, cylinders, rams, and heads are planed and turned
+accurately to gauges, and the pockets that take the columns, in the
+place of being cast, as is sometimes usual, with fitting strips top
+and bottom, are solid throughout, and are planed or slotted out of the
+solid to gauges. The pressure is given by a set of hydraulic pumps
+made of crucible cast steel and bored out of the solid. One of the
+pump rams is 21/2 in. diameter, and has a stroke of 7 in. This ram gives
+only a limited pressure, and the arrangements are such as to obtain
+this pressure upon each press in about fourteen seconds. This pump
+then automatically ceases running, and the work is taken up by a
+second plunger, having a ram 1 in. diameter and stroke of 7 in., the
+second pump continuing its work until a gross pressure of two tons per
+square inch is attained, which is the maximum, and is arrived at in
+less than two minutes. For shutting off the communication between the
+presses, the stop valves are so arranged that either press may be let
+down, or set to work without in the smallest degree affecting the
+other. The oil from the presses is caught in an oil tank behind, from
+which an oil pump, worked by an eccentric, forces it in any desired
+direction. The cakes, on being withdrawn from the press, are stripped
+of the bagging and cut to size in a specially arranged paring machine,
+which is placed off the bed-plate behind the kettle, and is driven by
+the pulley shown on the main shaft. The paring machine is also fitted
+with an arrangement for reducing the parings to meal, which is
+returned to the kettle, and again made up into cakes. The presses
+shown have corrugated press plates of Messrs. Rose, Downs & Thompson's
+latest type, but the cakes produced by this process can have any
+desired name or brand in block letters put upon them. The edges on the
+upper plate, it may be added, are found of great use in crushing some
+classes of green or moist seed. The plant, of which we give
+illustrations opposite, is constructed to crush about four tons of
+seed per day of eleven hours, and the manual labor has been so reduced
+to a minimum that it is intended to be worked by one man, who moulds
+and puts the twenty-four cakes into the presses, and while they are
+under pressure is engaged paring the cakes that have been previously
+pressed. In crushing castor-oil seed, a decorticating machine or
+separator can be combined with the mill, but in such a case the engine
+and boiler would require to be made larger.--_The Engineer_.
+
+[Illustration: AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF THE AMERICAN OIL MILL.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPARATUS FOR SEPARATING SUBSTANCES CONTAINED IN THE WASTE WATERS OF
+PAPER MILLS, ETC.
+
+
+For extracting such useful materials as are contained in the waste
+waters of paper mills, cloth manufactories, etc., and, at the same
+time, for purifying such waters, Mr. Schuricht, of Siebenlehn, employs
+a sort of filter like that shown in the annexed Figs. 1 and 2, and
+underneath which he effects a vacuum.
+
+[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 1.]
+
+The apparatus, A, is divided into two compartments, which are
+separated by a longitudinal partition. Above the stationary bottom, a,
+there is arranged a lattice-work grating or a strong wire cloth, b,
+upon which rests the filtering material, c, properly so called. The
+reservoir is divided transversely by several partitions, d, of
+different heights. The liquor entering through the leader, f,
+traverses the apparatus slowly, as a consequence of the somewhat wide
+section of the layer. But, in order that it may traverse the filtering
+material, it is necessary that, in addition to this horizontal motion,
+it shall have a downward one. As far as to the top of the partitions,
+d, there form in front of the latter certain layers which do not
+participate in the horizontal motion, but which can only move
+downward, as a consequence of the permeability of the bottom. It
+results from this that the heaviest solid particles deposit in the
+first compartment, while the others run over the first partition, d,
+and fall into one of the succeeding compartments, according to their
+degree of fineness, while the clarified water makes its exit through
+the spout, g. When the filtering layer, c, has become gradually
+impermeable, the cock, i, of a jet apparatus, k, is opened, in order
+to suck out the clarified water through the pipe, r.--_Dingler's
+Polytech. Journ., after Bull. Musee de l'Industrie_.
+
+[Illustration: SCHURICHTS FILTERING APPARATUS. Fig. 2.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LARGE BLUE PRINTS.
+
+By W.B. PARSONS, JR., C.E.
+
+
+I send you a description of a device that I got up for the N.Y., L.E.,
+and W.R.R. division office at Port Jervis, by which I overcame the
+difficulties incident to large glasses. The glass was 58 inches long,
+84 inches wide, and 3/8 inch thick. It was heavily framed with ash. In
+order to keep the back from warping out of shape, I had it made of
+thoroughly seasoned ash strips 1" x 1". Each strip was carefully
+planed, and then they were glued and screwed together, while across
+the ends were fastened strips with their grain running transversely.
+This back was then covered on side next to the glass with four
+thicknesses of common gray blanketing. Instead of applying the holding
+pressure by thumb cleats at the periphery, it was effected by two long
+pressure strips running across the back placed at about one quarter
+the length of the frame from the ends, and held by a screw at the
+center. The ends of these strips were made so as to fit in slots in
+the frame at a slight angle, so that as the pressure strips were
+turned it gave them a binding pressure at the same time. In other
+words, it is the same principle as is commonly used to keep backs in
+small picture frames. This arrangement, instead of holding the back at
+the edges only, and so allowing the center to fall away from the
+glass, distributed it evenly over the whole surface and always kept it
+in position. The frame was run in and out of the printing room on a
+little railway on which it rested on four grooved brass sheaves, one
+pair being at one end, while the other was just beyond the center, so
+the frame could be revolved in direction of its length without
+trouble. In order to raise the heavy back, I had a pulley-wheel
+fastened to the ceiling, through which a rope passed, with a ring that
+could be attached to a corresponding hook at the side of the back, in
+order to hoist it or lower it. Although that is an extremely large
+apparatus, yet by means of the above device it was worked easily and
+rapidly, and gave every satisfaction.
+
+The solution used was of the same proportions as had been adopted in
+the other engineering offices of the road:
+
+  Citrate iron and ammonium      1-7/8 oz.
+  Red prussiate potash (C.P.)    1-1/4 oz.
+
+Dissolve separately in 4 oz. distilled water each, and mix when ready
+to use. But by putting mixture in dark bottle, and that in a tight box
+impervious to light, it can be kept two or three weeks.
+
+In some frames used at the School of Mines for making large blue
+prints a similar device has been in use for several years. Instead,
+however, of the heavy and cumbrous back used by Mr. Parsons, a light,
+somewhat flexible back of one-quarter inch pine is employed, covered
+with heavy Canton flannel and several thicknesses of newspaper. The
+pressure is applied by light pressure strips of ash somewhat thicker
+at the middle than at the ends, which give a fairly uniform pressure
+across the width of the frame sufficient to hold the back firmly
+against the glass at all points. This system has been used with
+success for frames twenty-seven by forty-two inches, about half as
+large as the one described by Mr. Parsons. A frame of this size can be
+easily handled without mechanical aids. Care should be taken to avoid
+too great thickness and too much spring in the pressure strips, or the
+plate glass may be broken by excessive pressure. The strips used are
+about five-eighths of an inch thick at the middle, and taper to about
+three-eighths of an inch at the ends.
+
+The formulae for the solution given by Whittaker, Laudy, and Parsons
+are practically identical so far as the proportions of citrate of iron
+and ammonia and of red prussiate of potash, 3 of the former to 2 of
+the latter, but differ in the amount of water. Laudy's formula calls
+for about 5 parts of water to 1 of the salts, Whittaker's for 4 parts,
+and Parson's for a little more than 2 parts. The stronger the solution
+the longer the exposure required. With very strong solutions a large
+portion of the Prussian blue formed comes off in the washwater, and
+when printing from glass negatives the fine lines and lighter tints
+are apt to suffer. The blue color, however, will be deep and the
+whites clear. With weak solutions the blues will be fainter and the
+whites bluish. Heavily sized paper gives the best results. The
+addition of a little mucilage to the solution is sometimes an
+advantage, producing the same results as strength of solution, by
+increasing the amount adhering to the paper. With paper deficient in
+sizing the mucilage also makes the whites clearer.--_H.S.M., Sch. of
+M. Quarterly._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOUSE DRAINAGE AND REFUSE.
+
+
+A course of lectures on sanitary engineering has been delivered during
+the past few weeks before the officers of the Royal Engineers
+stationed at Chatham, by Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.
+
+The refuse which has to be dealt with, observed Captain Galton,
+whether in towns or in barracks or in camp, falls under the following
+five heads: 1, ashes; 2, kitchen refuse; 3, stable manure; 4, solid or
+liquid ejections; and 5, rainwater and domestic waste water, including
+water from personal ablutions, kitchen washing up, washings of
+passages, stables, yards, and pavements. In a camp you have the
+simplest form of dealing with these matters. The water supply is
+limited. Waste water and liquid ejection are absorbed by the ground;
+but a camp unprovided with latrines would always be in a state of
+danger from epidemic disease. One of the most frequent causes of an
+unhealthy condition of the air of a camp in former times has been
+either neglecting to provide latrines, so that the ground outside the
+camp becomes covered with filth, or constructing the latrines too
+shallow, and exposing too large a surface to rain, sun, and air. The
+Quartermaster-General's regulations provide against these
+contingencies; but I may as well here recapitulate the general
+principles which govern camp latrines. Latrines should be so managed
+that no smell from them should ever reach the men's tents. To insure
+this very simple precautions only are required:
+
+1. The latrines should be placed to leeward with respect to prevailing
+winds, and at as great a distance from the tents as is compatible with
+convenience. 2. They should be dug narrow and deep, and their contents
+covered over every evening with at least a foot of fresh earth. A
+certain bulk and thickness of earth are required to absorb the
+putrescent gas, otherwise it will disperse itself and pollute the air
+to a considerable distance round. 3. When the latrine is filled to
+within 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. of the surface, earth should be thrown
+into it, and heaped over it like a grave to mark its site. 4. Great
+care should be taken not to place latrines near existing wells, nor to
+dig wells near where latrines have been placed. The necessity of these
+precautions to prevent wells becoming polluted is obvious. Screens
+made out of any available material are, of course, required for
+latrines. This arrangement applies to a temporary camp, and is only
+admissible under such conditions.
+
+A deep trench saves labor, and places the refuse in the most
+immediately safe position, but a buried mass of refuse will take a
+long time to decay; it should not be disturbed, and will taint the
+adjacent soil for a long time. This is of less consequence in a merely
+temporary encampment, while it might entail serious evils in
+localities continuously inhabited. The following plan of trench has
+been adopted as a more permanent arrangement in Indian villages, with
+the object of checking the frightful evil of surface pollution of the
+whole country, from the people habitually fouling the fields, roads,
+streets, and watercourses. Long trenches are dug, at about one foot or
+less in depth, at a spot set apart, about 200 or 300 yards from
+dwellings. Matting screens are placed round for decency. Each day the
+trench, which has received the excreta of the preceding day, is filled
+up, the excreta being covered with fresh earth obtained by digging a
+new trench adjoining, which, when it has been used, is treated in the
+same manner. Thus the trenches are gradually extended, until
+sufficient ground has been utilized, when they are plowed up and the
+site used for cultivation. The Indian plow does not penetrate more
+than eight inches; consequently, if the trench is too deep, the lower
+stratum is left unmixed with earth, forming a permanent cesspool, and
+becomes a source of future trouble. It is to be observed, however,
+that in the wet season these trenches cannot be used, and in sandy
+soil they do not answer. This system, although it is preferable to
+what formerly prevailed--viz., the surface defilement of the ground
+all round villages and of the adjacent water courses--is fraught with
+danger unless subsequent cultivation of the site be strictly enforced,
+because it would otherwise retain large and increasing masses of
+putrefying matter in the soil, in a condition somewhat unfavorable to
+rapid absorption. These arrangements are applicable only to very rough
+life or very poor communities.
+
+The question of the removal of kitchen refuse, manure, etc., from
+barracks next calls for notice. The great principle to be observed in
+removing the solid refuse from barracks is that every decomposable
+substance should be taken away at once. This principle applies
+especially in warm climates. Even the daily removal of refuse entails
+the necessity of places for the deposit of the refuse, and therefore
+this principle must be applied in various ways to suit local
+convenience. In open situations, exposed to cool winds, there is less
+danger of injury to health from decomposing matters than there would
+be in hot, moist, or close positions. In the country generally there
+is less risk of injury than in close parts of towns. These
+considerations show that the same stringency is not necessarily
+required everywhere. Position by itself affords a certain degree of
+protection from nuisance. The amount of decomposing matter usually
+produced is also another point to be considered. A small daily product
+is not, of course, so injurious as a large product. Even the manner of
+accumulating decomposing substances influences their effect on health.
+There is less risk from a dung heap to the leeward than to the
+windward of a barrack. The receptacles in which refuse is temporarily
+placed, such as ash pits and manure pits, should never be below the
+level of the ground. If a deep pit is dug in the ground, into which
+the refuse is thrown in the intervals between times of removal, rain
+and surface water will mix with the refuse and hasten its
+decomposition, and generally the lowest part of the filth will not be
+removed, but will be left to fester and produce malaria. In all places
+where the occupation is permanent the following conditions should be
+attended to:
+
+1. That the places of deposit be sufficiently removed from inhabited
+buildings to prevent any smell being perceived by the occupants. 2.
+That the places of deposit be above the level of the ground--never dug
+out of the ground. The floor of the ash pit or dung pit should be at
+least six inches above the surface level. 3. That the floor be paved
+with square sets, or flagged and drained. 4. That ash pits be covered.
+5. That a space should be paved in front, so as to provide that the
+traffic which takes place in depositing the refuse or in removing it
+shall not produce a polluted surface.
+
+In towns those parts of the refuse which cannot be utilized for manure
+or otherwise are burned. But this is an operation which, if done
+unskillfully, without a properly constructed kiln, may give rise to
+nuisance. One of the best forms of kiln is one now in operation at
+Ealing, which could be easily visited from London.
+
+_The removal of excreta from houses._--The chief object of a perfect
+system of house drainage is the immediate and complete removal from
+the house of all foul and effete matter directly it is produced. The
+first object--viz., removal of foul matter, can be attained either by
+the water closet system, when carried out in this integrity; but it
+could, of course, be attained without drains if there was labor enough
+always available; and the earth closet or the pail system are
+modifications of immediate removal which are safe. Cesspools in a
+house do not fulfill this condition of immediate removal. They serve
+for the retention of excremental and other matters. In a porous soil
+it endangers the purity of the wells. The Indian cities afford
+numerous examples of subsoil pollution. The Delhi ulcer was traced to
+the pollution of the wells from the contaminated subsoil; and the soil
+in many cities and villages is loaded with niter and salt, the
+chemical results of animal and vegetable refuse left to decay for many
+generations, from the presence of which the well water is impure.
+There are many factories of saltpeter in India whose supplies are
+derived from this source; and during the great French wars, when
+England blockaded all the seaports of Europe, the First Napoleon
+obtained saltpeter for gunpowder from the cesspits in Paris. Cesspools
+are inadmissible where complete removal can be effected. Cesspits may,
+however, be a necessity in some special cases, as, for instance, in
+detached houses or a small detached barrack. Where they cannot be
+avoided, the following conditions as to their use should be enforced:
+
+1st. A cesspit should never be located under a dwelling. It should be
+placed outside, and as far removed from the immediate neighborhood of
+the dwelling as circumstances will allow. There should be a ventilated
+trap placed on the pipe leading from the watercloset to the cesspit.
