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diff --git a/1560-h/1560-h.htm b/1560-h/1560-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..84f09e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/1560-h/1560-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,14679 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The San Francisco Calamity by Earthquake and Fire, by Various + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The San Francisco Calamity, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The San Francisco Calamity + +Author: Various + +Editor: Charles Morris + +Release Date: May 3, 2006 [EBook #1560] +Last Updated: November 16, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SAN FRANCISCO CALAMITY *** + + + + +Produced by Donald Lainson; David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE SAN FRANCISCO CALAMITY <br /> BY EARTHQUAKE AND FIRE + </h1> + <h2> + A Complete and Accurate Account of the Fearful Disaster which <br /> + Visited the Great City and the Pacific Coast, the Reign of Panic and <br /> + Lawlessness, the Plight of 300,000 Homeless People and the World-wide + <br /> Rush to the Rescue. + </h2> + <h2> + TOLD BY EYE WITNESSES + </h2> + <h3> + INCLUDING GRAPHIC AND RELIABLE ACCOUNTS OF ALL GREAT EARTHQUAKES AND <br /> + VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS IN THE WORLD’S HISTORY, AND SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS + <br /> OF THEIR CAUSES. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + EDITED BY CHARLES MORRIS, LL. D. + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + Earthquake and famine, fire and sudden death—these are the + destroyers that men fear when they come singly; but upon the unhappy + people of California they came together, a hideous quartette, to slay + human beings, to blot from existence the wealth that represented prolonged + and strenuous effort, to bring hunger and speechless misery to three + hundred thousand homeless and terror-stricken people. + </p> + <p> + The full measure of the catastrophe can probably never be taken. The + summary cannot be made amid the panic, the confusion, the removal of + ancient landmarks, the complete subversion of the ordinary machinery of + society. When chaos comes, as it did in San Francisco, and all the + channels of familiar life are closed, and human anguish grows to be + intolerable, compilation of statistics is impossible, even if it were not + repugnant to the feelings. And when order is once more restored, after the + lapse of many weeks, months and perhaps years, the details of the calamity + have merged into one undecipherable mass of misery which defies the + analyst and the historian. It is the purpose of this book faithfully to + record the story of these awful days when years were lived in a moment and + to preserve an accurate chronicle of them, not only for the people whose + hearts yearn in sympathy to-day, but for their posterity. + </p> + <p> + Other frightful catastrophes the world has known. The earthquake which + dropped Lisbon into the sea in 1755, and in a moment swallowed up + twenty-five thousand people, was perhaps more awful than the convulsion + which has brought woe to San Francisco. When Krakatoa Mountain, in the + Straits of Sunda, in 1883, split asunder and poured across the land a + mighty wave, in which thirty-six thousand human beings perished, the + results also were more terrible. + </p> + <p> + The whirlwind of fire which consumed St. Pierre, in the Island of + Martinique, and the devastation wrought by Vesuvius a few days previous to + that at San Francisco, need not be used for comparison with the latter + tragedy, but they may be referred to, that we may recall the fact that + this land of ours is not the only one which has suffered. + </p> + <p> + But since the western hemisphere was discovered there has been in this + quarter of the globe no violence of natural forces at all comparable in + destructive fury with that which was manifested upon the Pacific coast. + The only other calamity at all equalling it, or surpassing it, was the + Civil War, and that was the work of the evil passions of man inciting him + to slay his brother, while Nature would have had him live in peace. + </p> + <p> + The earthquake in San Francisco, which crumbled strong buildings as if + they were made of paper, would have been terrible enough; but afterward + came the horror of fire and of imprisoned men and women burned alive, and + now to it was added the suffering of multitudes from hunger and exposure. + </p> + <p> + Public attention is fixed on the great city; but smaller cities had their + days and nights of destruction, horror and misery. Some were almost + destroyed. Others were partly ruined, and beyond their borders, over a + wide area, the trembling of the earth toppled houses, annihilated property + and transformed riches into poverty. The cost in life can be reckoned. The + money loss will never be computed, for the appraised value of the wrecked + property conveys no notion of the consequences of the almost complete + paralysis, for a time, of the commercial operations by means of which men + and women earn their bread. + </p> + <p> + When the weakness and the folly and the sin of men bring woe upon other + men, there are plenty of texts for the preacher and no scarcity of earnest + preachers. But here is a vast and awful catastrophe that befell from an + act of Nature apparently no more extraordinary than the shrinkage of hot + metal in the process of cooling. The consequences are terrifying in this + case because they involve the habitations of half a million people; but, + no doubt, the process goes on somewhere within the earth almost + continuously, and it no more involves the theory of malignant Nature than + that of an angry God. + </p> + <p> + If we contemplate it, possibly we may be helped to a profitable estimate + of our own relative insignificance. We think, with some notion of our + importance, of the thousand million men who live upon the earth; but they + are a mere handful of animate atoms in comparison with the surface, to say + nothing of the solid contents, of the globe itself. + </p> + <p> + We are fond of boasting in this latter day of man’s marvelous success in + subduing the forces of Nature; and, while we are in the midst of + exultation over our victories, Nature tumbles the rocks about somewhere + within the bowels of the earth, and we have to learn the old lesson that + our triumphs have not penetrated farther than to the very outermost rim of + the realms of Nature. + </p> + <p> + A few weak, almost helpless, creatures, we millions of men stand upon the + deck of a great ship, which goes rolling through space that is itself + incomprehensible, and usually we are so busy with our paltry ambitions, + our transgressions, our righteous labors, our prides and hopes and + entanglements that we forget where we are and what is our destiny. A + direct interposition from a Superior Power, even if it be hurtful to the + body, might be required to persuade us to stop and consider and take anew + our bearings, so that we may comprehend in some larger degree our precise + relations to things. The wisest men have been the most ready to recognize + the beneficence of the discipline of affliction. If there were no sorrow, + we should be likely to find the school of life unprofitable. + </p> + <p> + For one thing, the school wherein sorrow is a part of the discipline is + that in which is developed human sympathy, one of the finest and most + ennobling manifestations of the Love which is, in its essence, divine. In + human life there is much that is ignoble, and the race has almost + contemptible weakness and insignificance in comparison with the physical + forces of the universe. + </p> + <p> + But man is superior to all these forces in his possession of the power of + affection; and in almost the lowest and basest of the race this power, if + latent and half lost, may be found and evoked by the spectacle of the + suffering of a fellow-creature. + </p> + <p> + The human family looks on with pity while the homeless and hungry and + impoverished Californians endure pangs. Wherever the news went, by the + swift processes of electricity, there men and women, some of them, + perhaps, hardly knowing where California is, were sorry and willing and + eager to help. There are quarrels within the family sometimes, when nation + wars with nation, and all love seems to have vanished; but the world is, + in truth, akin. “God hath made of one blood all the nations of the earth,” + and the blood “tells” when suffering comes. + </p> + <p> + THE PUBLISHERS. <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_TOC"> CONTENTS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> <big><b>THE SAN FRANCISCO CALAMITY BY + EARTHQUAKE AND FIRE</b></big> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER XXIX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XXX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER XXXI. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_TOC" id="link2H_TOC"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + CONTENTS + </h2> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER I. <br /> SAN FRANCISCO AND ITS TERRIFIC EARTHQUAKE <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER II. <br /> THE DEMON OF FIRE INVADES THE STRICKEN CITY <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER III. <br /> FIGHTING FLAMES WITH DYNAMITE <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER IV. <br /> THE REIGN OF DESTRUCTION AND DEVASTATION <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER V. <br /> THE PANIC FLIGHT OF A HOMELESS HOST <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER VI. <br /> FACING FAMINE AND PRAYING FOR RELIEF <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER VII. <br /> THE FRIGHTFUL LOSS OF LIFE AND WEALTH <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER VIII. <br /> WONDERFUL RECORD OF THRILLING ESCAPES <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER IX. <br /> DISASTER SPREADS OVER THE GOLDEN STATE <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER X. <br /> ALL AMERICA AND CANADA TO THE RESCUE <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XI. <br /> THE SAN FRANCISCO OF THE PAST <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XII. <br /> LIFE IN THE METROPOLIS OF THE PACIFIC <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XIII. <br /> PLANS TO REBUILD SAN FRANCISCO <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XIV. <br /> THE EARTHQUAKE WAVE FELT AROUND THE WORLD <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XV. <br /> VESUVIUS DEVASTATES THE REGION OF NAPLES <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XVI. <br /> THE GREAT LISBON AND CALABRIAN EARTHQUAKES <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XVII. <br /> THE CHARLESTON AND OTHER EARTHQUAKES OF THE UNITED + STATES <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XVIII. <br /> THE VOLCANO AND THE EARTHQUAKE, EARTH’S DEMONS OF + DESTRUCTION <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XIX. <br /> THE THEORIES OF VOLCANIC AND EARTHQUAKE ACTION <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XX. <br /> THE ACTIVE VOLCANOES OF THE EARTH <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXI. <br /> THE FAMOUS VESUVIUS AND THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXII. <br /> ERUPTIONS OF VESUVIUS, ETNA AND STROMBOLI <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXIII. <br /> SKAPTER JOKULL AND HECLA, THE GREAT ICELANDIC + VOLCANOES <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXIV. <br /> VOLCANOES OF THE PHILIPPINES AND OTHER PACIFIC + ISLANDS <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXV. <br /> THE WONDERFUL HAWAIIAN CRATERS AND KILAUEA’S LAKE OF + FIRE <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXVI. <br /> POPOCATEPETL AND OTHER VOLCANOES OF MEXICO AND + CENTRAL AMERICA <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXVII. <br /> THE TERRIBLE ERUPTION OF KRAKATOA <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXVIII. <br /> MONT PELEE AND ITS HARVEST OF DEATH IN 1902 <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER XXIX. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXIX. <br /> ST. VINCENT ISLAND AND MONT SOUFRIERE IN 1812 <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XXX. </a> + </p> + <p> + CHAPTER XXX. <br /> SUBMARINE VOLCANOES AND THEIR WORK OF ISLAND-BUILDING + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER XXXI. </a> + </p> + <p> + MUD VOLCANOES, GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS <br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE SAN FRANCISCO CALAMITY BY EARTHQUAKE AND FIRE + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. + </h2> + <h3> + San Francisco and Its Terrific Earthquake. + </h3> + <p> + On the splendid Bay of San Francisco, one of the noblest harbors on the + whole vast range of the Pacific Ocean, long has stood, like a Queen of the + West on its seven hills, the beautiful city of San Francisco, the youngest + and in its own way one of the most beautiful and attractive of the large + cities of the United States. Born less than sixty years ago, it has grown + with the healthy rapidity of a young giant, outvieing many cities of much + earlier origin, until it has won rank as the eighth city of the United + States, and as the unquestioned metropolis of our far Western States. + </p> + <p> + It is on this great and rich city that the dark demon of destruction has + now descended, as it fell on the next younger of our cities, Chicago, in + 1872. It was the rage of the fire-fiend that desolated the metropolis of + the lakes. Upon the Queen City of the West the twin terrors of earthquake + and conflagration have descended at once, careening through its thronged + streets, its marts of trade, and its abodes alike of poverty and wealth, + and with the red hand of devastation sweeping one of the noblest centres + of human industry and enterprise from the face of the earth. It is this + story of almost irremediable ruin which it is our unwelcome duty to + chronicle. But before entering upon this sorrowful task some description + of the city that has fallen a prey to two of the earth’s chief agents of + destruction must be given. + </p> + <p> + San Francisco is built on the end of a peninsula or tongue of land lying + between the Pacific Ocean and the broad San Francisco Bay, a noble body of + inland water extending southward for about forty miles and with a width + varying from six to twelve miles. Northward this splendid body of water is + connected with San Pablo Bay, ten miles long, and the latter with Suisun + Bay, eight miles long, the whole forming a grand range of navigable waters + only surpassed by the great northern inlet of Puget Sound. The Golden + Gate, a channel five miles long, connects this great harbor with the sea, + the whole giving San Francisco the greatest commercial advantages to be + found on the Pacific coast. + </p> + <p> + THE EARLY DAYS OF SAN FRANCISCO. + </p> + <p> + The original site of the city was a grant made by the King of Spain of + four square leagues of land. Congress afterwards confirmed this grant. It + was an uninviting region, with its two lofty hills and its various lower + ones, a barren expanse of shifting sand dunes extending from their feet. + The population in 1830 was about 200 souls, about equal to that of Chicago + at the same date. It was not much larger in 1848, when California fell + into American hands and the discovery of gold set in train the famous rush + of treasure seekers to that far land. When 1849 dawned the town contained + about 2,000 people. They had increased to 20,000 before the year ended. + The place, with its steep and barren hills and its sandy stretches, was + not inviting, but its ease of access to the sea and its sheltered harbor + were important features, and people settled there, making it a depot of + mining supplies and a point of departure for the mines. + </p> + <p> + The place grew rapidly and has continued to grow. At first a city of + flimsy frame buildings, it became early a prey to the flames, fire + sweeping through it three times in 1850 and taking toll of the young city + to the value of $7,500,000. These conflagrations swept away most of the + wooden houses, and business men began to build more substantially of + brick, stone and iron. Yet to-day, for climatic reasons, most of the + residences continue to be built of wood. But the slow-burning redwood of + the California hillsides is used instead of the inflammable pine, the + result being that since 1850 the loss by fire in the residence section of + the city has been remarkably small. In 1900 the city contained 50,494 + frame and only 3,881 stone and brick buildings, though the tendency to use + more durable materials was then growing rapidly. + </p> + <p> + Before describing the terrible calamity which fell upon this beautiful + city on that dread morning of April 18, 1906, some account of the + character of the place is very desirable, that readers may know what San + Francisco was before the rage of earthquake and fire reduced it to what it + is to-day. + </p> + <p> + THE CHARACTER OF THE CITY. + </p> + <p> + The site of the city of San Francisco is very uneven, embracing a series + of hills, of which the highest ones, known as the Twin Peaks, reach to an + elevation of 925 feet, and form the crown of an amphitheatre of lower + altitudes. Several of the latter are covered with handsome residences, and + afford a magnificent view of the surrounding country, with its bordering + bay and ocean, and the noble Golden Gate channel, a river-like passage + from ocean to bay of five miles in length and one in width. This waterway + is very deep except on the bar at its mouth, where the depth of water is + thirty feet. + </p> + <p> + Since its early days the growth of the city has been very rapid. In 1900 + it held 342,782 people, and the census estimate made from figures of the + city directory in 1904 gave it then a population of 485,000, probably a + considerable exaggeration. In it are mingled inhabitants from most of the + nations of the earth, and it may claim the unenviable honor of possessing + the largest population of Chinese outside of China itself, the colony + numbering over 20,000. + </p> + <p> + Of the pioneer San Francisco few traces remain, the old buildings having + nearly all disappeared. Large and costly business houses and splendid + residences have taken their place in the central portion of the city, + marble, granite, terra-cotta, iron and steel being largely used as + building material. The great prevalence of frame buildings in the + residence sections is largely due to the popular belief that they are + safer in a locality subject to earthquakes, while the frequent occurrence + of earth tremors long restrained the inclination to erect lofty buildings. + Not until 1890 was a high structure built, and few skyscrapers had invaded + the city up to its day of ruin. They will probably be introduced more + frequently in the future, recent experience having demonstrated that they + are in considerable measure earthquake proof. + </p> + <p> + The city before the fire contained numerous handsome structures, including + the famous old Palace Hotel, built at a cost of $3,000,000 and with + accommodations for 1,200 guests; the nearly finished and splendid + Fairmount Hotel; the City Hall, with its lofty dome, on which $7,000,000 + is said to have been spent, much of it, doubtless, political plunder; a + costly United States Mint and Post Office, an Academy of Science, and many + churches, colleges, libraries and other public edifices. The city had 220 + miles of paved streets, 180 miles of electric and 77 of cable railway, 62 + hotels, 16 theatres, 4 large libraries, 5 daily newspapers, etc., together + with 28 public parks. + </p> + <p> + Sitting, like Rome of old, on its seven hills, San Francisco has long been + noted for its beautiful site, clasped in, as it is, between the Pacific + Ocean and its own splendid bay, on a peninsula of some five miles in + width. Where this juts into the bay at its northernmost point rises a + great promontory known as Telegraph Hill, from whose height homeless + thousands have recently gazed on the smoke rising from their ruined homes. + In the early days of golden promise a watchman was stationed on this hill + to look out for coming ships entering the Golden Gate from their long + voyage around the Horn and signal the welcome news to the town below. From + this came its name. + </p> + <p> + Cliffs rise on either side of the Golden Gate, and on one is perched the + Cliff House, long a famous hostelry. This stands so low that in storms the + surf is flung over its lower porticos, though its force is broken by the + Seal Rocks. A chief attraction to this house was to see the seals play on + these rocks, their favorite place of resort. The Cliff House was at first + said to have been swept bodily by the earthquake into the sea, but it + proved to be very little injured, and stands erect in its old picturesque + location. + </p> + <p> + In the vicinity of Telegraph Hill are Russian and Nob Hills, the latter + getting its peculiar title from the fact that the wealthy “nobs,” or + mining magnates, of bonanza days built their homes on its summit level. + Farther to the east are Mount Olympus and Strawberry Hill, and beyond + these the Twin Peaks, which really embrace three hills, the third being + named Bernal Heights. Farther to the south and east is Rincan Hill, the + last in the half moon crescent of hills, within which is a spread of flat + ground extending to the bay. Behind the hills on the Pacific side + stretches a vast sweep of sand, at some places level, but often gathered + into great round dunes. Part of this has been transformed into the + beautiful Golden Gate Park, a splendid expanse of green verdure which has + long been one of San Francisco’s chief attractions. + </p> + <p> + Beneath the whole of San Francisco is a rock formation, but everywhere on + top of this extends the sand, the gift of the winds. This is of such a + character that a hole dug in the street anywhere, even if only to the + depth of a few feet, must be shored up with planking or it will fill as + fast as it is excavated, the sand running as dry as the contents of an + hour glass. When there is an earthquake—or a “temblor,” to use the + Spanish name—it is the rock foundation that is disturbed, not the + sand, which, indeed, serves to lessen the effect of the earth tremor. + </p> + <p> + THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE CITY. + </p> + <p> + Leaving the region of the hills and descending from their crescent-shaped + expanse, we find a broad extent of low ground, sloping gently toward the + bay. On this low-lying flat was built all of San Francisco’s business + houses, all its principal hotels and a large part of its tenements and + poorer dwellings. It was here that the earthquake was felt most severely + and that the fire started which laid waste the city. + </p> + <p> + Rarely has a city been built on such doubtful foundations. The greater + part of the low ground was a bay in 1849, but it has since been filled in + by the drifting sands blown from the ocean side by the prevailing west + winds and by earth dumped into it. Much of this land was “made ground.” + Forty-niners still alive say that when they first saw San Francisco the + waters of the bay came up to Montgomery Street. The Palace Hotel was in + Montgomery Street, and from there to the ferry docks—a long walk for + any man—the water had been driven back by a “filling-in” process. + </p> + <p> + This is the district that especially suffered, that south of Market and + east of Montgomery Streets. Nearly all the large buildings in this section + are either built on piles driven into the sand and mud or were raised upon + wooden foundations. It is on such ground as this that the costly Post + Office building was erected, despite the protests of nearly the entire + community, who asserted that the ground was nothing but a filled-in bog. + </p> + <p> + In none of the earthquakes that San Francisco has had was any serious + damage except to houses in this filled-in territory, and to houses built + along the line of some of the many streams which ran from the hills down + to the bay, and which were filled in as the town grew—for instance, + the Grand Opera House was built over the bed of St. Anne’s Creek. A bog, + slough and marsh, known as the Pipeville Slough, was the ground on which + the City Hall was built, and which was originally a burying ground. Sand + from the western shore had blown over and drifted into the marsh and + hardened its surface. + </p> + <p> + When the final grading scheme of the city was adopted in 1853, and work + went on, the water front of the city was where Clay Street now is, between + Montgomery and Sansome Streets. The present level area of San Francisco of + about three thousand acres is an average of nine feet above or below the + natural surface of the ground and the changes made necessitated the + transfer of 21,000,000 cubic yards from hills to hollows. Houses to the + number of thousands were raised or lowered, street floors became + subcellars or third stories and the whole natural face of the ground was + altered. + </p> + <p> + Through this infirm material all the pipes of the water and sewer system + of San Francisco in its business districts and in most of the region south + of Market street were laid. When the earthquake came, the filled-in ground + shook like the jelly it is. The only firm and rigid material in its + millions of cubic yards of surface area and depth were the iron pipes. + Naturally they broke, as they would not bend, and San Francisco’s water + system was therefore instantly disabled, with the result that the fire + became complete master of the situation and raged uncontrolled for three + days and nights. + </p> + <p> + Although the earthquake wrecked the business and residential portions of + the city alike, on the hills the land did not sink. All “made ground” sank + in consequence of the quaking, but on the high ground the upper parts of + the buildings were about the only portions of the structures wrecked. Most + of the damage on the hills was done by falling chimneys. On Montgomery + Street, half a block from the main office of the Western Union Company, + the middle of the street was cracked and blown up, but during the shocks + which struck the Western Union building only the top stories were cracked. + Similar phenomena were experienced in other localities, and the bulk of + the disaster, so far as the earthquake was concerned, was confined to the + low-lying region above described. + </p> + <p> + THE BANE OF THE EARTHQUAKE. + </p> + <p> + From the origin of San Francisco the earthquake has been its bane. During + the past fifty years fully 250 shocks have been recorded, while all + California has been subject to them. But frequency rather than violence of + shocks has been the characteristic of the seismic history of the State, + there having been few shocks that caused serious damage, and none since + 1872 that led to loss of life. + </p> + <p> + There was a violent shock in 1856, when the city was only a mining town of + small frame buildings. Several shanties were overthrown and a few persons + killed by falling walls and chimneys. There was a severe shock also in + 1865, in which many buildings were shattered. Next in violence was the + shock of 1872, which cracked the walls of some of the public buildings and + caused a panic. There was no great loss of life. In April, 1898, just + before midnight, there was a lively shakeup which caused the tall + buildings to shake like the snapping of a whip and drove the tourists out + of the hotels into the streets in their nightclothes. Three or four old + houses fell, and the Benicia Navy Yard, which is on made ground across the + bay, was damaged to the extent of about $100,000. The last severe shock + was in January, 1900, when the St. Nicholas Hotel was badly damaged. + </p> + <p> + These were the heaviest shocks. On the other hand, light shocks, as above + said, have been frequent. Probably the sensible quakes have averaged three + or four a year. These are usually tremblings lasting from ten seconds to a + minute and just heavy enough to wake light sleepers or to shake dishes + about on the shelves. Tourists and newcomers are generally alarmed by + these phenomena, but old Californians have learned to take them + philosophically. To one who is not afraid of them, the sensation of one of + these little tremblers is rather pleasant than otherwise, and the + inhabitants grew so accustomed to them as rarely to let them disturb their + equanimity. + </p> + <p> + After 1900 the forces beneath the earth seemed to fall asleep. As it + proved, they were only biding their time. The era was at hand when they + were to declare themselves in all their mighty power and fall upon the + devoted city with ruin in their grasp. But all this lay hidden in the + secret casket of time, and the city kept up to its record as one of the + liveliest and in many respects the most reckless and pleasure-loving on + the continent, its people squandering their money with thoughtless + improvidence and enjoying to the full all the good that life held out to + them. + </p> + <p> + On the 17th of April, 1906, the city was, as usual, gay, careless, busy, + its people attending to business or pleasure with their ordinary vim as + inclination led them, and not a soul dreaming of the horrors that lay in + wait. They were as heedless of coming peril and death as the inhabitants + of Sodom and Gomorrah before the rain of fire from heaven descended upon + their devoted heads. This is not to say that they were doomed by God to + destruction like these “cities of the plains.” We should more wisely say + that the forces of ruin within the earth take no heed of persons or + places. They come and go as the conditions of nature demand, and if man + has built one of his cities across their destined track, its doom comes + from its situation, not from the moral state of its inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + THE GREAT DISASTER OF 1906. + </p> + <p> + That night the people went, with their wonted equanimity, to their beds, + rich and poor, sick and well alike. Did any of them dream of disaster in + the air? It may be so, for often, as the poet tells us, “Coming events + cast their shadows before.” But, forewarned by dreams or not, doubtless + not a soul in the great city was prepared for the terrible event so near + at hand, when, at thirteen minutes past five o’clock on the dread morning + of the 18th, they felt their beds lifted beneath them as if by a Titan + hand, heard the crash of falling walls and ceilings, and saw everything in + their rooms tossed madly about, while through their windows came the roar + of an awful disaster from the city without. + </p> + <p> + It was a matter not of minutes, but of seconds, yet on all that coast, + long the prey of the earthquake, no shock like it had ever been felt, no + such sudden terror awakened, no such terrible loss occasioned as in those + few fearful seconds. Again and again the trembling of the earth passed by, + three quickly repeated shocks, and the work of the demon of ruin was done. + People woke with a start to find themselves flung from their beds to the + floor, many of them covered with the fragments of broken ceilings, many + lost among the ruins of falling floors and walls, many pinned in agonizing + suffering under the ruins of their houses, which had been utterly wrecked + in those fatal seconds. Many there were, indeed, who had been flung to + quick if not to instant death under their ruined homes. + </p> + <p> + Those seconds of the reign of the elemental forces had turned the gayest, + most careless city on the continent into a wreck which no words can fitly + describe. Those able to move stumbled in wild panic across the floors of + their heaving houses, regardless of clothing, of treasures, of everything + but the mad instinct for safety, and rushed headlong into the streets, to + find that the earth itself had yielded to the energy of its frightful + interior forces and had in places been torn and rent like the houses + themselves. New terrors assailed the fugitives as fresh tremors shook the + solid ground, some of them strong enough to bring down shattered walls and + chimneys, and bring back much of the mad terror of the first fearful + quake. The heaviest of these came at eight o’clock. While less forcible + than that which had caused the work of destruction, it added immensely to + the panic and dread of the people and put many of the wanderers to flight, + some toward the ferry, the great mass in the direction of the sand dunes + and Golden Gate Park. + </p> + <p> + The spectacle of the entire population of a great city thus roused + suddenly from slumber by a fierce earthquake shock and sent flying into + the streets in utter panic, where not buried under falling walls or + tumbling debris, is one that can scarcely be pictured in words, and can be + given in any approach to exact realization only in the narratives of those + who passed through its horrors and experienced the sensations to which it + gave rise. Some of the more vivid of these personal accounts will be + presented later, but at present we must confine ourselves to a general + statement of the succession of events. + </p> + <p> + The earthquake proved but the beginning and much the least destructive + part of the disaster. In many of the buildings there were fires, banked + for the night, but ready to kindle the inflammable material hurled down + upon them by the shock. In others were live electric wires which the shock + brought in contact with woodwork. The terror-stricken fugitives saw, here + and there, in all directions around them, the alarming vision of red + flames curling upward and outward, in gleaming contrast to the white light + of dawn just showing in the eastern sky. Those lurid gleams climbed upward + in devouring haste, and before the sun had fairly risen a dozen or more + conflagrations were visible in all sections of the business part of the + city, and in places great buildings broke with startling suddenness into + flame, which shot hotly high into the air. + </p> + <p> + While the mass of the people were stunned by the awful suddenness of the + disaster and stood rooted to the ground or wandered helplessly about in + blank dismay, there were many alert and self-possessed among them who + roused themselves quickly from their dismay and put their energies to + useful work. Some of these gave themselves to the work of rescue, seeking + to save the injured from their perilous situation and draw the bodies of + the dead from the ruins under which they lay. Those base wretches to whom + plunder is always the first thought were as quickly engaged in seeking for + spoil in edifices laid open to their plundering hands by the shock. + Meanwhile the glare of the flames brought the fire-fighters out in hot + haste with their engines, and up from the military station at the + Presidio, on the Golden Gate side of the city, came at double quick a + force of soldiers, under the efficient command of General Funston, of + Cuban and Philippine fame. These trained troops were at once put on guard + over the city, with directions to keep the best order possible, and with + strict command to shoot all looters at sight. Funston recognized at the + start the necessity of keeping the lawless element under control in such + an exigency as that which he had to face. Later in the day the First + Regiment of California National Guards was called out and put on duty, + with similar orders. + </p> + <p> + RESCUERS AND FIRE-FIGHTERS. + </p> + <p> + The work of fighting the fire was the first and greatest duty to be + performed, but from the start it proved a very difficult, almost a + hopeless, task. With fierce fires burning at once in a dozen or more + separate places, the fire department of the city would have been + inadequate to cope with the demon of flame even under the best of + circumstances. As it was, they found themselves handicapped at the start + by a nearly total lack of water. The earthquake had disarranged and broken + the water mains and there was scarcely a drop of water to be had, so that + the engines proved next to useless. Water might be drawn from the bay, but + the centre of the conflagration was a mile or more away, and this great + body of water was rendered useless in the stringent exigency. + </p> + <p> + The only hope that remained to the authorities was to endeavor to check + the progress of the flames by the use of dynamite, blowing up buildings in + the line of progress of the conflagration. This was put in practice + without loss of time, and soon the thunder-like roar of the explosions + began, blasts being heard every few minutes, each signifying that some + building had been blown to atoms. But over the gaps thus made the flames + leaped, and though the brave fellows worked with a desperation and energy + of the most heroic type, it seemed as if all their labors were to be + without avail, the terrible fire marching on as steadily as if a colony of + ants had sought to stay its devastating progress. + </p> + <p> + THE HORROR OF THE PEOPLE. + </p> + <p> + It was with grief and horror that the mass of the people gazed on this + steady march of the army of ruin. They were seemingly half dazed by the + magnitude of the disaster, strangely passive in the face of the ruin that + surrounded them, as if stunned by despair and not yet awakened to a + realization of the horrors of the situation. Among these was the + possibility of famine. No city at any time carries more than a few days’ + supply of provisions, and with the wholesale districts and warehouse + regions invaded by the flames the shortage of food made itself apparent + from the start. Water was even more difficult to obtain, the supply being + nearly all cut off. Those who possessed supplies of food and liquids of + any kind in many cases took advantage of the opportunity to advance their + prices. Thus an Associated Press man was obliged to pay twenty-five cents + for a small glass of mineral water, the only kind of drink that at first + was to be had, while food went up at the same rate, bakers frequently + charging as much as a dollar for a loaf. As for the expressmen and cabmen, + their charges were often practically prohibitory, as much as fifty dollars + being asked for the conveyance of a passenger to the ferry. Policemen were + early stationed at some of the retail shops, regulating the sale and the + price of food, and permitting only a small portion to be sold to each + purchaser, so as to prevent a few persons from exhausting the supply. + </p> + <p> + The fire, the swaying and tottering walls, the frequent dynamite + explosions, each followed by a crashing shower of stones and bricks, + rendered the streets very unsafe for pedestrians, and all day long the + flight of residents from the city went on, growing quickly to the + dimensions of a panic. The ferryboats were crowded with those who wished + to leave the city, and a constant stream of the homeless, carrying such + articles as they had rescued from their homes, was kept up all day long, + seeking the sand dunes, the parks and every place uninvaded by the flames. + Before night Golden Gate Park and the unbuilt districts adjoining on the + ocean side presented the appearance of a tented city, shelter of many + kinds being improvised from bedding and blankets, and the people settling + into such sparse comfort as these inadequate means provided. + </p> + <p> + A strange feature of the disaster was a rush to the banks by people who + wished to get their money and flee from the seemingly doomed city. The + fire front was yet distant from these institutions, which were destined to + fall a prey to the flames, and all that morning lines of dishevelled and + half-frantic men stood before the banks on Montgomery and Sansome Streets, + braving in their thirst for money the smoke and falling embers and beating + in wild anxiety upon the doors. Their effort was vain; the doors remained + closed; finally the police drove these people away, and the banks went on + with the work of saving their valuables. As for the people who wildly fled + toward the ferries, in spite of the fact that ten blocks of fire, as the + day went on, stopped all egress in that direction, it became necessary for + them to be driven back by the police and the troops, and they were finally + forced to seek safety in the sands. And thus, with incident manifold, went + on that fatal Wednesday, the first day of the dread disaster. + </p> + <p> + OFFICIAL RECORD OF THE EARTHQUAKE. + </p> + <p> + It is important here to give the official record of the earthquake shocks, + as given by the scientists. Professor George Davidson, of the University + of California, says of them: + </p> + <p> + “The earthquake came from north to south, and the only description I am + able to give of its effect is that it seemed like a terrier shaking a rat. + I was in bed, but was awakened by the first shock. I began to count the + seconds as I went towards the table where my watch was, being able through + much practice closely to approximate the time in that manner. The shock + came at 5.12 o’clock. The first sixty seconds were the most severe. From + that time on it decreased gradually for about thirty seconds. There was + then the slightest perceptible lull. Then the shock continued for sixty + seconds longer, being slighter in degree in this minute than in any part + of the preceding minute and a half. There were two slight shocks + afterwards which I did not time. At 8.14 o’clock I recorded a shock of + five seconds’ duration, and one at 4.15 of two seconds. There were slight + shocks which I did not record at 5.17 and at 5.27. At 6.50 P. M. there was + a sharp shock of several seconds.” + </p> + <p> + Professor A. O. Louschner, of the students’ observatory of the University + of California, thus records his observations: + </p> + <p> + “The principal part of the earthquake came in two sections, the first + series of vibrations lasting about forty seconds. The vibrations + diminished gradually during the following ten seconds, and then occurred + with renewed vigor for about twenty-five seconds more. But even at noon + the disturbance had not subsided, as slight shocks are recorded at + frequent intervals on the seismograph. The motion was from south-southeast + to north-northwest. + </p> + <p> + “The remarkable feature of this earthquake, aside from its intensity, was + its rotary motion. As seen from the print, the sum total of all + displacements represents a very regular ellipse, and some of the lines + representing the earth’s motion can be traced along the whole + circumference. The result of observation indicates that our heaviest + shocks are in the direction south-southeast to north-northwest. In that + respect the records of the three heaviest earthquakes agree entirely. But + they have several other features in common. One of these is that while the + displacements are very large the vibration period is comparatively slow, + amounting to about one second in the last two big earthquakes.” + </p> + <p> + If we seek to discover the actual damage done by the earthquake, the fact + stands out that the fire followed so close upon it that the traces of its + ravages were in many cases obliterated. So many buildings in the territory + of the severest shock fell a prey to the flames or to dynamite that the + actual work of the earth forces was made difficult and in many places + impossible to discover. This fact is likely to lead to considerable + dispute and delay when the question of insurance adjustment comes up, many + of the insurance companies confining their risk to fire damage and + claiming exemption from liability in the case of damage due to earthquake. + </p> + <p> + Among the chief victims of the earth-shake was the costly and showy City + Hall, with its picturesque dome standing loftily above the structure. This + dome was left still erect, but only as a skeleton might stand, with its + flesh gone and its bare ribs exposed to the searching air. Its roof, its + smaller towers came tumbling down in frightful disarray, and the once + proud edifice is to-day a miserable wreck, fire having aided earthquake in + its ruin. The new Post Office, a handsome government building, also + suffered severely from the shock, its walls being badly cracked and injury + done by earthquake and fire that it is estimated will need half a million + dollars to repair. + </p> + <p> + FREAKS OF THE EARTHQUAKE. + </p> + <p> + One observer states that the earthquake appeared to be very irregular in + its course. He tells us that “there are gas reservoirs with frames all + twisted and big factories thrown to the ground, while a few yards away are + miserable shanties with not a board out of place. Wooden, steel and brick + structures hardly felt the earthquake in some parts of the city, while in + other places all were wrecked. + </p> + <p> + “Skirting the shore northwest from the big ferry building—which was + so seriously injured that it will have to be rebuilt—the first thing + observed was the extraordinary irregularity of the earthquake’s course. + Pier No. 5, for instance, is nothing but a mass of ruins, while Pier No. + 3, on one side of it and Pier No. 7, on the other side, similar in size + and construction, are undamaged. Farther on, the Kosmos Line pier is a + complete wreck.” + </p> + <p> + The big forts at the entrance to the Golden Gate also suffered seriously + from the great shake-up, and the emplacements of the big guns were cracked + and damaged. The same is the case with the fortifications back of Old Fort + Point, the great guns in these being for the present rendered useless. It + will take much time and labor to restore their delicate adjustment upon + their carriages. + </p> + <p> + The buildings that collapsed in the city were all flimsy wooden buildings + and old brick structures, the steel frame buildings, even the score or + more in course of construction, escaping injury from the earthquake shock. + Of the former, one of the most complete wrecks was the Valencia Hotel, a + four-story wooden building, which collapsed into a heap of ruins, pinning + many persons under its splintered timbers. + </p> + <p> + SKYSCRAPERS EARTHQUAKE PROOF. + </p> + <p> + In fact, as the reports of damage wrought by the earthquake came in, the + conviction grew that one of the safest places during the earthquake shock + was on one of the upper floors of the skyscraper office buildings or + hotels. As a matter of fact, not a single person, so far as can be + learned, lost his or her life or was seriously injured in any of the tall, + steel frame structures in the city, although they rocked during the quake + like a ship in a gale. + </p> + <p> + The loss of life was caused in almost every case by the collapse of frame + structures, which the native San Franciscan believed was the safest of all + in an earthquake, or by the shaking down of portions of brick or stone + buildings which did not possess an iron framework. The manner in which the + tall steel structures withstood the shock is a complete vindication of the + strongest claims yet made for them, and it is made doubly interesting from + the fact that this is the first occasion on which the effect of an + earthquake of any proportions on a tall steel structure could be studied. + </p> + <p> + The St. Francis Hotel, a sixteen-story structure, can be repaired at an + expenditure of about $400,000, its damage being almost wholly by fire. The + steel shell and the floors are intact. Although the building rocked like a + ship in a gale while the quake lasted, its foundations are undamaged. + Other steel buildings which are so little damaged as to admit of repairs + more or less extensive are the James Flood, the Union Trust, the CALL + building, the Mutual Savings Bank, the Crocker-Woolworth building and the + Postal building. All of these are modern buildings of steel construction, + from sixteen to twenty stories. + </p> + <p> + A peculiar feature of the effect of the earthquake on structures of this + kind is reported in the case of the Fairmount Hotel, a fourteen-story + structure. The first two stories of the Fairmount are found to be so + seriously damaged that they will have to be rebuilt, while the other + twelve stories are uninjured. + </p> + <p> + Various explanations are being made of the surprising resistance shown by + the skyscrapers. The great strength and binding power of the steel frame, + combined with a deep-seated foundation and great lightness as compared + with buildings of stone, are the main reasons given. The iron, it is said, + unlike stone, responded to the vibratory force and passed it along to be + expended in other directions, while brick or stone offered a solid and + impenetrable front, with the result that the seismic force tended to + expend itself by shaking the building to pieces. + </p> + <p> + Whether there is any scientific basis for the latter theory or not, it + seems reasonable enough, in view of the descriptions given us of the + manner in which the steel buildings received the shock. All things + considered, the modern steel building has afforded in the San Francisco + earthquake the most convincing evidence of its strength. + </p> + <p> + From Golden Gate Park came news of the total destruction of the large + building covering a portion of the children’s playground. The walls were + shattered beyond repair, the roof fell in, and the destruction was + complete. The pillars of the new stone gates at the park entrance were + twisted and torn from their foundations, some of them, weighing nearly + four tons, being shifted as though they were made of cork. It is a little + singular that the monuments and statues in the city escaped without damage + except in the case of the imposing Dewey Monument, in Union Square Park, + which suffered what appears to be a minor injury. + </p> + <p> + In this connection an incident of extraordinary character is narrated. + Among the statues on the buildings of the Leland Stanford, Jr., + University, all of which were overthrown, was a marble statue of Carrara + in a niche on the building devoted to zoology and physiology. This in + falling broke through a hard cement pavement and buried itself in the + ground below, from which it was dug. The singular fact is that when + recovered it proved to be without a crack or scratch. This university + seemed to be a central point in the disturbance, the destruction of its + buildings being almost total, though they had been built with the especial + design of resisting earthquake shocks. + </p> + <p> + Such was the general character of the earthquake at San Francisco and in + its vicinity. It may be said farther that all, or very nearly all, the + deaths and injuries were due to it directly or indirectly, even those who + perished by fire owing their deaths to the fact of their being pinned in + buildings ruined by the earthquake shock, while others were killed by + falling walls weakened by the same cause. + </p> + <p> + On the night of April 23d the earth tremor returned with a slight shock, + only sufficient to cause a temporary alarm. On the afternoon of the 25th + came another and severer one, strong enough to shake down some tottering + walls and add another to the list of victims. This was a woman named Annie + Whitaker, who was at work in the kitchen of her home at the time. The + chimney, which had been weakened by the great shock, now fell, crashing + through the roof and fracturing her skull. Thus the earth powers claimed a + final human sacrifice before their dread visitation ended. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. + </h2> + <h3> + The Demon of Fire Invades the Stricken City. + </h3> + <p> + The terrors of the earthquake are momentary. One fierce, levelling shock + and usually all is over. The torment within the earth has passed on and + the awakened forces of the earth’s crust sink into rest again, after + having shaken the surface for many leagues. Rarely does the dread agent of + ruin leave behind it such a terrible follower to complete its work as was + the case in the doomed city of San Francisco. All seemed to lead towards + such a carnival of ruin as the earth has rarely seen. The demon of fire + followed close upon the heels of the unseen fiend of the earth’s hidden + caverns, and ran red-handed through the metropolis of the West, kindling a + thousand unhurt buildings, while the horror-stricken people stood aghast + in terror, as helpless to combat this new enemy as they were to check the + ravages of the earthquake itself. + </p> + <p> + Why not quench the fire at its start with water? Alas! there was no water, + and this expedient was a hopeless one. The iron mains which carried the + precious fluid under the city streets were broken or injured so that no + quenching streams were to be had. In some cases the engine houses had been + so damaged that the fire-fighting apparatus could not be taken out, though + even if it had it would have been useless. A sweeping conflagration and + not an ounce of water to throw upon it! The situation of the people was a + maddening one. They were forced helplessly and hopelessly to gaze upon the + destruction of their all, and it is no marvel if many of them grew frantic + and lost their reason at the sight. Thousands gathered and looked on in + blank and pitiful misery, their strong hands, their iron wills of no + avail, while the red-lipped fire devoured the hopes of their lives. + </p> + <p> + In a dozen, a hundred, places the flames shot up redly. Huge, strong + buildings which the earthquake had spared fell an unresisting prey to the + flames. The great, iron-bound, towering Spreckles building, a steeple-like + structure, of eighteen stories in height, the tallest skyscraper in the + city, had resisted the earthquake and remained proudly erect. But now the + flames gathered round and assailed it. From both sides came their attack. + A broad district near by, containing many large hotels and lodging houses, + was being fiercely burnt out, and soon the windows of the lofty building + cracked and splintered, the flames shot triumphantly within, and almost in + an instant the vast interior was a seething furnace, the wild flames + rushing and leaping within until only the blackened walls remained. + </p> + <p> + THE RESISTLESS MARCH OF THE FLAMES. + </p> + <p> + This was the region of the newspaper offices, and they quickly succumbed. + The Examiner, standing across Third Street from Spreckles, collapsed from + the earthquake shock. A flimsy edifice, it had long been looked upon as + dangerous. Another building in the rear of this alone resisted both flames + and smoke. Across Market Street from the Examiner stood the Chronicle + building, a dozen stories high. Firmly built, it had borne the earthquake + assault unharmed, but the flames were an enemy against which it had no + defense, and it was quickly added to the victims of the fire-fiend. + </p> + <p> + Farther down Market Street, the chief business thoroughfare of the city, + stood that great caravansary, the Palace Hotel, which for thirty years had + been a favorite hostelry, housing the bulk of the visitors to the + Californian metropolis. Its time had come. Doom hovered over it. Its + guests had fled in good season, as they saw the irresistible approach of + the conquering flames. Soon it was ablaze; quickly from every window of + its broad front the tongues of flame curled hotly in the air; it became a + thrice-heated furnace, like so many of the neighboring structures, adding + its quota to the vast cloud of smoke that hung over the burning city, and + rapidly sinking in red ruin to the earth. + </p> + <p> + All day Wednesday the fire spread unchecked, all efforts to stay its + devouring fury proving futile. In the business section of the city + everything was in ruins. Not a business house was left standing. Theatres + crumbled into smouldering heaps. Factories and commission houses sank to + red ruin before the devouring flames. The scene was like that of ancient + Babylon in its fall, or old Rome when set on fire by Nero’s command, as + tradition tells. In modern times there has been nothing to equal it except + the conflagration at Chicago, when the flames swept to ruin that queen + city of the Great Lakes. + </p> + <p> + When night fell and the sun withdrew his beams the spectacle was one at + once magnificent and awe-inspiring. The city resembled one vast blazing + furnace. Looking over it from a high hill in the western section, the + flames could be seen ascending skyward for miles upon miles, while in the + midst of the red spirals of flame could be seen at intervals the black + skeletons and falling towers of doomed buildings. Above all this hung a + dense pall of smoke, showing lurid where the flames were reflected from + its dark and threatening surface. To those nearer the scene presented many + pathetic and distressing features, the fire glare throwing weird shadows + over the worn and panic-stricken faces of the woe-begone fugitives, driven + from their homes and wandering the streets in helpless misery. Many of + them lay sleeping on piles of blankets and clothing which they had brought + with them, or on the hard sidewalks, or the grass of the open parks. + </p> + <p> + THE CARE OF THE WOUNDED. + </p> + <p> + Through all the streets ambulances and express wagons were hurrying, + carrying dead and injured to morgues and hospitals. But these refuges for + the wounded or receptacles for the dead were no safer than the remainder + of the city. In the morgue at the Hall of Justice fifty bodies lay, but + the approach of the flames rendered it necessary to remove to Jackson + Square these mutilated remnants of what had once been men. Hospitals were + also abandoned at intervals, doctors and nurses being forced to remove + their patients in haste from the approaching flames. + </p> + <p> + There is an open park opposite City Hall. Here the Board of Supervisors + met, and, with fifty substantial citizens who joined them, formed a + Committee of Safety, to take in hand the direction of affairs and to seek + safe quarters for the dying and the dead. Strangely enough, Mechanics’ + Pavilion, opposite City Hall, had escaped injury from the earthquake, + though it was only a wooden building. It had the largest floor in San + Francisco, and was pressed into service at once. The police and the + troops, working in harmony together, passed the word that the dead and + injured should be brought there, the hospitals and morgue having become + choked, and the order was quickly obeyed, until about 400 of the hurt, + many of them terribly mangled, were laid in improvised cots, attended by + all the physicians and trained nurses who could be obtained. + </p> + <p> + The corpses were much fewer, the workers being too busy in fighting the + fire and caring for the wounded to give time and attention as yet to the + dead. But one of the first wagons to arrive brought a whole family—father, + mother and three children—all dead except the baby, which had a + broken arm and a terrible cut across the forehead. They had been dragged + from the ruins of their house on the water front. A large consignment of + bodies, mostly of workingmen, came from a small hotel on Eddy Street, + through the roof of which the upper part of a tall building next door had + fallen, crushing all below. + </p> + <p> + FIRE ATTACKS THE MINT. + </p> + <p> + To return to the story of the conflagration, the escape of the United + States Mint was one of the most remarkable incidents. Within the vaults of + this fine structure was the vast sum of $300,000,000 in gold and silver + coin and a value of $8,000,000 in bullion, and toward this mighty sum of + wealth the flames swept on all sides, as if eager to add the reservoir of + the precious metals to their spoils. The Mint building passed through the + earthquake with little damage, though its big smokestacks were badly + shaken. The fire seemed bent on making it its prey, every building around + it being burned to the ground, and it remaining the only building for + blocks that escaped destruction. + </p> + <p> + Its safety was due to the energy and activity of its employees. + Superintendent Leach reached it shortly after the shock and found a number + of men already there, whom he stationed at points of vantage from roof to + basement. The fire apparatus of the Mint was brought into service and help + given by the fire department, and after a period of strenuous labor the + flames were driven back. The peril for a time was critical, the windows on + Mint Avenue taking fire and also those on the rear three stories, and the + flames for a time pouring in and driving back the workers. The roof also + caught fire, but the men within fought like Titans, and efficient aid was + given by a squad of soldiers sent to them. In the end the fire fiend was + vanquished, though considerable damage was done to the adjusting rooms and + the refinery, while the heavy stone cornice on that side of the building + was destroyed. The total loss to the Mint was later estimated at $15,000. + </p> + <p> + Late on Wednesday evening the fire front crept close up to Mechanics’ + Pavilion, where a corps of fifty physicians and numerous nurses were + active in the work of relief to the wounded. Ambulances and automobiles + were busy unloading new patients rescued from the ruins when word came + that the building would have to be vacated in haste. Every available + vehicle was at once pressed into service and the patients removed as + rapidly as possible, being taken to hospitals and private houses in the + safer parts of the city. Hardly had the last of the injured been carried + through the door when the roof was seen to be in a blaze, and shortly + afterward the whole building burst into a whirlwind of flame. + </p> + <p> + At midnight the fire was raging and roaring with unslacked rage, and at + dawn of Thursday its fury was undiminished. The work of destruction was + already immense. In much of the Hayes Valley district, south of McAllister + and north of Market Street, the destruction was complete. From the + Mechanics’ Pavilion and St. Nicholas Hotel opposite down to Oakland Ferry + the journey was heartrending, the scene appalling. On each side was ruin, + nothing but ruin, and hillocks of masonry and heaps of rubbish of every + description filled to its middle the city’s greatest thoroughfare. + </p> + <p> + Across an alley from the Post Office stood the Grant Building, one of the + headquarters of the army. Of this only the smoke-darkened walls were left. + On Market Street opposite this building the beautiful front of the + Hibernian Savings Bank, the favorite institution of the middle and poorer + classes, presented a hideous aspect of ruin. At eleven o’clock of + Wednesday night the north side of Market Street stood untouched, and hopes + were entertained that the great Flood, Crocker, Phelan and other buildings + would be spared, but the hunger of the fire fiend was not yet satiated, + and the following day these proud structures had only their blackened + ruins to show. On both sides of Market Street, down to the ferry, the tale + was the same. The handsome and gigantic St. Francis Hotel, on Powell + Street, fronting on Union Square, was left a ruined shell. This was one of + the lofty steel structures that bore unharmed the earthquake shock, but + quickly succumbed to the flames. Among the other skyscrapers north of + Market Street that perished were the fourteen-story Merchants’ Exchange, + and the great Mills Building, occupying almost an entire block. + </p> + <p> + One section of the city that went without pity, as it had long stood with + reprobation, was that group of disreputable buildings known as Chinatown, + the place of residence of many thousands of Celestials. The flames made + their way unchecked in this direction, and by noon on Thursday the whole + section was a raging furnace, the denizens escaping with what they could + carry of their simple possessions. On the farther western side the flames + cut a wide swath to Van Ness Avenue, a wide thoroughfare, at which it was + hoped the march of the fire in this direction might be checked, especially + as the water mains here furnished a weak supply. + </p> + <p> + In the Missouri district, to the south of Market Street, the zone of ruin + extended westward toward the extreme southern portion, but was checked at + Fourteenth and Missouri Streets by the wholesale use of dynamite. At this + point were located the Southern Pacific Hospital, the St. Francis Hospital + and the College of Physicians and Surgeons. In order to save these + institutions, buildings were blown up all around them, and by noon the + danger was averted. It later became necessary to destroy the Southern + Pacific Hospital with dynamite, the patients having been removed to places + of safety. + </p> + <p> + THE PALACES ON NOB’S HILL. + </p> + <p> + In the centre of San Francisco rises the aristocratic elevation known as + Nob’s Hill, on which the early millionaires built their homes, and on + which stood the city’s most palatial residences. It ascends so abruptly + from Kearney Street that it is inaccessible to any kind of vehicle, the + slope being at any angle little short of forty-five degrees. It is as + steep on the south side, and the only approach by carriage is from the + north. To this hill is due the pioneer cable railway, built in the early + ‘70’s. + </p> + <p> + Here the “big four” of the railroad magnates—Stanford, Hopkins, + Huntington and Crocker—had put millions in their mansions, the Mark + Hopkins residence being said to have cost $2,500,000. These men are all + dead, and the last named edifice has been converted into the Hopkins Art + Institute, and at the time of the fire was well filled with costly art + treasures. The Stanford Museum, which also contains valuable objects of + art, is now the property of the Leland Stanford University. The Flood + mansion, which cost more than $1,000,000, was one of the showy residences + on this hill, west of it being the Huntington home and farther west the + Crocker residence, with its broad lawns and magnificent stables. Many + other beautiful and costly houses stood on this hill, and opposite the + Stanford and Hopkins edifices the great Fairmount Hotel had for two years + past been in process of construction and was practically completed. On the + northeastern slope of this hill stood the famous Chinatown, through which + it was necessary to pass to ascend Nob’s Hill from the principal section + of the wholesale district. + </p> + <p> + This region of palaces was the next to fall a prey to the insatiable + flames. Early Thursday morning a change in the wind sent the fire + westward, eating its way from the water front north of Market Street + toward Nob’s Hill. Steadily but surely it climbed the slope, and the + Stanford and Hopkins edifices fell victims to its fury. Others of the + palaces of millionairedom followed. Huge clouds of smoke enveloped the + beautiful white stone Fairmount Hotel, and there was a general feeling of + horror when this magnificent structure seemed doomed. To it the Committee + of Safety had retreated, but the flames from the burning buildings + opposite reached it, and the committee once more migrated in search of + safe quarters. Fortunately, it escaped with little damage, its walls + remaining intact and much of the interior being left in a state of + preservation, warranting its managers to offer space within it to the + committees whose aim it was to help the homeless or to store supplies. + Some of the woodwork of the building was destroyed by the fire, but the + structure was in such good condition that work on it was quickly resumed, + with the statement that its completion would not be delayed more than + three months beyond the date set, which was November, 1906. + </p> + <p> + In the district extending northwestwardly from Kearney Street and + Montgomery Avenue, untouched during the first day, the fire spread freely + on the second. This district embraces the Latin quarter, peopled by + various nationalities, the houses being of the flimsiest construction. + Once it had gained a foothold there, the fire swept onward as though + making its way through a forest in the driest summer season. + </p> + <p> + An apochryphal incident is told of the fire in this quarter, which may be + repeated as one example of the fables set afloat. It is stated that water + to fight the fire here was sadly lacking, the only available supply being + from an old well. At a critical moment the pump sucked dry, the water in + the well being exhausted. The residents were not yet conquered. Some of + them threw open their cellar doors and, calling for assistance, began to + roll out barrels of red wine. Barrel after barrel appeared, until fully + five hundred gallons were ready for use. Then the barrel heads were + smashed in and the bucket brigade turned from water to wine. Sacks were + dipped in the wine and used for fighting the fire. Beds were stripped of + their blankets and these soaked in the wine and hung over exposed portions + of the cottages, while men on the roofs drenched the shingles and sides of + the houses with wine. The postscript to this queer story is that the wine + won and the firefighters saved their homes. The story is worth retelling, + though it may be added that wine, if it contained much alcohol, would + serve as a feeder rather than as an extinguisher of flame. + </p> + <p> + A striking description of the aspect of the city on that terrible + Wednesday is told by Jerome B. Clark, whose home was in Berkeley, but who + did business in San Francisco. He left for the city early Wednesday + morning, after a minor shake-up at home, which he thus describes: + </p> + <p> + A VIVID FIRE PICTURE. + </p> + <p> + “I was asleep and was awakened by the house rocking. With the exception of + water in vases, and milk in pans being spilled, and one of our chimneys + badly cracked, we escaped with nothing but a bad scare, but I can assure + you it was a terrific and terrifying experience to feel that old house + rocking, jolting and jumping under us, with the most terrible roar, dull, + deep and nerve-racking. It calmed down after that and we went back to bed, + only to get up at six o’clock to find that neighbors had suffered by + having vases knocked from tables, bric-a-brac knocked around, tiles + knocked out of grates and scarcely a chimney left standing. We thought + that we had had the worst of it, so I started over to the city as usual, + reaching there about eight o’clock, and it is just impossible to describe + the scenes that met my eyes. + </p> + <p> + “In every direction from the ferry building flames were seething, and as I + stood there, a five-story building half a block away fell with a crash, + and the flames swept clear across Market Street and caught a new fireproof + building recently erected. The streets in places had sunk three or four + feet, in others great humps had appeared four or five feet high. The + street car tracks were bent and twisted out of shape. Electric wires lay + in every direction. Streets on all sides were filled with brick and + mortar, buildings either completely collapsed or brick fronts had just + dropped completely off. Wagons with horses hitched to them, drivers and + all, lying on the streets, all dead, struck and killed by the falling + bricks, these mostly the wagons of the produce dealers, who do the greater + part of their work at that hour of the morning. Warehouses and large + wholesale houses of all descriptions either down, or walls bulging, or + else twisted, buildings moved bodily two or three feet out of a line and + still standing with walls all cracked. + </p> + <p> + “The Call building, a twelve-story skyscraper, stood, and looked all right + at first glance, but had moved at the base two feet at one end out into + the sidewalk, and the elevators refused to work, all the interior being + just twisted out of shape. It afterward burned as I watched it. I worked + my way in from the ferry, climbing over piles of brick and mortar and + keeping to the centre of the street and avoiding live wires that lay + around on every side, trying to get to my office. I got within two blocks + of it and was stopped by the police on account of falling walls. I saw + that the block in which I was located was on fire, and seemed doomed, so + turned back and went up into the city. + </p> + <p> + “Not knowing San Francisco, you would not know the various buildings, but + fires were blazing in all directions, and all of the finest and best of + the office and business buildings were either burning or surrounded. They + pumped water from the bay, but the fire was soon too far away from the + water front to make any efforts in this direction of much avail. The water + mains had been broken by the earthquake, and so there was no supply for + the fire engines and they were helpless. The only way out of it was to + dynamite, and I saw some of the finest and most beautiful buildings in the + city, new modern palaces, blown to atoms. First they blew up one or two + buildings at a time. Finding that of no avail, they took half a block; + that was no use; then they took a block; but in spite of them all the fire + kept on spreading. + </p> + <p> + “The City Hall, which, while old, was quite a magnificent building, + occupying a large square block of land, was completely wrecked by the + earthquake, and to look upon reminded one of the pictures of ancient ruins + of Rome or Athens. The Palace Hotel stood for a long time after everything + near it had gone, but finally went up in smoke as the rest. You could not + look in any direction in the city but what mass after mass of flame stared + you in the face. To get about one had to dodge from one street to another, + back and forth in zigzag fashion, and half an hour after going through a + street, it would be impassable. One after another of the magnificent + business blocks went down. The newer buildings seemed to have withstood + the shock better than any others, except well-built frame buildings. The + former lost some of the outside shell, but the frame stood all right, and + in some cases after fire had eaten them all to pieces, the steel skeleton, + although badly twisted and warped, still stood. + </p> + <p> + “When I finally left the city, it was all in flames as far as Eighth + Street, which is about a mile and a quarter or half from the water front. + I had to walk at least two miles around in order to get to the ferry + building, and when I got there you could see no buildings standing in any + direction. Nearly all the docks caved in or sheds were knocked down, and + all the streets along the water front were a mass of seams, upheavals and + depressions, car tracks twisted in all shapes. Cars that had stood on + sidings were all in ashes and still burning.” + </p> + <p> + Wednesday’s conflagration continued unabated throughout Thursday, and it + was not until late on Friday that the fire-fighters got it safely under + control. They worked like heroes, struggling almost without rest, keeping + up the nearly hopeless conflict until they fairly fell in their tracks + from fatigue. Handicapped by the lack of water, they in one case brought + it from the bay through lines of hose well on to a mile in length. Yet + despite all they could do block after block of San Francisco’s greatest + buildings succumbed to the flames and sank in red ruin before their eyes. + </p> + <p> + THE LANDMARKS CONSUMED. + </p> + <p> + On all sides famous landmarks yielded to the fury of the flames. For three + miles along the water front the ground was swept clean of buildings, the + blackened beams and great skeletons of factories, warehouses and business + edifices standing silhouetted against a background of flames, while the + whole commercial and office quarter of Market Street suffered a similar + fate. We may briefly instance some of these victims of the flames. + </p> + <p> + Among them were the Occidental Hotel, on Montgomery Street, for years the + headquarters for army officers; the old Lick House, built by James Lick, + the philanthropist; the California Hotel and Theatre, on Bush Street; and + of theatres, the Orpheum, the Alcazar, the Majestic, the Columbia, the + Magic, the Central, Fisher’s and the Grand Opera House, on Missouri + Street, where the Conried Opera Company had just opened for a two weeks’ + opera season. + </p> + <p> + The banks that fell were numerous, including the Nevada National Bank, the + California, the Canadian Bank of Commerce, the First National, the London + and San Francisco, the London, Paris and American, the Bank of British + North America, the German-American Savings Bank and the Crocker-Woolworth + Bank building. A large number of splendid apartment houses were also + destroyed, and the tide of destruction swept away a host of noble + buildings far too numerous to mention. + </p> + <p> + At Post Street and Grant Avenue stood the Bohemian Club, one of the widest + known social organizations in the world. Its membership included many men + famous in art, literature and commerce. Its rooms were decorated with the + works of members, many of whose names are known wherever paintings are + discussed and many of them priceless in their associations. Most of these + were saved. There were on special exhibition in the “Jinks” room of the + Bohemian Club a dozen paintings by old masters, including a Rembrandt, a + Diaz, a Murillo and others, probably worth $100,000. These paintings were + lost with the building, which went down in the flames. + </p> + <p> + One of the great losses was that of St. Ignatius’ Church and College, at + Van Ness Avenue and Hayes Street, the greatest Jesuitical institution in + the west, which cost a couple of millions of dollars. The Merchants’ + Exchange building, a twelve-story structure, eleven of whose floors were + occupied as offices by the Southern Pacific Railroad Company, was added to + the sum of losses. + </p> + <p> + THE FIRE UNDER CONTROL. + </p> + <p> + For three long days the terrible fire fiend kept up his work, and the + fight went on until late on Friday, when the sweep of the flames was at + length checked and the fire brought under control. The principal agent in + this victory was dynamite, which was freely used. To its work a separate + chapter will be devoted. When at length the area of the conflagration was + limited the wealthiest part of the city lay in embers and ashes, one of + the principal localities to escape being Pacific Heights, a mile west from + Nob’s Hill, on which stood many costly homes of recent construction. + </p> + <p> + On Friday night the fire that had worked its way from Nob’s Hill to North + Beach Street, sweeping that quarter clean of buildings, veered before a + fierce wind and made its way southerly to the great sea wall, with its + docks and grain warehouses. The flames reached the tanks of the San + Francisco Gas Company, which had previously been pumped out, and on + Saturday morning the grain sheds on the water front, about half a mile + north of the ferry station, were fiercely burning. But the fire here was + confined to a small area, and, with the work of fireboats in the bay and + of the firemen on shore, who used salt water pumped into their engines, it + was prevented from reaching the ferry building and the docks in that + vicinity. + </p> + <p> + The buildings on a high slope between Van Ness and Polk Streets, Union and + Filbert Streets, were blazing fiercely, fanned by a high wind, but the + blocks here were so thinly settled that the fire had little chance of + spreading widely from this point. In fact, it was at length practically + under control, and the entire western addition of the city west of Van + Ness Avenue was safe from the flames. The great struggle was fairly at an + end, and the brave force of workers were at length given some respite from + their strenuous labors. + </p> + <p> + During the height of the struggle and the days of exhaustion and + depression that followed, exaggerated accounts of the losses and of the + area swept by the flames were current, some estimate making the extent of + the fire fifteen square miles out of the total of twenty-five square miles + of the city’s area. It was not until Friday, the 27th, that an official + survey of the burned district, made by City Surveyor Woodward, was + completed, and the total area burned over found to be 2,500 acres, a + trifle less than four square miles. This, however, embraced the heart of + the business section and many of the principal residence streets, much of + the saved area being occupied by the dwellings of the poorer people, so + that the money loss was immensely greater than the percentage of ground + burned over would indicate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> + <h3> + Fighting the Flames With Dynamite. + </h3> + <p> + Shaken by earthquake, swept by flames, the water supply cut off by the + breaking of the mains, the authorities of the doomed city for a time stood + appalled. What could be done to stay the fierce march of the flames which + were sweeping resistlessly over palace and hovel alike, over stately hall + and miserable hut? Water was not to be had; what was to take its place? + Nothing remained but to meet ruin with ruin, to make a desert in the path + of the fire and thus seek to stop its march. They had dynamite, gunpowder + and other explosives, and in the frightful exigency there was nothing else + to be used. Only for a brief interval did the authorities yield to the + general feeling of helplessness. Then they aroused themselves to the + demands of the occasion and prepared to do all in the power of man in the + effort to arrest the conflagration. + </p> + <p> + While the soldiers under General Funston took military charge of the city, + squads of cavalry and troops of infantry patrolling the streets and + guarding the sections that had not yet been touched by the flames, Mayor + Schmitz and Chief of Police Dinan sprang into the breach and prepared to + make a desperate charge against the platoons of the fire. This was not all + that was needed to be done. From the “Barbary Coast,” as the resort of the + vicious and criminal classes was called, hordes of wretches poured out as + soon as night fell, seeking to slip through the guards and loot stores and + rob the dead in the burning section. Orders were given to the soldiers to + kill all who were engaged in such work, and these orders were carried out. + An associated Press reporter saw three of these thieves shot and fatally + wounded, and doubtless others of them were similarly dealt with elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + A band of fire-fighters was quickly organized by the Mayor and Chief of + Police, and the devoted firemen put themselves in the face of the flames, + determined to do their utmost to stay them in their course. Cut off from + the use of their accustomed engines and water streams, which might have + been effective if brought into play at the beginning of the struggle, + there was nothing to work with but the dynamite cartridge and the + gunpowder mine, and they set bravely to work to do what they could with + these. On every side the roar of explosions could be heard, and the crash + of falling walls came to the ear, while people were forced to leave + buildings which still stood, but which it was decided must be felled. + Frequently a crash of stone and brick, followed by a cloud of dust, gave + warning to pedestrians that destruction was going on in the forefront of + the flames, and that travel in such localities was unsafe. + </p> + <p> + FIGHTING THE FLAMES. + </p> + <p> + All through the night of Wednesday and the morning of Thursday this work + went on, hopelessly but resolutely. During the following day blasts could + be heard in different sections at intervals of a few minutes, and + buildings not destroyed by fire were blown to atoms, but over the gaps + jumped the live flames, and the disheartened fire-fighters were driven + back step by step; but they continued the work with little regard for + their own safety and with unflinching desperation. + </p> + <p> + One instance of the peril they ran may be given. Lieutenant Charles O. + Pulis, commanding the Twenty-fourth Company of Light Artillery, had placed + a heavy charge of dynamite in a building at Sixth and Jesse Streets. For + some reason it did not explode, and he returned to relight the fuse, + thinking it had become extinguished. While he was in the building the + explosion took place, and he received injuries that seemed likely to prove + fatal, his skull being fractured and several bones broken, while he was + injured internally. In the early morning, when the fire reached the + municipal building on Portsmouth Square, the nurses, with the aid of + soldiers, got out fifty bodies which were in the temporary morgue and a + number of patients from the receiving hospital. Just after they reached + the street with their gruesome charge a building was blown up, and the + flying bricks and splinters came falling upon them. The nurses fortunately + escaped harm, but several of the soldiers were hurt, and had to be taken + with the other patients to the out-of-doors Presidio hospital. + </p> + <p> + The Southern Pacific Hospital, at Fourteenth and Missouri Streets, was + among the buildings destroyed by dynamite, the patients having been + removed to places of safety, and the Linda Vista and the Pleasanton, two + large family hotels on Jones Street, in the better part of the city, were + also among those blown up to stay the progress of the conflagration. + </p> + <p> + THE STRUGGLE AGAINST THE FIRE. + </p> + <p> + The fire had continued to creep onward and upward until it reached the + summit of Nob Hill, a district of splendid residences, and threatened the + handsome Fairmount Hotel, then the headquarters of the Municipal Council, + acting as a Committee of Public Safety. As day broke the flames seized + upon this beautiful structure, and the Council was forced to retreat to + new quarters. They finally met in the North End Police Station, on + Sacramento Street, and there entered actively upon their duties of seeking + to check the progress of the flames, maintain order in the city and + control and direct the host of fugitives, many of whom, still in a state + of semi-panic, were moving helplessly to and fro and sadly needed wise + counsels and a helping hand. + </p> + <p> + The fire-fighters meanwhile kept up their indefatigable work under the + direction of the Mayor and the chief of their department. The engines + almost from the start had proved useless from lack of water, and were + either abandoned or moved to the outlying districts, in the vain hope that + the water mains might be repaired in time to permit of a final stand + against the whirlwind march of the flames. The cloud of despair grew + darker still as the report spread that the city’s supply of dynamite had + given out. + </p> + <p> + “No more dynamite! No more dynamite!” screamed a fireman as he ran up + Ellis Street past the doomed Flood building at two o’clock on Friday + morning, tears standing in his smoke-smirched eyes. + </p> + <p> + “No more dynamite! O God! no more dynamite! We are lost!” moaned the + throng that heard his despairing words. + </p> + <p> + A NEW SUPPLY OF EXPLOSIVES. + </p> + <p> + So, at that hour, the supply of the explosive exhausted, and not a dozen + streams of water being thrown in the entire fire zone, the stunned firemen + and the stupefied people stood helpless with their eyes fixed in despair + upon the swiftly creeping flames. + </p> + <p> + Had all been like these the entire city would have been doomed, but there + were those at the head of affairs who never for a moment gave up their + resolution. Dynamite and giant powder were to be had in the Presidio + military reservation, and a requisition upon the army authorities was + made. The louder reverberations as the day advanced and night came on + showed that a fresh supply had been obtained, and that a new and + determined campaign against the conflagration had been entered upon. + Hitherto much of the work had been ignorantly and carelessly done, and by + the hasty and premature use of explosives more harm than good had been + occasioned. + </p> + <p> + As the fire continued to spread in spite of the heroic work of the + fighting corps, the Committee of Safety called a meeting at noon on Friday + and decided to blow up all the residences on the east side of Van Ness + Avenue, between Golden Gate and Pacific Avenues, a distance of one mile. + Van Ness Avenue is one of the most fashionable streets of the city and has + a width of 125 feet, a fact which led to the idea that a safety line might + be made here too broad for the flames to cross. + </p> + <p> + The firemen, therefore, although exhausted from over twenty-four hours’ + work and lack of food, determined to make a desperate stand at this point. + They declared that should the fire cross Van Ness Avenue and the wind + continue its earlier direction toward the west, the destruction of San + Francisco would be virtually complete. The district west of Van Ness + Avenue and north of McAllister constitutes the finest part of the + metropolis. Here are located all of the finer homes of the well-to-do and + wealthier classes, and the resolution to destroy them was the last resort + of desperation. + </p> + <p> + Hundreds of police, regiments of soldiers and scores of volunteers were + sent into the doomed district to warn the people to flee. They heroically + responded to the demand of law and went bravely on their way, leaving + their loved homes and trudging painfully over the pavements with the + little they could carry away of their treasured possessions. + </p> + <p> + The reply of a grizzled fire engineer standing at O’Farrell Street and Van + Ness Avenue, beside a blackened engine, may not have been as terse as that + of Hugo’s guardsman at Waterloo, but the pathos of it must have been as + great. In answer to the question of what they proposed to do, he said: + </p> + <p> + “We are waiting for it to come. When it gets here we will make one more + stand. If it crosses Van Ness Avenue the city is gone.” + </p> + <p> + THE SAVERS OF THE CITY. + </p> + <p> + Yet the work now to be done was much too important to be left to the hands + of untrained volunteers. Skilled engineers were needed, men used to the + scientific handling of explosives, and it was men of this kind who finally + saved what is left to-day of the city. Three men saved San Francisco, so + far as any San Francisco existed after the fire had worked its will, these + three constituting the dynamite squad who faced and defied the demon at + Van Ness Avenue. + </p> + <p> + When the burning city seemed doomed and the flames lit the sky farther and + farther to the west, Admiral McCalla sent a trio of his most trusted men + from Mare Island with orders to check the conflagration at any cost of + property. With them they brought a ton and a half of guncotton. The + terrific power of the explosive was equal to the maniac determination of + the fire. Captain MacBride was in charge of the squad, Chief Gunner + Adamson placed the charges and the third gunner set them off. + </p> + <p> + Stationing themselves on Van Ness Avenue, which the conflagration was + approaching with leaps and bounds from the burning business section of the + city, they went systematically to work, and when they had ended a broad + open space, occupied only by the dismantled ruins of buildings, remained + of what had been a long row of handsome and costly residences, which, with + all their treasures of furniture and articles of decoration, had been + consigned to hideous ruin. + </p> + <p> + The thunderous detonations, to which the terrified city listened all that + dreadful Friday night, meant much to those whose ears were deafened by + them. A million dollars’ worth of property, noble residences and worthless + shacks alike, were blown to drifting dust, but that destruction broke the + fire and sent the raging flames back over their own charred path. The + whole east side of Van Ness Avenue, from the Golden Gate to Greenwich, a + distance of twenty-two blocks, or a mile and a half, was dynamited a block + deep, though most of the structures as yet had stood untouched by spark or + cinder. Not one charge failed. Not one building stood upon its foundation. + </p> + <p> + Unless some second malicious miracle of nature should reverse the + direction of the west wind, by nine o’clock it was felt that the populous + district to the west, blocked with fleeing refugees and unilluminated + except by the disastrous glare on the water front, was safe. Every pound + of guncotton did its work, and though the ruins burned, it was but feebly. + From Golden Gate Avenue north the fire crossed the wide street in but one + place. That was at the Claus Spreckels place, on the corner of California + Street. + </p> + <p> + There the flames were writhing up the walls before the dynamiters could + reach the spot. Yet they made their way to the foundations, carrying their + explosives, despite the furnace-like heat. The charge had to be placed so + swiftly and the fuse lit in such a hurry that the explosion was not quite + successful from the trained viewpoint of the gunners. But though the walls + still stood, it was only an empty victory for the fire, as bare brick and + smoking ruins are poor food for flames. + </p> + <p> + Captain MacBride’s dynamiting squad had realized that a stand was hopeless + except on Van Ness Avenue, their decision thus coinciding with that of the + authorities. They could have forced their explosives farther in the + burning section, but not a pound of guncotton could be or was wasted. The + ruined blocks of the wide thoroughfare formed a trench through the + clustered structures that the conflagration, wild as it was, could not + leap. Engines pumping brine through Fort Mason from the bay completed the + little work that the guncotton had left, but for three days the + haggard-eyed firemen guarded the flickering ruins. + </p> + <p> + The desolate waste straight through the heart of the city remained a mute + witness to the most heroic and effective work of the whole calamity. Three + men did this, and when their work was over and what stood of the city + rested quietly for the first time, they departed as modestly as they had + come. They were ordered to save San Francisco, and they obeyed orders, and + Captain MacBride and his two gunners made history on that dreadful night. + </p> + <p> + They stayed the march of the conflagration at that critical point, leaving + it no channel to spread except along the wharf region, in which its final + force was spent. One side of Van Ness Avenue was gone; the other remained, + the fire leaping the broad open space only feebly in a few places, where + it was easily extinguished. + </p> + <p> + In this connection it is well to put on record an interesting + circumstance. This is that there is one place within pistol shot of San + Francisco that the earthquake did not touch, that did not lose a chimney + or feel a tremor. That spot is Alcatraz Island. Despite the fact that the + island is covered with brick buildings, brick forts and brick chimneys, + not a brick was loosened nor a crack made nor a quiver felt. When the + scientist comes to write he will have his hands full explaining why + Alcatraz did not have any physical knowledge of the event. It was as if + New York were to be shaken to its foundation, and Governor’s Island, + quietly pursuing its military routine, should escape without a qualm. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> + <h3> + The Reign of Destruction and Devastation + </h3> + <p> + Rarely, in the whole history of mankind, has a great city been overwhelmed + by destruction so suddenly and awfully as was San Francisco. One minute + its inhabitants slept in seeming safety and security. Another minute + passed and the whole great city seemed tumbling around them, while sights + of terror met the eyes of the awakened multitude and sounds of horror came + to their ears. The roar of destruction filled the air as the solid crust + of the earth lifted and fell and the rocks rose and sank in billowing + waves like those of the open sea. + </p> + <p> + Not all, it is true, were asleep. There was the corps of night workers, + whose duties keep them abroad till day dawns. There were those whose work + calls them from their homes in the early morn. People of this kind were in + the streets and saw the advent of the reign of devastation in its full + extent. From the story of one of these, P. Barrett, an editor on the + Examiner, we select a thrilling account of his experience on that morning + of awe. + </p> + <p> + AN EDITOR’S NARRATIVE. + </p> + <p> + “I have seen this whole, great horror. I stood with two other members of + the Examiner staff on the corner of Market Street, waiting for a car. + Newspaper duties had kept us working until five o’clock in the morning. + Sunlight was coming out of the early morning mist. It spread its + brightness on the roofs of the skyscrapers, on the domes and spires of + churches, and blazed along up the wide street with its countless banks and + stores, its restaurants and cafes. In the early morning the city was + almost noiseless. Occasionally a newspaper wagon clattered up the street + or a milk wagon rumbled along. One of my companions had told a funny + story. We were laughing at it. We stopped—the laugh unfinished on + our lips. + </p> + <p> + “Of a sudden we had found ourselves staggering and reeling. It was as if + the earth was slipping gently from under our feet. Then came a sickening + swaying of the earth that threw us flat upon our faces. We struggled in + the street. We could not get on our feet. + </p> + <p> + “I looked in a dazed fashion around me. I saw for an instant the big + buildings in what looked like a crazy dance. Then it seemed as though my + head were split with the roar that crashed into my ears. Big buildings + were crumbling as one might crush a biscuit in one’s hand. Great gray + clouds of dust shot up with flying timbers, and storms of masonry rained + into the street. Wild, high jangles of smashing glass cut a sharp note + into the frightful roaring. Ahead of me a great cornice crushed a man as + if he were a maggot—a laborer in overalls on his way to the Union + Iron Works, with a dinner pail on his arm. + </p> + <p> + “Everywhere men were on all fours in the street, like crawling bugs. Still + the sickening, dreadful swaying of the earth continued. It seemed a + quarter of an hour before it stopped. As a matter of fact, it lasted about + three minutes. Footing grew firm again, but hardly were we on our feet + before we were sent reeling again by repeated shocks, but they were + milder. Clinging to something, one could stand. + </p> + <p> + “The dust clouds were gone. It was quite dark, like twilight. But I saw + trolley tracks uprooted, twisted fantastically. I saw wide wounds in the + street. Water flooded out of one. A deadly odor of gas from a broken main + swept out of the other. Telegraph poles were rocked like matches. A wild + tangle of wires was in the street. Some of the wires wriggled and shot + blue sparks. + </p> + <p> + “From the south of us, faint, but all too clear, came a horrible chorus of + human cries of agony. Down there in a ramshackle section of the city the + wretched houses had fallen in upon the sleeping families. Down there + throughout the day a fire burned the great part of whose fuel it is too + gruesome a thing to contemplate. + </p> + <p> + “That was what came next—the fire. It shot up everywhere. The fierce + wave of destruction had carried a flaming torch with it—agony, death + and a flaming torch. It was just as if some fire demon was rushing from + place to place with such a torch.” + </p> + <p> + WRECK AND RUIN. + </p> + <p> + The magnitude of the calamity became fully apparent after the sun had + risen and began to shine warmly and brightly from the east over the ruined + city. Old Sol, who had risen and looked down upon this city for thousands + of times, had never before seen such a spectacle as that of this fateful + morning. Where once rose noble buildings were now to be seen cracked and + tottering walls, fallen chimneys, here and there fallen heaps of brick and + mortar, and out of and above all the red light of the mounting flames. + From the middle of the city’s greatest thoroughfare ruin, only ruin, was + to be seen on all sides. To the south, in hundreds of blocks, hardly a + building had escaped unscathed. The cracked walls of the new Post Office + showed the rending power of the earthquake. A part of the splendid and + costly City Hall collapsed, the roof falling to the courtyard and the + smaller towers tumbling down. Some of the wharves, laden with goods of + every sort, slid into the bay. With them went thousands of tons of coal. + On the harbor front the earth sank from six to eight inches, and great + cracks opened in the streets. + </p> + <p> + San Francisco’s famous Chinatown, the greatest settlement of the + Celestials on this continent, went down like a house of cards. When the + earthquake had passed this den of squalor and infamy was no more. The + Chinese theatres and joss-houses tumbled into ruins, rookery after rookery + collapsed, and hundreds of their inhabitants were buried alive. Panic + reigned supreme among the fugitives, who filled the streets in frightened + multitudes, dragging from the wreck whatever they could save of their + treasured possessions. Much the same was the case with the Japanese + quarter, which fire quickly invaded, the people fleeing in terror, + carrying on their backs what few of their household effects they were able + to rescue. + </p> + <p> + As for the people of Chinatown, however, no one knows or will ever know + the extent of the dread fate that overcame them, for no one knows the + secrets of that dark abode of infamy and crime, whose inhabitants burrowed + underground like so many ants; and hid their secrets deep in the earth. + </p> + <p> + THE RUIN OF CHINATOWN. + </p> + <p> + W. W. Overton, of Los Angeles, thus describes the Chinatown dens and the + revelations made by the earthquake and the flames: + </p> + <p> + “Strange is the scene where San Francisco’s Chinatown stood. No heap of + smoking ruins marks the site of the wooden warrens where the Orientals + dwelt in thousands. Only a cavern remains, pitted with deep holes and + lined with dark passageways, from whose depths come smoke wreaths. White + men never knew the depth of Chinatown’s underground city. Many had gone + beneath the street level two and three stories, but now that the place had + been unmasked, men may see where its inner secrets lay. In places one can + see passages a hundred feet deep. + </p> + <p> + “The fire swept this Mongolian quarter clean. It left no shred of the + painted wooden fabric. It ate down to the bare ground, and this lies + stark, for the breezes have taken away the light ashes. Joss houses and + mission schools, groceries and opium dens, gambling resorts and theatres, + all of them went. These buildings blazed up like tissue paper. + </p> + <p> + “From this place I saw hundreds of crazed yellow men flee. In their arms + they bore opium pipes, money bags, silks and children. Beside them ran the + trousered women and some hobbled painfully. These were the men and women + of the surface. Far beneath the street levels in those cellars and + passageways were other lives. Women, who never saw the day from their + darkened prisons, and their blinking jailors were caught and eaten by the + flames.” + </p> + <p> + Devastation spread widely on all sides, ruining the homes of the rich as + well as of the poor, of Americans as well as of Europeans and Asiatics, + the marts of trade, the haunts of pleasure, the realms of science and art, + the resorts of thousands of the gay population of the Golden State + metropolis. To attempt to tell the whole story of destruction and ruin + would be to describe all for which San Francisco stood. Science suffered + in the loss of the San Francisco Academy of Sciences, which was destroyed + with its invaluable contents. This building, erected fifteen years ago at + a cost of $500,000, was a seven-story building with a rich collection of + objects of science. Much of the academy’s contents can never be replaced. + It represented the work of many years. There was a rare collection of + Pacific Sea birds which was the most valuable of its kind in the world. In + fact, the entire collection of birds ranked very high, was visited by + ornithologists from every country, and was the pride of the city. The + academy was founded in 1850, James Lick, the same man who endowed the Lick + Observatory, giving it $1,000,000, so it was on a prosperous footing. It + will take many years of active labor to replace the losses of an hour or + two of the reign of fire in this institution, while much that it held is + gone beyond restoration. + </p> + <p> + LOSS TO ART AND SCIENCE. + </p> + <p> + Art suffered as severely as science, the valuable collections in private + and public buildings being nearly all destroyed. We have spoken of the + rare paintings burned in the Bohemian Club building. The collections on + Nob’s Hill suffered as severely. When the mansions here, the Fairmount + Hotel and Mark Hopkins Institute were approached by the flames, many + attempts were made to remove some of the priceless works of art from the + buildings. A crowd of soldiers was sent to the Flood and the Huntington + mansions and the Hopkins Institute to rescue the paintings. From the + Huntington home and the Flood mansion canvases were cut from the framework + with knives. The collections in the three buildings, valued in the + hundreds of thousands, in great part were destroyed, few being saved from + the ravages of the fire. + </p> + <p> + The destruction of the libraries, with their valuable collections of + books, was also a very serious loss to the city and its people. Of these + there were nine of some prominence, the Sutro Library containing many rare + books among its 200,000 volumes, while that of the Mechanics Institute + possessed property valued at $2,000,000. The Public Library occupied a + part of the City Hall, the new building proposed by the city, with aid to + the extent of $750,000 by Andrew Carnegie, being fortunately still in + embryo. + </p> + <p> + In the burning of the banks the losses were limited to the buildings, + their money and other valuables being securely locked in fireproof vaults. + But these became so heated by the flames that it was necessary to leave + them to a gradual cooling for days, during which their treasures were + unavailable, and those with deposits, small or large, were obliged to + depend on the benevolence of the nation for food, such wealth as was left + to them being locked up beyond their reach. It was the same with the + United States Sub-Treasury, which was entirely destroyed by fire, its + vaults, which contained all the cash on hand, being alone preserved. + Guards were put over these to protect their contents against possible loss + by theft. + </p> + <p> + One serious effect of the conflagration was the general disorganization of + the telegraph system. News items were sent over the wires, but private + messages inquiring about missing friends for days failed to reach the + parties concerned or to bring any return. + </p> + <p> + That the world received news of the San Francisco disaster during the + dread day after the earthquake is due in part to the courage of the + telegraph operators, who stuck to their posts and, continued to send news + and other messages in spite of great personal danger. + </p> + <p> + The operators and officials of the Postal Telegraph Company remained in + the main office of the company, at the corner of Market and Montgomery + Streets, opposite the Palace Hotel, until they were ordered out of it + because of the danger of the dynamite explosions in the immediate + vicinity. The men proceeded to Oakland, across the bay, and took + possession of the office there. That night the company operated seven + wires from Oakland, all messages from the city being taken across the bay + in boats. As the days passed on the service gradually improved, but a week + or more passed away before the general service of the company became + satisfactory. + </p> + <p> + THE DANGER FROM THIRST. + </p> + <p> + Such news as came from the city was full of tales of horror. For a number + of days one of the chief sources of trouble was from thirst. Although the + earthquake shocks had broken water mains in probably hundreds of places, + strange to say, no water, or very little at least, appeared on the surface + of the ground. Public fountains on Market Street gave out no relief to the + thirsty thousands. At Powell and Market Streets a small stream of water + spurted up through the cobblestones and formed a muddy pool, at which the + thirsty were glad enough to drink. The soldiers, disregarding the order + not to let people move about, permitted bucket brigades to go forth and + bring back water to relieve the women and the crying children. To reach + the water it was necessary sometimes to go a mile to one of the four + reservoirs which top the hills. + </p> + <p> + Here is a story told by one observer of incidents in the city during the + fire: + </p> + <p> + “I talked to one man who slept in Alta Plaza. The fire was going on in the + district south of them, and at intervals all night exhausted fire-fighters + made their way to the plaza and dropped, with the breath out of them, + among the huddled people and the bundles of household goods. The soldiers, + who are administering affairs with all the justice of judges and all the + devotion of heroes, kept three or four buckets of water, even from the + women, for these men, who kept coming all night long. There was a little + food, also kept by the soldiers for these emergencies, and the sergeant + had in his charge one precious bottle of whisky, from which he doled out + drinks to those who were utterly exhausted. + </p> + <p> + “Over in a corner of the plaza a band of men and women were praying, and + one fanatic, driven crazy by horror, was crying out at the top of his + voice: + </p> + <p> + “‘The Lord sent it, the Lord!’ + </p> + <p> + “His hysterical crying got in the nerves of the soldiers and bade fair to + start a panic among the women and children, so the sergeant went over and + stopped it by force. All night they huddled together in this hell, with + the fire making it bright as day on all sides; and in the morning the + soldiers, using their sense again, commandeered a supply of bread from a + bakery, sent out another water squad, and fed the refugees with a + semblance of breakfast. + </p> + <p> + “There was one woman in the crowd who had been separated from her husband + in a rush of the smoke and did not know whether he was living. The women + attended to her all night and in the morning the soldiers passed her + through the lines in her search. A few Chinese made their way into the + crowd. They were trembling, pitifully scared and willing to stop wherever + the soldiers placed them. This is only a glimpse of the horrible night in + the parks and open places. + </p> + <p> + “We learn here that many of the well-to-do people in the upper residence + district have gathered in the strangers from the highways and byways and + given them shelter and comfort for the night in their living rooms and + drawing rooms. Shelter seems to have come more easily than food. Not an + ounce of supplies, of course, has come in for two days, and most of the + permanent stores are in the hands of the soldiers, who dole them out to + all comers alike. But the hungry cannot always find the military stores + and the news has not gotten about, since there are no newspapers and no + regular means of communication. + </p> + <p> + “An Italian tells me that he was taken in by a family living in a + three-story house in the fashionable Pacific Avenue. There were twenty + refugees who passed the night in the drawing room of that house, whose + mistress took down hangings to make them comfortable. In the morning all + the food that was left over in that home of wealth was enough flour and + baking powder to shake together a breakfast for the refugees. They were + hardly ready to leave that house when the fire came their way, and the + people of the house, together with the refugees, who included two Chinese, + made their way to the open ground of the Presidio. With them streamed a + procession of folks carrying valuables in bundles. + </p> + <p> + “There came out, too, tales of both heroism and crime. The firemen had + been at it for thirty-six hours under such conditions as firemen never + before faced, and they do little more than give directions, while the + volunteers, thousands of young Western men who have remained to see it + through, do the work. The troops have all that they can do to handle the + crowds in the streets and prevent panics. The work of dynamiting, tearing + down and rescuing is in the hands of the volunteers. + </p> + <p> + “This morning an eddy of flame from the edge of the burning wholesale + district ran up the slope of Russian Hill, the highest eminence in the + city. All along the edge of that hill and up the slopes are little frame + houses which hold Italians and Mexicans. A corps of volunteer aides ran + along the edge of the fire, warning people out of the houses. But the + flames ran too fast and three women were caught in the upper story of an + old frame house. A young man tore a rail from a fence, managed to climb + it, and reached the window. He bundled one woman out and slid her down the + rail; then the roof caught fire. He seized another woman and managed to + drop her on the rail, down which she slid without hurting herself a great + deal. But the roof fell while he was struggling with another woman and + they fell together into the flames. There must have been hundreds of such + heroisms and dozens of such catastrophes. We are so drunken and dulled by + horror that we take such stories calmly now. We are saturated.” + </p> + <p> + HOW LOOTING WAS HINDERED. + </p> + <p> + One thing to be strictly guarded against in those days of destruction was + the outbreak of lawlessness. A city as large as San Francisco is sure to + hold a large number of the brigands of civilization, a horde who need to + be kept under strict discipline at all times, and especially when calamity + lets down for the time being the bars of the law, at which time many of + the usually law-abiding would join their ranks if any license were + allowed. The authorities made haste to guard against this and certain + other dangers, Mayor Schmitz issuing on Wednesday the following + proclamation: + </p> + <p> + “The Federal troops, the members of the regular police force and special + police officers have been authorized to kill any and all persons engaged + in looting or in the commission of any other crime. + </p> + <p> + “I have directed all the gas and electric lighting companies not to turn + on gas or electricity until I order them to do so. You may, therefore, + expect the city to remain in darkness for an indefinite time. + </p> + <p> + “I request all citizens to remain at home from darkness until daylight + every night until order is restored. + </p> + <p> + “I warn all citizens of the danger of fire from damaged or destroyed + chimneys, broken or leaking gas pipes or fixtures or any like causes.” + </p> + <p> + He also ordered that no lights should be used in the houses and no fires + built in the houses until the chimneys had been inspected and repaired. + </p> + <p> + There was need of vigilance in this direction, for the vandals were + quickly at work. Routed out from their dens along the wharves, the rats of + the waterfront, the drifters on the back eddy of civilization, crawled out + intent on plunder. Early in the day a policeman caught one of these men + creeping through the window of a small bank on Montgomery Street and shot + him dead. But the police were kept too busy at other necessary duties to + devote much time to these wretches, and for a time many of them plundered + at will, though some of them met with quick and sure retribution. + </p> + <p> + STORIES BY SIGHTSEERS. + </p> + <p> + One onlooker says: “Were it not for the fact that the soldiers in charge + of the city do not hesitate in shooting down the ghouls the lawless + element would predominate. Not alone do the soldiers execute the law. On + Wednesday afternoon, in front of the Palace Hotel, a crowd of workers in + the mines discovered a miscreant in the act of robbing a corpse of its + jewels. Without delay he was seized, a rope obtained, and he was strung up + to a beam that was left standing in the ruined entrance of the hotel. No + sooner had he been hoisted up and a hitch taken in the rope than one of + his fellow-criminals was captured. Stopping only to obtain a few yards of + hemp, a knot was quickly tied, and the wretch was soon adorning the hotel + entrance by the side of the other dastard. + </p> + <p> + “These are the only two instances I saw, but I heard of many that were + seen by others. The soldiers do all they can, and while the unspeakable + crime of robbing the dead is undoubtedly being practiced, it would be many + times as prevalent were it not for the constant vigilance on all sides, as + well as the summary justice.” + </p> + <p> + Another observer tells of an instance of this summary justice that came + under his eyes: + </p> + <p> + “At the corner of Market and Third Streets on Wednesday I saw a man + attempting to cut the fingers from the hand of a dead woman in order to + secure the rings which adorned the stiffened fingers. Three soldiers + witnessed the deed at the same time and ordered the man to throw up his + hands. Instead of obeying the command he drew a revolver from his pocket + and began to fire at his pursuer without warning. The three soldiers, + reinforced by half a dozen uniformed patrolmen, raised their rifles to + their shoulders and fired. With the first shots the man fell, and when the + soldiers went to the body to dump it into an alley nine bullets were found + to have entered it.” + </p> + <p> + The warning this severity gave was accentuated in one instance in a most + effective manner. On a pile of bricks, stones and rubbish was thrown the + body of a man shot through the heart, and on his chest was pinned this + placard: + </p> + <p> + “Take warning!” + </p> + <p> + Those of the ghouls who saw this were likely to desist from their + detestable work, unless they valued spoils more than life. + </p> + <p> + Willis Ames, a Salt Lake City man, tells of the kind of justice done to + thieves, as it came under his observation: + </p> + <p> + “I saw man after man shot down by the troops. Most of these were ghouls. + One man made the trooper believe that one of the dead bodies lying on a + pile of rocks was his mother, and he was permitted to go up to the body. + Apparently overcome by grief, he threw himself across the corpse. In + another instant the soldiers discovered that he was chewing the diamond + earrings from the ears of the dead woman. ‘Here is where you get what is + coming to you,’ said one of the soldiers, and with that he put a bullet + through the ghoul. The diamonds were found in the man’s mouth afterward.” + </p> + <p> + Others were shot to save them from the horror of being burned alive. Max + Fast, a garment worker, tells of such an instance. He says: + </p> + <p> + “When the fire caught the Windsor Hotel at Fifth and Market Streets there + were three men on the roof, and it was impossible to get them down. Rather + than see the crazed men fall in with the roof and be roasted alive the + military officer directed his men to shoot them, which they did in the + presence of 5,000 people.” + </p> + <p> + He further states: “At Jefferson Square I saw a fatal clash between the + military and the police. A policeman ordered a soldier to take up a dead + body to put it in the wagon, and the soldier ordered the policeman to do + it. Words followed, and the soldier shot the policeman dead.” + </p> + <p> + Among the many stories of this character on record is that of a concerted + effort to break into and rob the Mint, which led to the death of fourteen + men, who were shot down by the guard in charge. They had disregarded the + command of the officer in charge to desist. They disobeyed, and the death + of nearly the whole of them followed. + </p> + <p> + DEATH FOR SLIGHT OFFENSE. + </p> + <p> + As may well be imagined, the privilege given to fire at will was very + likely to lead to examples of unjustifiable haste in the use of the rifle. + Such haste is not charged against the United States troops, but the + militia and volunteer guards showed less judgment in the use of their + weapons. Thus we are told that one man was shot for the minor offense of + washing his hands in drinking water which had been brought with great + trouble for the thirsty people gathered in Columbia Park. It is also said + that a bank clerk, searching the ruins of his bank under orders, was + killed by a soldier who thought he was looting. More than one seems to + have been shot as looters for entering their own homes. + </p> + <p> + Among the reports there is one that two men were shot through the windows + of their houses because they disobeyed the general orders and lit candles, + and one woman because she lighted a fire in her cook stove. Yet, if such + unwarranted acts existed, there were others better deserved. It is said + that three men were lined up and shot before ten thousand people. One was + caught taking the rings from a woman who had fainted, another had stolen a + piece of bread from a hungry child, and the third, little more than a boy, + was found in the act of robbing tents. One thief who escaped the bullet + richly deserved it. He came upon a Miss Logan when lying unconscious on + the floor of the St. Francis Hotel after the earthquake, and, rather than + take the time to wrench some valuable rings from her hand, cut off the + finger bearing them, and left her to the horrors of the coming fire. + </p> + <p> + The climax in the too free use of the rifle came on the 23d, when Major H. + C. Tilden, a prominent member of the General Relief Committee, was shot + and killed in his automobile by members of the citizens’ patrol. Two + others in the car were struck by bullets. The automobile had been used as + an ambulance and the Red Cross flag was displayed on it. The excuse of the + shooters was that they did not see the flag and that the car did not stop + when challenged. This act led to an order forbidding the carrying of + firearms by the citizens’ committees and to stricter regulation of the + soldiers in the use of their weapons. + </p> + <p> + Later on looting took a new form different from that at first shown and + was practiced by a different class of people. These were the sightseers, + many of them people of prominence, who entered upon a crusade of relic + hunting in Chinatown, gathering and carrying off from the ashes of this + quarter valuable pieces of chinaware, bronze ornaments, etc. It became + necessary to put a stop to this, and on April 30th four militiamen were + arrested while digging in the ruins of the Chinese bazaars, and others + were frightened away by shots fired over their heads. A strong military + line was then drawn around the district, and this last resource of the + looter came to an end. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> + <h3> + The Panic Flight of a Homeless Host. + </h3> + <p> + The scene that was visible in the streets of San Francisco on that dread + Wednesday morning was one to make the strongest shudder with horror. Those + three minutes of devastating earth tremors were moments never to be + forgotten. In such a time it is the human instinct to get into the open + air, and the people stumbled from their heaving and quivering houses to + find even the solid earth was swaying and rising and falling, so that here + and there great rents opened in the streets. To the panic-stricken people + the minutes that followed seemed years of terror. Doubtless some among + them died of sheer fright and more went mad with terror. There was a roar + in the air like a burst of thunder, and from all directions came the crash + of falling walls. They would run forward, then stop, as another shock + seemed to take the earth from under their feet, and many of them flung + themselves face downward on the ground in an agony of fear. + </p> + <p> + Two or three minutes seemed to pass before the fugitives found their + voices. Then the screams of women and the wild cries of men rent the air, + and with one impulse the terror-stricken host fled toward the parks, to + get themselves as far as possible from the tottering and falling walls. + These speedily became packed with people, most of them in the night + clothes in which they had leaped or been flung from their beds, screaming + and moaning at the little shocks that at intervals followed the great one. + The dawn was just breaking. The gas and electric mains were gone and the + street lamps were all out. The sky was growing white in the east, but + before the sun could fling his early rays from the horizon there came + another light, a lurid and threatening one, that of the flames that had + begun to rise in the warehouse district. + </p> + <p> + The braver men and those without families to watch over set out for this + endangered region, half dressed as they were. In the early morning light + they could see the business district below them, many of the buildings in + ruins and the flames showing redly in five or six places. Through the + streets came the fire engines, called from the outlying districts by a + general alarm. The firemen were not aware as yet that no water was to be + had. + </p> + <p> + THE PANIC IN THE SLUMS. + </p> + <p> + On Portsmouth Square the panic was indescribable. This old tree plaza, + about which the early city was built, is now in the centre of Chinatown, + of the Italian district and of the “Barbary Coast,” the “Tenderloin” of + the Western metropolis. It is the chief slum district of the city. The + tremor here ran up the Chinatown hill and shook down part of the crazy + buildings on its southern edge. It brought ruin also to some of the + Italian tenements. Portsmouth Square became the refuge of the terrified + inhabitants. Out from their underground burrows like so many rats fled the + Chinese, trembling in terror into the square, and seeking by beating gongs + and other noise-making instruments to scare off the underground demons. + Into the square from the other side came the Italian refugees. The panic + became a madness, knives were drawn in the insanity of the moment, and two + Chinamen were taken to the morgue, stabbed to death for no other reason + than pure madness. Here on one side dwelt 20,000 Chinese, and on the other + thousands of Italians, Spaniards and Mexicans, while close at hand lived + the riff-raff of the “Barbary Coast.” + </p> + <p> + Seemingly the whole of these rushed for that one square of open ground, + the two streams meeting in the centre of the square and heaping up on its + edges. There they squabbled and fought in the madness of panic and + despair, as so many mad wolves might have fought when caught in the red + whirl of a prairie fire, until the soldiers broke in and at the bayonet’s + point brought some semblance of order out of the confusion of panic + terror. + </p> + <p> + This scene in Portsmouth Square but illustrated the madness of fear + everywhere prevailing. On every side thousands were fleeing from the + roaring furnace that minute by minute seemed to extend its boundaries. + </p> + <p> + THE FLIGHT FOR SAFETY. + </p> + <p> + In the awful scramble for safety the half-crazed survivors disregarded + everything but the thought of themselves and their property. In every + excavation and hole throughout the north beach householders buried + household effects, throwing them into ditches and covering the holes. + Attempts were made to mark the graves of the property so that it could be + recovered after the flames were appeased. + </p> + <p> + The streets were filled with struggling people, some crying and weeping + and calling for missing loved ones. Crowding the sidewalks were thousands + of householders attempting to drag some of their effects to places of + safety. In some instances men with ropes were dragging trunks, tandem + style, while others had sewing machines strapped to the trunks. Again, + women were rushing for the hills, carrying on their arms only the family + cat or a bird cage. + </p> + <p> + There were two ideas in the minds of the fugitives, and in many cases + these two only. One of these was to escape to the open ground of Golden + Gate Park and the Presidio reservation; the other was to reach the ferry + and make their way out of the seemingly doomed city. + </p> + <p> + At the ferry building a crowd numbering thousands gathered, begging for + food and transportation across the bay. Hundreds had not even the ten + cents fare to Oakland. Most of the refugees at this point were Chinamen + and Italians, who had fled from their burned tenements with little or no + personal property. + </p> + <p> + Residents of the hillsides in the central portion of the city seemingly + were safe from the inferno of flames that was consuming the business + section. They watched the towering mounds of flames, and speculated as to + the extent of the territory that was doomed. Suddenly there was whispered + alarm up and down the long line of watchers, and they hurried away to drag + clothing, cooking utensils and scant provisions through the streets. From + Grant Avenue the procession moved westward. Men and women dragged trunks, + packed huge bundles of blankets, boxes of provisions—everything. + Wagons could not be hired except by paying the most extortionate rates. + </p> + <p> + “Thank Heaven for the open space of the Presidio and for Golden Gate + Park!” was the unspoken thank-offering of many hearts. The great park, + with its thousand and more acres of area, extending from the thinly + populated part of the city across the sand dunes to the Pacific, seemed in + that awful hour a God-given place of refuge. Near it and extending to the + Golden Gate channel is the Presidio military reservation, containing 1,480 + acres, and with only a few houses on its broad extent. Here also was a + place of safety, provided that the forests which form a part of its area + did not burn. + </p> + <p> + THE EXODUS FROM THE BURNING CITY. + </p> + <p> + To these open spaces, to the suburbs, in every available direction, the + fugitives streamed, in thousands, in tens of thousands, finally in + hundreds of thousands, safety from those towering flames, from the + tottering walls of their dwellings, from a possible return of the + earthquake, their one overmastering thought. There were many persons with + scanty clothing, women in underskirts and thin waists and men in shirt + sleeves. Many women carried children, while others wheeled baby carriages. + It was a strange and weird procession, that kept up unceasingly all that + dreadful day and through the night that followed, as the all-conquering + flames spread the area of terror. + </p> + <p> + At intervals news came of what was doing behind the smoke cloud. The area + of the flames spread all night. People who had decided that their houses + were outside of the dangerous area and had decided to pass the night, even + after the terrible experience of the shake-up, under their roofs, hourly + gave up the idea and struggled to the parks. There they lay in blankets, + their choicest valuables by their sides, and the soldiers kept watch and + order. Many lay on the bare grass of the park, with nothing between them + and the chill night air. Fortunately, the weather was clear and mild, but + among those who lay under the open sky were men and women who were + delicately reared, accustomed all their lives to luxurious surroundings, + and these must have suffered severely during that night of terror. + </p> + <p> + The fire was going on in the district south of them, and at intervals all + night exhausted fire-fighters made their way to the plaza and dropped, + with the breath out of them, among the huddled people and the bundles of + household goods. The soldiers, who were administering affairs with all the + justice of judges and all the devotion of heroes, kept three or four + buckets of water, even from the women, for these men, who continued to + come all the night long. There was a little food, also kept by the + soldiers for these emergencies, and the sergeant had in his charge one + precious bottle of whisky, from which he doled out drinks to those who + were utterly exhausted. + </p> + <p> + But there was no panic. The people were calm, stunned. They did not seem + to realize the extent of the calamity. They heard that the city was being + destroyed; they told each other in the most natural tone that their + residences were destroyed by the flames, but there was no hysteria, no + outcry, no criticism. + </p> + <p> + The trip to the hills and to the water front was one of terrible hardship. + Famishing women and children and exhausted men were compelled to walk + seven miles around the north shore in order to avoid the flames and reach + the ferries. Many dropped to the street under the weight of their loads, + and willing fathers and husbands, their strength almost gone, strove to + pick up and urge them forward again. + </p> + <p> + In the panic many mad things were done. Even soldiers were obliged in many + instances to prevent men and women, made insane from the misfortune that + had engulfed them, from rushing into doomed buildings in the hope of + saving valuables from the ruins. In nearly every instance such action + resulted in death to those who tried it. At Larkin and Sutter Streets, two + men and a woman broke from the police and rushed into a burning apartment + house, never to reappear. + </p> + <p> + The rush to the parks and the dunes was followed in the days that followed + by as wild a rush to the ferries, due to the mad desire to escape + anywhere, in any way, from the burning city. + </p> + <p> + THE WILD RUSH TO THE FERRIES. + </p> + <p> + At the ferry station on Wednesday night there was much confusion. Mingled + in an inextricable mass were people of every race and class on earth. A + common misfortune and hunger obliterated all distinctions. Chinese, lying + on pallets of rags, slept near exhausted white women with babies in their + arms. Bedding, household furniture of every description, pet animals and + trinkets, luggage and packages of every sort packed almost every foot of + space near the ferry building. Men spread bedding on the pavement and + calmly slept the sleep of exhaustion, while all around a bedlam of + confusion reigned. + </p> + <p> + Many of those who sought the ferry on that fatal Wednesday met a solid + wall of flames extending for squares in length and utterly impassable. In + their half insane eagerness to escape some of them would have rushed into + fatal danger but for the soldiers, who guarded the fire line and forced + them back. Only those reached the ferry who had come in precedence of the + flames, or who made a long detour to reach that avenue of flight. When the + news came to the camps of refugees that it was safe to cross the burned + area a procession began from the Golden Gate Park across the city and down + Market Street, the thoroughfare which had long been the pride of the + citizens, and a second from the Presidio, along the curving shore line of + the north bay, thence southward along the water front. Throughout these + routes, eight miles long, a continuous flow of humanity dragged its weary + way all day and far into the night amidst hundreds of vehicles, from the + clumsy garbage cart to the modern automobile. Almost every person and + every vehicle carried luggage. Drivers of vehicles were disregardful of + these exhausted, hungry refugees and drove straight through the crowd. So + dazed and deadened to all feeling were some of them that they were bumped + aside by carriage wheels or bumped out of the way by persons. + </p> + <p> + SCENES OF HUMOR AND PATHOS. + </p> + <p> + As already stated, the scene had its humorous as well as its pathetic + side, and various amusing stories are told by those who were in a frame of + mind to notice ludicrous incidents in the horrors of the situation. Two + race track men met in the drive. + </p> + <p> + “Hello, Bill; where are you living now?” asked one. + </p> + <p> + “You see that tree over there—that big one?” said Bill. “Well, you + climb that. My room is on the third branch to the left,” and they went + away laughing. + </p> + <p> + Another observer tells these incidents of the flight: “I saw one big fat + man calmly walking up Market Street, carrying a huge bird cage, and the + cage was empty. He seemed to enjoy looking at the wrecked buildings. + Another man was leading a huge Newfoundland dog and carrying a kitten in + his arms. He kept talking to the kitten. On Fell Street I noticed an old + woman, half dressed, pushing a sewing machine up the hill. A drawer fell + out, and she stopped to gather the fallen spools. Poor little seamstress, + it was now her all.” + </p> + <p> + A more amusing instance of the spirit of saving is that told by another + narrator, who says that he saw a lone woman patiently pushing an upright + piano along the pavement a few inches at a time. Evidently in this case, + too, it was the poor soul’s one great treasure on earth. + </p> + <p> + He also tells of a guest berating the proprietor of a hotel, a few minutes + after the shock, because he had not obeyed orders to call him at five + o’clock. He vowed he would never stop at that house again, a vow he might + well keep, as the house is no more. + </p> + <p> + In one room where two girls were dressing the floor gave way and one of + them disappeared. + </p> + <p> + “Where are you, Mary?” screamed her companion. + </p> + <p> + “Oh, I’m in the parlor,” said Mary calmly, as she wriggled out of the mass + of plaster and mortar below. + </p> + <p> + At the handsome residence of Rudolph Spreckels, the wealthy financier, the + lawn was riven from end to end in great gashes, while the ornamental + Italian rail leading to the imposing entrance was a battered heap. But the + family, with a philosophy notable for the occasion, calmly set up + housekeeping on the sidewalk, the women seated in armchairs taken from the + mansion and wrapped in rugs and coverlets, the silver breakfast service + was laid out on the stone coping and their morning meal spread out on the + sidewalk. This, scene was repeated at other houses of the wealthy, the + families too fearful of another shock to venture within doors. + </p> + <p> + Another story of much interest in this connection is told. On Friday + afternoon, two days and some hours after the scene just narrated, Mrs. + Rudolph Spreckels presented her husband with an heir on the lawn in front + of their mansion, while the family were awaiting the coming of the + dynamite squad to blow up their magnificent residence. An Irish woman who + had been called in to play the part of midwife at a birth elsewhere on + Saturday, made a pertinent comment after the wee one’s eyes were opened to + the walls of its tent home. + </p> + <p> + “God sends earthquakes and babies,” she said, “but He might, in His mercy, + cut out sending them both together.” + </p> + <p> + There were many pathetic incidents. Families had been sadly separated in + the confusion of the flight. Husbands had lost their wives—wives had + lost their husbands, and anxious mothers sought some word of their + children—the stories were very much the same. One pretty looking + woman in an expensive tailor-made costume badly torn, had lost her little + girl. + </p> + <p> + “I don’t think anything has happened to her,” said she, hopefully. “She is + almost eleven years old, and some one will be sure to take her in and care + for her; I only want to know where she is. That is all I care about now.” + </p> + <p> + A well-known young lady of good social position, when asked where she had + spent the night, replied: “On a grave.” + </p> + <p> + “I thank God, I thank Uncle Sam and the people of this nation,” said a + woman, clad in a red woolen wrapper, seated in front of a tent at the + Presidio nursing one child and feeding three others from a board propped + on two bricks. “We have lost our home and all we had, but we have never + been hungry nor without shelter.” + </p> + <p> + The spirit of ‘49 was vital in many of the refugees. One man wanted to + know whether the fire had reached his home. He was informed that there was + not a house standing in that section of the city. He shrugged his + shoulders and whistled. + </p> + <p> + “There’s lots of others in the same boat,” as he turned away. + </p> + <p> + “Going to build?” repeated one man, who had lost family and home inside of + two hours. “Of course, I am. They tell me that the money in the banks is + still all right, and I have some insurance. Fifteen years ago I began with + these,” showing his hands, “and I guess I’m game to do it over again. + Build again, well I wonder.” + </p> + <p> + Among the many pathetic incidents of the disaster was that of a woman who + sat at the foot of Van Ness Avenue on the hot sands on the hillside + overlooking the bay east of Fort Mason, with four little children, the + youngest a girl of three, the eldest a boy of ten years. They were + destitute of water, food and money. + </p> + <p> + The woman had fled, with her children, from a home in flames in the + Mission Street district, and tramped to the bay in the hope of sighting + the ship which she said was about due, of which her husband was the + captain. + </p> + <p> + “He would know me anywhere,” she said. And she would not move, although a + young fellow gallantly offered his tent, back on a vacant lot, in which to + shelter her children. + </p> + <p> + THE GOLDEN GATE CAMP. + </p> + <p> + In the Golden Gate Park there was the most woefully grotesque camp of + sufferers imaginable. There was no caste, no distinction of rich and poor, + social lines had been obliterated by the common misfortune, and the late + owners of property and wealth were glad to camp by the side of the day + laborer. As for shelter, there were a few army tents and some others which + afforded a fair degree of comfort, but nine out of ten are the poorest + suggestions of tents made out of bedclothes, rugs, raincoats and in some + cases of lace curtains. None of the tents or huts has a floor, and it is + impossible to see how a large number of women and children can escape the + most disastrous physical effects. + </p> + <p> + The unspeakable chaos that prevailed was apparent in no way more than in + the system, or lack of system, of registration and location. At the + entrance to Golden Gate Park stands a billboard, twenty feet high and a + hundred feet long. Originally it bore the praises of somebody’s beer. + Covering this billboard, to a height of ten or twelve feet, were slips of + paper, business cards, letter heads and other notices, addressed to “Those + interested,” “Friends and relatives,” or to some individual, telling of + the whereabouts of refugees. + </p> + <p> + One notice read: “Mrs. Rogers will find her husband in Isidora Park, + Oakland. W. H. Rogers.” Another style was this: “Sue, Harry and Will + Sollenberger all safe. Call at No. 250 Twenty-seventh Avenue.” + </p> + <p> + There were thousands of these dramatic notices on this billboard, and one + larger than the others read: “Death notices can be left here; get as many + as possible.” + </p> + <p> + Another method of finding friends and relatives was by printing notices on + vehicles. On the side curtains of a buggy being driven to Golden Gate Park + was the following sign: “I am looking for I. E. Hall.” + </p> + <p> + That searchers for lost ones might have the least trouble, all the tents, + here known as camps, were tagged with the names or numbers. For instance, + one tent of bed quilts carried this sign: “No. 40 Bush Street camp.” + </p> + <p> + Most of the tents were merely named for the family name of the occupants, + the former streets number usually being given. But these tent tags told a + wonderful story of human nature. A small army tent bore the name, “Camp + Thankful,” the one next to it was placarded “Camp Glory” and a few feet + farther on an Irishman had posted the sign “Camp Hell.” + </p> + <p> + The cooking was all done on a dozen bricks for a stove, with such utensils + as may usually be picked up in the ordinary residential alley. But in all + of the camps the badge of the eternal feminine was to be found in the form + of small pieces of broken mirrors, or hand mirrors fastened to trees or + tent walls, in some cases the polished bottom of a tomato can serving the + purposes of the feminine toilet. + </p> + <p> + One woman, in whose improvised tent screeched a parrot, sat ministering to + the wounds of the other family pet, a badly singed cat. The number of + canaries, parrots, dogs and cats was one of the amusing features of the + disaster. + </p> + <p> + Among the interesting and thrilling incidents of the disaster is that + connected with the telegraph service. For many hours virtually all the + news from San Francisco came over the wires of the Postal Telegraph + Company. The Postal has about fifteen wires running into San Francisco. + They go under the bay in cables from Oakland, and thence run underground + for several blocks down Market Street to the Postal building. About forty + operators are employed to handle the business, but evidently there was + only about one on duty when the earthquake began. + </p> + <p> + What became of him nobody knows. But he seems to have sent the first word + of the disaster. It came over the Postal wires about nine o’clock, just + when the day’s business had started in the East. It will long be preserved + in the records of the company. This was the dispatch: + </p> + <p> + “There was an earthquake hit us at 5.13 this morning, wrecking several + buildings and wrecking our offices. They are carting dead from the fallen + buildings. Fire all over town. There is no water and we lost our power. + I’m going to get out of office, as we have had a little shake every few + minutes, and it’s me for the simple life.” + </p> + <p> + “R., San Francisco, 5.50 A. M.” + </p> + <p> + “Mr. R.” evidently got out, for there was nothing doing for a brief + interval after that. The operator in the East pounded and pounded at his + key, but San Francisco was silent. The Postal people were wondering if it + was all the dream of some crazy operator or a calamity, when the wire woke + up again. It was the superintendent of the San Francisco force this time. + </p> + <p> + “We’re on the job, and are going to try and stick,” was the way the first + message came from him. + </p> + <p> + This was what came over the wire a little later: + </p> + <p> + “Terrific earthquake occurred here at 5.13 this morning. A number of + people were killed in the city. None of the Postal people were killed. + They are now carting the dead from the fallen buildings. There are many + fires, with no one to fight them. Postal building roof wrecked, but not + entire building.” + </p> + <p> + The fire got nearer and nearer to the Postal building. All of the water + mains had been destroyed around the building, the operators said, and + there was no hope if the fire came on. They also said that they could hear + the sound of dynamite blowing up buildings. All this time the operators + were sticking to their posts and sending and receiving all the business + the wires could stand. At 12.45 the wire began to click again with a + message for the little group of waiting officials. + </p> + <p> + This message came in jerks: “Fire still coming up Market Street. It’s one + block from the Post Office now; back of the Palace Hotel is a furnace. I + am afraid that the Grand Hotel and the Palace Hotel will get it soon. The + Southern Pacific offices on California Street are safe, so far, but can’t + tell what will happen. California Street is on fire. Almost everything + east of Montgomery Street and north of Market Street is on fire now.” + </p> + <p> + There was a pause, then: “We are beginning to pack up our instruments.” + </p> + <p> + “Instruments are all packed up, and we are ready to run,” was another + message. It was evident that just one instrument had been left connected + with the world outside. In about ten minutes it began to click. Those who + knew the telegraphers’ language caught the word “Good-bye,” and then the + ticks stopped. + </p> + <p> + At the end of an hour the instrument in the office began to click again. + It was from an electrician by the name of Swain. + </p> + <p> + “I’m back in the building, but they are dynamiting the building next door, + and I’ve got to get out,” was the way his message was translated. Dynamite + ended the story, and the Postal’s domicile in San Francisco ceased to + exist. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> + <h3> + Facing Famine and Praying for Relief. + </h3> + <p> + Frightful was the emergency of the vast host of fugitives who fled in + terror from the blazing city of San Francisco to the open gates of Golden + Gate Park and the military reservation of the Presidio. Food was wanting, + scarcely any water was to be had, death by hunger and thirst threatened + more than a quarter million of souls thus driven without warning from + their comfortable and happy homes and left without food or shelter. + Provisions, shelter tents, means of relief of various kinds were being + hurried forward in all haste, but for several days the host of fugitives + had no beds but the bare ground, no shelter but the open heavens, scarcely + a crumb of bread to eat, scarcely a gill of water to drink. Those first + days that followed the disaster were days of horror and dread. Rich and + poor were mingled together, the delicately reared with the rough sons of + toil to whom privation was no new experience. + </p> + <p> + Those who had food to sell sought to take advantage of the necessities of + the suffering by charging famine prices for their supplies, but the + soldiers put a quick stop to this. When Thursday morning broke, lines of + buyers formed before the stores whose supplies had not been commandeered. + In one of these, the first man was charged 75 cents for a loaf of bread. + The corporal in charge at that point brought his gun down with a slam. + </p> + <p> + “Bread is 10 cents a loaf in this shop,” he said. + </p> + <p> + It went. The soldier fixed the schedule of prices a little higher than in + ordinary times, and to make up for that he forced the storekeeper to give + free food to several hungry people in line who had no money to pay. In + several other places the soldiers used the same brand of horse sense. + </p> + <p> + A man with a loaf of bread in his hand ran up to a policeman on Washington + Street. “Here,” he said, “this man is trying to charge me a dollar for + this loaf of bread. Is that fair?” + </p> + <p> + “Give it to me,” said the policeman. He broke off one end of it and stuck + it in his mouth. “I am hungry myself,” he said when he had his mouth + clear. “Take the rest of it. It’s appropriated.” + </p> + <p> + As an example of the prices charged for food and service by the + unscrupulous, we may quote the experience of a Los Angeles millionaire + named John Singleton, who had been staying a day or two at the Palace + Hotel. On Wednesday he had to pay $25 for an express wagon to carry + himself, his wife and her sister to the Casino, near Golden Gate Park, and + on Thursday was charged a dollar apiece for eggs and a dollar for a loaf + of bread. Others tell of having to pay $50 for a ride to the ferry. + </p> + <p> + One of the refugees on the shores of Lake Herced Thursday morning spied a + flock of ducks and swans which the city maintained there for the + decoration of the lake. He plunged into the lake, swam out to them and + captured a fat drake. Other men and boys saw the point and followed. The + municipal ducks were all cooking in five minutes. + </p> + <p> + The soldiers were prompt to take charge of the famine situation, acting on + their own responsibility in clearing out the supplies of the little + grocery stores left standing and distributing them among the people in + need. The principal food of those who remained in the city was composed of + canned goods and crackers. The refugees who succeeded in getting out of + San Francisco were met as soon as they entered the neighboring towns by + representatives of bakers who had made large supplies of bread, and who + immediately dealt them out to the hungry people. + </p> + <p> + THE FOOD QUESTION URGENT. + </p> + <p> + But the needs of the three hundred thousand homeless and hungry people in + the city could not be met in this way, and immediate supplies in large + quantities were necessary to prevent a reign of famine from succeeding the + ravages of the fire. Danger from thirst was still more insistent than that + from hunger. There was some food to be had, bakeries were quickly built + within the military reservation there, and General Funston announced that + rations would soon reach the city and the people would be supplied from + the Presidio. But there was scarcely any water to relieve the thirst of + the suffering. Water became the incessant cry of firemen and people alike, + the one wanting it to fight the fire, the other to drink, but even for the + latter the supply was very scant. There was water in plenty in the + reservoirs, but they were distant and difficult to reach, and all night of + the day succeeding the earth shock wagons mounted with barrels and guarded + by soldiers drove through the park doling out water. There was a steady + crush around these wagons, but only one drink was allowed to a person. + </p> + <p> + Toward midnight a black, staggering body of men began to weave through the + entrance. They were volunteer fire-fighters, looking for a place to throw + themselves down and sleep. These men dropped out all along the line, and + were rolled out of the driveways by the troops. There was much splendid + unselfishness here. Women gave up their blankets and sat up or walked + about all night to cover the exhausted men who had fought fire until there + was no more fight in them. + </p> + <p> + The common destitution and suffering had, as we have said, wiped out all + social, financial and racial distinctions. The man who last Tuesday was a + prosperous merchant was obliged to occupy with his family a little plot of + ground that adjoined the open-air home of a laborer. The white man of + California forgot his antipathy to the Asiatic race, and maintained + friendly relations with his new Chinese and Japanese neighbors. The + society belle who Tuesday night was a butterfly of fashion at the grand + opera performance now assisted some factory girl in the preparation of + humble daily meals. Money had little value. The family that had had + foresight to lay in the largest stock of foodstuffs on the first day of + disaster was rated highest in the scale of wealth. + </p> + <p> + A few of the families that could secure wagons were possessors of cook + stoves, but over 95 per cent. of the refugees did their cooking on little + campfires made of brick or stone. Battered kitchen utensils that the week + before would have been regarded as useless had become articles of high + value. In fact, man had come back to nature and all lines of caste had + been obliterated, while the very thought of luxury had disappeared. It + was, in the exigency of the moment, considered good fortune to have a + scant supply of the barest necessaries of life. + </p> + <p> + As for clothing, it was in many cases of the scantiest, while numbers of + the people had brought comfortable clothing and bedding. Many others had + fled in their night garbs, and comparatively few of these had had the + self-possession to return and don their daytime clothes. As a result there + had been much improvisation of garments suitable for life in the open air, + and as the days went on many of the women arrayed themselves in home-made + bloomer costumes, a sensible innovation under the circumstances and in + view of the active outdoor work they were obliged to perform. + </p> + <p> + The grave question to be faced at this early stage was: How soon would an + adequate supply of food arrive from outside points to avert famine? Little + remained in San Francisco beyond the area swept by the fire, and the + available supply could not last more than a few days. Fresh meat + disappeared early on Wednesday and only canned foods and breadstuffs were + left. All the foodstuffs coming in on the cars were at once seized by + order of the Mayor and added to the scanty supply, the names of the + consignees being taken that this material might eventually be paid for. + The bakers agreed to work their plants to their utmost capacity and to + send all their surplus output to the relief committee. By working night + and day thousands of loaves could be provided daily. A big bakery in the + saved district started its ovens and arranged to bake 50,000 loaves before + night. The provisions were taken charge of by a committee and sent to the + various depots from which the people were being fed. Instructions were + issued by Mayor Schmitz on Thursday to break open every store containing + provisions and to distribute them to the thousands under police + supervision. A policeman reported that two grocery stores in the + neighborhood were closed, although the clerks were present. “Smash the + stores open,” ordered the Mayor, “and guard them.” In towns across the bay + the master bakers have met and fixed the price of bread at 5 cents the + loaf, with the understanding that they will refuse to sell to retailers + who attempt to charge famine prices. The committee of citizens in charge + of the situation in the stricken city proposed to use every effort to keep + food down to the ordinary price and check the efforts of speculators, who + in one instance charged as much as $3.50 for two loaves of bread and a can + of sardines. Orders were issued by the War Department to army officers to + purchase at Los Angeles immediately 200,000 rations and at Seattle 300,000 + rations and hurry them to San Francisco. The department was informed that + there were 120,000 rations at the Presidio, that thousands of refugees + were being sheltered there and that the army was feeding them. One million + rations already had been started to San Francisco by the department. But + in view of the fact that there were 300,000 fugitives to be fed the supply + available was likely to be soon exhausted. + </p> + <p> + FOOD FOR THE HUNGRY. + </p> + <p> + Such was the state of affairs at the end of the second day of the great + disaster. But meanwhile the entire country had been aroused by the tidings + of the awful calamity, the sympathetic instinct of Americans everywhere + was awakened, and it was quickly made evident that the people of the + stricken city would not be allowed to suffer for the necessaries of life. + On all sides money was contributed in large sums, the United States + Government setting the example by an immediate appropriation of + $1,000,000, and in the briefest possible interval relief trains were + speeding toward the stricken city from all quarters, carrying supplies of + food, shelter tents and other necessaries of a kind that could not await + deliberate action. + </p> + <p> + Shelter was needed almost as badly as food, for a host of the refugees had + nothing but their thin clothing to cover them, and, though the weather at + first was fine and mild, a storm might come at any time. In fact, a rain + did come, a severe one, early in the week after the disaster, pouring + nearly all night long on the shivering campers in the parks, wetting them + to the skin and soaking through the rudely improvised shelters which many + of the refugees had put up. A few days afterward came a second shower, + rendering still more evident the need of haste in providing suitable + shelter. + </p> + <p> + All this was foreseen by those in charge, and the most strenuous efforts + were made to provide the absolute necessities of life. Huge quantities of + supplies were poured into the city. From all parts of California + trainloads of food were rushed there in all haste. A steamer from the + Orient laden with food reached the city in its hour of need; another was + dispatched in all haste from Tacoma bearing $25,000 worth of food and + medical supplies, ordered by Mayor Weaver, of Philadelphia, as a first + installment of that city’s contribution. Money was telegraphed from all + quarters to the Governor of California, to be expended for food and other + supplies, and so prompt was the response to the insistent demand that by + Saturday all danger of famine was at an end; the people were being fed. + </p> + <p> + WATER FOR THE THIRSTY. + </p> + <p> + The broken waterpipes were also repaired with all possible haste, the + Spring Valley Water Company putting about one thousand men at work upon + their shattered mains, and in a very brief time water began to flow freely + in many parts of the residence section and the great difficulty of + obtaining food and water was practically at an end. Never in the history + of the country has there been a more rapid and complete demonstration of + the resourcefulness of Americans than in the way this frightful disaster + was met. + </p> + <p> + Food, water and shelter were not the only urgent needs. At first there was + absolutely no sanitary provision, and the danger of an epidemic was great. + This was a peril which the Board of Health addressed itself vigorously to + meet, and steps for improving the sanitary conditions were hastily taken. + Quick provision for sheltering the unfortunates was also made. Eight + temporary structures, 150 feet in length by 28 feet wide and 13 feet high, + were erected in Golden Gate Park, and in these sheds thousands found + reasonably comfortable quarters. This was but a beginning. More of these + buildings were rapidly erected, and by their aid the question of shelter + was in part solved. The buildings were divided into compartments large + enough to house a family, each compartment having an entrance from the + outside. This work was done under the control of the engineering + department of the United States army, which had taken steps to obtain a + full supply of lumber and had put 135 carpenters to work. Those of the + refugees who were without tents were the first to be provided for in these + temporary buildings. + </p> + <p> + THE CAMPS IN THE PARKS. + </p> + <p> + To those who made an inspection of the situation a few days after the + earthquake, the hills and beaches of San Francisco looked like an immense + tented city. For miles through the park and along the beaches from + Ingleside to the sea wall at North Beach the homeless were camped in tents—makeshifts + rigged up from a few sticks of wood and a blanket or sheet. Some few of + the more fortunate secured vehicles on which they loaded regulation tents + and were, therefore, more comfortably housed than the great majority. + Golden Gate Park and the Panhandle looked like one vast campaign ground. + It is said that fully 100,000 persons, rich and poor alike, sought refuge + in Golden Gate Park alone, and 200,000 more homeless ones located at the + other places of refuge. + </p> + <p> + At the Presidio military reservation, where probably 50,000 persons were + camped, affairs were conducted with military precision. Water was + plentiful and rations were dealt out all day long. The refugees stood + patiently in line and there was not a murmur. This characteristic was + observable all over the city. The people were brave and patient, and the + wonderful order preserved by them proved of great assistance. In Golden + Gate Park a huge supply station had been established and provisions were + dealt out. + </p> + <p> + Six hundred men from the Ocean Shore Railway arrived on Saturday night + with wagons and implements to work on the sewer system. Inspectors were + kept going from house to house, examining chimneys and issuing permits to + build fires. In fact, activity manifested itself in all quarters in the + attempt to bring order out of confusion, and in an astonishingly short + time the tented city was converted from a scene of wretched disorder into + one of order and system. + </p> + <p> + At Jefferson Park were camped thousands of people of every class in life. + On the western edge of this park is the old Scott house, where Mrs. + McKinley lay sick for two weeks in 1901. Three times a day the people all + gathered in line before the provision wagons for their little handouts. + “Yesterday,” says an observer, “I saw, in order before the wagons, a + Lascar sailor in his turban, about as low a Chinatown bum as I ever set + eyes on, a woman of refined appearance, a barefooted child, two Chinamen, + and a pretty girl. They were squeezed up together by the line, which + extended for a quarter of a mile. It is civilization in the bare bones. + </p> + <p> + “The great and rich are on a level with the poor in the struggle for bare + existence, and over them all is the perfect, unbroken discipline of the + soldiery. They came into the city and took charge on an hour’s notice, + they saved the city from itself in the three days of hell, and but for + them the city, even with enough provisions to feed them in the stores and + warehouses, must have gone hungry for lack of distributive organization.” + </p> + <p> + COMEDY AND PATHOS IN THE BREAD LINE. + </p> + <p> + At one of the parks on Tuesday morning a handsomely dressed woman with two + children at her skirts stood in a line of many hundreds where supplies + were being given out. She took some uncooked bacon, and as she reached for + it jewels sparkled on her fingers. One of the tots took a can of condensed + milk, the other a bag of cakes. + </p> + <p> + “I have money,” she said, “‘if I could get it and use it. I have property, + if I could realize on it. I have friends, if I could get to them. Meantime + I am going to cook this piece of bacon on bricks and be happy.” + </p> + <p> + She was only one of thousands like her. + </p> + <p> + In a walk through the city this note of cheerfulness of the people in the + face of an almost incredible week of horror was to a correspondent the + mitigating element to the awfulness of disaster. + </p> + <p> + In the streets of the residential district in the western addition, which + the fire did not reach, women of the houses were cooking meals on the + pavement. In most cases they had moved out the family ranges, and were + preparing the food which they had secured from the Relief Committee. + </p> + <p> + Out on Broderick street, near the Panhandle, a piano sounded. It was nigh + ten o’clock and the stars were shining after the rain. Fires gleamed up + and down through the shrubbery and the refugees sat huddled together about + the flames, with their blankets about their heads, Apache-like, in an + effort to dry out after the wetting of the afternoon. The piano, dripping + with moisture, stood on the curb, near the front of a cottage which had + been wrecked by the earthquake. + </p> + <p> + A youth with a shock of red hair sat on a cracker box and pecked at the + ivories. “Home Ain’t Nothing Like This” was thrummed from the rusting + wires with true vaudeville dash and syncopation. “Bill Bailey,” “Good Old + Summer Time,” “Dixie” and “In Toyland” followed. Three young men with + handkerchiefs wrapped about their throats in lieu of collars stood near + the pianist and with him lifted up their voices in melody. The harmony was + execrable, the time without excuse, but the songs ran through the trees of + the Panhandle, and the crows, forgetting their misery for a time, joined + the strange chorus. + </p> + <p> + The people had their tales of comedy, one being that on the morning of the + fire a richly dressed woman who lived in one of the aristocratic Sutter + Street apartments came hurrying down the street, faultlessly gowned as to + silks and sables, save that one dainty foot was shod with a high-heeled + French slipper and the other was incased in a laborer’s brogan. They say + that as she walked she careened like a bark-rigged ship before a typhoon. + </p> + <p> + An hour spent behind the counter of the food supply depot in the park + tennis court yielded rich reward to the seeker after the outlandish. The + tennis court was piled high with the plunder of several grocery stores and + the cargoes of many relief cars. A square cut in the wire screen permitted + of the insertion of a counter, behind which stood members of the militia + acting as food dispensers. Before the improvised window passed the line of + refugees, a line which stretched back fully 300 yards to Speedway track. + </p> + <p> + “I want a can of condensed cream, so I can feed my baby and my dog,” said + a large, florid-faced woman in a gaudy kimono, “and I don’t care for + crackers, but you can throw in some potted chicken if you have it.” + </p> + <p> + “What’s in that bottle over there?” queried the next applicant. “Tomato + ketchup? Well, of all the luck! Say, young man, just give me three.” + </p> + <p> + A little gray-haired woman in an India shawl peered timorously through the + window. “Just a little bit of anything you may have handy, please,” she + whispered, and she cast a careful eye about to see of any of her neighbors + had recognized her standing there in the “bread line.” + </p> + <p> + “Yesterday, at the Western Union office,” says one writer, “I saw a woman + drive up in a large motor car and beg that the telegram on which a boy had + asked a delivery fee of twenty-five cents be handed to her. She said she + had not a penny and did not know when she would have any money, but that + as soon as she had any she would pay for the message. It was given to her, + and the manager told me that there were hundreds of similar cases.” + </p> + <p> + Many weddings resulted from the disaster. Women driven out of their homes + and left destitute, appealed to the men to whom they were engaged, and + immediate marriages took place. After the first day of the disaster an + increase in the marriage licenses issued was noticed by County Clerk Cook. + This increase grew until seven marriage licenses were issued in an hour. + </p> + <p> + “I don’t live anywhere,” was the answer given in many cases when the + applicant for a license was asked the locality of his residence. “I used + to live in San Francisco.” + </p> + <p> + Births seem to have been about as common as marriages, in one night five + children being born in Golden Gate Park. In Buena Vista Park eight births + were recorded and others elsewhere, the population being thus increased at + a rate hardly in accordance with the exigencies of the situation. + </p> + <p> + THE EXODUS FROM SAN FRANCISCO. + </p> + <p> + We have spoken only of the camps of refugees within the municipal limits + of San Francisco. But in addition to these was the multitude of fugitives + who made all haste to escape from that city. This was with the full + consent of the authorities, who felt that every one gone lessened the + immediate weight upon themselves, and who issued a strict edict that those + who went must stay, that there could be no return until a counter edict + should be made public. + </p> + <p> + From the start this was one of the features of the situation. Down Market + Street, once San Francisco’s pride, now leading through piles of tottering + walls, piles of still hot bricks and twisted iron and heaps of smouldering + debris, poured a huge stream of pedestrians. Men bending under the weight + of great bundles pushed baby carriages loaded with bric-a-brac and + children. Women toiled along with their arms full, but a large proportion + were able to ride, for the relief corps had been thoroughly organized and + wagons were being pressed into service from all sides. + </p> + <p> + In constant procession they moved toward the ferry, whence the Southern + Pacific was transporting them with baggage free wherever they wished to + go. Automobiles meanwhile shot in all directions, carrying the Red Cross + flag and usually with a soldier carrying a rifle in the front seat. They + had the right of way everywhere, carrying messages and transporting the + ill to temporary hospitals and bearing succor to those in distress. + </p> + <p> + Oakland, the nearest place of resort, on the bay shore opposite San + Francisco, soon became a great city of refuge, fugitives gathering there + until 50,000 or more were sheltered within its charitable limits. Having + suffered very slightly from the earthquake that had wrecked the great city + across the bay, it was in condition to offer shelter to the unfortunate. + All day Wednesday and Thursday a stream of humanity poured from the + ferries, every one carrying personal baggage and articles saved from the + conflagration. Hundreds of Chinese men, women and children, all carrying + baggage to the limit of their strength, made their way into the limited + Chinatown of Oakland. + </p> + <p> + Multitudes of persons besieged the telegraph offices, and the crush became + so great that soldiers were stationed at the doors to keep them in line + and allow as many as possible to find standing room at the counters. + Messages were stacked yards high in the offices waiting to be sent + throughout the world. Every boat from San Francisco brought hundreds of + refugees, carrying luggage and bedding in large quantities. Many women + were bareheaded and all showed fatigue as the result of sleeplessness and + exposure to the chill air. Hundreds of these persons lined the streets of + Oakland, waiting for some one to provide them with shelter, for which the + utmost possible provision was quickly made. No one was allowed to go + hungry in Oakland and few lacked shelter. At the Oakland First + Presbyterian Church 1,800 were fed and 1,000 people were provided with + sleeping accommodations. Pews were turned into beds. Cots stood in the + aisles, in the gallery and in the Sunday school room. Every available inch + of space was occupied by some substitute for a bed. + </p> + <p> + As the days wore on the number of refugees somewhat decreased. Although + they still came in large numbers, many left on every train for different + points. Requests for free transportation were investigated as closely as + possible and all the deserving were sent away. Women and children and + married men who wished to join their families in different parts of the + State were given preference. The transportation bureau was on a street + corner, where a man stood on a box and called the names of those entitled + to passes. + </p> + <p> + Along the principal streets of Oakland there was a picturesque pilgrimage + of former householders, who dragged or carried the meagre effects they had + been able to save. The refugees who could not be cared for in Oakland made + an exodus to Berkeley and other surrounding cities, where relief + committees were actively at work. Utter despair was pictured on many + faces, which showed the effects of sleepless days and nights, and the want + of proper food. + </p> + <p> + Oakland was only one of the outside camps of refuge. At Berkeley over + 6,000 refugees sought quarters, the big gymnasium of the State University + being turned into a lodging house, while hundreds were provided with + blankets to sleep in the open air under the University oaks. The students + and professors of the University did all they could for their relief, and + the Citizens’ Relief Committee supplied them with food. + </p> + <p> + The same benevolent sympathy was manifested at all the places near the + ruined city which had escaped disaster, this aid materially reducing that + needed within San Francisco itself. + </p> + <p> + WORSHIP IN THE OPEN AIR. + </p> + <p> + Sunday dawned in San Francisco; Sunday in the camp of the refugees. On a + green knoll in Golden Gate Park, between the conservatory and the tennis + courts, a white-haired minister of the Gospel gathered his flock. It was + the Sabbath day and in the turmoil and confusion the minister did not + forget his duty. Two upright stakes and a cross-piece gave him a rude + pulpit, and beside him stood a young man with a battered brass cornet. Far + over the park stole a melody that drew hundreds of men and women from + their tents. Of all denominations and all creeds, they gathered on that + green knoll, and the men uncovered while the solemn voice repeated the + words of a grand old hymn, known wherever men and women meet to worship + the Lord: + </p> + <p> + “Other refuge have I none, hangs my helpless soul on Thee; Leave, oh, + leave me not alone, still support and comfort me!” + </p> + <p> + A moment before there had been shouting and confusion in the driveway + where some red-striped artillerymen were herding a squad of gesticulating + Chinamen as men herd sheep. The shouting died away as the minister’s voice + rose and fell and out of the stillness came the sobs of women. One little + woman in blue was making no sound, but the tears were streaming down her + cheeks. Her husband, a sturdy young fellow in his shirt sleeves, put his + arm about her shoulders and tried to comfort her as the reading went on. + </p> + <p> + “All my trust on Thee is stayed; all my help from Thee I bring; Cover my + defenseless head with the shadow of Thy wing.” + </p> + <p> + Then the cornet took up the air again and those helpless persons followed + it in quivering tones, the white-haired man of God leading them with + closed eyes. When the last verse was over, the minister raised his hands. + </p> + <p> + “Let us pray,” said he, and his congregation sank down in the grass before + him. It was a simple prayer, such a prayer as might be offered by a man + without a home or a shelter over his head—and nothing left to him + but an unshaken faith in his Creator. + </p> + <p> + “Oh, Lord, Thy ways are past finding out, but we still have faith in Thee. + We know not why Thou hast visited these people and left them homeless. + Thou knowest the reason of this desolation and of our utter helplessness. + We call on Thee for help in the hour of our great need. Bless the people + of this city, the sorrowing ones, the bereaved, gather them under Thy + mighty wing and soothe aching hearts this day.” + </p> + <p> + The women were crying again, and one big man dug his knuckles into his + eyes without shame. The man who could have listened to such a prayer + unmoved was not in Golden Gate Park that day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> + <h3> + The Frightful Loss of Life and Wealth. + </h3> + <p> + While multitudes escaped from toppling buildings and crashing walls in the + dread disaster of that fatal Wednesday morning of April 18th in San + Francisco, hundreds of the less fortunate met their death in the ruins, + and horrifying scenes were witnessed by the survivors. Many of those who + escaped had tales of terror to tell. Mr. J. P. Anthony, as he fled from + the Ramona Hotel, saw a score or more of people crushed to death, and as + he walked the streets at a later hour saw bodies of the dead being carried + in garbage wagons and all kinds of vehicles to the improvised morgues, + while hospitals and storerooms were already filled with the injured. Mr. + G. A. Raymond, of Tomales, Cal., gives evidence to the same effect. As he + rushed into the street, he says that the air was filled with falling + stones and people around him were crushed to death on all sides. + </p> + <p> + Others gave testimony to the same effect. Samuel Wolf, of Salt Lake City, + tells us that he saved one woman from death in the hotel. She was rushing + blindly toward an open window, from which she would have fallen fifty feet + to the stone pavement below. “On my way down Market Street,” he says, “the + whole side of a building fell out and came so near me that I was covered + and blinded by the dust. Then I saw the first dead come by. They were + piled up in an automobile like carcasses in a butcher’s wagon, all bloody, + with crushed skulls, broken limbs and bloody faces.” + </p> + <p> + These are frightful stories, exaggerated probably from the nervous + excitement of those terrible moments, as are also the following + statements, which form part of the early accounts of the disaster. Thus we + are told that “from a three-story lodging house at Fifth and Minna + Streets, which collapsed Wednesday morning, more than seventy-five bodies + were taken to-day. There are fifty other bodies in sight in the ruins. + This building was one of the first to take fire on Fifth Street. At least + 100 persons are said to have been killed in the Cosmopolitan, on Fourth + Street. More than 150 persons are reported dead in the Brunswick Hotel, at + Seventh and Mission Streets.” + </p> + <p> + Another statement is to the effect that “at Seventh and Howard Streets a + great lodging house took fire after the first shock, before the guests had + escaped. There were few exits and nearly all the lodgers perished. Mrs. J. + J. Munson, one of those in the building, leaped with her child in her arms + from the second floor to the pavement below and escaped unhurt. She says + she was the only one who escaped from the house. Such horrors as this were + repeated at many points. B. Baker was killed while trying to get a body + from the ruins. Other rescuers heard the pitiful wail of a little child, + but were unable to get near the point from which the cry issued. Soon the + onrushing fire ended the cry and the men turned to other tasks.” + </p> + <p> + ESTIMATES OF THE DEATH LIST. + </p> + <p> + The questionable point in those statements is that the numbers of dead + spoken of in these few instances exceed the whole number given in the + official records issued two weeks after the disaster. Yet they go to + illustrate the actual horrors of the case, and are of importance for this + reason. As regards the whole number killed, in fact, there is not, and + probably never will be, a full and accurate statement. While about 350 + bodies had been recovered at the end of the second week, it was impossible + to estimate how many lay buried under the ruins, to be discovered only as + the work of excavation went on, and how many more had been utterly + consumed by the flames, leaving no trace of their existence. The estimates + of the probable loss of life ran up to 1,500 and more, while the injured + were very numerous. + </p> + <p> + The shock of the earthquake, the pulse of deep horror to which it gave + rise, the first wild impulse to flee for life, gave way in the minds of + many to a feeling of intense sympathy as agonized cries came from those + pinned down to the ruins of buildings or felled by falling bricks or + stones, and as the sight of dead bodies incrimsoned with blood met the + eyes of the survivors in the streets. From wandering aimlessly about, many + of these went earnestly to work to rescue the wounded and recover the + bodies of the slain. In this merciful work the police and the soldiers + lent their aid, and soon there was a large corps of rescuers actively + engaged. + </p> + <p> + BURYING THE DEAD. + </p> + <p> + Soon numbers were taken, alive or dead, from the ruins, passing vehicles + were pressed into the service, and the labor of mercy went on rapidly, + several buildings being quickly converted into temporary hospitals, while + the dead were conveyed to the Mechanics’ Pavilion and other available + places. Portsmouth Square became for a time a public morgue. Between + twenty and thirty corpses were laid side by side upon the trodden grass in + the absence of more suitable accommodations. It is said that when the + flames threatened to reach the square, the dead, mostly unknown, were + removed to Columbia Square, where they were buried when danger threatened + that quarter. Others were taken to the Presidio, and here the soldiers + pressed into service all men who came near and forced them to labor at + burying the dead, a temporary cemetery being opened there. So thick were + the corpses piled up that they were becoming a menace, and early in the + day the order was issued to bury them at any cost. The soldiers were + needed for other work, so, at the point of rifles, the citizens were + compelled to take to the work of burying. Some objected at first, but the + troops stood no trifling, and every man who came within reach was forced + to work. Rich men, unused to physical exertion, labored by the side of the + workingmen digging trenches in which to bury the dead. The able-bodied + being engaged in fighting the flames, General Funston ordered that the old + men and the weaklings should take the work in hand. They did it willingly + enough, but had they refused the troops on guard would have forced them. + It was ruled that every man physically capable of handling a spade or a + pick should dig for an hour. When the first shallow graves were ready the + men, under the direction of the troops, lowered the bodies, several in a + grave, and a strange burial began. The women gathered about crying. Many + of them knelt while a Catholic priest read the burial service and + pronounced absolution. All Thursday afternoon this went on. + </p> + <p> + In this connection the following stories are told: + </p> + <p> + Dr. George V. Schramm, a young medical graduate, said: + </p> + <p> + “As I was passing down Market Street with a new-found friend, an + automobile came rushing along with two soldiers in it. My doctor’s badge + protected me, but the soldiers invited my companion, a husky six-footer, + to get into the automobile. He said: + </p> + <p> + “‘I don’t want to ride, and have plenty of business to attend to.’ + </p> + <p> + “Once more they invited him, and he refused. One of the soldiers pointed a + gun at him and said: + </p> + <p> + “‘We need such men as you to save women and children and to help fight the + fire.’ + </p> + <p> + “The man was on his way to find his sister, but he yielded to the + inevitable. He worked all day with the soldiers, and when released to get + lunch he felt that he could conscientiously desert to go and find his own + loved ones.” + </p> + <p> + “Half a block down the street the soldiers were stopping all pedestrians + without the official pass which showed that they were on relief business, + and putting them to work heaving bricks off the pavement. Two dapper men + with canes, the only clean people I saw, were caught at the corner by a + sergeant, who showed great joy as he said: + </p> + <p> + “‘I give you time to git off those kid gloves, and then hustle, damn you, + hustle!’ The soldiers took delight in picking out the best dressed men and + keeping them at the brick piles for long terms. I passed them in the + shelter of a provision wagon, afraid that even my pass would not save me. + Two men are reported shot because they refused to turn in and help.” + </p> + <p> + Many of the dead, of course, will never be identified, though the names + were taken of all who were known and descriptions written of the others. A + story comes to us of one young girl who had followed for two days the body + of her father, her only relative. It had been taken from a house on + Mission Street to an undertaker’s shop just after the quake. The fire + drove her out with her charge, and it was placed in Mechanics’ Pavilion. + That went, and the body rested for a day at the Presidio, waiting burial. + With many others, she wept on the border of the burned area, while the + women cared for her. + </p> + <p> + VICTIMS TAKEN FROM THE RUINS. + </p> + <p> + On Friday eleven postal clerks, all alive, were taken from the debris of + the Post Office. All at first were thought to be dead, but it was found + that, although they were buried under the stone and timber, every one was + alive. They had been for three days without food or water. + </p> + <p> + Two theatrical people were in a hotel in Santa Rosa when the shock came. + The room was on the fourth floor. The roof collapsed. One of them was + thrown from the bed and both were caught by the descending timbers and + pinned helplessly beneath the debris. They could speak to each other and + could touch one another’s hands, but the weight was so great that they + could do nothing to liberate themselves. After three hours rescuers came, + cut a hole in the roof and both were released uninjured. + </p> + <p> + Even the docks were converted into hospitals in the stringent exigency of + the occasion, about 100 patients being stretched on Folsom street dock at + one time. In the evening tugs conveyed them to Goat Island, where they + were lodged in the hospital. The docks from Howard Street to Folsom Street + had been saved, the fire at this point not being permitted to creep + farther east than Main Street. Another series of fatalities occurred, + caused by the stampeding of a herd of cattle at Sixth and Folsom Streets. + Three hundred of the panic-stricken animals ran amuck when they saw and + felt the flames and charged wildly down the street, trampling under foot + all who were in the way. One man was gored through and through by a + maddened bull. At least a dozen persons’, it is said, were killed, though + probably this is an overestimate. One observer tells us that “the first + sight I saw was a man with blood streaming from his wounds, carrying a + dead woman in his arms. He placed the body on the floor of the court at + the Palace Hotel, and then told me he was the janitor of a big building. + The first he knew of the catastrophe he found himself in the basement, his + dead wife beside him. The building had simply split in two, and thrown + them down.” + </p> + <p> + In the camps of refuge the deaths came frequently. Physicians were + everywhere in evidence, but, without medicine or instruments, were + fearfully handicapped. Men staggered in from their herculean efforts at + the fire lines, only to fall gasping on the grass. There was nothing to be + done. Injured lay groaning. Tender hands were willing, but of water there + was none. “Water, water, for God’s sake get me some water,” was the cry + that struck into thousands of souls of San Francisco. + </p> + <p> + The list of dead was not confined to San Francisco, but extended to many + of the neighboring towns, especially to Santa Rosa, where sixty were + reported dead and a large number missing, and to the insane asylum in its + vicinity, from the ruins of which a hundred or more of dead bodies were + taken. + </p> + <p> + THE FREE USE OF RIFLES. + </p> + <p> + A citizen tells us that “in the early part of the evening, and while the + twilight lasts, there is a good deal of trafficking up and down the + sidewalks. Having finished their dinners of government provisions, cooked + on the street or in the parks, the people promenade for half an hour or + so. By half-past eight the town is closed tight. A rat scurrying in the + street will bring a soldier’s rifle to his shoulder. Any one not wearing a + uniform or a Red Cross badge is a suspicious character and may be shot + unless he halts at command. Even the men in uniform do well to stop still, + for it is hard to tell a uniform in the half light thrown up by the + burning town and the great shadows. + </p> + <p> + “Last night two of us ventured out on Van Ness Avenue a little late. There + came up the noise of some kind of a shooting scrape far down the street. + We hurried in that direction to see what was doing. An eighteen-year-old + boy in a uniform barred the way, levelled his rifle and said in a + peremptory way: + </p> + <p> + “‘Go home.’ + </p> + <p> + “We took a course down the block, where an older soldier, more + communicative but equally peremptory, informed us that we were trifling + with our lives, news or no news. + </p> + <p> + “‘We’ve shot about 300 people for one thing or another,’ he said. ‘Now, + dodge trouble. Git!’ That ended the expedition.” + </p> + <p> + THE LOSS IN WEALTH. + </p> + <p> + If we pass now from the record of the loss of lives to that of the + destruction of wealth, the estimates exceed by far any fire losses + recorded in history. + </p> + <p> + The truth is that when flames eat out the heart of a great city, devour + its vast business establishments, storehouses and warehouses, sweep + through its centres of opulence, destroy its wharves with their + accumulation of goods, spread ruin and havoc everywhere, it is impossible + at first to estimate the loss. Only gradually, as time goes on, is the + true loss discovered, and never perhaps very accurately, since the owners + and the records of riches often disappear with the wealth itself. In + regard to San Francisco, the early estimate was that three-fourths of the + city, valued at $500,000,000, was destroyed. + </p> + <p> + But early estimates are apt to be exaggerated, and on Friday, two days + after the disaster, we find this estimate reduced to $250,000,000. A few + more days passed and these figures shrunk still further, though it was + still largely conjectural, the means of making a trustworthy estimate + being very restricted. Later on the pendulum swung upward again, and two + weeks after the fire the closest estimates that could be made fixed the + property loss at close to $350,000,000, or double that of the Chicago + fire. But as the actual loss in the latter case proved considerably below + the early estimates, the same may prove to be the case with San Francisco. + </p> + <p> + Special personal losses were in many cases great. Thus the Palace Hotel + was built at a cost of $6,000,000, and the St. Francis, which originally + cost $4,000,000, was being enlarged at great expense. Several of the great + mansions on Nob’s Hill cost a million or more, the City Hall was built at + a cost of $7,000,000, the new Post Office was injured to the extent of + half a million, while a large number of other buildings might be named + whose value, with their contents, was measured in the millions. + </p> + <p> + It was not until May 3d that news came over the wires of another serious + item of loss. The merchants had waited until then for their fire-proof + safes and vaults to cool off before attempting to open them. When this was + at length done the results proved disheartening. Out of 576 vaults and + safes opened in the district east of Powell and north of Market Street, + where the flames had raged with the greatest fury, it was found that fully + forty per cent. had not performed their duty. When opened they were found + to contain nothing but heaps of ashes. The valuable account books, papers + and in some cases large sums of money had vanished, the loss of the + accounts being a severe calamity in a business sense. As all the banks + were equipped with the best fire-proof vaults, no fear was felt for the + safety of their contents. + </p> + <p> + LOOTERS IN CHINATOWN. + </p> + <p> + Chinatown suffered severely, the merchants of that locality possessing + large stocks of valuable goods, many of which were looted by seemingly + respectable sightseers after the ruins had cooled off, bronze, porcelain + and other valuable goods being taken from the ruins. One example consisted + in a mass of gold and silver valued at $2,500, which had been melted by + the fire in the store of Tai Sing, a Chinese merchant. This was found by + the police on May 3d in a place where it had been hidden by looters. + </p> + <p> + But with all its losses San Francisco does not despair. The spirit of its + citizens is heroic, and there are some hopeful signs in the air. The + insurances due are estimated to approximate $175,000,000, and there are + other moneys likely to be spent on building during the coming year, making + a total of over $200,000,000. Eastern capitalists also talk of investing + $100,000,000 of new capital in the rebuilding of the city, while the San + Francisco authorities have a project of issuing $200,000,000 of municipal + bonds, the payment to be guaranteed by the United States Government. Thus, + two weeks after the earthquake, daylight was already showing strongly + ahead and hope was fast beginning to replace despair. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> + <h3> + Wonderful Record of Thrilling Escapes. + </h3> + <p> + Shuddering under the memories of what seems more like a nightmare than + actual reality to the survivors of this frightful calamity, they have + tried to picture in words far from adequate the days of terror and the + nights of horror that fell to the lot of the people of the Golden Gate + city and their guests. + </p> + <p> + They recount the roar of falling structures and the groans and pitiful + cries of those pinned beneath the timbers of collapsing buildings. They + speak of their climbing over dead bodies heaped in the streets, and of + following tortuous ways to find the only avenue of escape—the ferry, + where men and women fought like infuriated animals, bent on escape from a + fiery furnace. + </p> + <p> + These refugees tell of the great caravan composed of homeless persons in + its wild flight to the hills for safety, and in that great procession + women, harnessed to vehicles, trudging along and tugging at the shafts, + hauling all that was left of their earthly belongings, and a little food + that foresight told them would be necessary to stay the pangs of hunger in + the hours of misery that must follow. + </p> + <p> + We give below an especially accurate picture from the description of the + well-known writer, Jane Tingley, who, an eye-witness of it all, did so + much to help the sufferers, and who, with all the unselfishness of true + American womanhood, sacrificed her own comfort and needs for those of + others. + </p> + <p> + “May God be merciful to the women and children in this land of desolation + and despair!” she wrote on April 21st. + </p> + <p> + “Men have done, are doing such deeds of sublime self-sacrifice, of + magnificent heroism, that deserve to make the title of American manhood + immortal in the pages of history. The rest lies with the Almighty. + </p> + <p> + “I spent all of last night and to-day in that horror city across the bay. + I went from this unharmed city of plenty, blooming with abounding health, + thronged with happy mothers and joyous children, and spent hours among the + blackened ruins and out on the windswept slopes of the sand hills by the + sea, and I heard the voice of Rachel weeping for her children in the + wilderness and mourning because she found them not. + </p> + <p> + “I climbed to the top of Strawberry Hill, in Golden Gate Park, and saw a + woman, half naked, almost starving, her hair dishevelled and an unnatural + lustre in her eyes, her gaze fixed upon the waters in the distance, and + her voice repeating over and over again: ‘Here I am, my pretties; come + here, come here.’ + </p> + <p> + “I took her by the hand and led her down to the grass at the foot of the + hill. A man—her husband—received her from me and wept as he + said: ‘She is calling our three little children. She thinks the sounds of + the ocean waves are the voices of our lost darlings.’ + </p> + <p> + “Ever since they became separated from their children in that first + terrific onrush of the multitude when the fire swept along Mission Street + these two had been tramping over the hills and parks without food or rest, + searching for their little ones. To all whom they have met they have + addressed the same pitiful question: ‘Have you seen anything of our lost + babies?’ They will not know what has become of them until order has been + brought out of chaos; until the registration headquarters of the military + authorities has secured the names of all who are among the straggling + wanderers around the camps of the homeless. Perhaps then it will be found + that these children are in a trench among the corpses of the weaklings who + have succumbed to the frightful rigors of the last three days. + </p> + <p> + “Last night a soldier seized me by the arm and cried: ‘If you are a woman + with a woman’s heart, go in there and do whatever you can.’ + </p> + <p> + “‘In there’ meant behind a barricade of brush, covered with a blanket that + had been hastily thrown together to form a rude shelter. I went in and saw + one of my own sex lying on the bare grass naked, her clothing torn to + shreds; scattered over the green beside her. She was moaning pitifully, + and it needed no words to tell a woman what the matter was, I bade my man + escort to find a doctor, or at least send more women at once. He ran off + and soon two sympathetic ladies hastened into the shelter. In an hour my + escort returned with a young medical student. Under the best ministrations + we could find, a new life was ushered into this hell, which, a few hours + before, was the fairest among cities. + </p> + <p> + “‘There have been many such cases,’ said the medical student. ‘Many of the + mothers have died—few of the babies have lived. I, personally, know + of nine babies that have been born in the park to-day. There must have + been many others here, among the sand hills, and at the Presidio.’” + </p> + <p> + “Think of it, you happy women who have become mothers in comfortable + homes, attended with every care that loving hands can bestow. Think of the + dreadful plight of these poor members of your sex. The very thought of it + is enough to make the hearts of women burst with pity. + </p> + <p> + “To-day I walked among the people crowded on the Panhandle. Opposite the + Lyon Street entrance, on the north side, I saw a young woman sitting + tailor-fashion in the roadway, which, in happier days, was the carriage + boulevard. She held a dishpan and was looking at her reflection in the + polished bottom, while another girl was arranging her hair. I recognized a + young wife, whose marriage to a prominent young lawyer eight months ago + was a gala event among that little handful of people who clung to the + old-time fashionable district of Valencia Street, like the Phelan and Dent + families, and refused to move from that aristocratic section when the + new-made, millionaires began to build their palaces on Nob Hill and + Pacific Heights. I spoke to the young woman about the disadvantages of + making her toilet under such untoward circumstances. + </p> + <p> + “‘Ah, Julia, dear, you must stay to luncheon,’ she said, extending her + fingers just as though she stood in her own drawing-room.” + </p> + <p> + MISERY DRIVES SOME INSANE. + </p> + <p> + “I looked at the maid in astonishment, for I had never met the young + society woman before. The maid shook her head and whispered when she got + the chance: + </p> + <p> + “‘My mistress is not in her right mind.’ + </p> + <p> + “‘Where is her husband?’ I asked. + </p> + <p> + “‘He has gone to try to get some food,’ said the girl. ‘She imagines that + she is in her own home, before her dressing table, and is having me do up + her hair against some of her friends dropping in.’ + </p> + <p> + “‘She must have suffered,’ I said, ‘to cause such a mental derangement.’ + </p> + <p> + “The girl’s eyes filled with tears. She told me that her mistress had seen + her brother killed by falling timbers while they were hurrying to a place + of safety. A little farther on I saw two women concealed as best they + might be behind a tuft of sand brush, one lying face down on the ground, + while the other vigorously massaged her bare back. I asked if I might + help, and learned that the ministering angel was the unmarried daughter of + one of the city’s richest merchants, and that the girl whom she succored + had been employed as a servant in her father’s household. The girl’s back + had been injured by a fall, and her mistress’ fair hands were trying to + make her well again. + </p> + <p> + “Thus has this overwhelming common woe levelled all barriers of caste and + placed the suffering multitude on a basis of democracy. On a rock behind a + manzanita bush near the edge of Stow Lake I saw a Chinaman making a pile + of broken twigs in the early morning. The man felt inside his blouse and + swore a gibbering, unintelligible Asiatic oath as his hand came forth + empty. Observing my escort, the Chinaman approached and said: + </p> + <p> + “‘Bosse, alle same, catchee match?’ + </p> + <p> + “My escort gave him the desired article, and the Chinaman made a fire of + his pile of twigs. ‘Why are you making a fire, John?’ I asked. + </p> + <p> + “‘Bleakfast,’ he replied laconically. + </p> + <p> + “I asked him where his food might be, and he gave us a quick glance of + suspicion as he said briefly, ‘No sabbe.’ + </p> + <p> + “We stood watching him, evidently to his great distress, and finally he + made bold to say, ‘You no stand lound, bosse. You go ‘way.’ + </p> + <p> + “We left him, but after making the tour around the lake came back to the + same place. There sat four people on the ground eating fried pork, + potatoes and Chinese cakes. In a young woman of the group I recognized one + whom I had seen dancing at one of Mr. Greenway’s Friday Night Cotillion + balls in the Palace Hotel’s maple room during the winter. They offered to + share their meal with us, but we told them that we had just come from + breakfast in Oakland. I told them about the strange conduct of their + Chinaman, who was traveling back and forth from his fire to the ‘table’ + with the food as it became ready to serve. + </p> + <p> + “The father of the family laughed.” + </p> + <p> + SOCIETY FOLKS COMPELLED TO CAMP. + </p> + <p> + “‘Yes,’ he said, ‘that is Charlie’s way. He has been with us many years, + and when our home was destroyed he came out here with us in preference to + seeking refuge among his countrymen in Chinatown. Yesterday we were + without food, and Charlie disappeared. I thought he had deserted us, but + toward dark he came back with a bamboo pole over his shoulder and a + Chinese market gardener’s basket suspended from either end. In one of the + baskets he had a pile of blankets and a lot of canvas. In the other was an + assortment of pork, flour, Chinese cakes and vegetables, besides a + half-dozen chickens and a couple of bagfuls of rice.’ + </p> + <p> + “‘Charlie had been foraging in Chinatown for us before the fire reached + that quarter. He made a tent and improvised beds for us, and he has the + food concealed somewhere in the vicinity, but where he will not tell us, + for fear that we will give some of it to others and reduce our own supply. + Charlie boils rice for himself. He will not touch the other food. Without + him we should have been starving.’” + </p> + <p> + G. A. Raymond, who was in the Palace Hotel when the earthquake occurred, + says: + </p> + <p> + “I had $600 in gold under my pillow. I awoke as I was thrown out of bed. + Attempting to walk, the floor shook so that I fell. I grabbed my clothing + and rushed down into the office, where dozens were already congregated. + Suddenly the lights went out, and every one rushed for the door. + </p> + <p> + “Outside I witnessed a sight I never want to see again. It was dawn and + light. I looked up. The air was filled with falling stones. People around + me were crushed to death on all sides. All around the huge buildings were + shaking and waving. Every moment there were reports like 100 cannon going + off at one time. Then streams of fire would shoot out, and other reports + followed. + </p> + <p> + “I asked a man standing by me what had happened. Before he could answer a + thousand bricks fell on him and he was killed. A woman threw her arms + around my neck. I pushed her away and fled. All around me buildings were + rocking and flames shooting. As I ran people on all sides were crying, + praying and calling for help. I thought the end of the world had come. + </p> + <p> + “I met a Catholic priest, and he said: ‘We must get to the ferry.’ He knew + the way, and we rushed down Market Street. Men, women and children were + crawling from the debris. Hundreds were rushing down the street, and every + minute people were felled by falling debris. + </p> + <p> + “At places the streets had cracked and opened. Chasms extended in all + directions. I saw a drove of cattle, wild with fright, rushing up Market + Street. I crouched beside a swaying building. As they came nearer they + disappeared, seeming to drop into the earth. When the last had gone I went + nearer and found they had indeed been precipitated into the earth, a wide + fissure having swallowed them. I worked my way around them and ran out to + the ferry. I was crazy with fear and the horrible sights. + </p> + <p> + “How I reached the ferry I cannot say. It was bedlam, pandemonium and hell + rolled into one. There must have been 10,000 people trying to get on that + boat. Men and women fought like wild cats to push their way aboard. + Clothes were torn from the backs of men and women and children + indiscriminately. Women fainted, and there was no water at hand with which + to revive them. Men lost their reason at those awful moments. One big, + strong man, beat his head against one of the iron pillars on the dock, and + cried out in a loud voice: ‘This fire must be put out! The city must be + saved!’ It was awful.” + </p> + <p> + TERRIBLE SCENE AT THE FERRY. + </p> + <p> + “When the gates were opened the mad rush began. All were swept aboard in + an irresistible tide. We were jammed on the deck like sardines in a box. + No one cared. At last the boat pulled out. Men and women were still + jumping for it, only to fall into the water and probably drown.” + </p> + <p> + The members of the Metropolitan Opera Company, of New York, were in San + Francisco at this time, and nearly all of these famous singers, known all + over the world, suffered from the great disaster. + </p> + <p> + All of the splendid scenery, stage fittings, costumes and musical + instruments were lost in the fire, which destroyed the Grand Opera House, + where the season had just opened to splendid audiences. + </p> + <p> + Many of the operatic stars have given very interesting accounts of their + experiences. Signor Caruso, the famous tenor and one of the principals of + the company, had one of the most thrilling experiences. He and Signor + Rossi, a favorite basso, and his inseparable companion, had a suite on the + seventh floor and were awakened by the terrific shaking of the building. + The shock nearly threw Caruso out of bed. He said: + </p> + <p> + “I threw open the window, and I think I let out the grandest notes I ever + hit in all my life. I do not know why I did this. I presume I was too + excited to do anything else.” + </p> + <p> + GREAT SINGERS ESCAPE. + </p> + <p> + “Looking out of the window, I saw buildings all around rocking like the + devil had hold of them. I wondered what was going on. Then I heard Rossi + come scampering into my room. ‘My God, it’s an earthquake!’ he yelled. + ‘Get your things and run!’ I grabbed what I could lay my hands on and + raced like a madman for the office. On the way down I shouted as loud as I + could so the others would wake up. + </p> + <p> + “When I got to the office I thought of my costumes and sent my valet, + Martino, back after them. He packed things up and carried the trunks down + on his back. I helped him take them to Union Square.” + </p> + <p> + It is said that ten minutes later he was seen seated on his valise in the + middle of the street. But to continue his story: + </p> + <p> + “I walked a few feet away to see how to get out, and when I came back four + Chinamen were lugging my trunks away. I grabbed one of them by the ears, + and the others jumped on me. I took out my revolver and pointed it at + them. They spit at me. I was mad, but I hated to kill them, so I found a + soldier, and he made them give up the trunks. + </p> + <p> + “Ah, that soldier was a fine fellow. He went up to the Chinamen and + slapped them upon the face, once, twice, three times. They all howled like + the devil and ran away. I put my revolver back into my pocket, and then I + thanked the soldier. He said: ‘Don’t mention it. Them Chinks would steal + the money off a dead man’s eyes.’” + </p> + <p> + They say that Rossi, though almost in tears, was heard trying his voice at + a corner near the Palace Hotel. + </p> + <p> + TEDDY’S PICTURE PROVES “OPEN SESAME.” + </p> + <p> + “I went to Lafayette Square and slept on the grass. When I tried to get + into the square the soldiers pushed me back. I pleaded with them, but they + would not listen. I had under my arm a large photograph of Theodore + Roosevelt, upon which was written: ‘With kindest regards from Theodore + Roosevelt.’ I showed them this, and one of them said: ‘If you are a friend + of Teddy, come in and make yourself at home.’ + </p> + <p> + “I put my trunks in the cellar of the Hotel St. Francis and thought they + would be safe. The hotel caught fire, and my trunks were all burned up. To + think I took so much trouble to save them!” + </p> + <p> + In spite of the news of all the woe and suffering which we hear, it is + cheering to learn also of the many thousands of heroic deeds by brave men + during the terrible scenes enacted through the four days passing since the + eventful morning when the earth began to demolish splendid buildings of + business and residence and fire sprang up to complete the city’s + destruction. The Mayor and his forces of police, the troops under command + of General Funston, volunteer aids to all these, and the husbands of + terrified wives, and the sons, brothers and other relatives who toiled for + many consecutive hours through smoke and falling walls and an inferno of + flames and explosions and traps of danger of all kinds, often without food + or water—toiling as men never toiled before to save life and relieve + distress of all kinds—all these were examples of heroism and + devotion to duty seldom witnessed in any scenes of terror in all time. + There are brave, unselfish men and heroic women yet in the world, and all + of the best of human nature has been exhibited in large dimensions in the + terrible disaster at San Francisco. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> + <h3> + Disaster Spreads Over the Golden State + </h3> + <p> + The first news that the world received of the earthquake came direct from + San Francisco and was confined largely to descriptions of the disaster + which had overwhelmed that city. It was so sudden, so appalling, so tragic + in its nature, that for the time being it quite overshadowed the havoc and + misery wrought in a number of other California towns of lesser note. + </p> + <p> + As the truth, however, became gradually sifted out of the tangle of + rumors, the horror, instead of being diminished, was vastly increased. It + became evident that instead of this being a local catastrophe, the full + force of the seismic waves had travelled from Ukiah in the north to + Monterey in the south, a distance of about 180 miles, and had made itself + felt for a considerable distance from the Pacific westward, wrecking the + larger buildings of every town in its path, rending and ruining as it + went, and doing millions of dollars worth of damage. + </p> + <p> + THE DESTRUCTION OF SANTA ROSA. + </p> + <p> + In Santa Rosa, sixty miles to the north of San Francisco, and one of the + most beautiful towns of California, practically every building was + destroyed or badly damaged. The brick and stone business blocks, together + with the public buildings, were thrown down. The Court House, Hall of + Records, the Occidental and Santa Rosa Hotels, the Athenaeum Theatre, the + new Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows’ Block, all the banks, everything went, + and in all the city not one brick or stone building was left standing, + except the California Northwestern Depot. + </p> + <p> + In the residential portion of the city the foundations receded from under + the houses, badly wrecking about twenty of the largest and damaging every + one more or less; and here, as in San Francisco, flames followed the + earthquake, breaking out in a dozen different places at once and + completing the work of devastation. From the ruins of the fallen houses + fifty-eight bodies were taken out and interred during the first few days, + and the total of dead and injured was close to a hundred. The money loss + at this small city is estimated at $3,000,000. + </p> + <p> + The destruction of Santa Rosa gave rise to general sorrow among the + residents of the interior of the State. It was one of the show towns of + California, and not only one of the most prosperous cities in the fine + county of Sonoma, but one of the most picturesque in the State. + Surrounding it there were miles of orchards, vineyards and corn fields. + The beautiful drives of the city were adorned with bowers of roses, which + everywhere were seen growing about the homes of the people. In its + vicinity are the famous gardens of Luther Burbank, the “California + wizard,” but these fortunately escaped injury. + </p> + <p> + At San Jose, another very beautiful city of over 20,000 population, not a + single brick or stone building of two stories or over was left standing. + Among those wrecked were the Hall of justice, just completed at a cost of + $300,000; the new High School, the Presbyterian Church and St. Patrick’s + Cathedral. Numbers of people were caught in the ruins and maimed or + killed. The death list appears to have been small, but the property damage + was not less than $5,000,000. The Agnew State Insane Asylum, in the + vicinity of San Jose, was entirely destroyed, more than half the inmates + being killed or injured. + </p> + <p> + THE STANFORD UNIVERSITY. + </p> + <p> + The Leland Stanford, Jr., University, at Palo Alto (about thirty miles + south of San Francisco), felt the full force of the earthquake and was + badly wrecked. Only two lives were lost as a result of the earthquake, one + of a student, the other of a fireman, but eight students were injured more + or less seriously. The damage to the buildings is estimated by President + Jordan to amount to about $4,000,000. + </p> + <p> + The memorial church, with its twelve marble figures of the apostles, each + weighing two tons, was badly injured by the fall of its Gothic spire, + which crashed through the roof and demolished much of the interior; the + great entrance archway was split in twain and wrecked; so, too, were the + library, the gymnasium and the power house. A number of other buildings in + the outer quadrangle and some of the small workshops were seriously + damaged. + </p> + <p> + Encina Hall and the inner quadrangle were practically uninjured, and the + bulk of the books, collections and apparatus escaped damage. + </p> + <p> + Sacramento, together with all the smaller cities and towns that dot the + great Sacramento Valley for a distance fifty miles south and 150 miles + north of the capital, escaped without injury, not a single pane of glass + being broken or a brick displaced in Sacramento and no injury done in the + other places, they lying eastward of the seat of serious earthquake + activity. + </p> + <p> + Los Angeles and Santa Barbara escaped with a slight trembling; Stockton, + 103 miles north of San Francisco, felt a severe shock and the Santa Fe + bridge over the San Joaquin River at this point settled several inches. + The only place in Southern California that suffered was Brawley, a small + town lying 120 miles south of Los Angeles, about 100 buildings in the town + and the surrounding valley being injured, though none of them were + destroyed. + </p> + <p> + THE EARTHQUAKE AT OTHER CITIES. + </p> + <p> + At Alameda, on the bay opposite San Francisco, a score of chimneys were + shaken down and other injuries done. Railroad tracks were twisted, and + over 600 feet of track of the Oakland Transit Company’s railway sank four + feet. The total damage done amounted to probably $200,000, but no lives + were lost. Tomales, a place of 350 inhabitants, was left a pile of ruins. + </p> + <p> + At Los Panos several buildings were wrecked, causing damage to the extent + of $75,000, but no lives were lost. + </p> + <p> + At Loma Prieta the earthquake caused a mine house to slip down the side of + a mountain, ten men being buried in the ruins. + </p> + <p> + Fort Bragg, one of the principal lumbering towns in Mendocino County, was + practically wiped out by fire following the earthquake, but out of a + population of 5,000 only one was killed, though scores were injured. + </p> + <p> + The town of Berkeley, across the bay from San Francisco, suffered + considerable damage from twisted structures, fallen walls and broken + chimneys, the greatest injury being in the collapse of the town hall and + the ruin of the deaf and dumb asylum. The University of California, + situated here, was fortunate in escaping injury, it being reported that + not a building was harmed in the slightest degree. Another public edifice + of importance and interest, in a different section of the State, the + famous Lick Astronomical Observatory, was equally fortunate, no damage + being done to the buildings or the instruments. + </p> + <p> + AT THE STATE UNIVERSITY. + </p> + <p> + Salinas, a town down the coast near Monterey, suffered severely, the place + being to a large extent destroyed, with an estimated loss of over + $1,000,000. The Spreckels’ sugar factory and a score of other buildings + were reported ruined and a number of lives lost. During the succeeding + week several other shocks of some strength were reported from this town. + </p> + <p> + Thus the ruinous work of the earthquake stretched over a broad track of + prosperous, peaceful and happy country, embracing one of the best sections + of California, laying waste not only the towns in its path, but doing much + damage to ranch houses and country residences. Strange manifestations of + nature were reported from the interior, where the ground was opened in + many places like a ploughed field. Great rents in the earth were reported, + and for many miles north from Los Angeles miniature geysers are said to + have spouted volcano-like streams of hot mud. + </p> + <p> + Railroad tracks in some localities were badly injured, sinking or lifting, + and being put out of service until repaired. In fact, the ruinous effects + of the earthquake immensely exceeded those of any similar catastrophe ever + before known in the United States, and when the destruction done by the + succeeding conflagration in San Francisco is taken into account the + California earthquake of 1906 takes rank with the most destructive of + those recorded in history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. + </h2> + <h3> + All America and Canada to the Rescue + </h3> + <p> + During the first three days after the terrible news had been flashed over + the world the relief fund from the nation had leaped beyond the $5,000,000 + mark. New York took the lead in the most generous giving that the world + has ever seen. From every town and country village the people hastened to + the Town Halls, the newspaper offices and wherever help was to be found + most quickly, to add their savings and to sacrifice all but necessities + for their stricken fellow-countrymen. Never has there been such a + practical illustration of brotherly love. A perfect shower of gold and + food was poured out to the sufferers to give them immediate assistance and + to help them to a new start in life. All relief records were broken within + two days of the disaster, but still the purses of the rich and poor alike + continued to add to the huge contributions. Though the relief records were + broken, every succeeding dispatch from the West told too plainly the + terrible fact that all records of necessity were also broken. + </p> + <p> + Over the entire globe Americans wherever they were hastened to cable or + telegraph their bankers to add their share to the great work. A large fund + was at once started in London, and with contributions of from $2,000 to + $12,000 the sum was soon raised to hundreds of thousands of dollars. + </p> + <p> + Individual contributions of $100,000 were common. In addition to John D. + Rockefeller’s gift of this sum, his company, the Standard Oil, gave + another $100,000. The Steel Corporation and Andrew Carnegie each gave + $100,000. From London William Waldorf Astor cabled his American + representative, Charles A. Peabody, to place $100,000 at once at the + disposal of Mayor Schmitz, of San Francisco, which was done. The Dominion + Government of Canada made a special appropriation of $100,000 and the + Canadian Bank of Commerce, at Toronto, gave $10,000. And two of the great + steamship companies owned in Germany sent $25,000 each. + </p> + <p> + RIGHT OF WAY FOR FOOD TRAINS. + </p> + <p> + On nearly a dozen roads, two days before the fire was over, great trains + of freight cars loaded with foodstuffs were hastening at express speed to + San Francisco. They had the right of way on every line. E. H. Harriman, in + addition to giving $200,000 for the Union Pacific, Southern Pacific and + other Harriman roads, issued orders that all relief trains bound for the + desolated city should have Precedence over all other business of the + roads. + </p> + <p> + Advices from many points indicated that at least 150 freight cars loaded + with the necessaries so eagerly awaited in San Francisco were speeding + there as fast as steam could drive them. In addition, several steamers + from other Pacific coast points, all food-laden, were rushing toward the + stricken city. + </p> + <p> + The rapidity with which the various relief funds in every city grew was + almost magical. + </p> + <p> + From corporations, firms, labor unions, religious societies, individuals, + rich and poor, money flowed. Even the children in the schools gave their + pennies. Every grade of society, every branch of trade and commerce seemed + inspired by a spirit of emulation in giving. + </p> + <p> + The United States Government at once voted a contribution of $1,000,000, + and government supplies were rushed from every post in the West. + </p> + <p> + The $1,000,000 government gift, which formed the nucleus of the relief + fund, was doubled on Saturday by a resolution appropriating another, and a + vote was taken on Monday to increase this sum to $1,500,000, making a + total government contribution of $2,500,000. This was largely expended in + supplies of absolute necessaries, furnished from the stores of the War + Department, and those first sent being five carloads of army medical + supplies from St. Louis. A cargo of evaporated cream was also sent to use + in the care of little children, while the Red Cross Society shipped a + carload of eggs from Chicago. Dr. Edward Devine, special Red Cross agent + in San Francisco, was appointed to distribute these supplies. + </p> + <p> + CARGOES OF SUPPLIES. + </p> + <p> + Trainloads of other supplies were dispatched in all haste from various + points in the West and East, carrying provisions of all kinds, tents, + cots, clothing, bedding and a great variety of other articles. A special + train of twenty-six cars was dispatched from Portland, Oregon, on Thursday + night, conveying ten doctors, twenty trained nurses and 800,000 pounds of + provisions. Chicago sent meat. Minneapolis sent flour, and, in fact, every + part of the country moved in the greatest haste for the relief of the + stricken city. + </p> + <p> + There was urgent need of haste. On Friday, while the flames were still + making their way onward, General Funston telegraphed: “Famine seems + inevitable.” The people of the country took a more hopeful view of it, and + by Saturday night the spectre of famine was definitely driven from the + field and food for all the fugitives was within reach. + </p> + <p> + THE SYMPATHY OF THE PEOPLE AWAKES. + </p> + <p> + On all sides the people were awake and doing. In all the great cities + agencies to receive contributions were opened, and many of the newspapers + undertook the task of collecting and forwarding supplies. The smaller + towns were equally alert in furnishing their quota to the good work, and + from countryside and village contributions were forwarded until the fund + accumulated to an unprecedented amount. Collections were made in + factories, in stores, in offices, in the public schools; cash boxes or + globes stood in all frequented places and were rapidly filled with bank + notes; theatrical and musical entertainments were given for the benefit of + the earthquake sufferers; never had there been such an awakening. As an + instance of the spirit displayed, one man came running into a banking + house and threw a thousand dollar bill on the counter. + </p> + <p> + “For San Francisco,” he said, as he turned toward the door. + </p> + <p> + “What name?” asked the teller. + </p> + <p> + “Put it down to ‘cash,’” he answered, as he vanished. + </p> + <p> + Rapidly the fund accumulated. A few days brought it up to the $5,000,000 + mark. Then it grew to $10,000,000. Within ten days’ time the relief fund + was estimated at $18,000,000, and the good work was still going on—in + less profusion, it is true, but still the spirit was alive. + </p> + <p> + FOREIGN OFFERS OF AID. + </p> + <p> + The generous impulse was not confined to the United States. From all + countries came offers of aid. Canada was promptly in the field, and the + chief nations of Europe were quick to follow, while Japan made a generous + offer, and in far Australia funds were started at the various cities for + the sufferers. No doubt a large sum from foreign lands would have been + available had not President Roosevelt declined to accept contributions + from abroad, as not needed in view of America’s abundant response. To the + Hamburg-Line which offered $25,000, the following letter was sent: + </p> + <p> + “The President deeply appreciates your message of sympathy, and desires me + to thank you heartily for the kind offer of outside aid. Although + declining, the President earnestly wishes you to understand how much he + appreciates your cordial and generous sympathy.” + </p> + <p> + All other offerings from abroad were in the same thankful spirit declined, + even those from our immediate neighbors, Canada and Mexico. Some feeling + was aroused by this, especially in the relief committee at San Francisco, + which felt that the need of that city was so great and urgent that no + offer of relief should have been declined. In response the President + explained that he only spoke for the government, in his official capacity, + and that San Francisco was in no sense debarred from accepting any + contributions made directly to it. + </p> + <p> + It may justly be said for the people of this country that their + spontaneous generosity in the presence of a great calamity, either at home + or abroad, is always magnificent. It never waits for solicitation. It does + not delay even until the necessity is demonstrated, but it assumes that + where there is great destruction of property and homes are swept away + there must be distress which calls for immediate relief. + </p> + <p> + There is one ray of light in the gloom caused by the calamity at San + Francisco. A truly splendid display of brotherly love and sympathy has + been shown by the people of this country, and a similar display was ready + to be shown by the people of the civilized world had it been felt that the + occasion demanded it and that the exigency surpassed the power of our + people to meet it. + </p> + <p> + ENTERPRISE IN SAN FRANCISCO. + </p> + <p> + In the face of an appalling and death-dealing disaster, rendering an + entire community dependent for the bare necessities of life and putting it + in imminent danger of greater horrors, the nation has been stirred as it + has rarely been before, and there have been awakened those deeper feelings + of brotherhood which are referred to in the oft-quoted passage that “one + touch of nature makes the whole world akin.” + </p> + <p> + The nature indicated in this instance is human nature in its highest + manifestation, the sympathetic sentiment that stirs deeply in all our + hearts and needs but the occasion to make itself warmly manifested. There + is something incomparably splendid in the spectacle of an entire nation + straining every nerve to send succor to the helpless and the suffering, + and this spectacle has warmed the hearts of our people to the uttermost + and inspired them to make the most strenuous efforts to drive away the + gaunt wolf of famine from the ruined homes of our far Pacific brethren. + </p> + <p> + It may be said that San Francisco will be willing to accept this relief + only so long as stern necessity demands it. At this writing only two weeks + have passed since the dread calamity, and already active steps are being + taken to provide for themselves. As an example of their enterprise, it may + be said that their newspapers hardly suspended at all, the Evening Post + alone suspending publication for a time from being unable to acquire a + plant in the vicinity of the city. When the conflagration made it apparent + that all plants would be destroyed, the Bulletin put at work a force in + its composing rooms, a hand-bill was set and some hundreds of copies run + off on the proof-press, giving the salient features of the day’s news. + </p> + <p> + The morning papers, the Call, Chronicle and Examiner, retired to Oakland, + on the other side of the bay, and there, on Thursday morning, issued a + joint paper from the office of the Oakland Tribune. On Friday morning they + split forces again, the Examiner retaining the use of the Tribune plant + and the Call and Chronicle issuing from the office of the Oakland Herald. + Two days later the Call secured the service of the Oakland Enquirer plant. + Meantime, on Friday, the Bulletin, after a suspension of one day, made + arrangements for the use in the afternoon of the Oakland Herald equipment, + and from these sources and under such circumstances the San Francisco + papers have been issuing. + </p> + <p> + Offices were hurriedly opened on Fillmore Street, which today is the main + thoroughfare of San Francisco, and from these headquarters the news of the + day as it is gathered is transmitted by means of automobiles and ferry + service to the Oakland shore. + </p> + <p> + There also were accepted such advertisements as had been offered. The + number of these was, perhaps, the best visual sign of the resurrection of + the new city. It was noted that in a fourteen-page paper printed within + two weeks after the fire by the Examiner there were over nine pages of + advertisements, and in a sixteen-page paper published by the Chronicle at + least fifty per cent. of its space was devoted to the same end. + </p> + <p> + Many of the larger factories left unharmed were also quick to start work. + At the Union Iron Works 2,300 men were promptly employed, and the + management expected within a fortnight to have the full complement of its + force, nearly 4,000 men, engaged. No damage was done to the three new + warships being built at these works for the government, the cruisers + California and Milwaukee and the battleship South Dakota. The steamer City + of Puebla, which was sunk in the bay, has been raised and is being + repaired. Workmen are also engaged fixing the steamship Columbia, which + was turned on her side. The hulls of the new Hawaiian-American Steamship + Company’s liners were pitched about four feet to the south, but were + uninjured and only need to be replaced in position. + </p> + <p> + As for the working people at large, those without funds for their own + support, abundant employment will quickly be provided for them in the + necessary work of clearing away the debris, thus opening the way to a + resumption of business and reducing the number requiring relief. The ukase + has already been issued that all able-bodied men needing aid must go to + work or leave the city. + </p> + <p> + This dictum of Chief of Police Dinan’s will be strictly enforced. The + relief work and distribution of food and clothing are attracting a certain + element to the city which does not desire to labor, while some already + here prefer to live on the generosity of others. Chief Dinan has + determined that those who apply for relief and refuse work when it is + offered them shall leave the city or be arrested for vagrancy. The police + judges have suggested establishing a chain gang and putting all vagrants + and petty offenders at work clearing up the ruins. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps never in the history of the city has there been so little crime in + San Francisco. With the saloons closed, Chinatown, the Barbary Coast, and + other haunts of criminals wiped out, and soldiers and marines on almost + every block in the residence districts, there have been few crimes of any + kind. It is the opinion of the police that most of the criminal element + has left the city. The saloons, in all probability will remain closed for + two more months. + </p> + <p> + THE PROBLEM OF THE CHINESE. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion of this chapter it is advisable to refer to the situation of + one of the elements of San Francisco’s population, the people of + Chinatown. One of the problems facing the relief committees on both sides + of the bay is the sheltering of the Chinese. Many of them are destitute. + It has long been a question in San Francisco what should be done with + Chinatown, and moving the Chinese in the direction of Colma has been + agitated. Now they are without homes and without prospects of procuring + any. They can get no land. The limits of Oakland’s Chinatown have already + been extended, and the strictest police regulations are in force to + prevent further enlargement. On this side of the bay they are camping in + open lots. Unless the government undertakes their relief, they are in + grave danger. Those who have money cannot purchase property, as no one + will sell to them. Few, however, even of the wealthiest merchants in + Chinatown, saved anything of value, for their wealth was invested in the + Oriental village which had sprung up in the heart of the area burned. + </p> + <p> + Yet it is the desire of the municipality not to harass this portion of its + foreign population, and the vexatious problem of placing the new Chinatown + will probably be settled to the satisfaction of the Chinese colony. This + colony diverts an important part of the trade of San Francisco to that + city, and if its members are dealt with unjustly there is danger of losing + this trade. The question is one that must be left for the future to + decide, but no doubt care will be taken that a new Chinatown with the + unsavory conditions of the old shall not arise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. + </h2> + <h3> + San Francisco of the Past + </h3> + <p> + The story of San Francisco’s history and tragedy appeal with extraordinary + force to the imagination of all civilized men. For several generations the + city was looked upon as an Arabian Night’s dream—a place where gold + lay in the streets and joy and happiness were unlimited. Its settlement, + or, rather, its real rise as a city, was as by magic. It was first a city + of tents, of shanties, of “shacks,” lying on the rim of a great, spacious + bay. Ships of all sizes and rigs brought gold-seekers and provisions from + the East, all the way round Cape Horn, after voyages of weary months, and + at San Francisco their crews deserted and hundreds of these craft were + left at their moorings to rot. Ashore was a riot of money, prodigious + extravagance, mean, shabby appointments, sudden riches, great + disappointment, revelry, improvidence and suicide. + </p> + <p> + The streets that now lay squares from the water were then at the water’s + edge and batteaus brought cargoes ashore. Long wharves—one was for + years called the Long Wharf even after there were others built much longer—led + out over the shallow water. These shallows were later filled and streets + built upon them, and upon them arose warehouses, hotels, factories, + lodging houses and business places. + </p> + <p> + The city grew rapidly in the direction away from the bay. But in its early + days it was a city with no confidence in its own stability, and its + buildings were accordingly unstable. A few minor earthquakes shook some of + these down years ago and established in the minds of the people a horror + of earthquakes. Frame houses became the rule. + </p> + <p> + In its ensuing life San Francisco developed the attributes of a city of + gayety tempered by business. The population, for the most part, affected + light-hearted scorn of money, or, rather, of saving money. It made mirth + of life, habituated itself to expect windfalls such as miners and + prospectors dream of, developed a moderate amount of business, and enjoyed + the day while there was sunlight and the night when there was artificial + light. The windfalls grew less frequent, mining became a costly and + scientific process, and agriculture succeeded it. But, though it was only + necessary to tickle the land with a hoe and pour water upon the tickled + spot, to have it laugh with two, three or even four harvests a year, + agriculturists continued scarce. The Chinese truck farms, some of which + lay within the city’s lines, supplied the small fruits and vegetables. + Across the bay white men farmed, and grapes, fruits, vegetables and + flowers of prodigious variety and monstrous dimensions were grown. But + Eastern men came to do the farming. The Californian who himself was an + “Argonaut,” or whose father was an Argonaut, found no attractions in the + steady labor of farming. + </p> + <p> + There followed a period of depression, ascribed by many to the influx of + the Chinese and their effect upon the labor market, though the army of the + unemployed were as a rule unwilling to do the work their Celestial rivals + engaged in, that of truck farming, fruit raising, manual household labor, + wood cutting and the like. A heavy weight settled on the city; business + grew slack; the army of the unemployed, of ruined speculators and + moneyless newcomers grew steadily greater, and for an era San Francisco + saw its dark side. + </p> + <p> + But this was not a long duration. There was fast developing a new and + important business, resulting from the development of the real resources + of the State—the fruits, particularly the citrous fruits that grew + abundantly in the warm valley. Fortunes were made in oranges, lemons, + limes, grapes, almonds and pears. Raisins, whose size defied anything + heretofore known, were made from the huge grapes that grew in the San + Joaquin Valley. Sonoma sent its grapes to be made into wine. Capital + flowed in from every side. Eastern men in search of health, others in + search of wealth, came to the Golden State. No matter who came, where they + came from, or where they were going, they spent a few days, or many, and + some money, or much, in “‘Frisco.” The enterprise of the second edition + pioneers quickly transformed the State and city. + </p> + <p> + AGRICULTURE BRINGS NEW WEALTH. + </p> + <p> + Luxury was startling. San Francisco’s mercantile community equaled the + best, the stores and shops were as beautiful as anywhere in the world and + proportionately as well patronized. Theatres, music halls, restaurants, + hotel bars and the like were ablaze with lights at night, and patronized + by a gay throng. Sutro’s bath, near the Cliff House, was a species of + entertainment unequaled anywhere. The Presidio, as the army post is still + known, as in the Spanish nomenclature, gave its drills, regarded as free + exhibitions for the people. Golden Gate Park was an endless daily picnic + ground. + </p> + <p> + The crowds in the streets of San Francisco were noticeably well dressed + and usually gay, without that fixed, drawn, saturnine look noticeable + among the people of the East. It is doubtful whether, upon the whole, the + earnings of the San Francisco man equaled those of his Eastern brother, + but his holidays were frequent and his joys greater. The grind of life was + not yet steady—men had not become mere machines. + </p> + <p> + The climate of California is peculiar; it is hard to give an impression of + it. In the first place, all the forces of nature work on laws of their own + in that part of California. There is no thunder or lightning; there is no + snow, except a flurry once in five or six years; there are perhaps half a + dozen nights in the winter when the thermometer drops low enough so that + there is a little film of ice on exposed water in the morning. Neither is + there any hot weather. Yet most Easterners remaining in San Francisco for + a few days remember that they were always chilly. + </p> + <p> + A PECULIAR YET DELIGHTFUL CLIMATE. + </p> + <p> + For the Gate is a big funnel, drawing in the winds and the mists which + cool off the great, hot interior valley of San Joaquin and Sacramento. So + the west wind blows steadily ten months of the year and almost all the + mornings are foggy. This keeps the temperature steady at about 55 degrees—a + little cool for comfort of an unacclimated person, especially indoors. + Californians, used to it, hardly ever think of making fires in their + houses except in the few exceptional days of the winter season, and then + they rely mainly upon fireplaces. This is like the custom of the Venetians + and the Florentines. + </p> + <p> + But give an Easterner six months of it, and he, too, learns to exist + without a chill in a steady temperature a little lower than that to which + he is accustomed at home. After that one goes about with perfect + indifference to the temperature. Summer and winter San Francisco women + wear light tailor-made clothes, and men wear the same fall-weight suits + all the year around. + </p> + <p> + Except for the modern buildings, the fruit of the last ten years, the town + presented at first sight to the newcomer a disreputable appearance. Most + of the buildings were low and of wood. In the middle period of the 70’s, + when a great part of San Francisco was building, there was some atrocious + architecture perpetrated. In that time, too, every one put bow windows on + his house, to catch all of the morning sunlight that was coming through + the fog, and those little houses, with bow windows and fancy work all down + their fronts, were characteristic of the middle class residence districts. + </p> + <p> + Then the Italians, who tumbled over Telegraph Hill, had built as they + listed and with little regard for streets, and their houses hung crazily + on a side hill which was little less than a precipice. For the most part + the Chinese, although they occupied an abandoned business district, had + remade the houses Chinese fashion, and the Mexicans and Spaniards had + added to their houses those little balconies without which life is not + life to a Spaniard. + </p> + <p> + The hills are steep beyond conception. Where Vallejo Street ran up Russian + Hill it progressed for four blocks by regular steps like a flight of + stairs. + </p> + <p> + With these hills, with the strangeness of the architecture, and with the + green gray tinge over everything, the city fell always into vistas and + pictures, a setting for the romance which hung over everything, which has + always hung over life in San Francisco since the padres came and gathered + the Indians about Mission Dolores. + </p> + <p> + And it was a city of romance and a gateway to adventure. It opened out on + the mysterious Pacific, the untamed ocean, and most of China, Japan, the + South Sea Islands, Lower California, the west coast of Central America, + Australia that came to this country passed in through the Golden Gate. + There was a sprinkling, too, of Alaska and Siberia. From his windows on + Russian Hill one saw always something strange and suggestive creeping + through the mists of the bay. It would be a South Sea Island brig, + bringing in copra, to take out cottons and idols; a Chinese junk with + fan-like sails, back from an expedition after sharks’ livers; an old + whaler, which seemed to drip oil, back from a year of cruising in the + Arctic. Even, the tramp windjammers were deep-chested craft, capable of + rounding the Horn or of circumnavigating the globe; and they came in + streaked and picturesque from their long voyaging. + </p> + <p> + A MIXTURE OF RACES. + </p> + <p> + In the orange colored dawn which always comes through the mists of that + bay, the fishing fleet would crawl in under triangular lateen sails, for + the fishermen of San Francisco Bay are all Neapolitans, who have brought + their costumes and sail with lateen rigs shaped like the ear of a horse + when the wind fills them and stained an orange brown. + </p> + <p> + The “smelting pot of the races” Stevenson called the region along the + water front, for here the people of all these craft met, Italians, Greeks, + Russians, Lascars, Kanakas, Alaska Indians, black Gilbert Islanders, + Spanish-Americans, wanderers and sailors from all the world, who came in + and out from among the queer craft to lose themselves in the disreputable + shanties and saloons. The Barbary Coast was a veritable bit of Satan’s + realm. The place was made up of three solid blocks of dance halls, for the + delectation of the sailors of the world. Within those streets of peril the + respectable never set foot; behind the swinging doors of those saloons + anything might be happening, crime was as common here as drink, and much + went on of which the law was blankly ignorant. + </p> + <p> + Not far removed from this haunt of crime was the world-famous Chinatown, a + district six blocks long and two wide, and housing when at its fullest + some 30,000 Chinese. Old business houses at first, the new inmates added + to them, rebuilt them, ran out their own balconies and entrances, and gave + them that feeling of huddled irregularity which makes all Chinese built + dwellings fall naturally into pictures. Not only this, they burrowed to a + depth equal to three stories under the ground, and through this ran + passages in which the Chinese transacted their dark and devious affairs—as + the smuggling of opium, the traffic in slave girls and the settlement of + their difficulties, by murder if they saw fit. The law was powerless to + prevent or discover and convict the murderers. + </p> + <p> + Chinatown is gone; the Barbary Coast is gone; the haunts of crime have + been swept by the devouring flames, and if the citizens can prevent they + will never be restored. The old San Francisco is dead. The gayest, + lightest-hearted, most pleasure-loving city of this continent, and in many + ways the most interesting and romantic, is a horde of huddled refugees + living among ruins. It may rebuild; it probably will; but those who have + known that peculiar city by the Golden Gate and have caught its flavor of + the Arabian Nights feel that it can never be the same. When it rises out + of its ashes it will probably doubtless resemble other modern cities and + have lost its old strange flavor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. + </h2> + <h3> + Life in the Metropolis of the Pacific + </h3> + <p> + Brought up in a bountiful country, where no one really has to work very + hard to live, nurtured on adventure, scion of a free and merry stock, the + real, native Californian is a distinctive type; as far from the Easterner + in psychology as the extreme Southern is from the Yankee. He is easy + going, witty, hospitable, lovable, inclined to be unmoral rather than + immoral in his personal habits, and above all easy to meet and to know. + </p> + <p> + Above all there is an art sense all through the populace which sets it off + from any other part of the country. This sense is almost Latin in its + strength, and the Californian owes it to the leaven of Latin blood. + </p> + <p> + THE ‘FRISCO RESTAURANTS. + </p> + <p> + With such a people life was always gay. If they did not show it on the + streets, as do the people of Paris, it was because the winds made open + cafes disagreeable at all seasons of the year. The gayety went on indoors + or out on the hundreds of estates that fringed the city. It was noted for + its restaurants. Perhaps people who cared not how they spent their money + could get the best they wished, but for a dollar down to as low as fifteen + cents the restaurants furnished the best fare to be had anywhere at the + price. + </p> + <p> + The country all about produced everything that a cook needs, and that in + abundance—the bay was an almost untapped fish-pond, the fruit farms + came up to the very edge of the town, and the surrounding country produced + in abundance fine meats, all cereals and all vegetables. + </p> + <p> + But the chefs who came from France in the early days and liked this land + of plenty were the head and front of it. They passed their art to other + Frenchmen or to the clever Chinese. Most of the French chefs at the + biggest restaurants were born in Canton, China. Later the Italians, + learning of this country where good food is appreciated, came and brought + their own style. Householders always dined out one or two nights of the + week, and boarding houses were scarce, for the unattached preferred the + restaurants. The eating was usually better than the surroundings. + </p> + <p> + THE FAMOUS POODLE DOG. + </p> + <p> + Meals that were marvels were served in tumbledown little hotels. Most + famous of all the restaurants was the Poodle Dog. There have been no less + than four restaurants of this name, beginning with a frame shanty where, + in the early days, a prince of French cooks used to exchange recipes for + gold dust. Each succeeding restaurant of the name has moved farther + downtown; and the recent Poodle Dog stands—or stood—on the + edge of the Tenderloin in a modern five-story building. And it typified a + certain spirit that there was in San Francisco. + </p> + <p> + On the ground floor was a public restaurant where there was served the + best dollar dinner on earth. It ranked with the best and the others were + in San Francisco. Here, especially on Sunday night, almost everybody went + to vary the monotony of home cooking. Every one who was any one in the + town could be seen there off and on. It was perfectly respectable. A man + might take his wife and daughter there. + </p> + <p> + On the second floor there were private dining rooms, and to dine there, + with one or more of the opposite sex, was risque but not especially + terrible. But the third floor—and the fourth floor—and the + fifth! The elevator man of the Poodle Dog, who had held the job for many + years and never spoke unless spoken to, wore diamonds and was a heavy + investor in real estate. + </p> + <p> + There were others as famous in their way—Zinkaud’s, where, at one + time, every one went after the theatre, and Tate’s, which has lately + bitten into that trade; the Palace Grill, much like the grills of Eastern + hotels, except for the price; Delmonico’s, which ran the Poodle Dog neck + and neck in its own line, and many others, humbler, but great at the + price. + </p> + <p> + THE BOHEMIAN CLUB. + </p> + <p> + To the visitor who came to see the city and who put himself in the hands + of one of its well-to-do citizens for the purpose, the few days that + followed were apt to be a whirl of mirth and sight-seeing, made up of + breakfasts, luncheons, dinners, drives, little trips across the bay, + dashes down the peninsula to the polo and country clubs, hours spent in + Bohemia, trips around the world among all the races of the habitable + globe, all of whom had their colonies in this most cosmopolitan of + American cities. + </p> + <p> + In club life the Bohemian stood first and foremost, the famous club whose + meeting place, with all its art treasures, is now a heap of ashes, but + which was formerly ‘Frisco’s head-centre of mirth. Founded by Henry + George, the world-famous single tax advocate, when he was an impecunious + scribbler on the San Francisco Post, it grew to be the choicest place of + resort in the Pacific metropolis. + </p> + <p> + Within its walls the possession of dollars was a bar rather than an “open + sesame,” the master key to its circles being the knack of telling a good + story or the possession of quick and telling wit. Fun-making was the rule + there, and the only way to escape being made its victim was the power to + deliver a ready and witty retort. In this home of good fellowship all the + artists, actors, wits, literati, fiddlers, pianists and bon vivants were + members. Here an impoverished painter could square his grill and buffet + account by giving the club a daub to hang on its walls. Here in days of + old the Sheriff used to camp regularly once a month until the members + rustled up the money to replevin the furniture. But these days of poverty + passed away, and in later years the club came to know prosperity beyond + the dreams of the good fellows who founded it. + </p> + <p> + THE WICKEDEST AND GAYEST. + </p> + <p> + The Bohemian is gone, but the spirit that founded and made it still + exists, and we may look to see it rise, like the phoenix, from its ashes. + </p> + <p> + San Francisco was often called the wickedest city in America. It was + hardly that, it was simply the gayest. It was not the home of purity; + neither is any other city. What other cities do behind closed doors San + Francisco did not hesitate to do in the open. + </p> + <p> + In Eastern cities the police have driven vice into tenements, lodging + houses and apartments. San Francisco did not do that. She had certain + quarters where, according to unwritten law, vice was allowed to abide, and + she did not try to hide the fact that it could be found there. She was not + secretly immoral; she was frankly unmoral. + </p> + <p> + She did not believe in driving her vice from the open where it could be + recognized and controlled—prevented from doing any more harm than it + was possible to stop—into districts of the city where good people + dwell and purity would feel its contaminating influence. There were + regions in which the respectable never set foot, haunts of acknowledged + vice which for virtue to enter would be to lose caste. + </p> + <p> + As for its gayety, San Francisco was proud of the reputation of being the + Paris of America. Its women were beautiful, and they knew it. They liked + to adorn their beauty with fine clothes and peacock along the streets on + matinee days. If you asked a San Francisco girl why she wore such + expensive clothes, she would say, frankly, “Because I like to have the men + admire me,” and she would see no harm in saying it. There was very little + sham about the San Francisco women. Their men understood them and + worshiped them. They bore themselves with the freedom that was theirs by + right of their heritage of open-air living, the Bohemian atmosphere they + breathed, the unconventional character of their surroundings. Their + figures were strong and well moulded, their faces bloomed with health like + the roses in their gardens. They drew the wine of laughter from their + balmy California air. Sorrow and trouble sat lightly on their shoulders. + </p> + <p> + There was no end of enjoyments. After the theatre they would go to + Zinkaud’s, Tate’s, the Palace or some other of the many places of resort, + for a snack to eat and a spell under the music, which was to be heard + everywhere. + </p> + <p> + Another part of the gay life of the city was for a private dance to keep + going all night in a fashionable residence, and at daylight, instead of + everybody going to bed, to jump into automobiles or carriages or take the + trolley cars and whizz off to the beach for a dip in the cold salt water + pool at Sutro’s baths, and then, with ravenous appetites, sit down on the + Cliff House balcony to an open-air breakfast while watching the ships sail + in and out at the Golden Gate and hearing the seals barking on the rocks. + After that home and to rest. + </p> + <p> + AN ALL-NIGHT TOWN. + </p> + <p> + The city never went to sleep altogether. It was “an all-night” town. Few + of the restaurants ever closed, none of the saloons did. Always during the + whole twenty-four hours of the day there was “something doing” in the + Tenderloin. No hour of the night was ever free of revelry. It was + marvelous how they kept it up. The average San Franciscan could stay awake + all night at a card game, take a cold wash and a good breakfast in the + morning, and go straight downtown to business and feel none the worse for + it. + </p> + <p> + It was a gay town, a captivating, piquant, audacious, but not especially + wicked city. A Frenchy, a risque city it might justly have been called, + but it was not wicked in the sense that sordid vice, vulgar crime and + wretched squalor constitute wickedness. + </p> + <p> + It was a lovable place that everybody longed to get back to, once having + been there. A woman, leaving it for years, watched it from the ferryboat, + and, weeping, said, “San Francisco, oh, my San Francisco, I am leaving + thee.” + </p> + <p> + Will those who left it after the fire ever get back to their old city + again? We have already expressed our doubt of this. The old San Francisco + is probably gone, never to return. The new San Francisco will be a + cleaner, saner and safer city, destitute of its rookeries, its tenements + and its Chinatown. It will be a greater and more sightly city than that of + the past, but to those who knew and loved the old San Francisco—San + Francisco the captivating, the maddest, gayest, liveliest and most + rollicking in the country—there must be something impressibly sad to + its old inhabitants in the reflection that the new city of the Golden Gate + can never be quite the same as the haven of their early affections. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. + </h2> + <h3> + Plans to Rebuild San Francisco. + </h3> + <p> + Almost as soon as the terrible conflagration had been checked and gotten + under control by the heroic efforts of the soldiers and firemen, a little + group of the leading citizens of the desolated city had met in the office + of Mayor Eugene E. Schmitz and had begun to plan the restoration of their + municipality. It was an admirable courage, bred in the stock of those men + who in 1849 left comfortable homes in the East to seek their fortune in + the Golden State, that inspired the loyal leaders of the present day + citizens to provide with far-seeing eyes for the rebuilding of their homes + and business houses with more orderly precision after the fire than had + been possible during the hustle of early days in a new city. + </p> + <p> + The old San Francisco was no more, and never could be recalled save as a + memory. The local color, atmosphere, that which might be termed the + feeling of the old city, vanished with the clustered houses, as rich in + tradition as the ancient missions in whose cloisters worshiped the Spanish + padre “before the Gringo came.” Heartrending as it was to the citizens who + loved their homes and haunts to see them disappear into smoke, there was + an attraction about the city of the Golden Gate which endeared it to all + Americans. + </p> + <p> + One of San Francisco’s charms was in its defiance of precedent. There were + hills to be conquered, and San Francisco’ s expanding traffic hurled + itself at the face of them. It went up and up, with no thought of finding + a way around. So it happened that on some of the streets the steepness was + too great for horses. In the centre there are cable roads, and on either + side of the rails grass grows through the cobbles. The earlier structures + on the level were put together in haste. For the most part they remained + essentially unchanged until they fell with a crash. True, they had become + stained by time, unkempt, dwarfed by new neighbors, but nobody desired to + efface them. Away from the business section houses appeared on the various + hills, perched precariously near the brink; houses reached by long flights + and grown over with roses. The bathing fogs touched them with gray. Moss + grew on their roofs. In the little, lofty yards calla lilies bloomed with + the profusion of weeds. The natural beauty of the site, the quaintness of + the commercial and social development of which it became the centre, + attracted the poet and the artist. It incited them to paint the + attractions and to sing the praises of their chosen home. + </p> + <p> + But the loyal sons of those brave pioneers who founded the metropolis were + not in the least daunted by the problem of raising from its ruins the + whole vast number of dwellings and business houses. The leaders of the + people, the men who had been identified with San Francisco since its early + days, and whose great fortunes were almost swept away by the cataclysm, + lent courage to all the wearied thousands by firm statements of their + optimism. + </p> + <p> + James D. Phelan, former Mayor of the city and one of its richest + capitalists, immediately announced his intention of rebuilding his + properties at Market and O’Farrell Streets, in the heart of the ruined + business district. William H. Crocker, one of the heaviest losers, a + nephew of Charles Crocker, who founded the Central Pacific Railroad with + Collis P. Huntington, Leland Stanford and others, stated emphatically that + he would put his shoulder to the wheel. On receiving the first news of the + disaster, and before he knew what his losses would amount to, he said: + </p> + <p> + “Mark my words, San Francisco will arise from these ashes a greater and + more beautiful city than ever. I don’t take any stock in the belief of + some people that investors and residents will be panicky and afraid to + build up again. This calamity, terrible as it is, will mean nothing less + than a new and grander San Francisco. It is preposterous to suggest the + abandonment of the city. It is the natural metropolis of the Pacific + coast. God made it so. D. O. Mills, the Spreckels family, everybody I + know, have determined to rebuild and to invest more than ever before. + Burnham, the great Chicago architect, has been at work for a year or more + on plans to beautify San Francisco. Terrible as this destruction has been, + it serves to clear the way for the carrying out of these plans. Why, even + now we are figuring on rebuilding. More than that, I am confident that, + except for what fire has absolutely laid waste, it will be found that the + buildings are less injured than was supposed. Plastering, ornamental work, + glass and more or less loose material has been shaken down, but the + framework, I am sure, will be found intact in many big buildings.” + </p> + <p> + D. Ogden Mills, of New York, who owned enormous properties in the stricken + city, was equally confident. + </p> + <p> + “We will go ahead,” said he, “and build the city, and build it so that + earthquakes will not shake it down and so fire will not destroy it, and we + will have a water system which will enable us to draw water from the sea + for fire extinguishing service and other municipal purposes. We will thus + have less to fear from the destruction of the land mains. The whole point + with all of us who own property down there is that we have to build. To + let it lie idle, piled with its ruins, would mean the throwing away of + money, and I am sure none of us intends to do that. The city will go up + like Baltimore did, and Galveston, and Charleston, and Chicago, and there + will be no lack of capital. California spirit and California enterprise, + which are always associated with the State of California, will rise + superior to this calamity.” + </p> + <p> + George Crocker, elder brother of William H. Crocker; Archer M. Huntington, + son of Collis P. Huntington; Mrs. Herman Oelrichs, Mrs. W. K. Vanderbilt, + Jr., members of the wealthy Spreckels family and others all expressed, + before the great conflagration had ceased burning, the confident + expectation that the city would rise, Phoenix-like, from its ashes and + become more beautiful and prosperous than it had ever been in the past. + </p> + <p> + So complete was the calamity that the Government of the United States lent + a hand in the earliest work of restoration. On April 20th, two days after + the earthquake, Congress took immediate steps to repair or replace all the + public buildings damaged or destroyed in San Francisco. The willingness of + Congress to assist those in need of work by immediately beginning the + reconstruction of the Federal buildings was indicated when Senator Scott, + chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, introduced a + resolution calling upon the Secretary of the Treasury for full information + as to the exact condition of the various government buildings in San + Francisco, and instructing him to submit an estimate showing the aggregate + sum needed to repair or rebuild them. The resolution suggested that steel + frames be used in any new buildings. This resolution was adopted. It was + soon learned that the new Post Office, the Mint and the old Customs House + were practically undamaged. The branch of the United States Mint, on Fifth + Street, and the new Post Office at Seventh and Mission Streets, were + striking examples of the superiority of workmanship put into Federal + buildings. The old Mint building, surrounded by a wide space of pavement, + was absolutely unharmed. The Mint made preparations to resume business at + once. The Post Office building also was virtually undamaged by fire. The + earthquake shock did some damage to the different entrances to the + building, but the walls were left standing in good condition. President + Roosevelt also sent a message to Congress asking that $300,000 be at once + appropriated to finish the Mare Island Navy Yard, in order that employment + might be given to the many workmen who were in extreme need of money for + the necessities of life. + </p> + <p> + It was a most fortunate circumstance that the property records in the Hall + of Records were unharmed either by earthquake or fire. Endless disputes + and litigation over the questions of ownerships would undoubtedly have + otherwise impeded the work of those sincerely anxious to repair their + shattered fortunes and opened the way for the unscrupulous to take unfair + advantage of the general chaos. + </p> + <p> + But the temper of the people was such that only the boldest would have + dared to use trickery for his own ends. Every man stood at the side of his + neighbor working for himself and for the good of all. Before the embers + were cool the owners of some of the damaged skyscrapers gave commands to + proceed instantly with their reconstruction. The Spreckels Building, the + Hayward Building, the St. Francis Hotel, the Merchants’ Exchange and + structures that permitted it were ordered rushed into shape as quickly as + possible. And already contracts had been drawn up for other steel-frame + buildings to be erected with all speed. Many substantial business men and + property owners of San Francisco were in consultation with the architects + within a few days. While the work of clearing away the debris went + forward, a corps of draughtsmen was busily occupied preparing plans for + the new buildings to adorn the city. + </p> + <p> + Mayor Schmitz telegraphed to the Mayors of all leading cities, inquiring + how many architects or architectural draughtsmen could be induced to leave + for San Francisco at once, and hundreds of young men immediately responded + to the call. Experts of the several great contracting companies hurried to + the scene and were ready to deposit material and labor on the ground for + the work of restoration. Daniel H. Burnham, a leading architect of + Chicago, who had previously drawn plans for beautifying the city, was + summoned to superintend the work. + </p> + <p> + All the horses, mules and wagons obtainable were immediately pressed into + service to remove the debris and clear the streets so that traffic could + be resumed. Within a week after the first earthquake shock trolley cars + were running in the principal streets, telephone communication had been + re-established in the most needed quarters, electric lights were available + and business had begun again on a limited scale. + </p> + <p> + Yet, in spite of the indomitable courage of the citizens and the efficient + labor of the public officers and the utility companies, an enormous amount + of work remained. Virtually every bank in San Francisco had to be rebuilt. + Only the Market Street National Bank was left nearly undamaged. An + official list of the condition of the school buildings throughout the city + showed that twenty-nine school buildings were destroyed and that + forty-four were partially, at least, spared. Many of the latter were so + damaged that they had to be either pulled down or thoroughly repaired, and + arrangements were made to resume the short term in tents erected in the + parks, where thousands of the homeless had already found temporary + shelter. With these two vital classes of public institutions prepared to + care for the demands about to be made on them, confidence was not lacking + in other parts. Most of the foundries and factories near the water front + and south of Market Street immediately called in all their employees and + began to clear away the wreckage and make ready for continuing business. + Great credit is due to the newspapers, nearly all of which continued their + daily issues without interruption, although their buildings, with offices + and printing plants, were entirely destroyed by the flames which followed + the earthquake. Those whose premises were early threatened with + destruction betook themselves to Oakland, seven miles distant across the + bay, and published their sheets from the establishments of the Oakland + papers. A thorough inspection shows that comparatively little damage was + done in the vicinity of the Cliff. The Cliff House, which was at first + reported to have been hurled into the sea, not only stood, but the damage + sustained by it from the earthquake was slight. The famous Sutro baths, + located near the Cliff House, with the hundreds of thousands of square + feet of glass roofing, also were practically unharmed. Only a few of the + windows in the Sutro baths and the Cliff House were broken, and the lofty + chimney of the pumping plant of the former establishment was cracked only + a trifle. When the situation was finally summed up, however, nearly + three-fourths of the city had to be rebuilt or remodeled, and the cost of + doing this was enough to appal the strongest hearts. + </p> + <p> + Financially the prospect was encouraging. Not a bank lost the contents of + its fireproof vaults and remained practically unharmed, so far as credit + was concerned. + </p> + <p> + For a number of days it was impossible to open any strong boxes on account + of the great heat which the thick walls retained, and this naturally + caused some embarrassment and lack of ready money. Nearly all of them, + however, had strong connections in Eastern cities and large balances to + their credit in other banks of America and Europe. They were also favored + by the fact that the United States Mint and the Sub-Treasury held between + them some $245,000,000 in ready money. The Secretary of the Treasury + immediately deposited $10,000,000 to the credit of the local banks, and + financiers of the great business centres of the country added to public + confidence by prompt statements that they would facilitate the + reconstruction of the city by a liberal advancement of funds. + </p> + <p> + One prominent Eastern capitalist expressed the general conviction in the + following words: + </p> + <p> + “No great city, unless it dried up entirely from lack of commercial life + blood, was ever annihilated by such a disaster as that of San Francisco. + Pompeii and Herculaneum were not great cities in the first place, and in + the second, they were completely covered, smothered as it were, with the + ashes and molten lava of the adjoining volcano, and nearly all of their + inhabitants perished. If it be admitted that three-fourths of the + superstructures, so to speak, of San Francisco, estimated according to + valuation, is destroyed, we have yet the fact remaining that the lives of + only about one four-hundredth of its population have been lost. + </p> + <p> + “San Francisco was not merely land and the buildings erected upon it, but + it was people, and one of the most active, most hopeful, most vivacious + human communities on the face of the earth. You cannot long discourage + such a community, unless you wipe out three-fourths of its members. Will + San Francisco rise again? Most certainly it will. Galveston and Baltimore, + not to mention Charleston, Boston and Chicago, showed the spirit of + material resurrection in American communities, sore-smitten by calamity. + After Galveston had been made a desert of sand and debris, there were + predictions that it would never rise again. What was the outcome? A finer + Galveston than before, and finer than many years of slow improvement in + the natural course would have made it. Baltimore is busier commercially + than it was before the great fire. + </p> + <p> + “San Francisco is exceedingly fortunate in the fact that its moneyed + institutions remain strong, with abundant supplies of funds. It is true + that many of them undoubtedly hold large numbers of real estate mortgages + as securities for loans, and that much of the property thus represented is + now in ashes. But with care and an accommodating spirit practically all of + those mortgaged can be so nursed that they will be made absolutely good. + The banks will be found to be only too eager to afford new loans which + will enable realty owners to rebuild. You will see San Francisco rise a + more splendid city than ever, and better prepared to resist future + earthquake shocks. Because it has had this dreadful visitation is no + reason for apprehension that another like it will come within the life of + the present generation, or two or three after. The destruction of Lisbon + in the middle of the eighteenth century and its subsequent immunity from + seismic damage is a reassuring example.” + </p> + <p> + The municipality was in excellent financial condition to meet and rise + above the extraordinary needs of the situation. It had a bonded debt of + only $4,245,100, while its realty valuation was $402,127,261 and its + personalty $122,258,406. The question of issuing further amounts of bonds + was therefore one of the first measures considered by Mayor Schmitz and + his co-workers, and an appeal was made to the Federal Government to + guarantee the proposed loans, so that the most urgent work which lay in + the city’s province could be undertaken at once and without an excessive + burden of interest. + </p> + <p> + The vast insurance loss was divided among 107 companies, and, though only + a little more than half the damage was covered by policies, the total + swelled toward the colossal sum of $150,000,000. Several of the largest + companies were seriously crippled by the disaster and some were forced + into liquidation. To the great relief of the entire country, nevertheless, + the financial situation was not severely affected, and there was every + reason to believe that the great bulk of the insurance would be paid. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. + </h2> + <h3> + The Earthquake Wave Felt Round the Earth. + </h3> + <p> + The outbreak of earth forces at San Francisco did not stand alone. There + were others elsewhere at nearly the same time, the whole seeming to + indicate a general disturbance in the interior of the earth’s crust. Some + scientists, indeed, declared that no possible connection could exist + between the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and the earthquake at San + Francisco, but others were inclined to view certain facts in regard to + recent seismic and volcanic activity as, to say the least, suggestive. + </p> + <p> + As to the actual cause of the California earthquake, the wisest confession + we can make is that of ignorance, there being almost as little known as to + the origin, period and coming of earthquakes as when Pliny wrote 1,800 + years ago. The Roman observer knew that the tremor passed like a wave + through the surface of the earth; he knew that it had a given direction, + and he knew that certain regions were rife with seismic disturbance. More + he could not say, and when this is said all has been said that is known + to-day. + </p> + <p> + Setting aside these general considerations, let us return to the question + of the disaster at San Francisco on that fatal morning of April 18th. The + shock did not come unexpectedly. A month previous there had been a severe + earthquake in the Island of Formosa, and many lives were lost there, while + an enormous amount of damage was done. Only a few days before the event in + San Francisco there was another earthquake in the same island. Still + greater havoc was caused by it than by the earthquake in March, but fewer + lives were lost, the reason being that the people were warned in time. + Early in April the eruption of Mount Vesuvius reached its height and + devastated the country around the volcano, covering an enormous territory + with ashes, and caused the loss of hundreds of lives. + </p> + <p> + On Tuesday night, April 17th, word was received from Piatigorsk, + Circassia, that there had been two severe earthquake shocks the previous + day in Northern Caucasia. The same night a telegram from Madrid said that + the newspapers there reported that the long-dormant volcano on Palma, the + largest of the Canary Islands, was showing signs of eruption, columns of + smoke issuing from the crater. + </p> + <p> + WIDESPREAD EARTH TREMORS. + </p> + <p> + While scientists as a rule doubt that there was any connection between + these volcanic phenomena and the earthquake at San Francisco, yet reports + from the Mount Weather observation station in Virginia, a few miles from + Washington, show that the eruptions of Vesuvius acted on the magnetic + instruments by electro-magnetic waves in such a way as to disturb the + electrical potentials at that place. Be this as it may, there is one + remarkable circumstance in regard to all this activity. All the places + mentioned—Formosa, Southern Italy, Caucasia, and the Canary Islands—lie + within a belt bounded by lines a little north of the fortieth parallel and + a little south of the thirtieth parallel. San Francisco is just south of + the fortieth parallel, while Naples is just north of it. The latitude of + Calabria, where the terrible earthquakes occurred in 1905, is the same as + that of the territory affected by the recent earthquake in the United + States. This may or may not have some bearing on the question. + </p> + <p> + Whatever be thought of all this, one thing is certain, the earthquake + which laid San Francisco in ruins was felt the world over, wherever there + were instruments in position to detect and record it. The seismograph in + the government observatory at Washington showed that the first wave, on + April 18th, came at 8.19—equivalent to 5.19 at San Francisco; that + at 8.25 there was a stronger wave motion, and that from 8.32 to 8.35 the + recording pen was carried off the paper. The vibrations did not entirely + cease until 12.35 P. M., during this period there having been nearly half + an inch of to and fro motion in the surface of the earth. + </p> + <p> + RECORDS OF FOREIGN OBSERVATIONS. + </p> + <p> + From far away New Zealand, on the same date, the government seismograph at + the capital, Wellington, recorded seismic waves that apparently passed + round the earth five times at intervals of about four hours each. + </p> + <p> + Across the Atlantic, at Heidelberg, in Germany, the records showed + vibrations lasting one hour. At Sarayevo, in Bosnia, there was a sharp + shock at 11 A. M., undulating from west to east. At Funfkirchen, in + Hungary, at Laibach, in Austria, in the Isle of Wight, off the coast of + England, and all through Italy, from north to south, the shocks were felt. + </p> + <p> + At Hancock, Mich., a shock was felt on April 19th a mile below the surface + in the Quincy mine of such severity that one man was killed and four + injured by a fall of rock loosened by the trembling of the earth. There is + no evidence, however, that this had any connection with the California + disaster, the dates not coinciding. + </p> + <p> + Turning to the Far East, across the Pacific, seismographs in the Imperial + University of Tokio showed that the earthquake was felt there eleven + minutes later than in San Francisco, and similar instruments in Manila + detected the arrival of the seismic waves twenty minutes after the San + Francisco shock. In this there was a slight difference in time compared + with Tokio, but, considering the distance, near enough to prove that the + disturbances came from the same source. + </p> + <p> + Not until the day following was any noticeable disturbance felt in + Honolulu, but on April 19th shocks were plainly felt for six minutes and + the water in the harbor rose rapidly. Panic seemed imminent just before + the shocks subsided. While earthquakes are by no means infrequent in these + islands, this was more severe than any recorded in recent years, causing + buildings to sway to and fro and partly demolishing some of frail + construction. + </p> + <p> + If, as the majority of men qualified to discuss earthquakes seem to think, + the San Francisco earthquake had no connection with volcanic action, but + was caused by what is technically known as a “fault” in the formation of + the crust of the earth, it seems easy enough to account for these wave + motions travelling round the earth. How widely this may really have made + itself felt it is not possible to say. Several of the great earthquakes in + Japan have been recorded in the seismographs of the observatories on every + continent and in Australia, showing that in severe disturbances of this + kind the whole surface strata quiver, alike under the oceans and over the + continents and islands. At the time of a shock, of course, half of the + world is in darkness and asleep. This is taken to account for the fact + that so far only a few observatories have reported catching the San + Francisco vibrations. + </p> + <p> + The instruments invented for the recording of the motions of the earth’s + crust are looked upon by scientists as the most delicate of all machines. + So highly sensitive are they, indeed, that the very slightest vibratory + motion is recorded perfectly. Even the tread of feet cannot escape this + instrument if sufficient to cause a vibration. + </p> + <p> + There are three classes of instruments for the automatic recording of + earth tremors, each with its own particular function. First is the + seismoscope, which will merely detect and record the fact that there has + been such a tremor. Some of these are so equipped as to indicate the time + of the disturbance. + </p> + <p> + Second, is the seismometer, the function of which is to measure the + maximum force of the shock, either with or without an indication of its + direction. The third instrument is the seismograph, which is so arranged + that it will accurately record the number, succession, direction, + amplitude and period of successive oscillations. This last instrument is + by far the most delicate of the three. + </p> + <p> + In the construction of this earthquake recording machine the maker must so + suspend a heavy body that when its normal position is disturbed in the + most infinitesimal degree no reactionary force will be developed tending + to restore it to its original position. The inventor has never been found + who could accomplish this suspension of a body to perfection. The + seismograph of to-day, however, has reached a stage of perfection where + close approximations are obtained in the records made. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. + </h2> + <h3> + Vesuvius Devastates the Region of Naples. + </h3> + <p> + We have in other chapters described the terrible work of Mount Vesuvius in + the past, from the far-off era of the destruction of Pompeii down to the + end of the last century. There comes before us now another frightful + eruption, one of the greatest in its history, that of 1906. For thirty + years before this outbreak the mighty volcano had been comparatively + quiet, rarely ceasing, indeed, to smoke and fume, but giving little + indication of the vast forces buried in its heart. It showed some sympathy + with Mont Pelee in 1902, and continued restless after that time, but it + was not until about the middle of February, 1906, that it became + threatening, lava beginning to overflow from the crater and make its lurid + way down the mountain’s side. + </p> + <p> + It was in the middle of the first week of April that these indications + rose to the danger point, the flow of lava suddenly swelling from a + rivulet to a river, pouring in a gleaming flood over the crater’s rim, and + meeting the other streams that came streaming down the volcano’s rugged + flank. While this went on the mountain remained comparatively quiet, there + being no explosions, though a huge cloud of volcanic ash and cinders rose + high in the air until it hung over the crater in the shape of an enormous + pine tree, while from it a shower of dust and sand, soon to become + terrible, began to descend upon the surrounding fields and towns. + </p> + <p> + Dangerous as is Vesuvius at any time, the people of the vicinity dare its + perils for the allurement of its fertile soil. A ring of populous villages + encircles it, flourishing vineyards and olive groves extend on all sides, + and the hand of industry does not hesitate to attack its threatening + flanks. The intervals between its death-dealing throes are so long that + the peasants are always ready to dare destruction for the hope of winning + the means of life from its soil. + </p> + <p> + THE RIVERS OF LAVA. + </p> + <p> + All this locality was now a field of terror and death. Down on the + vineyards and villages poured the smothering ashes in an ever increasing + rain; toward them slowly and threateningly crawled the fiery serpents of + the lava streams; and from their homes fled thousands of the + terror-stricken people, frantic with horror and dismay. A number of + populous villages were threatened by the lurid lava streams, the most + endangered being Bosco Trecase, with its 10,000 inhabitants. Toward this + devoted town poured steadily the irresistible flood of molten rock. The + soldiers who had been hurried to the front sought to divert its flow by + digging a wide ditch across its course and throwing up a high bank of + earth, but they worked in vain. The demon of destruction was not to be + robbed of its prey. The liquid stream advanced like a colossal serpent of + fire, turning its head like a crawling snake to the right and left, but + keeping steadily on toward the fated town. The ditch was filled; the bank + gave way; the first house was reached and burst into flames; the creeping + stream of fire pushed on to the next houses in its way; only then did the + despairing people desert their homes and flee for their lives, carrying + with them the little they could snatch of their treasured possessions. + </p> + <p> + F. Marion Crawford, the novelist, who was present at this scene, thus + describes the flight of the terrified people: + </p> + <p> + “I saw men, women and children and infants, whose mothers carried them at + the breast or in their aprons, fleeing in an endless procession. Dogs, + too, and cats were on the carts, and sometimes even chickens, tied + together by the legs, and piles of mattresses and pillows and shapeless + bundles of clothes. All were white with dust. Under the lurid glare I saw + one old woman lying on her back across a cart, ghastly white and, if not + dead already of fear and heat and suffocation, certainly almost gone. We + ourselves could hardly breathe.” + </p> + <p> + It was on Saturday, the 7th, that Bosco Trecase became the prey of the + river of molten rock. During that night and the following day the crisis + of the eruption came. The observatory on the mountain side was occupied by + Professor Matteucci, his assistant, Professor Perret, of New York, and two + domestics, all others having been sent away. Their description of the + scene in which they found themselves is vividly picturesque. At midnight + the situation in the observatory was terrible. The forces of the + earthquake were let loose and the ground rocked so that it was almost + impossible to stand. The roaring of the main crater was deafening, while + the volcano poured forth its contents like a fountain, and the electric + display was terrifying, constant claps of thunder following the lurid + flashes of lightning, which gave the sky a blood-red hue. + </p> + <p> + Shortly after three o’clock in the morning the explosive energy of the + mighty mass culminated. The whole cone burst open with a tremendous + earthquake shock, from the heart of the recently silent mountain came a + deafening roar, and red-hot rocks, like the balls from nature’s mighty + artillery, were hurled a half mile into the air, while a dense mass of + ashes and sand was flung to three or four times this height. All the next + day the terrible detonation kept up, and a hail of bullet-like stones + poured downward from the skies. Rarely has a more terrible Sunday been + seen. It was as if the demons of earth and air were let loose and were + seeking to destroy man and his puny works. + </p> + <p> + THE CRISIS OF THE ERUPTION. + </p> + <p> + This frightful explosion of the 8th of April was the worst of the dreadful + display of volcanic forces, but the work kept up with diminishing + intensity much of the following week. The ashes and cinders continued to + pour down in suffocating showers, covering the ground to a depth of four + or five feet in the vicinity of the volcano and to a considerable depth at + Naples, ten miles away. The sun disappeared behind the thick cloud that + filled the air, and the scene resembled that described by Pliny more than + eighteen hundred years before. + </p> + <p> + Of Bosco Trecase nothing was left but the large stone church and a few + houses. Another river of lava reached the outskirts of Torre del Greco, + and a third stopped at the cemetery of Torre Annunziata. Those towns + escaped, but thousands of acres of fertile cultivated land, with farm + houses and stock, were destroyed. The peninsular railway up the mountain + was ruined and the large hotel burned. One writer tells the following tale + of what he saw on that fatal Saturday and Sunday: + </p> + <p> + “On the road I met hundreds of families in flight, carrying their few + miserable possessions. The spectacle of collapsing carts and fainting + women was frequently seen. When one reached the lava stream a stupefying + spectacle presented itself. From a point on the mountain between the towns + I saw four rivers of molten fire, one of which, 200 feet wide and over 40 + deep, was moving slowly and majestically onward, devouring vineyards and + olive groves. I witnessed the destruction of a farm house enveloped on + three sides by lava. Immediately overhead the great crater was belching + incandescent rock and scoria for an incredible distance. The whole scene + was wreathed with flames, and a perpetual roar was heard. Ever and anon + the cone of the volcano was encircled with vivid electric phenomena, amid + which a downpour of liquid fire on all sides of the crater was revealed in + magnificent awfulness. In the evening there was a frightful shock of + earthquake, which was repeated at two o’clock on Sunday morning. + Simultaneously the lava streams redoubled their onrush, and men, women and + children fled precipitately toward the sea. The lava had invaded the road + behind them.” + </p> + <p> + A REIGN OF TERROR. + </p> + <p> + The great loss of life was due to the vast fall of ashes, which crushed in + hundreds of roofs and buried the occupants within the ruins of their + homes. In all the neighboring towns buildings were destroyed in great + numbers, an early estimate being that fully 5,000 houses had been partly + crushed or utterly destroyed. On the Ottajano side of the mountain, where + the ashes fell in greatest profusion, all the houses of the villages were + damaged, and Ottajano itself was left a wreck, several hundred dead bodies + being taken from its ruins. In Naples the ash fall was so incessant that + those who could afford it wore automobile coats, caps and goggles, while + the people generally sought to save their eyes and faces by the aid of + paper masks and umbrellas. The drivers of trolley cars were obliged to + wear masks of some transparent material under the vizors of their caps. + </p> + <p> + DISASTERS AT SAN GIUSEPPE AND NAPLES. + </p> + <p> + There were two special disasters attended by serious loss of life. On the + 9th, while a congregation of two hundred or more were attending mass in + the church at San Giuseppe, the roof crushed in from the weight of ashes + upon it and fell upon the worshippers below, few or none of whom escaped + unhurt. Fifty-four dead bodies were taken from the ruins and a large + number were severely injured. The Mayor of the town was dismissed from his + office for leaving his post of duty in the face of danger. + </p> + <p> + The second disaster, one of the same character, took place at Naples. This + was on Tuesday, April 10th. Just previous to it the people had been + marching in religious processions through the streets, to render thanks + for the apparent cessation of the activity of Vesuvius. Motley but + picturesque processions were these, headed by boys carrying candles, which + burned simply in the full sunshine and bearing aloft images of the Madonna + or saints, clad in gorgeous robes of cheap blue or yellow satin. Their joy + was suddenly changed to grief by tidings of a frightful disaster. The roof + of the Monte Oliveto market, fronting on the Toledo, the main + thoroughfare, had suddenly crushed in, burying more than 200 people + beneath its heavy fall. + </p> + <p> + The market had been crowded with buyers and their children, and it was the + busiest hours of the day in the great roofed courtyard, covering a space + 600 feet square, when, with scarcely a tremor of warning, there came a + frightful crash and a dense cloud of dust covered the scene, from out of + which came heartrending screams of agony. The volcanic ash which, + unnoticed, had gathered thickly on the roof, had broken it in by its + weight. + </p> + <p> + The news set the people frantic with grief and indignation. They insisted + that the authorities knew that the roof was unsafe and had neglected their + duty. Cursing and screaming in their intense excitement, they surrounded + the market, endeavoring with frantic haste to remove the heavy beams from + beneath which came the appealing calls for help, many of the rescuers + sobbing aloud as they worked. It required a large force of police and + soldiers to keep them back and permit the firemen and other trained + workers to carry on more systematically the work of relief. Twelve persons + proved to have been killed, two fatally injured, twenty-four seriously + hurt and over a hundred badly bruised and cut. Among these were many + children, whose parents had sent them to do the marketing without a dream + of danger, and the grief of the parents was intense. The Duke of Aosta, + Prefect of Naples, directed the work of rescue, while his wife assisted in + the care of the injured. As the Duchess bent in the hospital to give a + cooling drink to a badly bruised little girl she felt a kiss upon her + hand. Looking down, she saw a woman kneeling at her feet, who gratefully + said: “Your Excellency, she is all I have. I am a widow. May God reward + you.” + </p> + <p> + While this scene of horror was taking place in Naples the fate of the town + and villages grouped around the foot of the volcano seemed as hopeless as + ever. Early on the 10th the showers of ashes and streams of lava + diminished and almost ceased, but later the same day they began again, and + the terrified inhabitants feared that a catastrophe like that which buried + Pompeii and Herculaneum was about to visit them. The lava which reached + the cemetery of Torre Annunziata turned in the direction of Pompeii as if + to freshly entomb that exhumed city of the past. A violent storm of + sulphurous rain fell at San Giuseppe, Vesuviana and Sariano, and on all + sides the fall of sand and ashes came on again in full strength. Even with + the sun shining high in the heavens the light was a dim yellow, in the + midst of which the few persons who still haunted the stricken towns moved + about in the awful stillness of desolation like gray ghosts, their + clothing, hair and beards covered with ashes. + </p> + <p> + THE ERUPTION RESUMED. + </p> + <p> + A typical case was that of Torre del Greco. Though for thirty hours the + place had been deserted, a few ghostly figures could be seen at intervals + when the vivid flashes of lightning illuminated the gloom-covered scene, + wandering desolately about, hungry and thirsty, their throats parched by + smoke and dust, yet unable to tear themselves away from the ruins of their + late comfortable homes. + </p> + <p> + So deep was the ash fall that railway or tramway travel to the inner + circle of towns was impossible, and the great depth of fallen dust choked + the roads so as to render travel by carriage or on foot very difficult. A + party of officials made a tour of inspection by automobile, visiting a + number of the town, but were prevented by the state of the roads from + reaching others. Ottajano was thus cut off from travel, and a heavy fall + of ashes followed the officials in their retreat. At Bosco Trecase the + lava had gathered into a lake, already growing solid on top, but a mass of + liquid rock beneath. + </p> + <p> + The lava carried vast masses of burnt stone and sulphur on its surface, + like dross on melted lead, and nothing was visible toward Bosco Trecase + but endless acres of dark scoriae, broken here and there by the greenish, + curling smoke of sulphur. At one point a great cone pine tree, torn up by + its roots and turned to black charcoal, stuck out of the mass at a sharp + angle. The air was almost unbearable, the heat intense, and few could long + bear the dangers and discomfort of the situation. + </p> + <p> + SCENES OF HORROR. + </p> + <p> + The greatest depth of ashes encountered was in the vicinity of Ottajano. + Here large areas were buried to a depth of several feet. Soldiers had been + sent there with military carts, carrying provisions and surgical + appliances, with orders to lend their aid in the work of relief. They + found it almost impossible to make their way through the deep fine dust, + and the tales of horror and heroism they had to tell resembled those that + must of old have been borne to Rome by the fleeing inhabitants of Pompeii. + </p> + <p> + Efforts were made to remove the children and old persons in the carts, but + when these had gone a few hundred feet it was found that, although there + were four horses harnessed to each vehicle, they could not pull their + loads through the ashes. This caused a panic among the children, who + expected to be buried in the incessant fall from the volcano, and they + fled in all directions in the darkness and blinding rain. Searching + parties went after them, but in spite of continuous shouting and calling + no trace was found of the little ones, and numbers of the children were + undoubtedly smothered by the ashes and sand. + </p> + <p> + Many of the inhabitants had been buried in the ruins of their houses, and + the scenes when the victims were unearthed were often piteous and + terrible. The positions of the bodies showed that the victims had died + while in a state of great terror, the faces being convulsed with fear. + Three bodies were found in a confessional of one of the fallen churches. + One body was that of an old woman who was sitting with her right arm + raised as though to ward off the advancing danger. The second was that of + a child about eight years old. It was found dead in a position, which + would indicate that the child had fallen with a little dog close to it and + had died with one arm raised across its face, to protect itself and pet + from the crumbling ruins. The third body, that of a woman, was reduced to + an unrecognizable mass. These three victims were reverently laid side by + side while a procession of friends and relatives offered up prayers beside + them. + </p> + <p> + One soldier rode his horse through the ashes reaching up to its flanks, + calling out, “Who wants help?” He was rewarded by hearing a woman’s voice + reply in weak tones and, springing from his horse, he floundered through + the ashes to the ruined walls of a house from which the voice seemed to + come. As he made his way through the soft, treacherous layer of scoriae + which surrounded the destroyed habitation, and with difficulty worked his + way toward the building the soldier shouted words of encouragement and, + climbing over a heap of ruins and braving a toppling wall, entered the + building. In the cellar he found the bodies of three children. Near them + was a woman, barely alive, who by almost superhuman efforts for hours had + succeeded in freeing herself from a mass of debris which had fallen upon + her. The soldier picked the woman up in his arms and carried her to a + place of safety. It was found that both legs were broken and that she had + been badly crushed about the body. + </p> + <p> + Some extraordinary escapes from death took place. A man and his four + children were rescued after having been lost in the ash-covered wilderness + for fifty-six hours. They were terribly exhausted, and were reduced almost + to skeletons. + </p> + <p> + Robert Underwood Johnson, one of the editors of the “Century Magazine”, + who happened to be in Rome at the time of the eruption, made one of a + party who ventured as near the scene of destruction as they could safely + approach. From his graphic story of his experiences we copy some of the + most interesting details. + </p> + <p> + AN AMERICAN OBSERVER. + </p> + <p> + “We caught a train for Torre Annunziata, three miles this side of Pompeii + and two miles from the southern end of the wedge of lava which destroyed + Bosco Trecase. We had a magnificent view of the eruption, eight miles + away. Rising at an angle of fifty degrees, the vast mass of tumult + roundness was beautifully accentuated by the full moon, shifting + momentarily into new forms and drifting south in low, black clouds of + ashes and cinders reaching to Capri. At Torre del Greco we ran under this + terrifying pall, apparently a hundred feet above, the solidity of which + was soon revealed in the moonlight. The torches of the railway guards + added to the effect, but greatly relieved the sulphurous darkness. + </p> + <p> + “We reached Torre Annunziata at three in the morning. There was little + suggestion of a disaster as we trudged through the sleeping town to the + lava, two miles away. The brilliant moon gave us a superb view of the + volcano, a gray-brown mass rising, expanding and curling in with a profile + like a monstrous cyclopean face. But nothing in mythology gives a + suggestion of the fascination of this awful force, presenting the sublime + beauty above, but in its descent filled with the mysterious malignance of + God’s underworld. + </p> + <p> + “We reached the lava at a picturesque cypress-planted cemetery on the + northern boundary of Torre Annunziata. It was as if the dead had + effectually cried out to arrest the crushing river of flames which + pitilessly engulfed the statue of St. Anne with which the people of Bosco + Reale tried to stay it, as at Catania the veil of St. Agathe is said to + have stayed a similar stream from Mount Etna. + </p> + <p> + “We climbed on the lava. It was cool above but still alive with fire + below. We could see dimly the extent of the destruction beyond the barrier + of brown which had enclosed the streets, torn down the houses, invaded the + vineyards and broken Cook’s railways. A better idea of the surroundings + was obtained at dawn from the railway. We saw north what was left of Bosco + Trecase—a great, square stone church and a few houses inland in a + sea of dull, brown lava. North and east rose a thousand patches of blue + smoke like swamp miasma. All was dull and desolate slag, with nowhere the + familiar serpentine forms of the old lava streams. In terrible contrast + with the volcanic evidences were strong cypresses and blooming camelias in + a neighboring cemetery. + </p> + <p> + “We ate a hasty luncheon before sunrise, when the great beauty of the + scene was revealed. The column now seemed higher and more massive, rising + to three times the height of Vesuvius. Each portion had a concentric + motion and new aspects. The south edges floating toward the sea showed + exquisite curved surfaces, due to the upper moving current. It was like + the decoration of the side of a great sarcophagus. As a yellow dust hangs + over Naples and hides the volcano, I count myself fortunate to have seen + all day from leeward this spectacle of changing, undiminishing beauty. + </p> + <p> + “The wedge of cultivated land ruined east of the volcano extended at least + ten miles, with a width of twenty or thirty miles. Fancy a rich and + thickly populated country of vineyards lying under three to six inches of + ashes and cinders of the color of chocolate with milk, while above, to the + west, the volcano in full activity is distributing to the outer edges of + the circle the same fate, and you will get an idea of the desolate + impression of the scene, a tragedy colossal and heartrending. Like that of + Calabria, it enlists the sympathy of the civilized world. It takes time + for such a calamity to be realized. + </p> + <p> + “Two miles below San Giuseppe we struck cinders which the soldiers were + shoveling, making a narrow road for the refugees. Our wagon driver begged + off from completing his contract to take us to San Giuseppe. We had not + the heart to insist, so the rest of the journey to the railway at Palma, + eight miles, was made laboriously on foot for three hours through sliding + cinders. + </p> + <p> + “In many places temporary shelters had been built by the roadside, like + children’s playhouses. Here women were huddled with their bedding, + awaiting the coming of supplies which the army had begun to distribute. + The men were largely occupied with shoveling cinders from the stronger + roofs and floors into heaps three to six feet deep along the roadside. + Many two-wheeled carts loaded with salvage, drawn by donkeys or pushed by + peasants, were making their way along, the women with bundles on their + heads or carrying poultry. + </p> + <p> + “In the square of San Giuseppe was an encampment of soldiers, with low + tents. Near a destroyed church, in coarse yellow linen shrouds, were the + bodies of thirty-three of the persons who there lost their lives. The + peasants were sad, but uncomplaining; in fact, for so excitable a people + they were wonderfully calm. As evidence of the thrift and self-respect of + these, we were not once asked for alms during the afternoon.” + </p> + <p> + THE KING AT THE FRONT. + </p> + <p> + The Italian Government did all it could at the moment to alleviate the + horrors of the situation, sending money to be expended in relief work and + dispatching high officials of the government to give aid and encouragement + by their presence. The King, Victor Emmanuel, and Queen Helene reached the + scene of destruction as early as possible and lent their personal + assistance to the work of rescue. + </p> + <p> + Obliged to leave his automobile, which could not move over the + cinder-choked road, the King went forward with difficulty on horseback, + the animal floundering through four feet of ashes, stumbling into holes, + and half blinded by the fall of dust and cinders. + </p> + <p> + “How did you escape?” he asked a priest whom he met in his journey. + </p> + <p> + “I put myself in safety,” was the reply. + </p> + <p> + “What do you mean?” asked the King. + </p> + <p> + “Realizing the danger, I left Nola.” + </p> + <p> + “What!” cried the King, with a flush of anger. “You, a minister of God, + were not here to share the danger of your people and administer the last + sacraments? You did very wrong and forgot your duty.” + </p> + <p> + Reaching Ottejano, the King did what he could to expedite the work of + rescue at that central point of disaster, more than a hundred dead bodies + being taken from the ruins in his presence. He stood with set pale face + watching the removal of the victims and directing the movement of the + workers. During his visit at the front he inspected the temporary camp + hospitals, in which the soldiers were caring for the injured and + suffering, speaking to the poor victims, giving them what comfort he + could, and asking what he could do to relieve their distress. Every + request or desire was received with sympathy and orders given to have it + fulfilled. + </p> + <p> + A pitiful scene took place when the King bent over a poor man, whose right + leg had been amputated, and asked what he could do to comfort and aid him + in his affliction. + </p> + <p> + “Send me my son, who is serving as a soldier,” said the maimed peasant. + </p> + <p> + The King, visibly affected, clasped the old man’s hand and exclaimed: + </p> + <p> + “My poor fellow! I can do much, but to grant your request would mean + breaking the laws, which I must be the first to respect. I would give + anything I have were it possible by so doing to send your son to you, but + I cannot do so.” + </p> + <p> + While the King was thus engaged at the scenes of desolation, Queen Helene + visited the charitable institutions at Naples and inspected the places + where the refugees were housed, doing what she could to improve conditions + and add to the comfort of the sufferers. The Princess of + Schleswig-Holstein, who was in Naples, made an automobile visit to the + afflicted towns, but the motor broke down, and she was forced to return on + foot, walking a distance of twelve miles through the ashes and displaying + a power of endurance that surprised the natives. + </p> + <p> + THE CANOPY OF DUST. + </p> + <p> + By Friday, April 13th, the eruption was practically at an end. Vesuvius + had spent itself in the enormous convulsion of the 7th and 8th and the + subsequent minor explosions and had returned to its normal state, ceasing + to give any signs of life, except the cloud of smoke which still rose from + its crater and spread like a thick curtain over and around the mountain. + Looked at from Naples, there was none of the familiar aspects of the + volcano, with its output of smoke and ashes by day and fiery gleam by + night. Now it lay buried in darkness and obscurity, clothed in a dense + pall of smoke. At Rome there was sunshine, but twenty miles south hung a + misty veil, and twenty-five miles above Naples a zone of semi-obscurity + began, blotting out the sun, whose light trickled through with a sickly + glare. Everything was whitened with powdery dust; pretty white villas were + daubed and dripping with mud, and people were busy shoveling the ashes + from their roofs. + </p> + <p> + The crowds at the stations resembled millers, their clothes flour covered; + the Campania presented the appearance of a Dakota prairie after a blizzard + of snow, though everything was gray instead of white. The ashes lay in + drifts knee deep. As the volcano was approached semi-night replaced the + day, the gloom being so deep that telegraph poles twenty feet away could + not be seen. Breathing was difficult, and the smoke made the eyes water. + At Naples, however, a favorable wind had cleared the air of smoke, the sun + shone brightly, and the versatile people were happy once more. The goggles + and eye-screens had disappeared, but the streets were anything but + comfortable, for some six thousand men were at work clearing the ashes + from the roofs and main streets and piling them in the middle of the + narrow streets, making the passage of vehicles very difficult and the + sidewalks far from comfortable for foot passengers. + </p> + <p> + But while brightness and joy reigned at Naples, there were gruesome scenes + within the volcanic zone. At Bosco Trecase soldiers carried on the work of + exhumation, being able to work only an hour at a time on account of the + advanced stage of decomposition of the bodies. Many of these were + shapeless, unrecognizable masses of flesh and bones, while others were + little disfigured. To lessen the danger of an epidemic the bodies were + buried as quickly as possible in quicklime. + </p> + <p> + On Sunday, the 15th, the searchers at Ottejano were surprised at finding + two aged women still alive, after six days’ entombment in the ruins. They + were among those who had been buried by the falling walls a week before. + The rafters of the house had protected them, and a few morsels of food in + their pockets aided to keep them alive. At some points there the ashes + were ten feet deep. At San Giuseppe bodies of women were found in whose + hands were coins and jewels, and one woman held a jewelled rosary. This + recalls the results of exploration at Herculaneum and Pompeii, where were + similar instances of death overtaking the victims of the volcano while + fleeing with their jewels in their hands. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to learn that two men stood heroically to their post of + duty during the whole scene of the explosion, Professor Matteucci, + Director of the Royal Observatory, and his American assistant, Professor + Frank A. Perret, of New York. Though the building occupied by them was + exposed to the full force of the rain of stones from the burning mountain, + they remained undauntedly at their post through that week of terror. On + the 14th some of that venturesome fraternity, the newspaper + correspondents, reached their eyrie on the highest habitable point on + Vesuvius and heard the story of their experiences. + </p> + <p> + THE HEROES OF THE OBSERVATORY. + </p> + <p> + For several days Professors Matteucci and Perret and their two servants + had been cut off from the outside world and bombarded by the volcano, + their rations consisting of bread, cheese and dried onions, until on + Friday a hardy guide was induced to push through to them with some + provisions. During the eruption the Professor had kept at his instruments, + taking observations day and night and making calculations in the midst of + the inferno. Roughly dressed, he looked like a Western cowboy after a hard + ride in a dust storm. The portico where he stood was knee deep in ashes, + and from the observatory terrace narrow paths had been cut through the + ashes, but as far as the eye could reach an ocean of ashes and twisted + rivers were alone visible, with Vesuvius rising grimly in the midst. The + great monster was enveloped in a cloak of white, as if buried under a + snowstorm, its surface being here and there slit with gulches in which + lava ran. At the bottom of one of those gulches lay the wrecked remnants + of the peninsular railway, a portion of its twisted cable protruding + through the ashes. As the correspondents ascended the mountain they were + surprised by the apparition of natives, men wrinkled with age, who emerged + from dugouts just below the observatory and offered them milk and eggs, + just as if they were ordinary visitors to the volcano. As they descended + they heard the sound of a mandolin from one of these dugouts. Evidently + Vesuvius had no terrors for these case-hardened veterans. + </p> + <p> + We have already told the story gleaned by the correspondents from the + daring scientists. Matteucci completed his record of boldness on Friday, + the 13th, by climbing to a point far above the observatory, at the + imminent risk of his life, to observe the conditions then existing. From + what he says he believed the end of the disturbance near, though he did + not venture to predict. As for the ashes, which a light wind was then + blowing in a direction away from Naples, he said: “The ill wind is now + blowing good to other places, for ashes are the best fertilizer it is + possible to use. It is merely a question just now of having too much of a + good thing.” + </p> + <p> + This is a fact so far as the volcanic ash is concerned. An examination of + the ashes a few days ago shows that they will prove an active and valuable + fertilizer. The fertile slopes of Vesuvius have ever been an allurement to + the vine-grower, four crops a year being a temptation no possible danger + could drive him from, and as soon as the mountain grows surely peaceful + after this eruption, we shall find its farmers risking again the chance of + its uncertain temper. But this is not the case with the land covered with + lava and cinders. Time for their disintegration is necessary before they + can be brought under cultivation, and this is a matter of years. After the + great eruption of 1871-72 the land covered with cinders did not bear crops + for seven years, and there is no reason that they will do so sooner on the + present occasion. So for years to come much of the volcanic soil must + remain a barren and desert void. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. + </h2> + <h3> + The Great Lisbon and Calabrian Earthquakes. + </h3> + <p> + To our account of the great earth convulsions of San Francisco it is in + place to append a description of some similar events of older date. It is + due to the same causes, whatever these causes may be, the imprisoned + forces within the earth acting over great distances during the earthquake, + while they are concentrated within some limited space when the volcano + begins its work. The earthquake is the most terrible to mankind of all the + natural agencies of destruction. While the volcano usually has a greater + permanent effect upon surface conditions, it is, as a rule, much less + destructive to human life, the earthquake often shaking down cities and + burying all their inhabitants in one common grave. Violent earthquakes are + also of far more frequent occurrence than destructive volcanic eruptions, + many hundreds of them having taken place during the historic period. + </p> + <p> + While the earthquake is only indirectly connected with the subject of our + work, it seems desirable to make some mention of it here, at least so far + as relates to those terrible convulsions whose destructiveness has given + them special prominence in the history of great disasters. Ancient notable + examples are those which threw down the famous Colossus of Rhodes and the + Pharos of Alexandria. The city of Antioch was a terrible sufferer from + this affliction, it having been devastated some time before the Christian + era, while in the year 859 more than 15,000 of its houses were destroyed. + Of countries subject to earthquakes, Japan has been an especial sufferer, + in some cases mountains or islands being elevated in association with + shocks; in others, great tracts of land being swallowed up by the sea. The + number of deaths in some of these instances was enormous. + </p> + <p> + Numerous thrilling examples of the destructive work of the earthquake at + various periods are on record. Of these we have given elsewhere a tabular + list of the more important, and shall confine ourselves to a few striking + examples of its destructive action. In the record of great earthquakes, + one of the most famous is that which in 1755 visited the city of Lisbon, + the capital of Portugal, and left that populous, place in ruin and dire + distress. It may be well to recall the details of this dire event to the + memories of our readers. + </p> + <p> + THE GREAT LISBON EARTHQUAKE + </p> + <p> + On the night of the 31st of October, 1755, the citizens of the fair city + of Lisbon lay down to sleep, in merciful ignorance of what was awaiting + them on the morrow. The morning of the 1st of November dawned, and gave no + sign of approaching calamity. The sun rose in its brightness, the warmth + was genial, the breezes gentle, the sky serene. It was All Saints’ Day—a + high festival of the Church of Rome. The sacred edifices were thronged + with eager crowds, and the ceremonies were in full progress, when the + assembled throngs were suddenly startled from their devotions. From the + ground beneath came fearful sounds that drowned the peal of the organ and + the voices of the choirs. These underground thunders having rolled away, + an awful silence ensued. The panic-stricken multitudes were paralyzed with + terror. Immediately after the ground began to heave with a long and gentle + swell, producing giddiness and faintness among the people. The tall piles + swayed to and fro, like willows in the wind. Shrieks of horror rose from + the terrified assembly. Again the earth heaved, and this time with a + longer and higher wave. Down came the ponderous arches, the stately + columns, the massive walls, the lofty spires, tumbling upon the heads of + priests and people. The graven images, the deified wafers, and they who + had knelt in adoration before them—the worshipped and the + worshippers alike—were in a moment buried under one + undistinguishable mass of horrible ruins. Only a few, who were near the + doors, escaped to tell the tale. + </p> + <p> + It fared no better with those who had remained in their dwellings. The + terrible earth-wave overthrew the larger number of the private houses in + the city, burying their inhabitants under the crumbling walls. Those who + were in the streets more generally escaped, though some there, too, were + killed by falling walls. + </p> + <p> + The sudden overthrow of so many buildings raised vast volumes of fine + dust, which filled the atmosphere and obscured the sun, producing a dense + gloom. The air was full of doleful sounds—the groans of agony from + the wounded and the dying, screams of despair from the horrified + survivors, wails of lamentation from the suddenly bereaved, dismal + howlings of dogs, and terrified cries of other animals. + </p> + <p> + In two or three minutes the clouds of dust fell to the ground, and + disclosed the scene of desolation which a few seconds had wrought. The + ruin, though general, was not universal. A considerable number of houses + were left standing—fortunately tenantless—for a third great + earth-wave traversed the city, and most of the buildings which had + withstood the previous shocks, already severely shaken, were entirely + overthrown. + </p> + <p> + WATER ADDS TO THE DESTRUCTION + </p> + <p> + The last disaster filled the surviving citizens with the impulse of + flight. The more fortunate of them ran in the direction of the open + country, and succeeded in saving their lives; but a great multitude rushed + down to the harbor, thinking to escape by sea. Here, however, they were + met by a new and unexpected peril. The tide, after first retreating for a + little, came rolling in with an immense wave, about fifty feet in height, + carrying with it ships, barges and boats, and dashing them in dire + confusion upon the crowded shore. Overwhelmed by this huge wave, great + numbers were, on its retreat, swept into the seething waters and drowned. + A vast throng took refuge on a fine new marble quay, but recently + completed, which had cost much labor and expense. This the sea-wave had + spared, sweeping harmless by. But, alas! it was only for a moment. The + vast structure itself, with the whole of its living burden, sank + instantaneously into an awful chasm which opened underneath. The mole and + all who were on it, the boats and barges moored to its sides, all of them + filled with people, were in a moment ingulfed. Not a single corpse, not a + shred of raiment, not a plank nor a splinter floated to the surface, and a + hundred fathoms of water covered the spot. To the first great sea-wave + several others succeeded, and the bay continued for a long time in a state + of tumultuous agitation. + </p> + <p> + About two hours after the first overthrow of the buildings, a new element + of destruction came into play. The fires in the ruined houses kindled the + timbers, and a mighty conflagration, urged by a violent wind, soon raged + among the ruins, consuming everything combustible, and completing the + wreck of the city. This fire, which lasted four days, was not altogether a + misfortune. It consumed the thousands of corpses which would otherwise + have tainted the air, adding pestilence to the other misfortunes of the + survivors. Yet they were threatened with an enemy not less appalling, for + famine stared them in the face. Almost everything eatable within the + precincts of the city had been consumed. A set of wretches, morever, who + had escaped from the ruins of the prisons, prowled among the rubbish of + the houses in search of plunder, so that whatever remained in the shape of + provisions fell into their hands and was speedily devoured. They also + broke into the houses that remained standing, and rifled them of their + contents. It is said that many of those who had been only injured by the + ruins, and might have escaped by being extricated, were ruthlessly + murdered by those merciless villains. + </p> + <p> + The total loss of life by this terrible catastrophe is estimated at 60,000 + persons, of whom about 40,000 perished at once, and the remainder died + afterwards of the injuries and privations they sustained. Twelve hundred + were buried in the ruins of the general hospital, eight hundred in those + of the civil prison, and several thousands in those of the convents. The + loss of property amounted to many millions sterling. + </p> + <p> + WIDE-SPREAD DESTRUCTION + </p> + <p> + Although the earth-wave traversed the whole city, the shock was felt more + severely in some quarters than in others. All the older part of the town, + called the Moorish quarter, was entirely overthrown; and of the newer + part, about seventy of the principal streets were ruined. Some buildings + that withstood the shocks were destroyed by fire. The cathedral, eighteen + parish churches, almost all the convents, the halls of the inquisition, + the royal residence, and several other fine palaces of the nobility and + mansions of the wealthy, the custom-houses, the warehouses filled with + merchandise, the public granaries filled with corn, and large timber + yards, with their stores of lumber, were either overthrown or burned. + </p> + <p> + The king and court were not in Lisbon at the time of this great disaster, + but were living in the neighborhood at the castle of Belem, which escaped + injury. The royal family, however, were so alarmed by the shocks, that + they passed the following night in carriages out of doors. None of the + officers of state were with them at the time. On the following morning the + king hastened to the ruined city, to see what could be done toward + restoring order, aiding the wounded, and providing food for the hungry. + </p> + <p> + The royal family and the members of the court exerted themselves to the + uttermost, the ladies devoting themselves to the preparation of lint and + bandages, and to nursing the wounded, the sick, and the dying, of whom the + numbers were overwhelming. Among the sufferers were men of quality and + once opulent citizens, who had been reduced in a moment to absolute + penury. The kitchens of the royal palace, which fortunately remained + standing, were used for the purpose of preparing food for the starving + multitudes. It is said that during the first two or three days a pound of + bread was worth an ounce of gold. One of the first measures of the + government was to buy up all the corn that could be obtained in the + neighborhood of Lisbon, and to sell it again at a moderate price, to those + who could afford to buy, distributing it gratis to those who had nothing + to pay. + </p> + <p> + For about a month afterward earthquake shocks continued, some of them + severe. It was several months before any of the citizens could summon + courage to begin rebuilding the city. But by degrees their confidence + returned. The earth had relapsed into repose, and they set about the task + of rebuilding with so much energy, that in ten years Lisbon again became + one of the most beautiful capitals of Europe. + </p> + <p> + CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LISBON EARTHQUAKE + </p> + <p> + The most distinguishing peculiarities of this earthquake were the + swallowing up of the mole, and the vast extent of the earth’s surface over + which the shocks were felt. Several of the highest mountains in Portugal + were violently shaken, and rent at their summits; huge masses falling from + them into the neighboring valleys. These great fractures gave rise to + immense volumes of dust, which at a distance were mistaken for smoke by + those who beheld them. Flames were also said to have been observed: but if + there were any such, they were probably electrical flashes produced by the + sudden rupture of the rocks. + </p> + <p> + The portion of the earth’s surface convulsed by this earthquake is + estimated by Humboldt to have been four times greater than the whole + extent of Europe. The shocks were felt not only over the Spanish + peninsula, but in Morocco and Algeria they were nearly as violent. At a + place about twenty-four miles from the city of Morocco, there is said to + have occurred a catastrophe much resembling what took place at the Lisbon + mole. A great fissure opened in the earth, and an entire village, with all + its inhabitants, upwards of 8,000 in number, were precipitated into the + gulf, which immediately closed over its prey. + </p> + <p> + EARTHQUAKES IN CALABRIA + </p> + <p> + Of the numerous other examples of destructive earthquakes which might be + chosen from Old World annals, it will not be amiss to append a brief + account of those which took place in Calabria, Italy, in 1783. These, + while less wide-spread in their influence, were much longer in duration + than the Lisbon cataclysm, since they continued, at intervals, from the + 5th of February until the end of the year. The shocks were felt all over + Sicily and as far north as Naples, but the area of severe convulsion was + comparatively limited, not exceeding five hundred square miles. + </p> + <p> + The centre of disturbance seems to have been under the town of Oppido in + the farther Calabria, and it extended in every direction from that spot to + a distance of about twenty-two miles, with such violence as to overthrow + every city, town and village lying within that circle. This ruin was + accomplished by the first shock on the 5th of February. The second, of + equal violence, on the 28th of March, was less destructive, only because + little or nothing had been left for it to overthrow. + </p> + <p> + At Oppido the motion was in the nature of a vertical upheaval of the + ground, which was accompanied by the opening of numerous large chasms, + into some of which many houses were ingulfed, the chasms closing over them + again almost immediately. The town itself was situated on the summit of a + hill, flanked by five steep and difficult slopes; it was so completely + overthrown by the first shock that scarcely a fragment of wall was left + standing. The hill itself was not thrown down, but a fort which commanded + the approach to the place was hurled into the gorge below. It was on the + flats immediately surrounding the site of the town and on the rising + grounds beyond them that the great fissures and chasms were opened. On the + slope of one of the hills opposite the town there appeared a vast chasm, + in which a large quantity of soil covered with vines and olive-trees was + engulfed. This chasm remained open after the shock, and was somewhat in + the form of an amphitheatre, 500 feet long and 200 feet in depth. + </p> + <p> + MOST CALAMITOUS OF THE LANDSLIPS + </p> + <p> + The most calamitous of the landslips occurred on the sea-coast of the + Straits of Messina, near the celebrated rock of Scilla, where huge masses + fell from the tall cliffs, overwhelming many villas and gardens. At Gian + Greco a continuous line of precipitous rocks, nearly a mile in length, + tumbled down. The aged Prince of Scilla, after the first great shock on + the 5th of February, persuaded many of his vassals to quit the dangerous + shore, and take refuge in the fishing boats—he himself showing the + example. That same night, however, while many of the people were asleep in + the boats, and others on a flat plain a little above the sea-level, + another powerful shock threw down from the neighboring Mount Jaci a great + mass, which fell with a dreadful crash, partly into the sea, and partly + upon the plain beneath. Immediately the sea rose to a height of twenty + feet above the level ground on which the people were stationed, and + rolling over it, swept away the whole multitude. This immense wave then + retired, but returned with still greater violence, bringing with it the + bodies of the men and animals it had previously swept away, dashing to + pieces the whole of the boats, drowning all that were in them, and wafting + the fragments far inland. The prince with 1,430 of his people perished by + this disaster. + </p> + <p> + It was on the north-eastern shore of Sicily, however, that the greatest + amount of damage was done. The first severe shock, on the 5th of February, + overthrew nearly the whole of the beautiful city of Messina, with great + loss of life. The shore for a considerable distance along the coast was + rent, and the ground along the port, which was before quite level, became + afterwards inclined towards the sea, the depth of the water having, at the + same time, increased in several parts, through the displacement of + portions of the bottom. The quay also subsided about fourteen inches below + the level of the sea, and the houses near it were much rent. But it was in + the city itself that the most terrible desolation was wrought—a + complication of disasters having followed the shock, more especially a + fierce conflagration, whose intensity was augmented by the large stores of + oil kept in the place. + </p> + <p> + IMMENSE DESTRUCTION + </p> + <p> + According to official reports made soon after the events, the destruction + caused by the earthquakes of the 5th of February and 28th of March + throughout the two Calabrias was immense. About 320 towns and villages + were entirely reduced to ruins, and about fifty others seriously damaged. + The loss of life was appalling—40,000 having perished by the + earthquakes, and 20,000 more having subsequently died from privation and + exposure, or from epidemic diseases bred by the stagnant pools and the + decaying carcases of men and animals. The greater number were buried amid + the ruins of the houses, while others perished in the fires that were + kindled in most of the towns, particularly in Oppido, where the flames + were fed by great magazines of oil. Not a few, especially among the + peasantry dwelling in the country, were suddenly engulfed in fissures. + Many who were only half buried in the ruins, and who might have been saved + had there been help at hand, were left to die a lingering death from cold + and hunger. Four Augustine monks at Terranuova perished thus miserably. + Having taken refuge in a vaulted sacristy, they were entombed in it alive + by the masses of rubbish, and lingered for four days, during which their + cries for help could be heard, till death put an end to their sufferings. + </p> + <p> + Of still more thrilling interest was the case of the Marchioness Spastara. + Having fainted at the moment of the first great shock, she was lifted by + her husband, who, bearing her in his arms, hurried with her to the harbor. + Here, on recovering her senses, she observed that her infant boy had been + left behind. Taking advantage of a moment when her husband was too much + occupied to notice her, she darted off and, running back to the house, + which was still standing, she snatched her babe from its cradle. Rushing + with him in her arms towards the staircase, she found the stair had fallen—cutting + off all further progress in that direction. She fled from room to room, + pursued by the falling materials, and at length reached a balcony as her + last refuge. Holding up her infant, she implored the few passers-by for + help; but they all, intent on securing their own safety, turned a deaf ear + to her cries. Meanwhile the mansion had caught fire, and before long the + balcony, with the devoted lady still grasping her darling, was hurled into + the devouring flames. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. + </h2> + <h3> + The Charleston and Other Earthquakes of the United States. + </h3> + <p> + The twin continents of America have rivalled the record of the Old World + in their experience of earthquakes since their discovery in 1492. The + first of these made note of was in Venezuela in 1530, but they have been + numerous and often disastrous since. Among them was the great shock at + Lima in 1746, by which 18,000 were killed, and those at Guatemala in 1773, + with 33,000, and at Riobamba in 1797, with 41,000 victims. It will, + however, doubtless prove of more interest to our readers if we pass over + these ruinous disasters and confine ourselves to the less destructive + earthquakes which have taken place within our own country. + </p> + <p> + The United States, large a section of North America as it occupies, is + fortunate in being in a great measure destitute of volcanic phenomena, + while destructive earthquakes have been very rare in its history. This, it + is true, does not apply to the United States as it is, but as it was. It + has annexed the volcano and the earthquake with its new accessions of + territory. Alaska has its volcanoes, the Philippines are subject to both + forms of convulsion, and in Hawaii we possess the most spectacular volcano + of the earth, while the earthquake is its common attendant. But in the + older United States the volcano contents itself with an occasional puff of + smoke, and eruptive phenomena are confined to the minor form of the + geyser. + </p> + <p> + We are by no means so free from the earthquake. Slight movements of the + earth’s surface are much more common than many of us imagine, and in the + history of our land there have been a number of earth shocks of + considerable violence. Prior to that of San Francisco, the most + destructive to life and property was that of Charleston in 1886, though + the 1812 convulsion in the Mississippi Valley might have proved a much + greater calamity but for the fact that civilized man had not then largely + invaded its centre of action. + </p> + <p> + As regards the number of earth movements in this country, we are told that + in New England alone 231 were recorded in two hundred and fifty years, + while doubtless many slighter ones were left unrecorded. Taking the whole + United States, there were 364 recorded in the twelve years from 1872 to + 1883, and in 1885 fifty-nine were recorded, more than two-thirds of them + being on the Pacific slope. Most of these, however, were very slight, some + of them barely perceptible. + </p> + <p> + Confining ourselves to those of the past important in their effects, we + shall first speak of the shocks which took place in New England in 1755, + in the year and month of the great earthquake at Lisbon. On the 18th of + November of that year, while the shocks at Lisbon still continued, New + England was violently shaken, loud underground explosive noises + accompanying the shocks. In the harbors along the Atlantic coast there was + much agitation of the waters and many dead fish were thrown up on the + shores. The shock, indeed, was felt far from the coast, by the crew of a + ship more than two hundred miles out at sea from Cape Ann, Massachusetts. + </p> + <p> + This event, however, was of minor importance, being much inferior to that + of 1812, in which year California and the Mississippi Valley alike were + affected by violent movements of the earth’s crust. The California + convulsions took place in the spring and summer of that year, extending + from the beginning of May until September. Throughout May the southern + portion of that region was violently agitated, the shocks being so + frequent and severe that people abandoned their houses and slept on the + open ground. The most destructive shocks came in September, when two + Mission houses were destroyed and many of their inmates killed. At Santa + Barbara a tidal wave invaded the coast and flowed some distance into the + interior. + </p> + <p> + It may be said here that California has proved more subject to severe + shocks than any other section of our country. In 1865 sharp tremors shook + the whole region about the Bay of San Francisco, many buildings being + thrown down. Hardly any of brick or stone escaped injury, though few lives + were lost. In 1872 a disturbance was felt farther west, the whole range of + the Sierra Nevada mountains being violently shaken and the earth + tremblings extending into the State of Nevada. The centre of activity was + along the crest of the range, and immense quantities of rock were thrown + down from the mountain pinnacles. A tremendous fissure opened along the + eastern base of the mountain range for forty miles, the land to the west + of the opening rising and that to the east sinking several feet. One small + settlement, that of Lone Pine, in Owen’s Valley, on the east base of the + mountains, was completely demolished, from twenty to thirty lives being + lost. Luckily, the region affected had very few inhabitants, or the + calamity might have been great. + </p> + <p> + The earthquakes of 1812 in the Mississippi Valley began in December, 1811, + and continued at intervals until 1813. As a rule they were more + distinguished by frequency than violence, though on several occasions they + were severe and had marked effects. They extended through the valleys of + the Mississippi, Arkansas and Ohio, and their long continuance was + remarkable in view of the territory affected being far from any volcanic + region. + </p> + <p> + The surface of the valley of the Mississippi was a good deal altered by + these convulsions—several new lakes being formed, while others were + drained. Several new islands were also raised in the river, and during one + of the shocks the ground a little below New Madrid was for a short time + lifted so high as to stop the current of the Mississippi, and cause it to + flow backward. The ground on which this town is built, and the bank of the + river for fifteen miles above it, subsided permanently about eight feet, + and the cemetery of the town fell into the river. In the neighboring + forest the trees were thrown into inclined positions in every direction, + and many of their trunks and branches were broken. It is affirmed that in + some places the ground swelled into great waves, which burst at their + summits and poured forth jets of water, along with sand and pieces of + coal, which were tossed as high as the tops of trees. On the subsidence of + these waves, there were left several hundreds of hollow depressions from + ten to thirty yards in diameter, and about twenty feet in depth, which + remained visible for many years afterward. Some of the shocks were + vertical, and others horizontal, the latter being the most mischievous. + These earthquakes resulted in the general subsidence of a large tract of + country, between seventy and eighty miles in length from north to south, + and about thirty miles in breadth from east to west. Lakes now mark many + of the localities affected by the earthquake movements. It is only to the + fact that this country was then very thinly settled that a great loss of + life was avoided. + </p> + <p> + New Madrid, Missouri, was a central point of this earthquake, the shocks + there being repeated with great frequency for several months. The + disturbance of the earth, however, was not confined to the United States, + but affected nearly half of the western hemisphere, ending in the upheaval + of Sabrina in the Azores, already described. The destruction of Caracas, + Venezuela, with many thousands of its inhabitants, and the eruption of La + Soufriere volcano of St. Vincent Island were incidents of this convulsion. + Dr. J. W. Foster tells us that on the night of the disaster at Caracas the + earthquake grew intense at New Madrid, fissures being opened six hundred + feet long by twenty broad, from which water and sand were flung to the + height of forty feet. + </p> + <p> + The most destructive of earthquakes in our former history was that which + visited Charleston, South Carolina, in 1886, the injury caused by it being + largely due to the fact that it passed through a populous city. As it + occurred after many of the people had retired, the confusion and terror + due to it were greatly augmented, people fleeing in panic fear from the + tumbling and cracking houses to seek refuge in the widest streets and open + spaces. + </p> + <p> + South Carolina had been affected by the wide-spread earthquakes of 1812. + These in some cases altered the level of the land, as is related in + Lyell’s “Principles of Geology.” But the effect then was much less than in + 1886. Several slight tremors occurred in the early summer of that year, + but did not excite much attention. More distinct shocks were felt on + August 27th and 28th, but the climax was deferred till the evening of + August 31st. The atmosphere that afternoon had been unusually sultry and + quiet, the breeze from the ocean, which generally accompanies the rising + tide, was almost entirely absent, and the setting sun caused a little glow + in the sky. + </p> + <p> + “As the hour of 9.50 was reached,” we are told, “there was suddenly heard + a rushing, roaring sound, compared by some to a train of cars at no great + distance, by others to a clatter produced by two or more omnibuses moving + at a rapid rate over a paved street, by others again, to an escape of + steam from a boiler. It was followed immediately by a thumping and beating + of the earth beneath the houses, which rocked and swayed to and fro. + Furniture was violently moved and dashed to the floor; pictures were swung + from the walls, and in some cases turned with their backs to the front, + and every movable thing was thrown into extraordinary convulsions. The + greatest intensity of the shock is considered to have been during the + first half, and it was probably then, during the period of its greatest + sway, that so many chimneys were broken off at the junction of the roof. + The duration of this severe shock is thought to have been from thirty-five + to forty seconds. The impression produced on many was that it could be + subdivided into three distinct movements, while others were of the opinion + that it was one continuous movement, or succession of waves, with the + greatest intensity, as already stated, during the first half of its + duration.” + </p> + <p> + Twenty-seven persons were killed outright, and more than that number died + soon after of their hurts or from exposure; many others were less + seriously injured. Among the buildings, the havoc, though much less + disastrous than has been recorded in some other earthquakes in either + hemisphere, was very great. “There was not a building in the city which + had escaped serious injury. The extent of the damage varied greatly, + ranging from total demolition down to the loss of chimney tops and the + dislodgment of more or less plastering. The number of buildings which were + completely demolished and levelled to the ground was not great; but there + were several hundreds which lost a large portion of their walls. There + were very many also which remained standing, but so badly shattered that + public safety required that they should be pulled down altogether. There + was not, so far as at present is known, a brick or stone building which + was not more or less cracked, and in most of them the cracks were a + permanent disfigurement and a source of danger and inconvenience.” In some + places the railway track was curiously distorted. “It was often displaced + laterally, and sometimes alternately depressed and elevated. Occasionally + several lateral flexures of double curvature and of great amount were + exhibited. Many hundred yards of track had been shoved bodily to the south + eastward.” + </p> + <p> + The ground was fissured at some places in the city to a depth of many + feet, and numerous “craterlets” were formed, from which sand was ejected + in considerable quantities. These are not uncommon phenomena, and were + due, no doubt, to the squirting of water out of saturated sandy layers not + far below the surface; these being squeezed between two less pervious beds + in the passage of the earthquake wave. The ejected material in the + Charleston earthquake was ordinary sand, such as might exist in many + districts which had been quite undisturbed by any concussions of the + earth. + </p> + <p> + Captain Dutton made a careful study of the observations collected by + himself and others concerning this earthquake, and came to the conclusion + that the Charleston wave traveled with unusual speed, for its mean + velocity was about 17,000 feet a second. The focus of the disturbance was + also ascertained. Apparently it was a double one, the two centres being + about thirteen miles apart, and the line joining them running nearly the + same distance to the west of Charleston. The approximate depth of the + principal focus is given as twelve miles, with a possible error of less + than two miles; that of the minor one as roughly eight miles. + </p> + <p> + The Charleston earthquake was felt as a tremor of more or less force + through a wide area, embracing 900,000 square miles, and affecting nearly + the whole country east of the Mississippi. It is said that the yield of + the Pennsylvania natural gas wells decreased, and that a geyser in the + Yellowstone valley burst into action after four years of rest. The + movement of the earth-wave was in general north and south, deflected to + east and west, and the snake-like fashion in which rails on the railroad + were bent indicated both a vertical and a lateral force. + </p> + <p> + This earthquake has been attributed to various causes, but geological + experts think that it was due to a slip in the crust along the Appalachian + Mountain chain. There is a line of weakness along the eastern slope of + this chain, characterized by fissures and faults, and it was thought that + a strain had been gradually brought to bear upon this through the removal + of earth from the land by rains and rivers and its deposition in thick + strata on the sea-bottom. It is supposed that this variation in weight in + time caused a yielding of the strata and a slip seaward of the great + coastal plain. Professor Mendenhall, however, thinks it was due to a + readjustment of the earth’s crust to its gradually sinking nucleus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. + </h2> + <h3> + The Volcano and the Earthquake, Earth’s Demons of Destruction. + </h3> + <p> + To most of us, dwellers upon the face of the earth, this terrestrial + sphere is quite a comfortable place of residence. The forces of Nature + everywhere and at all times surround us, forces capable, if loosened from + their bonds, of bringing death and destruction to man and the work of his + hands. But usually they are mild and beneficent in their action, not + agents of destruction and lords of elemental misrule. The air, without + whose presence we could not survive a minute, is usually a pleasant + companion, now resting about us in soft calm, now passing by in mild + breezes. The alternation of summer and winter is to us generally an + agreeable relief from the monotony of a uniform climate. The variation + from sunlight to cloud, from dry weather to rainfall, is equally viewed as + a pleasant escape from the weariness of too great fixity of natural + conditions. The change from day to night, from hours of activity to hours + of slumber, are other agreeable variations in the events of our daily + life. In short, a great pendulum seems to be swinging above us, held in + Nature’s kindly hand, and adapting its movements to our best good and + highest enjoyment. + </p> + <p> + But has Nature,—if we are justified in personifying the laws and + forces of the universe,—has mother Nature really our pleasure and + benefit in mind, or does she merely suffer us to enjoy life like so many + summer insects, until she is in the mood to sweep us like leaves from her + path? It must seem the latter to many of the inhabitants of the earth, + especially to the dwellers in certain ill-conditioned regions. For all the + beneficent powers above named may at a moment’s notice change to + destructive ones. + </p> + <p> + THE WIND IS A DEMON IN CHAINS + </p> + <p> + The wind, for instance, is a demon in chains. At times it breaks its + fetters and rushes on in mad fury, rending and destroying, and sweeping + such trifles as cities and those who dwell therein to common ruin. + Sunshine and rain are subject to like wild caprices. The sun may pour down + burning rays for weeks and months together, scorching the fertile fields, + drying up the life-giving streams, bringing famine and misery to lands of + plenty and comfort, almost making the blood to boil in our veins. Its + antithesis, the rainstorm, is at times a still more terrible visitant. + From the dense clouds pour frightful floods, rushing down the lofty hills, + sweeping over fertile plains, overflowing broad river valleys, and, + wherever they go, leaving terror and death in their path. We may say the + same of the alternation of the seasons. Summer, while looked forward to + with joyous anticipation, may bring us only suffering by its too ardent + grasp; and winter, often welcomed with like pleasurable anticipations, may + prove a period of terror from cold and destitution. + </p> + <p> + Such is the make-up of the world in which we live, such the vagaries of + the forces which surround us. But those enumerated are not the whole. Can + we say, with a stamp of the foot upon the solid earth, “Here at least I + have something I can trust; let the winds blow and the rains descend, let + the summer scorch and the winter chill, the good earth still stands firm + beneath me, and of it at least I am sure?” + </p> + <p> + Who says so speaks hastily and heedlessly, for the earth can show itself + as unstable as the air, and our solid footing become as insecure as the + deck of a ship laboring in a storm at sea. The powers of the atmosphere, + great as they are and mighty for destruction as they may become, are at + times surpassed by those which abide within the earth, deep laid in the + so-called everlasting rocks, slumbering often through generations, but at + any time likely to awaken in wrath, to lift the earth into quaking billows + like those of the sea, or pour forth torrents of liquid fire that flow in + glowing and burning rivers over leagues of ruined land. Such is the earth + with which we have to deal, such the ruthless powers of nature that spread + around us and lurk beneath us, such the terrific forces which only bide + their time to break forth and sweep too-confident man from the earth’s + smiling face. + </p> + <p> + THE SUBTERRANEAN POWERS + </p> + <p> + The subterranean powers here spoken of, those we had denominated earth’s + demons of destruction, are the volcano and the earthquake, the great + moulding forces of the earth, tearing down to rebuild, rending to + reconstitute, and in this elemental work often bringing ruin to man’s + boasted fanes and palaces. + </p> + <p> + No one who has ever seen a volcano or “burning mountain” casting forth + steam, huge red-hot stones, smoke, cinders and lava, can possibly forget + the grandeur of the spectacle. At night it is doubly terrible, when the + darkness shows the red-hot lava rolling in glowing streams down the + mountain’s side. At times, indeed, the volcano is quiet, and only a little + smoke curls from its top. Even this may cease, and the once burning summit + may be covered over with trees and grass, like any other hill. But deep + down in the earth the gases and pent-up steam, are ever preparing to force + their way upward through the mountain, and to carry with them dissolved + rocks, and the stones which block their passage. Sometimes, while all is + calm and beautiful on the mountains, suddenly deep-sounding noises are + heard, the ground shakes, and a vast torrent tears its way through the + bowels of the volcano, and is flung hundreds of feet high in the air, and, + falling again to the earth, destroys every living thing for miles around. + </p> + <p> + It is the same with the earthquake as with the volcano. The surface of the + earth is never quite still. Tremors are constantly passing onward which + can be distinguished by delicate instruments, but only rarely are these of + sufficient force to become noticeable, except by instrumental means. At + intervals, however, the power beneath the surface raises the ground in + long, billow-like motions, before which, when of violent character, no + edifice or human habitation can for a moment stand. The earth is + frequently rent asunder, great fissures and cavities being formed. The + course of rivers is changed and the waters are swallowed up by fissures + rent in the surface, while ruin impends in a thousand forms. The cities + become death pits and the cultivated fields are buried beneath floods of + liquid mud. Fortunately these convulsions, alike of the earthquake and + volcano, are comparative rarities and are confined to limited regions of + the earth’s surface. What do we know of those deep-lying powers, those + vast buried forces dwelling in uneasy isolation beneath our feet? With all + our science we are but a step beyond the ancients, to whom these were the + Titans, great rebel giants whom Jupiter overthrew and bound under the + burning mountains, and whose throes of agony shook the earth in quaking + convulsions. To us the volcanic crater is the mouth from which comes the + fiery breath of demon powers which dwell far down in the earth’s crust. + The Titans themselves were dwarfs beside these mighty agents of + destruction whose domain extends for thousands of miles beneath the + earth’s surface and which in their convulsions shake whole continents at + once. Such was the case in 1812, when the eruption of Mont Soufriere on + St. Vincent, as told in a later chapter, formed merely the closing event + in a series of earthquakes which had made themselves felt under thousands + of miles of land. + </p> + <p> + ANCIENT AWE OF VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + In olden times volcanoes were regarded with superstitious awe, and it + would have been considered highly impious to make any investigation of + their actions. We are told by Virgil that Mt. Etna marks the spot where + the gods in their anger buried Enceladus, one of the rebellious giants. To + our myth-making ancestors one of the volcanoes of the Mediterranean, set + on a small island of the Lipari group, was the workshop of Vulcan, the god + of fire, within whose depths he forged the thunderbolts of the gods. From + below came sounds as of a mighty hammer on a vast anvil. Through the + mountain vent came the black smoke and lurid glow from the fires of + Vulcan’s forge. This old myth is in many respects more consonant with the + facts of nature than myths usually are. In agreement with the theory of + its internal forces, the mountain in question was given the name of + Volcano. To-day it is scarcely known at all, but its name clings to all + the fire-breathing mountains of the earth. + </p> + <p> + As before said, at the present day we are little in advance of the + ancients in actual knowledge of what is going on so far beneath our feet. + We speak of forces where they spoke of fettered giants, but can only form + theories where they formed myths. Is the earth’s centre made up of liquid + fire? Does its rock crust resemble the thick ice crust on the Arctic Seas, + or is the earth, as later scientists believe, solid to the core? Is it + heated so fiercely, miles below our feet, that at every release of + pressure the solid rock bursts into molten lava? Is the steam from the + contact of underground rivers and deep-lying fires the origin of the + terrible rending powers of the volcano’s depths? Truly we can answer none + of these questions with assurance, and can only guess and conjecture from + the few facts open to us what lies concealed far beneath. + </p> + <p> + RARITY OF ANCIENT ACCOUNTS + </p> + <p> + In the history of earthquakes nothing is more remarkable than the extreme + fewness of those recorded before the beginning of the Christian era, in + comparison with those that have been registered since that time. It is to + be borne in mind, however, that before the birth of Christ only a small + portion of the globe was inhabited by those likely to make a record of + natural events. The vast apparent increase in the number of earthquakes in + recent times is owing to a greater knowledge of the earth’s surface and to + the spread of civilization over lands once inhabited by savages. The same + is to be said of volcanic eruptions, which also have apparently increased + greatly since the beginning of the Christian era. There may possibly have + been a natural increase in these phenomena, but this is hardly probable, + the change being more likely due to the increase in the number of + observers. + </p> + <p> + The structure of a volcano is very different from that of other mountains, + really consisting of layers of lava and volcanic ashes, alternating with + each other and all sloping away from the center. These elevations, in + fact, are formed in a different manner from ordinary mountains. The latter + have been uplifted by the influence of pressure in the interior of the + earth, but the volcano is an immediate result of the explosive force of + which we have spoken, the mountain being gradually built up by the lava + and other materials which it has flung up from below. In this way + mountains of immense height and remarkable regularity have been formed. + Mount Orizabo, near the City of Mexico, for instance, is a remarkably + regular cone, undoubtedly formed in this way, and the same may be said of + Mount Mayon, on the Island of Luzon. + </p> + <p> + In many cases the irregularity of the volcano is due to subsequent action + of its forces, which may blow the mountain itself to pieces. In the case + of Krakatoa, in the East Indies, for instance, the whole mountain was rent + into fragments, which were flung as dust miles high into the air. The main + point we wish to indicate is that volcanoes are never formed by ordinary + elevating forces and that they differ in this way from all other + mountains. On the contrary, they have been piled up like rubbish heaps, + resembling the small mountains of coal dust near the mouths of anthracite + mines. + </p> + <p> + It is to the burning heat of the earth’s crust and the influence of + pressure, and more largely to the influx of water to the molten rocks + which lie miles below the surface, that these convulsions of nature are + due. Water, on reaching these overheated strata, explodes into volumes of + steam, and if there is no free vent to the surface, it is apt to rend the + very mountain asunder in its efforts to escape. Such is supposed to have + been the case in the eruption of Krakatoa, and was probably the case also + in the recent case of Mt. Pelee. + </p> + <p> + GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ERUPTIONS + </p> + <p> + If we should seek to give a general description of volcanic eruptions, it + would be in some such words as follows: An eruption is usually preceded by + earthquakes which affect the whole surrounding country, and associated + with which are underground explosions that seem like the sound of distant + artillery. The mountain quivers with internal convulsions, due to the + efforts of its confined forces to find an opening. The drying up of wells + and disappearance of springs are apt to take place, the water sinking + downward through cracks newly made in the rocks. Finally the fierce + unchained energy rends an opening through the crater and an eruption + begins. It comes usually with a terrible burst that shakes the mountain to + its foundation; explosions following rapidly and with increasing violence, + while steam issues and mounts upward in a lofty column. The steam and + escaping gases in their fierce outbreaks hurl up into the air great + quantities of solid rock torn from the sides of the opening. The huge + blocks, meeting each other in their rise and fall, are gradually broken + and ground into minute fragments, forming dust or so-called ashes, often + of extreme fineness, and in such quantities as frequently to blot out the + light of the sun. There is another way in which a great deal of volcanic + dust is made; the lava is full of steam, which in its expansion tears the + molten rock into atoms, often converting it into the finest dust. + </p> + <p> + The eruption of Mt. Skaptar, in Iceland, in 1783, sent up such volumes of + dust that the atmosphere was loaded with it for months, and it was carried + to the northern part of Scotland, 600 miles away, in such quantities as to + destroy the crops. During the eruption of Tomboro, in the East Indies, in + 1815, so great was the quantity of dust thrown up that it caused darkness + at midday in Java 300 miles away and covered the ground to a depth of + several inches. Floating pumice formed a layer on the ocean surface two + and a half feet in thickness, through which vessels had difficulty in + forcing their way. + </p> + <p> + The steam which rises in large volumes into the air may become suddenly + condensed with the chill of the upper atmosphere and fall as rain, + torrents of which often follow an eruption. The rain, falling through the + clouds of volcanic dust, brings it to the earth as liquid mud, which pours + in thick streams down the sides of the mountain. The torrents of flowing + mud are sometimes on such a great scale that large towns, as in the + instance of the great city of Herculaneum, may be completely buried + beneath them. Over this city the mud accumulated to the depth of over 70 + feet. In addition to these phenomena, molten lava often flows from the lip + of the crater, occasionally in vast quantities. In the Icelandic eruption + of 1783 the lava streams were so great in quantity as to fill river gorges + 600 ft. deep and 200 ft. wide, and to extend over an open plain to a + distance of 12 to 15 miles, forming lakes of lava 100 feet deep. The + volcanoes of Hawaii often send forth streams of lava which cover an area + of over 100 square miles to a great depth. + </p> + <p> + GREAT OUTFLOWS OF LAVA + </p> + <p> + In the course of ages lava outflows of this kind have built up in Hawaii a + volcanic mountain estimated to contain enough material to cover the whole + of the United States with a layer of rock 50 feet deep. These great + outflows of lava are not confined to mountains, but take place now and + then from openings in the ground, or from long cracks in the surface + rocks. Occasionally great eruptions have taken place beneath the ocean’s + surface, throwing up material in sufficient quantity to form new islands. + </p> + <p> + The formation of mud is not confined to the method given, but great + quantities of this plastic material flow at times from volcanic craters. + In the year 1691 Imbaburu, one of the peaks of the Andes, sent out floods + of mud which contained dead fish in such abundance that their decay caused + a fever in the vicinity. The volcanoes of Java have often buried large + tracts of fertile country under volcanic mud. + </p> + <p> + An observation of volcanoes shows us that they have three well marked + phases of action. The first of these is the state of permanent eruption, + as in case of the volcano of Stromboli in the Mediterranean. This state is + not a dangerous one, since the steam, escaping continually, acts as a + safety valve. The second stage is one of milder activity with an + occasional somewhat violent eruption; this is apt to be dangerous, though + not often very greatly so. The safety valve is partly out of order. The + third phase is one in which long periods of repose, sometimes lasting for + centuries, are followed by eruptions of intense energy. These are often of + extreme violence and cause widespread destruction. In this case the safety + valve has failed to work and the boiler bursts. + </p> + <p> + OFTEN REST FOR LONG TERMS OF YEARS + </p> + <p> + Such are the general features of action in the vast powers which dwell + deep beneath the surface, harmless in most parts of the earth, frightfully + perilous in others. Yet even here they often rest for long terms of years + in seeming apathy, until men gather above their lurking places in + multitudes, heedless or ignorant of the sleeping demons that bide their + time below. Their time is sure to come, after years, perhaps after + centuries. Suddenly the solid earth begins to tremble and quake; roars as + of one of the buried giants of old strike all men with dread; then, with a + fierce convulsion, a mountain is rent in twain and vast torrents of steam, + burning rock, and blinding dust are hurled far upward into the air, to + fall again and bury cities, perhaps, with all their inhabitants in + indiscriminate ruin and death. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. + </h2> + <h3> + Theories of Volcanic and Earthquake Action. + </h3> + <p> + Though the first formation of a volcano (Italian, vulcano, from Vulcan, + the Roman god of fire) has seldom been witnessed, it would seem that it is + marked by earthquake movements followed by the opening of a rent or + fissure; but with no such tilting up of the rocks as was once supposed to + take place. From this fissure large volumes of steam issue, accompanied by + hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrochloric acid, and sulphur + dioxide. The hydrogen, apparently derived from the dissociation of water + at a high temperature, flashes explosively into union with atmospheric + oxygen, and, having exerted its explosive force, the steam condenses into + cloud, heavy masses of which overhang the volcano, pouring down copious + rains. This naturally disturbs the electrical condition of the atmosphere, + so that thunder and lightning are frequent accompaniments of an eruption. + The hydrochloric acid probably points to the agency of sea-water. Besides + the gases just mentioned, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia and common salt + occur; but mainly as secondary products, formed by the union of the vapors + issuing from the volcano, and commonly found also in the vapors rising + from cooling lava streams or dormant volcanic districts. It is important + to notice that the vapors issue from the volcano spasmodically, explosions + succeeding each other with great rapidity and noise. + </p> + <p> + All substances thrown out by the volcano, whether gaseous, liquid or + solid, are conveniently united under the term ejectamenta (Latin, things + thrown out), and all of them are in an intensely heated, if not an + incandescent state. Most of the gases are incombustible, but the hydrogen + and those containing sulphur burn with a true flame, perhaps rendered more + visible by the presence of solid particles. Much of the so-called flame, + however, in popular descriptions of eruptions is an error of observation + due to the red-hot solid particles and the reflection of the glowing + orifice on the over-hanging clouds. + </p> + <p> + ENORMOUS FORCE DISPLAYED + </p> + <p> + Solid bodies are thrown into the air with enormous force and to + proportionally great heights, those not projected vertically falling in + consequence at considerable distances from the volcano. A block weighing + 200 tons is said to have been thrown nine miles by Cotopaxi; masses of + rock weighing as much as twenty tons to have been ejected by Mount Ararat + in 1840; and stones to have been hurled to a distance of thirty-six miles + in other cases. The solid matter thrown out by volcanoes consists of + lapilli, scoriae, dust and bombs. + </p> + <p> + Though on the first formation of the volcano, masses of non-volcanic rock + may be torn from the chimney or pipe of the mountain, only slightly fused + externally owing to the bad conducting power of most rocks, and hurled to + a distance; and though at the beginning of a subsequent eruption the solid + plug of rock which has cooled at the bottom of the crater, or, in fact, + any part of the volcano, may be similarly blown up, the bulk of the solid + particles of which the volcano itself is composed is derived from the lake + of lava or molten rock which seethes at the orifice. Solid pieces rent + from this fused mass and cast up by the explosive force of the steam with + which the lava is saturated are known as lapilli. Cooling rapidly so as to + be glassy in texture externally, these often have time to become perfectly + crystalline within. + </p> + <p> + Gases and steam escaping from other similar masses may leave them hollow, + when they are termed bombs, or may pit their surfaces with irregular + bubble-cavities, when they are called scoriae or scoriaceous. Such masses + whirling through the air in a plastic state often become more or less + oblately spheroidal in form; but, as often, the explosive force of their + contained vapors shatters them into fragments, producing quantities of the + finest volcanic dust or sand. This fine dust darkens the clouds + overhanging the mountain, mixes with the condensed steam to fall as a + black mud-rain, or lava di aqua (Italian, water lava), or is carried up to + enormous heights, and then slowly diffused by upper currents of the + atmosphere. In the eruption of Vesuvius of A.D. 79, the air was dark as + midnight for twelve or fifteen miles round; the city of Pompeii was buried + beneath a deposit of dry scoriae, or ashes and dust, and Herculaneum + beneath a layer of the mud-like lava di aqua, which on drying sets into a + compact rock. Rocks formed from these fragmentary volcanic materials are + known as tuff. + </p> + <p> + VOLCANIC CONES HAVE SIMILAR CURVATURES + </p> + <p> + It is entirely of these cindery fragments heaped up with marvellous + rapidity round the orifice that the volcano itself is first formed. It + may, as in the case of Jorullo in Mexico in 1759, form a cone several + hundred feet high in less than a day. Such a cone may have a slope as + steep as 30 or 40 degrees, its incline in all cases depending simply on + the angle of repose of its materials; the inclination, that is, at which + they stop rolling. The great volcanoes of the Andes, which are formed + mainly of ash, are very steep. Owing to a general similarity in their + materials, volcanic cones in all parts of the world have very similar + curvatures; but older volcanic mountains, in which lava-streams have + broken through the cone, secondary cones have arisen, or portions have + been blown up, are more irregular in outline and more gradual in + inclination. + </p> + <p> + In size, volcanoes vary from mere mounds a few yards in diameter, such as + the salses or mud volcanoes near the Caspian, to Etna, 10,800 feet high, + with a base 30 miles in diameter; Cotopaxi, in the Andes, 18,887 feet + high; or Mauna Loa, in the Sandwich Isles, 13,700 feet high; with a base + 70 miles in diameter, and two craters, one of which, Kilauea, the largest + active crater on our earth, is seven miles in circuit. Larger extinct + craters occur in Japan; but all our terrestrial volcanic mountains are + dwarfed by those observed on the surface of the moon, which, owing to its + smaller size, has cooled more rapidly than our earth. It is, of course, + the explosive force from below which keeps the crater clear, as a + cup-shaped hollow, truncating the cone; and all stones falling into it + would be only thrown out again. It may at the close of an eruption cool + down so completely that a lake can form within it, such as Lake Averno, + near Naples; or it may long remain a seething sea of lava, such as + Kilauea; or the lava may find one or more outlets from it, either by + welling over its rim, which it will then generally break down, as in many + of the small extinct volcanoes (“puys”) of Auvergne, or more usually by + bursting through the sides of the cone. + </p> + <p> + LAVA VARIES VERY MUCH IN LIQUIDITY + </p> + <p> + It is not generally until the volcano has exhausted its first explosive + force that lava begins to issue. Several streams may issue in different + directions. Their dimensions are sometimes enormous. Lava varies very much + in liquidity and in the rate at which it flows. This much depends, + however, upon the slope it has to traverse. A lava stream at Vesuvius ran + three miles in four minutes, but took three hours to flow the next three + miles, while a stream from Mauna Loa ran eighteen miles in two hours. + Glowing at first as a white-hot liquid, the lava soon cools at the surface + to red and then to black; cinder-like scoriaceous masses form on its + surface and in front of the slowly-advancing mass; clouds of steam and + other vapor rise from it, and little cones are thrown up from its surface; + but many years may elapse before the mass is cooled through. Thus, while + the surface is glassy, the interior becomes crystalline. + </p> + <p> + As to what are the causes of the great convulsions of nature known as the + volcano and the earthquake we know very little. Various theories have been + advanced, but nothing by any means sure has been discovered, and + considerable difference of opinion exists. In truth we know so little + concerning the conditions existing in the earth’s interior that any views + concerning the forces at work there must necessarily be largely + conjectural. + </p> + <p> + Sir Robert S. Ball says, in this connection: “Let us take, for instance, + that primary question in terrestrial physics, as to whether the interior + of the earth is liquid or solid. If we were to judge merely from the + temperatures reasonably believed to exist at a depth of some twenty miles, + and if we might overlook the question of pressure, we should certainly say + that the earth’s interior must be in a fluid state. It seems at least + certain that the temperatures to be found at depths of two score miles, + and still more at greater depths, must be so high that the most refractory + solids, whether metals or minerals, would at once yield if we could + subject them to such temperatures in our laboratories. But none of our + laboratory experiments can tell us whether, under the pressure of + thousands of tons on the square inch, the application of any heat whatever + would be adequate to transform solids into liquids. It may, indeed, be + reasonably doubted whether the terms solid and liquid are applicable, in + the sense in which we understand them, to the materials forming the + interior of the earth. + </p> + <p> + “A principle, already well known in the arts, is that many, if not all, + solids may be made to flow like liquids if only adequate pressure be + applied. The making of lead tubes is a well-known practical illustration + of this principle, for these tubes are formed simply by forcing solid lead + by the hydraulic press through a mould which imparts the desired shape. + </p> + <p> + “If then a solid can be made to behave like a liquid, even with such + pressures as are within our control, how are we to suppose that the solids + would behave with such pressures as those to which they are subjected in + the interior of the earth? The fact is that the terms solid and liquid, at + least as we understand them, appear to have no physical meaning with + regard to bodies subjected to these stupendous pressures, and this must be + carefully borne in mind when we are discussing the nature of the interior + of the earth.” + </p> + <p> + THE VOLCANO A SAFETY VALVE + </p> + <p> + Whatever be the state of affairs in the depths of the earth’s crust, we + may look upon the volcano as a sort of safety-valve, opening a passage for + the pent-up forces to the surface, and thus relieving the earth from the + terrible effects of the earthquake, through which these imprisoned powers + so often make themselves felt. Without the volcanic vent there might be no + safety for man on the earth’s unquiet face. + </p> + <p> + Professor J. C. Russell, of Michigan University, presents the following + views concerning the status and action of volcanoes:— + </p> + <p> + “When reduced to its simplest terms, a volcano may be defined as a tube, + or conduit, in the earth’s crust, through which the molten rock is forced + to the surface. The conduit penetrates the cool and rigid rocks forming + the superficial portion of the earth, and reaches its highly heated + interior. + </p> + <p> + “The length of volcanic conduits can only be conjectured, but, judging + from the approximately known rate of increase of heat with depth (on an + average one degree Fahrenheit for each sixty feet), and the temperature at + which volcanic rocks melt (from 2,300 to 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit, when + not under pressure), they must seemingly have a depth of at least twenty + miles. There are other factors to be considered, but in general terms it + is safe to assume that the conduits of volcanoes are irregular openings, + many miles in depth, which furnish passageways for molten rock (lava) from + the highly-heated sub-crust portion of the earth to its surface. . . .” + </p> + <p> + ERUPTIONS OF QUIET TYPE + </p> + <p> + “During eruptions of the quiet type, the lava comes to the surface in a + highly liquid condition—that is, it is thoroughly fused, and flows + with almost the freedom of water. It spreads widely, even on a nearly + level plain, and may form a comparatively thin sheet several hundred + square miles in area, as has been observed in Iceland and Hawaii. On the + Snake River plains, in Southern Idaho, there are sheets of once molten + rock which were poured out in the manner just stated, some four hundred + square miles in area and not over seventy-five feet in average thickness. + When an eruption of highly liquid lava occurs in a mountainous region, the + molten rock may cascade down deep slopes and flow through narrow valleys + for fifty miles or more before becoming chilled sufficiently to arrest its + progress. Instances are abundant where quiet eruptions have occurred in + the midst of a plain, and built up ‘lava cones,’ or low mounds, with + immensely expanded bases. Illustrations are furnished in Southern Idaho, + in which the cones formed are only three hundred or four hundred feet + high, but have a breadth at the base of eight or ten miles. In the class + of eruption illustrated by these examples, there is an absence of + fragmental material, such as explosive volcanoes hurl into the air, and a + person may stand within a few yards of a rushing stream of molten rock, or + examine closely the opening from which it is being poured out, without + danger or serious inconvenience. + </p> + <p> + “The quiet volcanic eruptions are attended by the escape of steam or gases + from the molten rock, but the lava being in a highly liquid state, the + steam and gases dissolved in it escape quietly and without explosions. If, + however, the molten rock is less completely fluid, or in a viscous + condition, the vapors and gases contained in it find difficulty in + escaping, and may be retained until, becoming concentrated in large + volume, they break their way to the surface, producing violent explosions. + Volcanoes in which the lava extruded is viscous