+2d. It should be formed of impervious material so as to permit of no
+leakage. 3d. It should be ventilated. 4th. No overflow should be
+permitted from it. 5th. When full it should be thoroughly emptied and
+cleaned out; for the matter left at the bottom of a cesspit is liable
+to be in a highly putrescible condition.
+
+Where a cesspit is unavoidable, perhaps the best and least offensive
+system for emptying it is the pneumatic system. This is applicable to
+the water closet refuse alone. The pneumatic system acts as follows: A
+large air-tight cylinder on wheels, or, what answers equally, a series
+of air-tight barrels connected together by tubes about 3 in. diameter,
+placed on a cart, brought as near to the cesspit as is convenient; a
+tube of about the same diameter is led from them to the cesspit; the
+air is then exhausted in the barrels or cylinder either by means of an
+air pump or by means of steam injected into it, which, on
+condensation, forms a vacuum; and the contents of the cesspit are
+drawn through the tube by the atmospheric pressure into the cylinder
+or barrels. A plan which is practically an extension of this system
+has been introduced by Captain Liernur in Holland. He removes the
+faecal matter from water closets and the sedimentary production of
+kitchen sinks by pneumatic agency. He places large air-tight tanks in
+a suitable part of the town, to which he leads pipes from all houses.
+He creates a vacuum in the tanks, and thus sucks into one center the
+faecal matter from all the houses. Various substitutes have been tried
+for the cesspit, which retain the principle of the hand removal of
+excreta. The first was the combination of the privy with an ashpit
+above the surface of the ground, the ashes and excreta being mixed
+together, and both being removed periodically. The next improvement
+was the provision of a movable receptacle. Of this type the simplest
+arrangement is a box placed under the seat, which is taken out, the
+contents emptied into the scavenger's cart, and the box replaced. The
+difficulty of cleansing the angles of the boxes led to the adoption of
+oval or round pails. The pail is placed under the seat, and removed at
+stated intervals, or when full, and replaced by a clean pail. In
+Marseilles and Nice a somewhat similar system is in use. They employ
+cylindrical metal vessels furnished with a lid which closes
+hermetically, each capable of holding 11 gallons. The household is
+furnished with three or four of these vessels, and when one is full
+the lid is closed hermetically, the vessel thus remaining in a
+harmless condition in the house till taken away by the authorities and
+replaced by a clean one. The contents are converted into manure. In
+consequence of the offensiveness of the open pail, the next
+improvement was to throw in some form of deodorizing material daily.
+In the north of England the arrangement generally is that the ashes
+shall be passed through a shoot, on which they are sifted--the finer
+fall into the pail to deodorize it, the coarser pass into a box,
+whence they can be taken to be again burned--while a separate shoot is
+provided for kitchen refuse, which falls into another pail adjacent.
+
+Probably the best known contrivance for deodorizing the excreta is the
+dry earth system as applied in the earth closet, in which advantage is
+taken of the deodorizing properties of earth. Dry earth is a good
+deodorizer; 11/2 lb. of dry earth of good garden ground or clay will
+deodorize such excretion. A larger quantity is required of sand or
+gravel. If the earth after use is dried, it can be applied again, and
+it is stated that the deodorizing powers of earth are not destroyed
+until it has been used ten or twelve times. This system requires close
+attention, or the dry earth closet will get out of order; as compared
+with water closets, it is cheaper in first construction, and is not
+liable to injury by frost; and it has this advantage over any form of
+cesspit--that it necessitates the daily removal of refuse. The cost of
+the dry earth system per 1,000 persons may be assumed as follows: Cost
+of closet, say, L500; expense of ovens, carts, horses, etc., L250;
+total capital, L750, at 6 per cent. L37 10_s._ interest. Wages of two
+men and a boy per week, L1 12_s._; keep of horses, stables, etc., 18_s._;
+fuel for drying earth, 1_s._ 6_d._ per ton dried daily, L1 10_s._; cost of
+earth and repairs, etc., 14_s._; weekly expenses, L4 14_s._ Yearly
+expenses, L247 (equal to 4_s._ 11_d._ per ton per annum); interest, L37
+10_s._--total, L284 10_s._, against which should be put the value of the
+manure. But the value of the manure is simply a question of carriage.
+If the manure is highly concentrated, like guano, it can stand a high
+carriage. If the manuring elements are diffused through a large bulk
+of passive substances, the cost of the carriage of the extra, or
+non-manuring, elements absorbs all profit. If a town, therefore, by
+adding deodorants to the contents of pails produces a large quantity
+of manure, containing much besides the actual manuring elements--such
+as is generally the case with dry earth--as soon as the districts
+immediately around have been fully supplied, a point is soon reached
+at which it is impossible to continue to find purchasers. The dry
+earth system is applicable to separate houses, or to institutions
+where much attention can be given to it, but it is inapplicable to
+large towns from the practical difficulties connected with procuring,
+carting, and storing the dry earth.
+
+With the idea that if the solid part of the excreta could be separated
+from the liquid and kept comparatively dry the offensiveness would be
+much diminished, and deodorization be unnecessary, a method for
+getting rid of the liquid portion by what is termed the Goux system
+has been in use at Halifax. This system consists in lining the pail
+with a composition formed from the ashes and all the dry refuse which
+can be conveniently collected, together with some clay to give it
+adhesion. The lining is adjusted and kept in position by a means of a
+core or mould, which is allowed to remain in the pails until just
+before they are about to be placed under the seat; the core is then
+withdrawn, and the pail is left ready for use. The liquid which passes
+into the pail soaks into this lining, which thus forms the deodorizing
+medium. The proportion of absorbents in a lining 3 in. thick to the
+central space in a tub of the above dimensions would be about two to
+one; but unless the absorbents are dry, this proportion would be
+insufficient to produce a dry mass in the tubs when used for a week,
+and experience has shown that after being in use for several days the
+absorbing power of the lining is already exceeded, and the whole
+contents have remained liquid. There would appear to be little gain by
+the use of the Goux lining as regards freedom from nuisance, and
+though it removes the risk of splashing and does away with much of the
+unsightliness of the contents, the absorbent, inasmuch as it adds
+extra weight which has to be carried to and from the houses, is rather
+a disadvantage than otherwise from the manurial point of view.
+
+The simple pail system, which is in use in various ways in the
+northern towns of England, and in the permanent camps to some extent
+at least, and of which the French "tinette" is an improved form, is
+more economically convenient than the dry earth system or the Goux or
+other deodorizing system, where a large amount of removal of refuse
+has to be accomplished, because by the pail system the liquid and
+solid ejections may be collected with a very small, or even without
+any, admixture of foreign substances; and, according to theory, the
+manurial value of dejections per head per annum ought to be from 8_s._
+to 10_s._ The great superiority, in a sanitary point of view, of all the
+pail or pan systems over the best forms over the old cesspits or even
+the middens is due to the fact that the interval of collection is
+reduced to a minimum, the changing or emptying of the receptacles
+being sometimes effected daily, and the period never exceeding a week.
+The excrementitious matter is removed without soaking in the ground or
+putrefying in the midst of a population.
+
+These plans for the removal of excreta do not deal with the equally
+important refuse liquid--viz., the waste water from washing and
+stables, etc. As it is necessary to have drains for the purpose of
+removing the waste water, it is more economical to allow this waste
+water to carry away the excreta. In any case, you must have drains for
+removing the fouled water. Down these drains it is evident that much
+of the liquid excreta will be poured, and thus you must take
+precautions to prevent the gases of decomposition which the drains are
+liable to contain from passing into your houses.
+
+There is a method which you might find useful on a small scale to
+which I will now draw your attention, as it is applicable to detached
+houses or small barracks--viz., the plan of applying the domestic
+water to land through underground drains, or what is called subsoil
+irrigation. This system affords peculiar facilities for disposing of
+sewage matter without nuisance. There are many cases where open
+irrigation in close contiguity to mansions or dwellings might be
+exceedingly objectionable, and in such cases subsoil irrigation
+supplies a means of dealing with a very difficult question. This
+system was applied some years ago by Mr. Waring in Newport, in the
+United States. It has recently been introduced into this country.
+
+The system is briefly as follows: The water from the house is carried
+through a water-tight drain to the ground where the irrigation is to
+be applied. It is there passed through ordinary drain pipes, placed 1
+ft. below the surface, with open joints, by means of which it
+percolates into the soil. Land drains, 4 ft. deep, should be laid
+intermediately between the subsoil drains to remove the water from the
+soil. The difficulty of subsoil irrigation is to prevent deposit,
+which chokes the drains; and if the foul domestic water is allowed to
+trickle through the drains as it passes away from the house it soon
+chokes the drains. It is, therefore, necessary to pass it in flushes
+through the drains, and this can be best managed by running the water
+from the house into one of Field's automatic flush tanks, which runs
+off in a body when full.
+
+When you have water closet and drainage, the great object to be
+attained in house drainage is to prevent the sewer gas from passing
+from the main sewer into the house drain. It was the custom to place a
+flap at the junction of the house drain with the sewer; but this flap
+is useless for preventing sewer gas from passing up the house drain.
+The plan was therefore adopted of placing a water trap under the water
+closet basin or the sink, etc., in direct communication with the
+drain. The capacity of water to absorb sewer gas is very great,
+consequently the water in the trap would absorb this gas. When the
+water became warm from increase of temperature, it would give out the
+gas into the house; when it cooled down at night, it would again
+absorb more gas from the soil pipe, and frequent change of temperature
+would cause it to give out and reabsorb the gas continually.
+
+These objections have led to the present recognized system--viz., 1st,
+to place a water trap on the drain to cut off the sewer gases from the
+foot of the soil pipe; and, next, to place an opening to the outer air
+on the soil pipe between the trap and the house to secure efficient
+disconnection between the sewer and the house. It is, moreover,
+necessary to produce a movement of air and ventilation in the house
+drain pipes to aerate the pipe and to oxidize any putrescible products
+which may be in it. To do this, we must insure that a current of air
+shall be continually passing through the drains; both an inlet and an
+outlet for fresh air must be provided in the portions of the house
+drain which are cut off from the main sewer, for without an inlet and
+outlet there can be no efficient ventilation. This outlet and inlet
+can be obtained in the following manner: In the first place, an outlet
+may be formed by prolonging the soil pipe at its full diameter, and
+with an open top to above the roof, in a position away from the
+windows, skylights, or chimneys. And, secondly, an inlet may be
+obtained by an opening into the house drain, on the dwelling side of
+and close to the trap, by means of the disconnecting manhole or
+branch-pipe before mentioned, or where necessary by carrying up the
+inlet by means of a ventilating pipe to above the roof. The inlet
+should be equal in area to the drain pipe, and not in any case less
+than 4 in. in diameter. If it were not for appearance and the
+difficulty of conveying the excreta without lodgments, an open gutter
+would be preferable to a closed pipe in the house. This arrangement is
+based on the principle that there should be no deposit in the house
+drains. Therefore the utmost care should be taken to lay the house
+drains in straight lines, both in plan and gradient, and to give the
+adequate inclination.
+
+The following are desirable conditions to observe in house drains: 1.
+As to material of pipes. House drains should be made either of glazed
+stoneware pipes or fireclay pipes with cement joints, or preferably of
+cast iron pipes jointed with carefully-made lead joints, or with
+turned joints and bored sockets. I say preferably of cast iron. In New
+York the iron soilpipe, with joints made with lead, is now required by
+the municipal regulations. It is a stronger pipe than a rainwater
+pipe. The latter will often be found to have holes. A lead joint
+cannot be made properly in a weak pipe, therefore the lead joint is to
+some extent a guarantee of soundness. Lead pipes will be eaten away by
+water containing free oxygen without carbonic acid, therefore pure
+rainwater injures lead pipes. An excess of carbonic acid in water will
+also eat away lead. You will find that in many cases pinholes appear
+in a soilpipe, and when inside a house that allows sewer gas to pass
+into the house. Moreover, lead is a soft material; it is subject to
+indentations, to injury from nails, to sagging. A cast-iron pipe, when
+coated with sewage matter, does not appear to be subject to decay; and
+if of sufficient substance it is not liable to injury. When once well
+fixed, it has no tendency to move. I would, therefore, advocate cast
+iron in lieu of lead soilpipes. In fixing the soilpipe which is to
+receive a water-closet, the trap should form part of the fixed pipe;
+so that if there is any sinking the down pipe will not sink away from
+the trap. It is, however, not sufficient to provide good material.
+There is nothing which is more important in a sanitary point of view
+than good workmanship in house drainage. In this matter, it is on
+details that all depends. Just consider; the drain pipes under the
+best conditions of aeration contain elements of danger, and those
+pipes are composed of a number of parts, at the point of junction of
+any one of which the poison may escape into the house. You thus
+perceive how necessary it is first to reduce the poison to a minimum
+by cutting off the sewer gas which might otherwise pass from the
+street sewer to the house drain, and in the next place being most
+careful in the workmanship of every part of your house drains and
+soilpipes. Reduce your danger where you can by putting your pipes
+outside. But you cannot always do that--for instance, at New York and
+in Canada they would freeze.
+
+All drain pipes should be proved to be watertight by plugging up the
+lower end of the drain pipe and filling it with water. In no case
+should a soilpipe be built inside a wall. It should be so placed as to
+be always accessible. 2. The pipes should be generally 4 in. diameter.
+In no instance need a drain pipe inside a house exceed 6 in. in
+diameter. 3. Every drain of a house or building should be laid with
+true gradients, in no case less than 1/100, but much steeper would be
+preferable. When from circumstances the drain is laid at a smaller
+inclination, a flush tank should be provided. They should be laid in
+straight lines from point to point. At every change of direction there
+should be reserved a means of access to the drain. 4. No drain should
+be constructed so as to pass under a dwelling house, except in
+particular cases when absolutely necessary. In such cases the pipe
+should be of cast iron, and the length of drain laid under the house
+should be laid perfectly straight--a means of access should be
+provided at each end; it should have a free air current passing
+through it from end to end, and a flush tank should be placed at the
+upper end. 5. Every house drain should be arranged so as to be
+flushed, and kept at all times free from deposit. 6. Every house drain
+should be ventilated by at least two suitable openings, one at each
+end, so as to afford a current of air through the drain, and no pipe
+or opening should be used for ventilation unless the same be carried
+upward without angles or horizontal lengths, and with tight joints.
+The size of such pipes or openings should be fully equal to that of
+the drain pipe ventilated. 7. The upper extremities of ventilating
+pipes should be at a distance from any windows or openings, so that
+there will be no danger of the escape of the foul air into the
+interior of the house from such pipes. The soilpipe should terminate
+at its lower end in a properly ventilating disconnecting trap, so that
+a current of air would be constantly maintained through the pipe. 8.
+No rainwater pipe and no overflow or waste pipe from any cistern or
+rainwater tank, or from any sink (other than a slop sink for urine),
+or from any bath or lavatory, should pass directly to the soilpipe;
+but every such pipe should be disconnected therefrom by passing
+through the wall to the outside of the house, and discharging with an
+end open to the air. I may mention here that the drainage arrangements
+of this Parkes Museum in which we are assembled were very defective
+when the building was first taken. Mr. Rogers Field, one of the
+committee, was requested to drain it properly, and it has been very
+successfully accomplished.
+
+I would now draw your attention to some points of detail in the
+fittings for carrying away waste water.
+
+First, with regard to lavatories. As already mentioned, every waste
+pipe from the sink should deliver in the open air, but it should have
+an opening at its upper end as well as at its lower end, to permit a
+current of air to pass through it; and it should be trapped close to
+the sink, so as to prevent the air being drawn through it into the
+house; otherwise you will have an offensive smell from it. I will give
+you an instance: At the University College Hospital there are some
+fire tanks on the several landings. The water flows in every day, and
+some flows away through the waste pipes; these pipes, which carry away
+nothing but fresh London water to empty in the yard, got most
+offensive simply from the decomposition of the sediment left in them
+by the London water passing through them day after day. A small waste
+pipe from a bath or a basin is a great inconvenience. It should be of
+a size to empty rapidly--for a bath 2 inches, a basin 11/2, inches.
+There are other points connected with fittings to which I would call
+your attention. The great inventive powers which have been applied to
+the w.c. pan are an evidence of how unsatisfactory they all are. Many
+kinds of water-closet apparatus and of so-called "traps" have a
+tendency to retain foul matter in the house, and therefore, in
+reality, partake more or less of the nature of small cesspools, and
+nuisances are frequently attributed to the ingress of "sewer gas"
+which have nothing whatever to do with the sewers, but arise from foul
+air generated in the house drains and internal fittings. The old form
+was always made with what is called a D-trap. Avoid the D-trap. It is
+simply a small cesspool which cannot be cleaned out. Any trap in which
+refuse remains is an objectionable cesspool. It is a receptacle for
+putrescrible matter. In a lead pipe your trap should always be smooth
+and without corners. The depth of dip of a trap should depend on the
+frequency of use of the trap. It varies from 1/2 inch to 31/2 inches. When
+a trap is rarely used, the dip should be deeper than when frequently
+used, to allow of evaporation. In the section of a w.c. pan, the
+object to be attained is to take that form in which all the parts of
+the trap can be easily examined and cleaned, in which both the pan and
+the trap will be washed clean by the water at each discharge, and in
+which the lever movement of the handle will not allow of the passage
+of sewer gas.
+
+And now just a few personal remarks in conclusion. I have had much
+pleasure in giving to my old brother officers in these lectures the
+result of my experience in sanitary science. In doing so, I desired
+especially to impress on you who are just entering your profession the
+importance of giving effect to those principles of sanitary science
+which were left very much in abeyance until after the Crimean war. I
+have not desired to fetter you with dogmatic rules, but I have sought,
+by general illustrations, to show you the principles on which sanitary
+science rests. That science is embodied in the words, pure earth, pure
+air, pure water. In nature that purity is insured by increasing
+movement. Neither ought we to stagnate. In the application of these
+principles your goal of to-day should be your starting-post for
+to-morrow. If I have fulfilled my object, I shall have interested you
+sufficiently to induce some of you at least to seize and carry forward
+to a more advanced position the torch of sanitary science.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PASTEUR'S NEW METHOD OF ATTENUATION.
+
+
+The view that vaccinia is attenuated variola is well known, and has
+been extensively adopted by English physicians. If the opinion means
+anything, it signifies that the two diseases are in essence one and
+the same, differing only in degree. M. Pasteur has recently found that
+by passing the bacillus of "rouget" of pigs through rabbits, he can
+effect a considerable attenuation of the "rouget" virus. He has shown
+that rabbits inoculated with the bacillus of rouget become very ill
+and die, but if the inoculations be carried through a series of
+rabbits, a notable modification results in the bacillus. As regards
+the rabbits themselves, no favorable change occurs--they are all made
+very ill, or die. But if inoculation be made on pigs from those
+rabbits, at the end of the series it is found that the pigs have the
+disease in a mild form, and, moreover, that they enjoy immunity from
+further attacks of "rouget." This simply means that the rabbits have
+effected, or the bacillus has undergone while in them, an attenuation
+of virulence. So the pigs may be "vaccinated" with the modified virus,
+have the disease in a mild form, and thereafter be protected from the
+disease. The analogy between this process and the accepted view of
+vaccinia is very close. The variolous virus is believed to pass
+through the cow, and there to become attenuated, so that inoculations
+from the cow-pox no longer produce variola in the human subject, but
+cow-pox (vaccinia). As an allied process, though of very different
+result, mention may be made of some collateral experiments of Pasteur,
+also performed recently. Briefly, it has been discovered that the
+bacillus of the "rouget" of pigs undergoes an increase of virulence by
+being cultivated through a series of pigeons. Inoculations from the
+last of the series of pigeons give rise to a most intense form of the
+disease. It will be remembered that the discovery of the bacillus of
+"rouget" of pigs was due to the late Dr. Thuillier.--_Lancet._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Very few persons realize the necessity of cultivating an equable
+temper and of avoiding passion. Many persons have met with sudden
+death, the result of a weak heart and passionate nature.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONVENIENT VAULTS.
+
+
+This is a subject which will bear line upon line and precept upon
+precept. Many persons have availed themselves of the cheap and easy
+means which we have formerly recommended in the shape of the daily use
+of absorbents, but a larger number strangely neglect these means, and
+foul air and impure drainage are followed by disease and death. Sifted
+coal ashes and road dust are the remedy, kept in barrels till needed
+for use. A neat cask, filled with these absorbents, with a
+long-handled dipper, is placed in the closet, and a conspicuous
+placard directs every occupant to throw down a dipper full before
+leaving. The vaults, made to open on the outside, are then as easily
+cleaned twice a year as sand is shoveled from a pit. No drainage by
+secret, underground seams in the soil can then poison the water of
+wells; and no effluvia can arise to taint the air and create fevers.
+On this account, this arrangement is safer and better than
+water-closets. It is far cheaper and simpler, and need never get out
+of order. There being no odor whatever, if properly attended to, it
+may be contiguous to the dwelling. An illustration of the way in which
+the latter is accomplished is shown by Fig. 1, which represents a neat
+addition to a kitchen wing, with hip-roof, the entrance being either
+from the kichen through an entry, or from the outside as shown by the
+steps. Fig. 2 is a plan, showing the double walls with interposed
+solid earth, to exclude any possible impurity from the cellar in case
+of neglect. The vaults may be reached from the outside opening, for
+removing the contents. In the whole arrangement there is not a vestige
+of impure air, and it is as neat as a parlor; and the man who cleans
+out the vaults say it is no more unpleasant than to shovel sand from a
+pit.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+Those who prefer may place the closet at a short distance from the
+house, provided the walk is flanked on both sides with evergreen
+trees; for no person should be compelled to encounter drifting snows
+to reach it--an exposure often resulting in colds and sickness. A few
+dollars are the whole cost, and civilization and humanity demand as
+much.--_Country Gentleman_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POISONOUS SERPENTS AND THEIR VENOM.
+
+By Dr. G. ARCHIE STOCKWELL.
+
+
+Chemistry has made astounding strides since the days of the sixteenth
+century, when Italian malice and intrigue swayed all Europe, and
+poisons and poisoners stalked forth unblushingly from cottage and
+palace; when crowned and mitered heads, prelates, noblemen, beneficed
+clergymen, courtiers, and burghers became Borgias and De Medicis in
+hideous infamy in their greed for power and affluence; and when the
+civilized world feared to retire to rest, partake of the daily repast,
+inhale the odors of flower or perfume, light a wax taper, or even
+approach the waters of the holy font. These horrors have been laid
+bare, their cause and effect explained, and tests discovered whereby
+they may be detected, providing the law with a shield that protects
+even the humblest individual. Great as the science is, however, it is
+yet far removed from perfection; and there are substances so
+mysterious, subtle, and dangerous as to set the most delicate tests
+and powerful lenses at naught, while carrying death most horrible in
+their train; and chief of these are the products of Nature's
+laboratory, that provides some sixty species of serpents with their
+deadly venom, enabling them in spite of sluggish forms and retiring
+habits to secure abundant prey and resent mischievous molestation. The
+hideous _trigonocephalus_ has forced the introduction and acclimation
+of the mongoose to the cane fields of the Western tropics; the tiger
+snake (_Heplocephalus curtus_) is the terror of Australian plains; the
+fer de lance (_Craspedocephalus lanceolatus_) renders the paradise of
+Martinique almost uninhabitable; the tic paloonga (_Daboii russelli_)
+is the scourge of Cinghalese coffee estates; the giant ehlouhlo of
+Natal (unclassified) by its presence secures a forbidding waste for
+miles about; the far famed cobra de capello (_Naja tripudians_)
+ravages British India in a death ratio of one-seventh of one per cent.
+of the dense population, annually, and is the more dangerous in that
+an assumed sacred character secures it largely from molestation and
+retributive justice; and in Europe and America we have vipers,
+rattlesnakes, copperheads, and moccasins (_viperinae_ and _crotalidae_),
+that if a less degree fatal, are still a source of dread and
+annoyance. All these forms exhibit in general like ways and like
+habits, and if the venom of all be not generically identical, the
+physiological and toxicological phenomena arising therefrom render
+them practically and specifically so. Indeed, their attributes appear
+to be mere modifications arising from difference in age, size,
+development, climate, latitude, seasons, and enforced habits, aided
+perhaps by idiosyncrasies and the incidents and accidents of life.
+
+In delicacy of organism and perfection in mechanism and precision, the
+inoculatory apparatus of the venomous reptile excels the most
+exquisite appliances devised by the surgical implement maker's art,
+and it is doubtful whether it can ever be rivaled by the hand of man.
+The mouth of the serpent is an object for the closest study,
+presenting as it does a series of independent actions, whereby the
+bones composing the upper jaw and palate are loosely articulated, or
+rather attached, to one another by elastic and expansive ligaments,
+whereby the aperture is made conformatory, or enlarged at will--any
+one part being untrammeled and unimpeded in its action by its fellows.
+The recurved, hook-like teeth are thus isolated in application, and
+each venom fang independent of its rival when so desired, and it
+becomes possible to reach points and recesses seemingly inaccessible.
+
+The fangs proper, those formidable weapons whose threatening presence
+quails the boldest opponent, inspires the fear of man, and puts to
+flight the entire animal kingdom--lions, tigers, and leopards, all but
+the restless and plucky mongoose--and whose slightest scratch is
+attended with such dire results, are two in number, one in each upper
+jaw, and placed anteriorly to all other teeth, which they exceed by
+five or six times in point of size. Situated just within the lips,
+recurved, slender, and exceeding in keenness even the finest of
+cambric needles, they are penetrated in their longitudinal diameter by
+a delicate, hair-like canal opening into a groove at the apex,
+terminating on the anterior surface in an elongated fissure. As the
+canal is straight, and the tooth falciform, a like groove or
+longitudinal fissure is formed at the base, where it is inclosed by
+the aperture of the duct that communicates with the poison apparatus.
+
+At the base of each fang, and extending from a point just beneath the
+nostril, backward two-thirds the distance to the commissure of the
+mouth, is the poison gland, analogous to the salivary glands of man,
+that secretes a pure, mucous saliva, and also a pale straw-colored,
+half-oleaginous fluid, the venom proper. Within the gland, venom and
+saliva are mingled in varying proportions coincidently with
+circumstances; but the former slowly distills away and finds lodgment
+in the central portion of the excretory duct, that along its middle is
+dilated to form a bulb-like receptacle, and where only it may be
+obtained in perfect purity.
+
+When the reptile is passive, the fangs are arranged to lie backward
+along the jaw, concealed by the membrane of the mouth, and thus offer
+no impediment to deglutition. Close inspection, however, at once
+reveals not only their presence, but also several rudimentary ones to
+supply their place in case of injury or accident. The bulb of the
+duct, too, is surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of which the
+outermost and strongest layer is in connection with a muscle by whose
+action both duct and gland are compressed at will, conveying the
+secretion into the basal aperture of the fang, at the same time
+refilling the bulb.
+
+When enraged and assuming the offensive and defensive, the reptile
+draws the posterior portion of its body into a coil or spiral, whereby
+the act of straightening, in which it hurls itself forward to nearly
+its full length, lends force to the blow, and at the same instant the
+fangs are erected, drawn forward in a reverse plane, permitting the
+points to look outward beyond the lips. The action of the compressor
+muscles is contemporaneous with the blow inflicted, the venom being
+injected with considerable violence through the apical outlets of the
+fangs, and into the bottom of the wound. If the object is not
+attained, the venom may be thrown to considerable distances, falling
+in drops; and Sir Arthur Cunynghame in a recent work on South Africa
+relates that he was cautioned not to approach a huge cobra of six feet
+or more in length in its death agony, lest it should hurl venom in his
+eyes and create blindness; he afterward found that an officer of Her
+Majesty's XV. Regiment had been thus injured at a distance of
+_forty-five feet_, and did not recover his eyesight for more than a
+week.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Presumably the Natal ombozi, or spitting cobra, _Naja
+  haemachites_, who is fully equal to the feat described.]
+
+With the infliction of the stroke and expression of its venom, the
+creature usually attempts to reverse its fangs in the wound, thereby
+dragging through and lacerating the flesh; an ingenious bit of
+devilishness hardly to be expected from so low a form of organism; but
+its frequent neglect proves it by no means mechanical, and it
+frequently occurs that the animal bitten drags the reptile after it a
+short distance, or causes it to leave its fangs in the wound. Some
+serpents also, as the fer de lance, black mamba, and water moccasin,
+are apparently actuated by most vindictive motives, and coil
+themselves about the part bitten, clinging with leech-like tenacity
+and resisting all attempts at removal. Two gentlemen of San Antonio,
+Texas,[2] who were bitten by rattlesnakes, subsequently asserted that
+after having inflicted all possible injury, the reptiles scampered
+away with unmistakable manifestations of pleasure. "Snakes," remarked
+one of the victims, "usually glide smoothly away with the entire body
+prone to the ground; but the fellow I encountered traveled off with an
+up and down wave-like motion, as if thrilled with delight, and then,
+getting under a large rock where he was safe from pursuit, he turned,
+and raising his head aloft waved it to and fro, as if saying. 'Don't
+you feel good now?' It would require but a brief stretch of the
+imagination to constitute that serpent a veritable descendant of the
+old Devil himself."
+
+  [Footnote 2: On the authority of N.A. Taylor and H.F. McDaniels.]
+
+As the first blow commonly exhausts the receptacle of the duct, a
+second (the venom being more or less mingled and diluted by the
+salivary secretion) is comparatively less fatal in results; and each
+successive repetition correspondingly inoffensive until finally
+nothing but pure mucus is ejected. Nevertheless, when thoroughly
+aroused, the reptile is enabled to constantly hurl a secretion, since
+both rage and hunger swell the glands to enormous size, and stimulate
+to extraordinary activity--a fortuitous circumstance to which many an
+unfortunate is doubtless indebted for his life. The removal of a fang,
+however, affects its gland to a degree that it becomes almost
+inoperative, until such a time as a new tooth is grown, and again
+calls it into action, which is commonly but a few weeks at most; and a
+person purchasing a poisonous serpent under the supposition that it
+has been rendered innocuous, will do well to keep watch of its mouth
+lest he be some time taken unaware. It may be rendered permanently
+harmless, however, by first removing the fang, and then cauterizing
+the duct by means of a needle or wire, heated to redness; when for
+experimental purposes the gland may be stimulated, and the virus drawn
+off by means of a fine-pointed syringe.
+
+In what the venom consists more than has already been described, we
+are not permitted to know. It dries under exposure to air in small
+scales, is soluble in water but not in alcohol, slightly reddens
+litmus paper, and long retains its noxious properties. It has no acrid
+or burning taste, and but little if any odor; the tongue pronounces it
+inoffensive, and the mucous surface of the alimentary track is proof
+against it, and it has been swallowed in considerable quantities
+without deleterious result--all the poison that could be extracted
+from a half dozen of the largest and most virile reptiles was
+powerless in any way to affect an unfledged bird when poured into its
+open beak. Chemistry is not only powerless to solve the enigma of its
+action, and the microscope to detect its presence, but pathology is at
+fault to explain the reason of its deadly effect; and all that we know
+is that when introduced even in most minute quantities into an open
+wound, the blood is dissolved, so to speak, and the stream of life
+paralyzed with an almost incredible rapidity. Without test or
+antidote, terror has led to blind, fanatical empiricism, necessarily
+attended with no little injury in the search for specifics, and it may
+be reasonably asserted that no substance can be named so inert and
+worthless as not to have been recommended, or so disgusting as not to
+have been employed; nor is any practice too absurd to find favor and
+adherents even among the most enlightened of the medical profession,
+who have rung all the changes of the therapeutical gamut from
+serpentaria[3] and boneset to guaco, cimicifugia, and _Aristolochia
+India_ to curare, alum, chalk, and mercury to arsenic; and in the way
+of surgical dressings and appliances everything from poultices of
+human faeces,[4] burying the part bitten in fresh earth,[5] or
+thrusting the member or entire person into the entrails of living
+animals, to cupping, ligatures, escharotics, and the moxa.
+
+  [Footnote 3: Serpentaria derives its name from its supposed
+  antidotal properties, and guaco and _Aristolochia India_ enjoyed
+  widely heralded but rapidly fleeting popularity in the two Indias
+  for a season. Tanjore pill (black pepper and arsenic) is still
+  extensively lauded in districts whose serpents possess little
+  vitality, but is every way inferior to iodine.]
+
+  [Footnote 4: A Chinese remedy--as might be imagined.]
+
+  [Footnote 5: Still extensively practiced, the first in Michigan,
+  the latter in Missouri and Arkansas, and inasmuch as one is
+  cooling and soothing, and the other slightly provocative of
+  perspiration in the part, are not altogether devoid of
+  plausibility.]
+
+Although the wounds of venomous serpents are frequently attended with
+fatal results, such are not necessarily invariable. There are times
+and seasons when all reptiles are sluggish and inactive, and when they
+inflict comparatively trifling injuries; and the poison is much less
+virulent at certain periods than others--during chilling weather for
+instance, or when exhausted by repeated bites in securing sustenance.
+Young and small serpents, too, are less virile than large and more
+aged specimens, and it has likewise been observed that death is more
+apt to follow when the poison is received at the beginning or during
+the continuance of the heated term.
+
+The action of the venom is commonly so swift that its effects are
+manifested almost immediately after inoculation, being at once
+conveyed by the circulatory system to the great nervous centers of the
+body, resulting in rapid paralysis of such organs as are supplied with
+motive power from these sources; its physiological and toxicological
+realizations being more or less speedy accordingly as it is applied
+near or remote from these centers, or infused into the capillary or
+the venous circulation. Usually, too, an unfortunate experiences,
+perhaps instantaneously, an intense burning pain in the member
+lacerated, which is succeeded by vertigo, nausea, retching, fainting,
+coldness, and collapse; the part bitten swells, becomes discolored, or
+spotted over its surface with livid blotches, that may, ultimately,
+extend to the greater portion of the body, while the poison appears to
+effect a greater or less disorganization of the blood, not by
+coagulating its fibrine as Fontana surmised, but in dissolving,
+attenuating, and altering the form of its corpuscles, whose integrity
+is so essential to life, causing them to adhere to one another, and to
+the walls of the vessels by which they are conveyed; being no longer
+able to traverse the capillaries, oedema is produced, followed by the
+peculiar livid blush. Shakespeare would appear to have had intuitive
+perception of the nature of such subtle poison, when he caused the
+ghost to describe to Hamlet
+
+  "The leprous distillment whose effect
+   Bears such an enmity to the blood of man
+   That swift as quicksilver, it courses through
+   The natural gates and alleys of the body
+   And with sudden vigor it doth posset
+   And curd like eager droppings into milk,
+   The thin and wholesome blood: so did it mine
+   And a most instant tetter marked about
+   Most lazar like, with vile and loathsome crust
+   All my smooth body."
+
+It is not to be supposed, however, that all or even a major portion of
+the blood disks require to be changed or destroyed to produce a fatal
+result, since death may supervene long before such a consummation can
+be realized. It is the capillary circulation that suffers chiefly,
+since the very size and caliber of the heart cavities and trunk
+vessels afford them comparative immunity. But of the greatly dissolved
+and disorganized condition of the blood that may occur secondarily, we
+have evidences in the passive haemorrhages that attack those that have
+recovered from the immediate effects of serpent poisoning, following
+or coincident with subsidence of swelling and induration; and, as with
+scurvy, bleeding may occur from the mouth, throat, lungs, nose, and
+bowels, or from ulcerated surfaces and superficial wounds, or all
+together, defying all styptics and haemastatics. In a case occurring
+under the care of Dr. David Brainerd in the Illinois General
+Hospital,[6] blood flowed from the gums in great profusion, and on
+examination was found destitute, even under the microscope, of the
+faintest indications of fibrine--the principle upon which coagulation
+depends. The breath, moreover, gave most sickening exhalations,
+indicative of decomposition, producing serious illness in those
+exposed for any length of time to its influence. We may add, among
+other sequelae, aside from death produced through primary and secondary
+effects, paralysis, loss of nerve power, impotence, haemorrhage, even
+mortification or gangrene.
+
+  [Footnote 6: _Medical Independent_, 1855.]
+
+The failure in myotic power of the heart and in the muscles of
+respiration through reflex influence of par vagum and great
+sympathetic nerves, whereby pulmonary circulation is impeded, are
+among the earliest of phenomena. Breathing becoming retarded and
+laborious, the necessary supply of oxygen is no longer received, and
+blood still venous, in that it is not relieved of its carbon, is
+returned through the arteries, whereby the capillaries of the brain
+are gorged with a doubly poisoned circulation, poisoned by both venom
+and carbon. In this we have ample cause for the attending train of
+symptoms that, beginning with drowsiness, rapidly passes into stupor
+followed by profound coma and ultimate dissolution--marked evidence of
+the fact that a chemical agent or poison may produce a mechanical
+disease; and autopsical research reveals absolutely nothing save the
+general disorganization of blood corpuscles, as already noted.
+
+Taking circumstantial and pathological evidences into consideration,
+the hope of the person thus poisoned rests solely upon lack of
+vitality in the serpent and its venom, and in his personal
+idiosyncrasies, habits of life, condition of health, etc., and the
+varied chapters of accidents. _To look for a specific, in any sense of
+the word, is the utmost folly!_ The action of the poison and its train
+of results follow inoculation in too swift succession to be overtaken
+and counteracted by any antidote, supposing such to be a possible
+product, even if administered hypodermically. We have evidence of this
+in iodic preparations, iodine being the nearest approach to a perfect
+antidote that can be secured by mortal skill, inasmuch, if quickly
+injected into the circulation, it retards and restrains the
+disorganizing process whereby the continuity of the blood corpuscles
+is lost; moreover, it is a marked antiseptic, favors the production of
+adhesive inflammation, whereby lymph is effused and coagulated about
+the bitten part, and absorption checked, and the poison rendered less
+diffusible. But when a remedy is demanded that shall restore the
+pristine form, functions, and energy of the disorganized globules, man
+arrogates to himself supernal attributes whereby it becomes possible
+not only to save and renew, _but to create life_; and we can scarce
+expect science or even accident (as some expect) to even rival Nature
+and set at defiance her most secret and subtle laws. Such, however, is
+the natural outcropping of an ignorant teaching and vulgar prejudice
+that feeds and clothes the charlatan and ascribes to savage and
+uncultured races an occult familiarity with pathological,
+physiological, and remedial effect unattainable by the most advanced
+sciences; and whereby the Negro, Malay, Hindoo, South Sea Islander,
+and red man are granted an innate knowledge of poisons and their
+antidotes more than miraculous. A reward of more than a quarter of a
+century's standing, and amounting to several thousand pounds, is
+offered by the East India Government for the discovery of a specific
+for the bite of the cobra, and for which no claims have ever been
+advanced; and the "snake charmers" or jugglers in whom this superior
+knowledge is supposed to center are so well aware of the futility of
+specifics, and the risk to which they are subjected, that few venture
+to ply their calling without a broad-bladed, keen-edged knife
+concealed about the person as a means of instant amputation in case of
+accident. Medical and scientific associations of various classes, in
+Europe, Australia, America, even Africa, and the East and West Indies,
+have repeatedly held out the most tempting lures, and indulged in
+exhaustive and costly experimentation in search of specifics for the
+wounds of vipers, cobras, rattlesnakes, and the general horde of
+venomous reptiles; and all in vain. Even the saliva of man, as well as
+certain other secretions, is at times so modified by anger as to rival
+the venom of the serpent in fatality, and it has no specific; and a
+careful analysis of the pathological relations of such poison proves
+that further experimentation and expectation is as irrational as the
+pursuit of the "philosopher's stone."
+
+It is an indisputable fact, however, that there are individuals whose
+natural or acquired idiosyncrasies permit them to be inoculated by the
+most venomous of reptiles without deleterious or unpleasant results,
+and Colonel Matthews Taylor[7] knew several persons of this character
+in India, and who regarded the bite of the cobra or tic paloonga with
+nearly as much indifference as the sting of a gnat or mosquito. Again,
+in 1868, Mr. Drummond, a prominent magistrate of Melbourne,
+Australia,[8] met with untimely death under circumstances that
+attracted no little attention. An itinerant vender of nostrums had on
+exhibition a number of venomous reptiles, by which he caused himself
+to be successively bitten, professing to secure immunity by reason of
+a secret compound which he offered for sale at a round figure.
+Convinced that the fellow was an imposter, and his wares valuable only
+as a means of depleting the pockets of the credulous, Mr. Drummond
+loudly asserted the inefficacy of the nostrum, as well as the
+innocuousness of the reptiles, which he assumed to be either naturally
+harmless, or rendered so by being deprived of their fangs; and in
+proof thereof insisted upon being himself bitten. To this experiment
+the charlatan was extremely averse, offering strenuous objections, and
+finally conveyed a point blank refusal. But Mr. Drummond's demands
+becoming more imperative, and observing that his hesitancy impressed
+the audience as a tacit acknowledgment of the allegations, he finally
+consented, and placed in the hands of the magistrate a tiger snake,
+which he deemed least dangerous, and which instantly struck the
+gentleman in the wrist. The usual symptoms of serpent poisoning
+rapidly manifested themselves, followed by swelling and lividity of
+the part, obstructed circulation and respiration, and coma; and in
+spite of the use of the vaunted remedy and the attentions of
+physicians the result was most fatal. The vender subsequently conceded
+the worthless character of his nostrum, declaring that be enjoyed
+exemption from the effects of of serpent poison by virtue of recovery
+from a severe inoculation in early life; and he further added he knew
+"some people who were born so," who put him "up to this dodge" as a
+means of gaining a livelihood.
+
+  [Footnote 7: _Vide_ report to Prof. J. Henry Bennett.]
+
+  [Footnote 8: London _Times_.]
+
+It is a general supposition that such immunity, when congenital, is
+acquired _in utero_ by the inoculation of the parent, and Oliver
+Wendell Holmes' fascinating tale of "Elsie Venner" embodies many
+interesting features in this connection. Admitting such inoculation
+may secure immunity, recent experiments in the action of this as well
+as kindred poisons give no grounds for believing it at all universal
+or even common, but as depending upon occult physiological or
+accidental phenomena. For instance, the writer and his father are
+equally proof against the contagion and inoculation of vaccination and
+variola, in spite of repeated attempts to secure both, while their
+respective mothers suffered terribly with smallpox at periods
+subsequent to the birth of their children; and it is well understood
+that there are striking analogies between the poisons of certain
+contagious fevers and those of venomous serpents, inasmuch as one
+attack conveys exemption from future ones of like character. In other
+words, many animal poisons, as well as the pathological ones of
+smallpox, measles, scarlatina, whooping cough, etc., have the power of
+so modifying the animal economy, when it does not succumb to their
+primary influence, as to ever after render it all but proof against
+them. Witness, for instance, the ravages of the mosquito, that in
+certain districts punishes most terribly all new comers, and who after
+a brief residence suffer little, the bite no longer producing pain or
+swelling.
+
+Regarding the supposed correlation of serpent poison and the septic
+ferments of certain tropical and infectious fevers, they are not
+necessarily always contagious. It may be interesting to note that one
+Doctor Humboldt in 1852,[9] in an essay read before the Royal Academy
+of Medical Sciences at Havana, assumed their proximate identity, and
+advocated the inoculation of the poison of one as a prophylactic of
+the other. He claimed to have personally inoculated numberless persons
+in New Orleans, Vera Cruz, and Cuba with exceedingly dilute venom,
+thereby securing them perfect immunity from yellow fever. Aside from
+the extraordinary nature of the statement, the fact that the doctor
+affirmed, he had never used the virus to an extent sufficient to
+produce any of its toxic symptoms, cast discredit over the whole, and
+proofs were demanded and promised. This was the last of the subject,
+however, which soon passed into oblivion, though whether from failure
+on the part of the medico to substantiate his assertions, or from the
+inanition of his colleagues, it is difficult to determine, though the
+presumption is largely in favor of the former. Nevertheless, it is
+worthy of consideration and exhaustive experimentation, since it is no
+less plausible than the theory which rendered the name of Jenner
+famous.
+
+  [Footnote 9: London _Lancet_.]
+
+Outside of the transfusion of blood, for which there are strong
+reasons for believing would be attended with happy results, the sole
+remedies available in serpent poisoning are measures looking to the
+prompt cutting off of the circulation of the affected part, and the
+direct stimulation of the heart's action and the respiratory organs,
+until such a time as Nature shall have eliminated all toxical
+evidences; and these must necessarily be mechanical. Alcoholic
+stimulants are available only as they act mechanically in sustaining
+cardiac and pulmonary activity, and where their free use is prolonged
+efficacy is quickly exhausted, and they tend rather to hasten a fatal
+result. They are devoid of the slightest antidotal properties, and in
+no way modify the activity of the venom; and an intoxicated person, so
+far from enjoying the immunity with which he is popularly credited, is
+far more apt to succumb to the virus than him of unfuddled intellect.
+The reasons are obvious. Theoretically, for purely physiological and
+therapeutic reasons _amyl nitrite_ should be of incalculable value,
+though I have no knowledge of its use in this connection, since its
+vapor when inhaled is a most powerful stimulator of cardiac action,
+and when administered by the mouth it is unapproached in its control
+of spasmodically contracted vessels and muscles. The relief its vapor
+affords in the collapse of chloroform anaesthesia, in which dissolution
+is imminent from paralyzed heart's action, is instantaneous, and its
+effect upon the spasmodic and suffocative sensations of hydrophobia
+are equally prompt. Moreover, without further discussing its
+physiological functions, it is the nearest approach to an antidote to
+certain zymotic poisons, and especially valuable in warding off and
+aborting the action of the ferment that gives rise to pertussis, or
+whooping cough. _Iodide of ethyl_ is another therapeutical measure
+that is worthy of consideration; and _iodoform_ in the treatment of
+the sequelae incident to recovery.
+
+The native population of India, in spite of the contrary accepted
+opinion, are remarkably free from resort to nostrums that lay claim to
+being antidotes. The person inoculated by the cobra is at once seized
+by his friends, and constant and violent exercise enforced, if
+necessary at the point of stick, and severe and cruel (but
+nevertheless truly merciful) beatings are often a result. In this we
+see a direct application, without in the least understanding them, of
+the rules laid down to secure certain physiological results, as for
+the relief of opium and morphia narcosis, which serpent poisoning
+almost exactly resembles. The late Doctor Spillsbury (Physician-General
+of Calcutta),[10] while stationed at Jubulpore, Central India, was
+informed late one evening that his favorite horse keeper had just been
+dangerously bitten by a cobra of unusual size, and therefore more than
+ordinarily venomous. He at once ordered his gig, and in spite of the
+wails and protestations of the sufferer and his friends, with whom a
+fatal result was already a foregone conclusion, the doctor caused his
+wrists to be bound firmly and inextricably to the back of the vehicle;
+then assuring the man if he did not keep up he would most certainly be
+dragged to death, he mounted to his seat and drove rapidly away. Three
+hours later, or a little more, he returned, having covered nearly
+thirty miles without cessation or once drawing rein. The horse keeper
+was found bathed in profuse perspiration, and almost powerless from
+excessive fatigue. _Eau de luce_, an aromatic preparation of ammonia,
+was now administered at frequent and regular intervals as a diffusible
+stimulant, and moderate though constant exercise enforced until near
+dawn, when the sufferer was found to be completely recovered.
+
+  [Footnote 10: London _Lancet_.]
+
+The value of violent and profuse cutaneous transpiration, thereby
+securing a rapidly eliminating channel for discharging poison from the
+system, is well known; in no other way can action be had so thorough,
+speedy, and prompt. Captain Maxwell[11] tells us it was formerly the
+custom among the Irish peasantry of Connaught, when one manifested
+unmistakable evidences of hydrophobia, to procure the death of the
+unfortunate by smothering between two feather beds. In one instance,
+after undergoing this treatment, the supposed corpse was seen, to the
+horror and surprise of all who witnessed it, to crawl from between the
+bolsters, when he was found to be entirely free from his disorder; the
+beds, however, were saturated through and through with the
+perspiration that escaped the body in the intensity of his mortal
+agony. More recently a French physician,[12] recognizing the incubatory
+stage of rabies in his own person, resolved upon suicide rather than
+undergo its attendant horrors. The hot bath was selected for the
+purpose, with a view of gradually increasing its temperature until
+syncope should be induced, which he hoped would be succeeded by death.
+To his surprise, however, as the temperature of the water rose, his
+sensations of distress improved; and the very means chosen for
+terminating life became instead his salvation, restoring to perfect
+health. Again, Dr. Peter Hood[13] relates that a blacksmith residing in
+the neighborhood of his country house was in high repute for miles
+about by reason of his cures of rabies. His remedy consisted simply in
+forcing the person bitten to accompany him in a rapid walk or trot for
+twenty miles or more, after which he administered copious draughts of
+a hot decoction of broom tops, as much for its moral effect as for its
+value in sustaining and prolonging established diaphoresis.
+
+  [Footnote 11: Wild Sports or the West.]
+
+  [Footnote 12: _L'Union Medicale_--name withheld by request of the
+  gentleman.]
+
+  [Footnote 13: London _Lancet_.]
+
+Though the pathological conditions of hydrophobia and serpent
+poisoning are by no means parallel, the _rationale_ of the methods
+employed in opening the emunctories of the skin are the same; and were
+it not for its powerful protracting effect and depressing action upon
+the heart, we might perhaps secure valuable aid from jaborandi
+(_pilocarpus_), since it stimulates profusely all the secretions; as
+it is, more is to be hoped for in the former disorder than in the
+latter. It would be desirable also to know what influence the Turkish
+bath might exert, and it would seem worthy at least of trial.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TO FIND THE TIME OF TWILIGHT.
+
+
+_To the Editor of the Scientific American_:
+
+Given latitude N. 40 deg. 51', declination N. 20 deg. 25', sun 18 deg. below the
+horizon. To find the time of twilight at that place. In the
+accompanying diagram, E Q = equinoctial, D D = parallel of
+declination, Z S N a vertical circle, H O = the horizon, P = North
+pole, Z = zenith, and S = the sun, 18 deg. below the horizon, H O,
+measured on a vertical circle. It is seen that we have here given us
+the three sides of a spherical triangle, viz., the co-latitude 49 deg. 9',
+the co declination 69 deg. 35', and the zenith distance 108 deg., with which
+to compute the angle Z P S. This angle is found to be 139 deg. 16' 5.6".
+Dividing this by 15 we have 9 h. 16 m. 24.4 s., from noon to the
+beginning or termination of twilight. Now, in the given latitude and
+declination, the sun's center coincides with the horizon at sunset
+(allowance being made for refraction), at 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from
+apparent noon. Then if we subtract 7 h. 18 m. 29.3 s. from 9 h. 16 m.
+24.4 s., we shall have 1 h. 57 m. 55.1 s. as the duration of twilight.
+But the real time of sunset must be computed when the sun has
+descended about 50' below the horizon, at which point the sun's upper
+limb coincides with the line, H O, of the horizon. This takes place 7
+h. 16 m. 30.8 s. mean time. It is hoped the above will be a sufficient
+answer to L.N. (See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of Dec. 1, 1883, p. 346.)
+
+B.W. H.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ETHNOLOGICAL NOTES.
+
+
+The distinguished anthropologist M. De Quatrefages has recently spoken
+before the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and we extract from his
+discourse on "Fossil Man and Savages" some notes reported in the
+_Journal d'Hygiene_: "It is in Oceanica and above all in Melanesia and
+in Polynesia where I have looked for examples of savage races. I have
+scarcely spoken of the Malays except to bring to the surface the
+features which distinguish them among the ethnic groups which they at
+times touch, and which in turn frequently mingle with them. I have
+especially studied the Papuans and Negritos. The Papuans are an
+exclusively Pelasgic race, that many anthropologists consider as
+almost confined to New Guinea and the neighboring archipelago. But it
+becomes more and more manifest that they have had also periods of
+expansion and of dissemination.
+
+"On one side they appear as conquerors in some islands of Micronesia;
+on the other we have shown--M. Hamy and myself--that to them alone can
+be assigned the skulls found in Easter Island and in New Zealand. They
+have hence touched the east and south, the extremities of the maritime
+world.
+
+"The Negritos, scarcely known a few years ago, and to-day confounded
+with the Papuans by some anthropologists, have spread to the west and
+northwest.
+
+"They have left unmistakable traces in Japan; we find them yet in the
+Philippines and in many of the islands of the Malay archipelago; they
+constitute the indigenous population of the Andaman Islands, in the
+Gulf of Bengal. Indeed, they have formerly occupied a great part of
+the two peninsulas of India, and I have elsewhere shown that we can
+follow their steps to the foot of the Himalayas, and beyond the Indus
+to Lake Zerah. I have only sketched here the history of this race,
+whose representatives in the past have been the type of the Asiatic
+pygmies of whom Pliny and Ctesias speak, and whose _creoles_ were
+those Ethiopians, black and with smooth hair, who figured in the army
+of Xerxes.
+
+"I have devoted two long examinations to another black race much less
+important in numbers and in the extent of their domain, but which
+possess for the anthropologist a very peculiar interest and a sad one.
+It exists no more; its last representative, a woman, died in 1877. I
+refer to the Tasmanians.
+
+"The documents gathered by various English writers, and above all by
+Bouwick, give numerous facts upon the intellectual and moral character
+of the Tasmanians. The complete destruction of the Tasmanians,
+accomplished in at most 72 years over a territory measuring 4,400
+square leagues, raises a sorrowful and difficult question. Their
+extinction has been explained by the barbarity of the civilized
+Europeans, and which, often conspicuous, has never been more
+destructively present than in their dealings with the Tasmanians. But
+I am convinced that this is an error. I certainly do not wish to
+apologize for or extenuate the crimes of the convicts and colonists,
+against which the most vigorous protests have been raised both in
+England and in the colony itself, but neither war nor social disasters
+have been the principal cause of the disappearance of the Tasmanians.
+They have perished from that strange malady which Europeans have
+everywhere transplanted in the maritime world, and which strikes down
+the most flourishing populations.
+
+"Consumption is certainly one of the elements of this evil. But if it
+explains the increase of the death rate, it does not explain the
+diminution of births. Both these phenomena are apparent. Captain Juan
+has seen at the Marquesas, in the island of Taio-Hahe, the population
+fall in three years from 400 souls to 250. To offset this death-rate,
+we find only 3 or 4 births. It is evident that at this rate
+populations rapidly disappear, and it is the principal cause of the
+disappearance of the Tasmanians."
+
+The lecturer, after alluding to his studies in Polynesia, speaks of
+his interest in the western representatives of these races and his
+special studies in New Zealand, and referring to the latter continues:
+
+"One of the most important results of the labors in this direction has
+been to establish the serious value of the historical songs preserved,
+among the Maoris, by the _Tohungus_, or _wise men_, who represent the
+_Aiepas_ of Tahiti. Thanks to these living archives, we have been able
+to reconstruct a history of the natives, to fix almost the epoch of
+the first arrival of the Polynesians in that land, so distant from
+their other centers of population, and to determine their point of
+departure."
+
+Other studies refer to peoples far removed from the preceding. One is
+devoted to the Todas, a very small tribe of the Nilgherie Hills, who
+by their physical, intellectual, and social characteristics differ
+from all the other races of India. "The Todas burn their dead, and we
+possess none of their skulls. But thanks to M. Janssen, who has lived
+among them, I have been able to fill up this gap."
+
+The last subject referred to by the lecturer was the Finns of Finland,
+whose study reveals the fact that they embrace two ethnic types, one
+of which, the _Tavastlanda_, belongs without doubt to the great
+Finnish family, spread over Asia as well as in Europe, and a second,
+the Karelien, whose representatives possessed the poetic instinct,
+which causes M. Quatrefages to ally them with the Aryan race, "to whom
+we owe all our epics, from the Ramayana, Iliad, and Eneas to the poems
+of to-day."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES.
+
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS, ATHENS.]
+
+Although so much has been written about Athens, there is one striking
+feature which has been little noticed. This is the beautiful colors of
+the Parthenon and Erectheum, the soft mellow yellow which is due to
+age, and which gives these buildings when lighted by the setting sun,
+and framed by the purple hills beyond, the appearance of temples of
+gold.
+
+[Illustration: TOMB FROM THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.]
+
+Until A.D. 1687 the Parthenon remained almost perfect, and then not
+age but a shell from the Venetians falling upon Turkish powder, made a
+rent which, when seen from below, makes it look like two temples.
+
+[Illustration: TOWER OF THE WINDS, ATHENS.]
+
+The Temple of Theseus is the best preserved and one of the oldest of
+the buildings of ancient Athens. It was founded in B.C. 469, and is a
+small, graceful, and perfect Doric temple. Having served as a
+Christian church, dedicated to St. George, it escaped injury. It
+contains the beautiful and celebrated tombstone of Aristion, the
+warrior of Marathon.
+
+[Illustration: THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS.]
+
+All that remains of Hadrian's great Temple to Zeus (A.D. 132) are a
+few standing columns in an open space, which are imposing from their
+isolated position.
+
+[Illustration: OLD CORINTH AND THE ACROCORINTHUS.]
+
+The monument of Philopappus is thought to have been begun A.D. 110,
+and for a king in Asia Minor.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS.]
+
+The Tower of the Winds, erected by Andronicus Cyrrhestes about B.C.
+100, contained a weathercock, a sun dial, and a water clock. It is an
+octagonal building, with reliefs on the frieze, representing by
+appropriate figures the eight winds into which the Athenian compass
+was divided.
+
+[Illustration: THE PANTHENON, ATHENS.]
+
+In the Street of Tombs the monuments are lying or standing as they
+were found; each year shows many changes in Athens, a tomb last year
+in the Ceramicus may be this year in a museum. There is a great
+similarity in all these tombstones; no doubt they were made
+beforehand, as they seldom suggest the idea of a portrait. They
+generally represent an almost heroic leave-taking. The friends
+standing in the act of saying farewell are receiving presents from the
+dead; often in the corner is a crouching slave, and frequently a dog.
+
+[Illustration: ERECTEUM, ATHENS.]
+
+Beyond the river Kephiesus, the hill of Colonus, and the groves of the
+Academy, is the Pass of Daphne, which was the road to Eleusis, and
+along which passed the annual sacred processions in the days of the
+Mysteries. Cut there in the rock are the niches for the votive
+offerings. This dark Daphne Pass seems still to possess an air of
+mystery which is truly in keeping with the rites which were once
+observed there.
+
+[Illustration: NICHES FOR VOTIVE OFFERINGS ON THE SACRED WAY TO
+ELEUSIS.]
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF CORINTH, FROM THE MONUMENT OF PHILOPAPPUS.]
+
+From several points in Athens, on very clear days, may be seen the
+great rock fort Acrocorinthus, which is directly above the site of
+ancient Corinth. It is now a deserted fort; the Turkish drawbridge and
+gate stand open and unused. There are on it remains of a Turkish town;
+at one time it was one of the strongest and most important citadels in
+Greece. In the middle of the almost deserted, wretched, straggling
+village of Old Corinth stand seven enormous massive columns. These are
+all that remain of the Temple, and indeed of ancient Corinth. The
+pillars, of the Doric order, are of a brown limestone, not of the
+country. The Turks and earthquakes have destroyed Old Corinth, and
+driven the inhabitants to New Corinth, about one hour and a half's
+drive from the Gulf.--_London Graphic_.
+
+[Illustration: TEMPLE OF THESEUS, ATHENS.]
+
+[Illustration: TOMBSTONE IN THE CERAMICUS, ATHENS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SPANISH FISHERIES.
+
+
+The Spanish Court at the late Fisheries Exhibition was large and well
+furnished, there being several characteristic models of vessels. No
+certain figures can be obtained of the results of the whole fishing
+industry of Spain. It is, however, estimated that 14,202 boats, with a
+tonnage of 51,397 tons, were employed during the year 1882. They gave
+occupation to 59,974 men, and took about 78,000 tons of fish. The
+Government interfere in the fishing industry only to the extent of
+collecting and distributing information to the fishermen on subjects
+that are most likely to be of use to them in their calling. In
+consequence, principally no doubt of this wise policy, we find in
+Spain a vigorous and self-reliant class of men engaged in the
+fisheries. Some of the most interesting features in the Spanish Court
+were the contributions sent by the different fishermen's associations,
+and although the Naval Museum of Madrid supplied a collection of
+articles that would have formed a good basis in itself for an
+exhibition, yet in no other foreign court was the fishing industry of
+the nation better illustrated by private enterprise than in that of
+Spain. The fishing associations referred to are half benefit societies
+and half trading communities. That of Lequeito has issued a small
+pamphlet, from which we learn that this body consists of 600 members
+divided into three classes, viz., owners of vessels, patrons or men in
+charge, and ordinary fishermen. A board of directors, consisting of 22
+owners, and 24 masters of boats or ordinary fishermen, has the sole
+control of the affairs of the society. The meetings are presided over
+by a majordomo elected triennially, and who must be the owner of a
+boat over 40 ft. long. This functionary receives a stipend of 8,000
+reales a year, a sum which sounds more modest when expressed as 80_l_.
+He has two clerks, who are on the permanent staff, to help him. His
+duties are to keep the books with the assistance of the two clerks, to
+take charge of the sales of all fish, recover moneys, and make
+necessary payments. In stormy weather he gets up in a watch tower and
+guides boats entering the harbor. The _atalayero_ is an official of
+the society, whose duty it is to station himself on the heights and
+signal by means of smoke, to the boats at sea, the movements of
+schools of sardines and anchovies or probable changes of weather. It
+is also the duty of this officer to weigh all the bream caught from
+the 1st November to the 31st of March, for which he receives a
+"gratuity" of 100 pesetas, or say 4_l._, sterling. Two other seneros,
+or signalmen, are told off to keep all boats in port during bad
+weather, and to call together the crews when circumstances appear
+favorable for sailing. Should there be a difference of opinion between
+these experts as to the meteorological probabilities, the patrons, or
+skippers of the fishing-boats, are summoned in council and their
+opinion taken by "secret vote with black and white balls." The
+decision so arrived at is irrevocable, and all are bound to sail
+should it be so decided; those who do not do so paying a fine to the
+funds of the association. The boats carrying the seneros fly a color
+by means of which they signal orders for sailing to the other vessels.
+These seneros appear to be the Spanish equivalent to the English
+admiral of a trawling fleet.
+
+The boats used by these fishermen are fine craft; one or two models of
+them were shown in the Exhibition. A first-class boat will be of about
+the following dimensions: Length over all, 45 ft. to 50 ft.; breadth
+(extreme), 9 ft. to 10 ft. 3 in.; depth (inside), 3 ft. 10 in. to 4
+ft. The keel is of oak 6 in. by 31/2 in. The stem and stern posts are
+also of oak. The planking is generally of oak or walnut--the latter
+preferred--and is 3 in. thick, the width of the planks being 41/2 in.
+Many boats are now constructed of hard wood to the water line and
+Norway pine above.
+
+The fastenings are galvanized nails 41/2 in. long. The mast-partners and
+all the thwarts are of oak 11/2 in. thick and 8 in. wide; the latter are
+fastened in with iron knees. Lee-board and rudder are of oak, walnut,
+or chestnut; the rudder extends 31/2 ft. to 4 ft. below the keel, and,
+in giving lateral resistance, balances the lee-board, which is thrust
+down forward under the lee-bow. The rig consists of two lags, the
+smaller one forward right in the eyes of the boat; the mainmast being
+amidships. The lug sails are set on long yards, the fair-weather rig
+consisting of a fore lug with 120 square yards, and a main lug of 200
+square yards. There are six shifts of sail, the main being substituted
+for the fore lug in turn as the weather increases, in a manner similar
+to that in which our own Mounts Bay boats reduce canvas. The fair
+weather rig requires two masts 42 ft. and 36 ft. long, and yards 28
+ft. and 30 ft. long, respectively. The oars are 16 ft. long, and are
+pulled double-banked. Such a boat will cost 90_l._ to 100_l._ fitted for
+sea, of which sum the hull will represent rather more than half. These
+vessels generally remain at sea for twelve hours, from about three to
+four in the morning until the same time in the evening. Tunny, merluza
+(a species of cod), and bream are the principal fish taken. The
+first-named are caught by hook and line operated by means of poles
+rigged out from the boat much in the same way, apparently, as we drail
+for mackerel on the southwest coast. A filament of maize straw is used
+for bait. The boat sails to a distance of about 90 miles off the land
+and run back before the prevailing wind, until they are about nine
+miles from the shore or until they lose the fish. When the fisherman
+gets a bite the wind is spilled out of the sail so as to deaden the
+boat's way. The fish is then got alongside, promptly gaffed, and got
+on board. Tunny sells for about three halfpence a pound in Lequeito.
+The season extends from June to November. Bream are taken in the
+winter and spring, 9 to 12 miles off the coast. They are caught by
+hook and line in two ways. The first is worth describing. A line 50
+fathoms long has bent to it snoods with hooks attached, 16 in. apart.
+Each man handles three lines. On reaching the fishing ground the line,
+to the end of which a stone is attached, is gradually paid out until
+soundings are taken; then another stone is attached and the operation
+repeated. If a bite is felt the line is slacked away freely, and this
+goes on until about 500 fathoms are overboard. When, by the lively and
+continuous jerking of the line, the fisherman concludes that he has a
+good number of fish on the hooks, he will haul aboard and then prepare
+to shoot again.
+
+The second method of taking the bream is by long lining; fifty of the
+lines we have just described being bent together and duly anchored and
+buoyed. Spaniards do not much care for this way of fishing, as it is
+costly in bait and the gear is often lost in bad weather. Bream sells
+at about 31/2d. a pound. Cod are taken during the first six months of
+the year, about 9 miles off shore, by hand lines. Sold fresh the price
+is about 6_d._ per lb. A small quantity is preserved in tins. Anchovy or
+cuttlefish is the bait used; sometimes the two are placed on one hook.
+
+A smaller description of boat, called traineras, is built especially
+for taking sardine and anchovy, although in fine weather they often
+engage in the same fishery as the larger boats. The traineras are
+light and shapely vessels, with a graceful sheer and curved stem and
+stern posts. The keel is much cambered, and the bottom is flat and has
+considerable hollow. The usual dimensions vary between: Length, 38
+feet to 42 feet; beam, 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches; depth, 2 feet 6
+inches to 2 feet 10 inches. The sails and gear are much the same as in
+the larger boats, excepting that there are only four shifts in place
+of six. The largest main lug has an area of about 90 square yards and
+the fore lug about 50 square yards. The other sails for heavier
+weather are naturally smaller. The largest masts for fine weather are
+respectively 36 feet and 22 feet, long. The average cost of one of
+these boats and gear is about L122, made up as follows: Hull, L32;
+sails, gear, and oars, L30; nets and gear attached, L60. The season
+for anchovy fishing commences on the 1st of March and ends 30th of
+June; it begins again on the 15th of September, and continues until
+the end of the year. Most fish are taken at a distance of about 9
+miles from the land, although they often come in much closer.
+Anchovies are sold fresh, or are salted to be sent away, some are used
+for bait, and in times of great plenty quantities are put on the land
+for manure. The greater part are, however, preserved in barrels or
+tins, and are exported to France or England.
+
+The net used in the capture of anchovies is called _traina_ or _copo_.
+It is in principle like the celebrated purse seine of the United
+States, but in place of being 200 fathoms long, as are many of the
+nets, which, in American waters, will inclose a whole school of
+mackerel, it is but 32 to 40 fathoms long. The depth is 7 to 10
+fathoms, and the mesh 3/4 inch. Sardine fishing commences on the 1st of
+July and lasts until December. The principal ground is 2 to 10 miles
+off shore. The price of sardines on the coast is about 21/2d. per pound.
+When the sardines appear in shoals they are taken with the traina in
+the same way as anchovies, a net of 1/2-inch mesh being used. Sardines
+are also taken by gill nets about 200 feet long and 18 feet wide. When
+used in the daytime the fish are tolled up by a bait consisting of the
+liver of cod. When the sardines have been attracted to the
+neighborhood of the net, bait is thrown on the other side of it. The
+fish in their rush for the bait become entangled in the mesh. These
+nets are sometimes anchored out all night, in which case no bait is
+used.
+
+A third class of boats of much the same character are of about the
+following dimensions: Length, 28 feet to 35 feet; beam, 7 feet 6
+inches to 8 feet; depth, 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet 8 inches. The two
+lugs will contain 16 and 30 square yards of canvas respectively. They
+are used for sardine catching, when they will carry a crew of four
+men, or for taking conger and cod, in which case they will be manned
+by eight hands.
+
+Their cost will average approximately as follows: Hull, L15; gear and
+sail, L10; nets and lines, L13; about L40. The conger season extends
+from March to June, and from October to November. The fish are taken
+by hook and line; sardine and fish known as berdel (which in turn is
+taken by a hook covered with a feather) are used as bait.
+
+There are other smaller fishing boats, among which may be noticed the
+_bateler_, a powerful little vessel, 13 feet to 16 ft. long, about 51/2
+ft. wide, and 2 ft. deep. They are sailed by one man, set a good
+spread of canvas, and are fast and handy. They are used for taking a
+species of cuttlefish which supplies a bait, and is caught by hook and
+line, the fishes being attracted by colored threads, at which they
+rush, when the hook will catch in their tentacles. There is a small
+well in the middle of the boat for keeping the fish alive. None of the
+boats on the northern coast of Spain carry ballast. They have flat
+hollow floors, and set a large area of of canvas on a shallow draught.
+Lobster fishing is pursued in much the same manner as in England, but
+often four or five miles from land, and in very deep water.
+
+One of the most noticeable objects in the Spanish court was a
+full-sized boat about 25 ft. long, which had a square hole cut in the
+bottom amidships. Through this hole was let down a glass frame in
+which was placed a powerful paraffine lamp. The object of this was to
+attract the fish. It is said that tunny will be drawn from a distance
+of over a hundred yards, and will follow the boat so that they may be
+enticed into the nets. Sardines and other fish will follow the light
+in shoals. It is claimed that the boat will be useful in diving
+operations, for pearl or coral fishing, or for ascertaining the
+direction of submarine currents, which can be seen at night by a lamp
+to a depth to 25 to 30 fathoms.--_Engineering_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DUCK SHOOTING AT MONTAUK.
+
+
+Montauk Point, Long Island, is the most isolated and desolate spot
+imaginable during this weather. The frigid monotony of winter has
+settled down upon that region, and now it is haunted only by sea fowl.
+The bleak, barren promontory whereon stands the light is swept clean
+of its summer dust by the violent raking of cold hurricanes across it,
+and coated with ice from the wind-dashed spume of the great breakers
+hurled against the narrow sand spit which makes the eastern terminus
+of the island. The tall, white towered light and its black lantern,
+now writhing in frosty northern blizzards, and again shivering in
+easterly gales, now glistening with ice from the tempest tossed seas
+all about it, and now varnished with wreaths of fog, is the only
+habitation worthy of the name for many miles around. Keeper Clark and
+his family and assistants are almost perpetually fenced in from the
+outside world by the cold weather, and have to hug closely the roaring
+fires that protect them in that desolation.
+
+But for ducks and the duck hunter the lighthouse family would die of
+inanition. With the cold weather comes the ducks, and they continue to
+come till the warmer blasts of spring drive them to the northward.
+Montauk Point is a favorite haunt for this sort of wild fowl. It is a
+good feeding ground, is isolated, and there is nearly always a weather
+shore for the flocks to gather under. But year by year the point is
+being more and more frequented by sportsmen, and the reports of their
+successes increase the applicants for lodgings at the light. Some 20
+gunners were out there last week with the most improved paraphernalia
+for the sport, and did telling work. Flight shooting is the favorite
+method of taking them. The light stands very near the end of the
+point, about a sixteenth of a mile to the west, and all migratory
+birds in passing south seem to have it down in their log-book that
+they must not only sight this structure, but must also fly over it as
+nearly as possible. Hence the variety and extent of the flocks which
+are continually passing is a matter of interest and wonder to a
+student of natural history as well as to the sportsman. Coots,
+whistlers, soft bills, old squaws, black ducks, cranes, belated wild
+geese, and, in fact, all sorts of northern birds make up this long and
+strange procession, and the air is frequently so densely packed with
+them as to be actually darkened, while the keen, whistling music of
+their whizzing wings makes a melody that comparatively few landsmen
+ever hear. Millions of the birds never hesitate at this point in their
+flight, although thousands of them do. These latter make the
+neighboring waters their home for the rest of the winter. Great flocks
+of ducks are continually sailing about the rugged shores, and the
+frozen cranberry marshes of Fort Pond Bay, lying to the westward, are
+their favorite feeding-grounds. The birds are always as fat as butter
+when making their flight, and their piquant, spicy flavor leads to
+their being barbecued by the wholesale at the seat of shooting
+operations. One of the gunner's cabins has nailed up in it the heads
+of 345 ducks that have been roasted on the Point this winter.
+
+Early morning is the favorite time for shooting. At daybreak the
+flights are heavy, and from that time until seven o'clock in the
+morning they increase until it seems as though all the flocks which
+had spent the night in the caves and ponds on the Connecticut shore
+were on the wing and away for the south. By ten o'clock in the
+forenoon the flights grow rarer, and the rest of the day only
+stragglers come along. A good gunner can take five dozen of these
+birds easily in a morning's work, provided he can and will withstand
+the inclemency of the weather.
+
+Keeper Clark never shoots ducks. Scarcely a morning has dawned for two
+months but that several of the poor birds have been picked up at the
+foot of the light house tower with the broken necks which have mutely
+told the story of death, reached by plunging headlong against the
+crystal walls of the dazzling lantern overhead the night before. There
+is a tendency with such migratory birds as are on the wing at night to
+fly very high. But the great, glaring, piercing, single eye of Montauk
+light seems to draw into it by dozens, as a loadstone pulls a magnet,
+its feathered victims, and they swerve in their course and make
+straight for it. As they flash nearer and nearer, the light, of
+course, grows brighter and brighter, and at length they dash into what
+appears a sea of fire, to be crushed lifeless by the heavy glass, and
+they fall to the ground below, ready to be plucked for the oven.
+Inside the lantern the thud made by these birds when they strike is
+readily felt. Although they are comparatively small, yet so great is
+their velocity that the impact creates a perceptible jar, and the
+lantern is disfigured with plashes of their blood. Upon stormy and
+foggy nights the destruction of birds is found to be greatest. When
+the weather is clear and fair many smaller birds, like robins,
+sparrows, doves, cuckoos, rail, snipe, etc., will circle about the
+light all night long, leaving only when the light is extinguished in
+the morning. Large cranes show themselves to be almost dangerous
+visitors. Recently one of these weighing 40 pounds struck the wrought
+iron guard railing about the lantern with such force as to bend the
+iron slats and to completely sever his long neck from his body.--_N.Y.
+Times_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[THE GARDEN.]
+
+
+
+
+THE HORNBEAMS.
+
+
+The genus Carpinis is widely distributed throughout the temperate
+regions of the northern hemisphere. There are nine species known to
+botanists, most of them being middle-sized trees. In addition to those
+mentioned below, figures of which are herewith given, there are four
+species from Japan and one from the Himalayan region which do not yet
+seem to have found their way to this country; these five are therefore
+omitted. All are deciduous trees, and every one is thoroughly
+deserving of cultivation. The origin of the English name is quaintly
+explained by Gerard in his "Herbal" as follows: "The wood," he says,
+"in time, waxeth so hard, that the toughness and hardness of it may be
+rather compared to horn than unto wood, and therefore it was called
+horne-beam or hardbeam."
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS ORIENTALIS.]
+
+_Carpinus Betulus_,[1] the common hornbeam, as is the case with so
+many of our native or widely cultivated trees, exhibits considerable
+variation in habit, and also in foliage characters. Some of the more
+striking of these, those which have received names in nurseries, etc.,
+and are propagated on account of their distinctive peculiarities, are
+described below. In a wild state C. Betulus occurs in Europe from
+Gothland southward, and extends also into West Asia. Although
+apparently an undoubted native in the southern counties of England, it
+appears to have no claim to be considered indigenous as far as the
+northern counties are concerned; it has also been planted wherever it
+occurs in Ireland.
+
+  [Footnote 1: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus Betulus, L., Loudon,
+  "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," vol. iii., p. 2004; Encycl.
+  of Trees and Shrubs, 917. Boswell Syme, "English Botany," vol.
+  viii., p. 176, tab. 1293; Koch, "Dendrologie," zweit. theil.
+  zweit. abtheil., p. 2: Hooker, "Student's Flora of the British
+  Islands," ed. 2, p. 365. C. Carpinizza, Host., "Flora Austriaca,"
+  ii., p. 626. C. intermedia. Wierbitzsky in Reichb Ic. fl. Germ. et
+  Helvet., xxii. fig. 1297.]
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS AMERICANA.]
+
+Few trees bear cutting so well as the hornbeam, and for this reason,
+during the reign of the topiarist, it was held in high repute for the
+formation of the "close alleys," "covert alleys," or the
+"thick-pleached alleys," frequently mentioned in Shakespeare and in
+the works of other authors about three centuries ago. In the sixteenth
+century the topiary art had reached its highest point of development,
+and was looked upon as the perfection of gardening; the hornbeam--and
+indeed almost every other tree--was cut and tortured into every
+imaginable shape. The "picturesque style," however, soon drove the
+topiarist and his art out of the field, yet even now places still
+remain in England where the old and once much-belauded fashion still
+exists on a large scale--a fact by no means to be deplored from an
+archaeological point of view. Dense, quaintly-shaped hornbeam hedges
+are not unfrequent in the gardens of many old English mansions, and in
+some old country farmhouses the sixteenth century craze is still
+perpetuated on a smaller scale.
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS BETULUS, LEAF, CATKINS, AND FRUIT.]
+
+Sir J.E. Smith, in his "English Flora," after enumerating the virtues
+of the hornbeam as a hedge plant, gives it as his opinion that "when
+standing by itself and allowed to take its natural form, the hornbeam
+makes a much more handsome tree than most people are aware of." Those
+who are familiar with the fine specimens which exist at Studley Park
+and elsewhere will have no hesitation in confirming Sir J.E. Smith's
+statement. The Hornbeam Walk in Richmond Park, from Pembroke Lodge
+toward the Ham Gate, will recur to many Southerners as a good instance
+of the fitness of the hornbeam for avenues. In the walk in question
+there are many fine trees, which afford a thorough and agreeable shade
+during the summer months.
+
+[Illustration: CARPINUS VIMINEA.]
+
+In any soil or position the hornbeam will grow readily, except
+exceedingly dry or too marshy spots. On chalky hillsides it does not
+grow so freely as on clayey plains. Under the latter conditions,
+however, the wood is not so good. In mountainous regions the hornbeam
+occupies a zone lower than that appropriated by the beech, rarely
+ascending more than 1,200 yards above sea level. It is not injured by
+frost, and in Germany is often seen fringing the edges of the beech
+forests along the bottom of the valleys where the beech would suffer.
+Scarcely any tree coppices more vigorously or makes more useful
+pollards on dry grass land.
+
+[Illustration: BRANCH OF CARPINUS BETULUS.]
+
+On account of its great toughness the wood of the hornbeam is employed
+in engineering work for cogs in machinery. When subjected to vertical
+pressure it cannot be completely destroyed; its fibers, instead of
+breaking off short, double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its
+flexibility and fitness for service in machinery (Laslett's "Timber
+and Timber Trees"). According to the same recent authority, the
+vertical or crushing strain on cubes of 2 inches average 14.844 tons,
+while that on cubes of 1 inch is 3.711 tons.
+
+[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS QUERCOFOLIA.]
+
+A few years ago an English firm required a large quantity of hornbeam
+wood for the manufacture of lasts, but failed to procure it in
+England. They succeeded, however, in obtaining a supply from France,
+where large quantities of this timber are used for that purpose. It
+may be interesting to state that in England at any rate lasts are no
+longer made to any extent by hand, but are rapidly turned in enormous
+numbers by machinery. In France _sabots_ are also made of hornbeam
+wood, but the difficulty in working it and its weight render it less
+valuable for _sabotage_ than beech. For turnery generally, cabinet
+making, and also for agricultural implements, etc., this wood is
+highly valued; in some of the French winegrowing districts, viz., Cote
+d'Or and Yonne, hoops for the wine barrels are largely made from this
+tree. It makes the best fuel and it is preferred to every other for
+apartments, as it lights easily, makes a bright flame, which burns
+equally, continues a long time, and gives out an abundance of heat.
+"Its charcoal is highly esteemed, and in France and Switzerland it is
+preferred to most others, not only for forges and for cooking by, but
+for making gunpowder, the workmen at the great gunpowder manufactory
+at Berne rarely using any other. The inner bark, according to Linnaeus,
+is used for dyeing yellow. The leaves, when dried in the sun, are used
+in France as fodder; and when wanted for use in water, the young
+branches are cut off in the middle of summer, between the first and
+second growth, and strewed or spread out in some place which is
+completely sheltered from the rain to dry without the tree being in
+the slightest degree injured by the operation." (Dict. des Eaux et
+Forets, art. Charme, as quoted by London).
+
+[Illustration: LEAVES OF CARPINUS BETULUS INCISA.]
+
+It hardly seems necessary to dwell upon the value of the hornbeam as a
+hedge or shelter plant. In many nurseries it is largely used for these
+purposes, the russet-brown leaves remaining on the twigs until
+displaced by the new growths in spring.
+
+_Var. incisa_ (Aiton, "Hortus Kewensis," v., 301; C. asplenifolia,
+Hort.; C. laciniata, Hort.).--These three names represent two forms,
+which are, however, so near each other, that for all practical
+purposes they are identical. A glance at the accompanying figure will
+show how distinct and ornamental this variety is.
+
+[Illustration: HORNBEAMS (ONE WITH INOSCULATED TRUNK).]
+
+_Var. quercifolia_ (Desf. tabl. de l'ecol. de bot. du Mus. d'hist.
+nat., 213; Ostrya quercifolia, Hort.; Carpinus heterophylla,
+Hort.)--This form, as will be seen by the figure, is thoroughly
+distinct from the common hornbeam; it has very much smaller leaves
+than the type, their outline, as implied by the varietal name,
+resembling that of the foliage of the oak. It frequently reverts to
+the type, and, as far as my experience goes, appears to be much less
+fixed than the variety incisa.
+
+_Var. purpurea_ (Hort.).--The young leaves of this are brownish red;
+it is well worth growing for the pleasing color effect produced by the
+young growths in spring. Apart from color it does not differ from the
+type.
+
+_Var. fastigiata_ (Hort.).--In this variety the branches are more
+ascending and the habit altogether more erect; indeed, among the
+hornbeams this is a counterpart of the fastigiate varieties of the
+common oak.
+
+_Var. variegata_, aureo-variegata, albo-variegata
+(albo-marmorata).--These names represent forms differing so slightly
+from each other, that it is not worth while to notice them separately,
+or even to treat them as distinct. In no case that I have seen is the
+variegation at all striking, and, except in tree collections,
+variegated hornbeams are hardly worth growing.
+
+[Illustration: FULL GROWN HORNBEAM IN WINTER. CARPINUS BETULUS (Full
+grown tree at Chiswick, 45 ft. high in 1844).]
+
+_Carpinus orientalis_[2] (the Oriental hornbeam) principally differs
+from our native species in its smaller size, the lesser leaves with
+downy petioles, and the green, much-lacerated bractlets. It is a
+native of the south of Europe, whence it extends to the Caucasus, and
+probably also to China; the Carpinus Turczaninovi of Hance scarcely
+seems to differ, in any material point at any rate, from western
+examples of C. orientalis. According to Loudon, it was introduced to
+this country by Philip Miller in 1739, and there is no doubt that it
+is far from common even now. It is, however, well worth growing; the
+short twiggy branches, densely clothed with dark green leaves, form a
+thoroughly efficient screen. The plant bears cutting quite as well as
+the common hornbeam, and wherever the latter will grow this will also
+succeed. In that very interesting compilation, "Hortus Collinsonianus,"
+the following memorandum occurs: "The Eastern hornbeam was raised from
+seed sent me from Persia, procured by Dr. Mounsey, physician to the
+Czarina. Received it August 2, 1751, and sowed it directly; next year
+(1752) the hornbeam came up, which was the original of all in England.
+Mr. Gordon soon increased it, and so it came into the gardens of the
+curious. At the same time, from the same source, were raised a new
+acacia, a quince, and a bermudiana, the former very different from any
+in our gardens." This memorandum was probably written from recollection
+long afterward, with an error in the dates, and the species was first
+entered in the catalogue as follows: "Azad, arbor persica carpinus
+folio, Persian hornbeam, raised from seed, anno 1747; not in England
+before." It appears, however, from Rand's "Index" that there was a
+plant of it in the Chelsea Garden in 1739. The name duinensis was given
+by Scopoli, because of his having first found it wild at Duino. As,
+however, Miller had previously described it under the name orientalis,
+that one is adopted in accordance with the rule of priority, by which
+must be decided all such questions in nomenclature.
+
+  [Footnote 2: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus orientalis. Miller,
+  "Gardener's Dictionary," ed. 6 1771; La Marck, Dict, i., 107;
+  Watson, "Dendrologia Britannica," ii., tab. 98; Reich. Ic. fl.
+  Germ. et Helvet., xxii., fig, 1298; Tenore, "Flora Neapolitana,"
+  v., 264; Loudon, Arb. et Fruticet. Brit., iii., 2014, Encycl.
+  Trees and Shrubs, p. 918; Koch, "Dendrologie." zweit, theil zweit,
+  abtheil, p. 4. C. duinensis, Scopoli, "Flora Carniolica," 2 ed.,
+  ii., 243, tab. 60; Bertoloni, "Flora Italica," x., 233; Alph. De
+  Candolle in Prodr., xvi. (ii.), 126.]
+
+_The American Hornbeam_ [3] also known under the names of blue beech,
+water beech, and iron wood, although a less tree than our native
+species, which it resembles a good deal in size of foliage and general
+aspect, is nevertheless a most desirable one for the park or pleasure
+ground, on account of the gorgeous tint assumed by the decaying leaves
+in autumn. Emerson, in his "Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," pays a
+just tribute to this tree from a decorative standpoint. He says: "The
+crimson, scarlet, and orange of its autumnal colors, mingling into a
+rich purplish red, as seen at a distance, make it rank in splendor
+almost with the tupelo and the scarlet oak. It is easily cultivated,
+and should have a corner in every collection of trees." It has
+pointed, ovate oblong, sharply double serrate, nearly smooth leaves.
+The acute bractlets are three-lobed, halberd-shaped, sparingly
+cut-toothed on one side. Professor C.S. Sargent, in his catalogue of
+the "Forest Trees-of North America," gives the distribution, etc., of
+the American hornbeam as follows: "Northern Nova Scotia and New
+Brunswick, through the valley of St. Lawrence and Lower Ottawa Rivers,
+along the northern shores of Lake Huron to Northern Wisconsin and
+Minnesota; south to Florida and Eastern Texas. Wood resembling that of
+ostrya (hop hornbeam). At the north generally a shrub or small tree,
+but becoming, in the Southern Alleghany Mountains, a tree sometimes 50
+feet in height, with a trunk 2 feet to 3 feet in diameter." It will
+almost grow in any soil or exposition in this country.
+
+  [Footnote 3: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinius caroliniana, Walter,
+  "Flora Caroliniana," 236; C. americana, Michx. fl. bor. Amer.,
+  ii., 201; Mich. f. Hist. des. Arbres Forestiers de l'Amerique
+  Septentrionale, iii., 57, tab. 8; Watson, "Dendrologia
+  Britannica," ii., 157; Gray, "Manual of the Botany of the Northern
+  United States," p. 457.]
+
+_Carpinus viminea_[4] is a rather striking species with long-pointed
+leaves; the accompanying figure scarcely gives a sufficiently clear
+representation of their long, tail-like prolongations. Judging from
+the height at which it grows, it would probably prove hardy in this
+country, and, if so, the distinct aspect and graceful habit of the
+tree would render it a decided acquisition. It is a moderate-sized
+tree, with thin gray bark, and slender, drooping warted branches. The
+blade of the smooth leave measures from 3 inches to 4 inches in
+length, the hairy leaf-stalk being about half an inch long. It is a
+native of Himalaya, where it occurs at elevations of from 5000 to 7000
+feet above sea-level. As in our common hornbeam, the male catkins
+appear before the leaves, and the female flowers develop in spring at
+the same time as the leaves. The hard, yellowish white wood--a cubic
+foot of which weighs 50 lb.--is used for ordinary building purposes by
+the natives of Nepaul.
+
+  [Footnote 4: IDENTIFICATION.--Carpinus viminea, Lindl. in Wall.
+  Plant. Asiat. Rar., ii., p. 4, t. 106; D.C. Prodr., xvi., ii.,
+  127. Loudon, "Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum," iii., p. 2014;
+  Encycl. of Trees and Shrubs, p. 919. Brandis, "Forest Flora,"
+  492.]
+
+GEORGE NICHOLSON.
+Royal Gardens, Kew.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FRUIT OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA.
+
+
+The fruiting of the camellia in this country being rather uncommon, we
+have taken the opportunity of illustrating one of three sent to us a
+fortnight ago by Mr. J. Menzies, South Lytchett, who says: "The fruits
+are from a large plant of the single red, grown out of doors against a
+wall with an east aspect, and protected by a glazed coping 4 feet
+wide. The double, semi-double, and single varieties have from time to
+time borne fruit out of doors here, from which I have raised
+seedlings, but have hitherto failed to get any variety worth sending
+out or naming."
+
+In the annexed woodcut the fruit is represented natural size. Its
+appearance is somewhat singular. It is very hard, and has a glazed
+appearance like that of porcelain. The color is pale green, except on
+the exposed side, which is dull red. It is furrowed like a tomato, and
+on the day after we received it the furrows opened and exposed three
+or four large mahogany-brown seeds embedded in hard pulp.--_The
+Garden._
+
+[Illustration: FRUIT OF CAMELLILA JAPONICA.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[SCIENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+A NEW RULE FOR DIVISION IN ARITHMETIC.
+
+
+The ordinary process of long division is rather difficult, owing to
+the necessity of guessing at the successive figures which form the
+divisor. In case the repeating decimal expressing the _exact_ quotient
+is required, the following method will be found convenient:
+
+_Rule for division_.
+
+_First._ Treat the divisor as follows:
+
+  If its last figure is a 0, strike this off, and treat what is left
+  as the divisor.
+
+  If its last figure is a 5, multiply the whole by 2, and treat the
+  product as the divisor.
+
+  If its last figure is an even number, multiply the whole by 5, and
+  treat the product as a divisor.
+
+Repeat this treatment until these precepts cease to be applicable.
+Call the result the _prepared divisor_.
+
+_Second._ From the prepared divisor cut off the last figure: and, if
+this be a 9, change it to a 1, or if it be a 1, change it to a 9;
+otherwise keep it unchanged. Call this figure the _extraneous
+multiplier_.
+
+Multiply the extraneous multiplier into the divisor thus truncated,
+and increase the product by 1, unless the extraneous multiplier be 7,
+when increase the product by 5. Call the result the _current
+multiplier_.
+
+_Third._ Multiply together the extraneous multiplier and all the
+multipliers used in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor. Use
+the product to multiply the dividend, calling the result the _prepared
+dividend_.
+
+_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend cut off the last figure, multiply
+this by the current multiplier, and add the product to the truncated
+dividend. Call the sum the _modified dividend_, and treat this in the
+same way. Continue this process until a modified dividend is reached
+which equals the original prepared dividend or some previous modified
+dividend; so that, were the process continued, the same figures would
+recur.
+
+_Fifth._ Consider the series of last figures which have been
+successively cut off from the prepared dividend and from the modified
+dividends as constituting a number, the figure first cut off being in
+the units' place, the next in the tens' place, and so on. Call this
+the _first infinite number_, because its left-hand portion consists of
+a series of figures repeating itself indefinitely toward the left.
+Imagine another infinite number, identical with the first in the
+repeating part of the latter, but differing from this in that the same
+series is repeated uninterruptedly and indefinitely toward the right
+into the decimal places.
+
+Subtract the first infinite number from the second, and shift the
+decimal point as many places to the left as there were zeros dropped
+in the process of obtaining the prepared divisor.
+
+The result is the quotient sought.
+
+_Examples._
+
+1. The following is taken at random. Divide 1883 by 365.
+
+_First._ The divisor, since it ends in 5, must be multiplied by 2,
+giving 730. Dropping the O, we have 73 for the prepared divisor.
+
+_Second._ The last figure of the prepared divisor being 3, this is the
+extraneous multiplier. Multiplying the truncated divisor, 7, by the
+extraneous multiplier, 3, and adding 1, we have 22 for the current
+multiplier.
+
+_Third._ The dividend, 1883, has now to be multiplied by the product
+of 3, the extraneous multiplier, and 2, the multiplier used in
+preparing the divisor. The product, 11298, is the prepared dividend.
+
+_Fourth._ From the prepared dividend, 11298, we cut off the last
+figure 8, and multiply this by the current multiplier, 22. The
+product, 176, is added to the truncated dividend, 1129, and gives 1305
+for the first modified divisor. The whole operation is shown thus:
+
+                   1 8 8 3
+                         6
+                   -------
+                 1 1 2 9|8
+                   1 7 6 -
+                   -----
+                 1 3 0|5
+                 1 1 0 -
+                 -----
+                 2|4 0
+               8 8 ---
+               ---
+              |9 0
+           -----
+           1 9|8
+         1 7 6 -
+         -----
+         1 9|5
+       1 1 0 -
+       -----
+       1 2|9
+     1 9 8 -
+     -----
+     2|1 0
+   2 2 ---
+   2 4
+
+We stop at this point because 24 was a previous modified dividend,
+written under the form 240 above. Our two infinite numbers (which need
+not in practice be written down) are, with their difference:
+
+          .        .
+          10,958,904,058      .      .
+          10,958,904,109.5890410958904
+          ----------------------------
+                              .      .
+                      51.5890410958904
+                                .      .
+Hence the quotient sought is 5.158904109.
+
+_Example 2._ Find the reciprocal of 333667.
+
+The whole work is here given:
+
+      3 3 3 6 6|7                    |7
+    2 3 3 5 6 7 -         1 6 3 4 9 6|9
+                        2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                        -------------
+                        2 2 6 5 5 9|9
+                      2 1 0 2 1 0 3 -
+                      -------------
+                      2 3 2 8 6 6|2
+                      4 6 7 1 3 4 -
+                      -----------
+                      7 0 0 0 0 0
+
+            .       .
+_Answer_, 0.000002997.
+
+_Example 3._ Find the reciprocal of 41.
+
+_Solution._--
+
+                    4|1                 |9
+                    -----              -----
+                    3 7|9              3 3|3
+                        -            1 1 1 -
+                                     -----
+                                     1 4|4
+                                   1 4 8 -
+                                   -----
+                                   1 6|2
+                                   7 4 -
+                                   ---
+                                   9 0
+            .   .
+_Answer_, 0.02439.
+
+C.S. PEIRCE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[SCIENCE.]
+
+
+
+
+EXPERIMENTS IN BINARY ARITHMETIC.
+
+
+Those who can perform in that most necessary of all mathematical
+operations, simple addition, any great number of successive examples
+or any single extensive example without consciousness of a severe
+mental strain, followed by corresponding mental fatigue, are
+exceptions to a general rule. These troubles are due to the quantity
+and complexity of the matter with which the mind has to be occupied at
+the same time that the figures are recognized. The sums of pairs of
+numbers from zero up to nine form fifty-five distinct propositions
+that must be borne in memory, and the "carrying" is a further
+complication. The strain and consequent weariness are not only felt,
+but seen, in the mistakes in addition that they cause. They are, in
+great part, the tax exacted of us by our decimal system of arithmetic.
+Were only quantities of the same value, in any one column, to be
+added, our memory would be burdened with nothing more than the
+succession of numbers in simple counting, or that of multiples of two,
+three, or four, if the counting is by groups.
+
+It is easy to prove that the most economical way of reducing addition
+to counting similar quantities is by the binary arithmetic of
+Leibnitz, which appears in an altered dress, with most of the zero
+signs suppressed, in the example below. Opposite each number in the
+usual figures is here set the same according to a scheme in which the
+signs of powers of two repeat themselves in periods of four; a very
+small circle, like a degree mark, being used to express any fourth
+power in the series; a long loop, like a narrow 0, any square not a
+fourth power; a curve upward and to the right, like a phonographic
+_l_, any double fourth power; and a curve to the right and downward,
+like a phonographic _r_, any half of a fourth power; with a vertical
+bar to denote the absence of three successive powers not fourth
+powers. Thus the equivalent for one million, shown in the example
+slightly below the middle, is 2^{16} (represented by a degree-mark in
+the fifth row of these marks, counting from the right) plus 2^{17} +
+2^{9} (two _l_-curves in the fifth and third places of _l_-curves)
+plus 2^{18} + 2^{14} + 2^{6} (three loops) plus 2^{19} (the _r_-curve
+at the extreme left); while the absence of 2^{3}, 2^{2}, and 2^{1} is
+shown by the vertical stroke at the right. This equivalent expression
+may be verified, if desired, either by adding the designated powers of
+two from 524,288 down to 64, or by successive multiplications by two,
+adding one when necessary. The form of characters here exhibited was
+thought to be the best of nearly three hundred that were devised and
+considered and in about sixty cases tested for economic value by
+actual additions.
+
+In order to add them, the object for which these forty numbers are
+here presented in two notations, it is not necessary to know just
+_why_ the figures on the right are equal to those on the left, or to
+know anything more than the order in which the different forms are to
+be taken, and the fact that any one has twice the value of one in the
+column next succeeding it on the right. The addition may be made from
+the printed page, first covering over the answer with a paper held
+fast by a weight, to have a place for the figures of the new answer as
+successively obtained. The fingers will be found a great assistance,
+especially if one of each hand be used, to point off similar marks in
+twos, or threes, or fours--as many together as can be certainly
+comprehended in a glance of the eye. Counting by fours, if it can be
+done safely, is preferable because most rapid. The eye can catch the
+marks for even powers more easily in going up and those for odd powers
+(the _l_ and _r_ curves) in going down the columns. Beginning at the
+lower right hand corner, we count the right hand column of small
+circles, or degree marks, upward; they are twenty-three in number.
+Half of twenty-three is eleven and one over; one of these marks has
+therefore to be entered as part of the answer, and eleven carried to
+the next column, the first one of _l_-curves. But since the curves are
+most advantageously added downward, it is best, when the first column
+is finished, simply to remember the remainder from it, and not to set
+down anything until the bottom is reached in the addition of the
+second column, when the remainders, if any, from both columns can be
+set down together. In this case, starting with the eleven carried and
+counting the number of the _l_-curves, we find ourselves at the bottom
+with twenty-four--twelve to carry, and nothing to set down except the
+degree mark from the first column. With the twelve we go up the
+adjoining loop column, and the sum must be even, as this place is
+vacant in the answer; the _r_-curve column next, downward, and then
+another row of degree marks. The succession must be obvious by this
+time. When the last column, the one in loops to the extreme left, is
+added, the sum has to be reduced to unity by successive halvings. Here
+we seem to have eleven; hence we enter one loop, and carry five to the
+next place, which, it must be remembered, is of _r_-curves. Halving
+five we express the remainder by entering one of these curves, and
+carry the quotient, two, to the degree mark place. Halving again gives
+one in the next place, that of _l_-curves; and the work is complete.
+
+It is recommended that this work be gone over several times for
+practice, until the appearance and order of the characters and the
+details of the method become familiar; that, when the work can be done
+mechanically and without hesitation, the time occupied in a complete
+addition of the example, and the mistakes made in it, be carefully
+noted; that this be done several times, with an interval of some days
+between the trials, and the result of each trial kept separate; that
+the time and mistakes by the ordinary figures in the same example, in
+several trials, be observed for comparison. Please pay particular
+attention to the difference in the kind of work required by the two
+methods in its bearing on two questions--which of them would be easier
+to work by for hours together, supposing both equally well learned?
+and in which of them could a reasonable degree of skill be more
+readily acquired by a beginner? The answer to these questions, if the
+comparison be a fair one, is as little to be doubted as is their high
+importance.
+
+_Example in addition by two notations_
+
+   77,823,876
+   14,348,907
+    8,654,912
+    5,764,801
+    4,635,857
+    1,594,323
+    6,417,728
+    4,782,969
+   83,886,075
+   34,012,224
+    2,903,111
+   48,828,125
+    1,724,826
+    7,529,536
+   43,344,817
+   10,000,000
+    8,334,712
+    1,953,125
+   11,308,417
+      759,375
+   21,180,840
+    9,765,625
+   18,643,788
+    1,000,000
+   44,739,243
+    1,889,568
+    2,517,471
+   40,353,607
+    4,438,414
+    1,679,616
+   23,708,715
+   11,890,625
+      945,754
+      823,543
+   15,308,805
+   60,466,176
+   30,685,377
+   10,077,696
+   19,416,381
+   43,046,721
+  ===========
+  740,685,681
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Eight volunteer observers to whom this example has already been
+submitted showed wide difference in arithmetical skill. One of them
+took but a few seconds over two minutes, in the best of six trials, to
+add by the usual figures, and set down the sum, but one figure in all
+the six additions being wrong; another added once in ten minutes
+fifty-seven seconds, and once in eleven minutes seven seconds, with
+half the figures wrong each time. The last-mentioned observer had had
+very little training in arithmetical work, but perhaps that gave a
+fairer comparison. In the binary figures she made three additions in
+between seven and eight minutes, with but one place wrong in the
+three. With four of the observers the binary notation required nearly
+double the time. These observers were all well practiced in
+computation. Their best record, five minutes eighteen seconds, was
+made by one whose best record was two minutes forty seconds in
+ordinary figures. The author's own best results were two minutes
+thirty-eight seconds binary, and three minutes twenty-three seconds
+usual. He thus proved himself inferior to the last observer, as an
+adder, by a system in which both were equally well trained; but a
+greater familiarity (extending over a few weeks instead of a few
+hours) with methods in binary addition enabled him to work twice as
+fast with them. Of the author's nine additions by the usual figures,
+four were wrong in one figure each; of his thirty-two additions by
+different forms of binary notation, five were wrong, one of them in
+two places. One observer found that he required one minute
+thirty-three seconds to add a single column (average of five tried) by
+the usual figures, and fifteen seconds to count the characters in one
+(average of six tried) by the binary. Though these additions were
+rather slow, the results are interesting. They show, making allowance
+for the greater number of columns (three and a third times as many)
+required by the binary plan, a saving of nearly half; but they also
+illustrate the necessity of practice. This observer succeeded with the
+binary arithmetic by avoiding the sources of delay that particularly
+embarrass the beginner, by contenting himself with counting only, and
+not stopping to divide by two, to set down an unfamiliar character, or
+to recognize the mark by which he must distinguish his next column.
+One well-known member of the Washington Philosophical Society and of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science, who declined
+the actual trial as too severe a task, estimated his probable time
+with ordinary figures at twenty minutes, with strong chances of a
+wrong result, after all.
+
+These statistics prove the existence of a class of persons who can do
+faster and more reliable work by the binary reckoning. But too much
+should not be made of them. Let them serve as specimens of facts of
+which a great many more are to be desired, bearing on a question of
+grave importance. Is it not worth our while to know, if we can, by
+impartial tests, whether the tax imposed on our working brains by the
+system of arithmetic in daily use is the necessary price of a blessing
+enjoyed, or an oppression? If the strain produced by greater
+complexity and intensity of mental labor is compensated by a
+correspondingly greater rapidity in dealing with figures, the former
+may be the case. If, on the contrary, a little practice suffices to
+turn the balance of rapidity, for all but a small body of highly
+drilled experts, in favor of an easier system, the latter must be.
+This is the question that the readers of _Science_ are invited to help
+in deciding. The difficulties attending a complete revolution in the
+prevalent system of reckoning are confessedly stupendous; but they do
+not render undesirable the knowledge that experiment alone can give,
+whether or not the cost of that system is unreasonably high; nor
+should they prevent those who accord them the fullest recognition from
+assisting to furnish the necessary facts.
+
+Those who are willing to undertake the addition on the plan proposed
+or on any better plan, or who will submit it to such acquaintances,
+skilled or unskilled, as may be persuaded to take the trouble to learn
+the mechanism of binary adding, will confer a great favor by informing
+the writer of the time occupied, and number of mistakes made, in each
+addition. All observations and suggestions relating to the subject
+will be most gratefully received.
+
+Henry Farquhar.
+
+Office of U.S. Coast Survey, Washington, D.C.
+
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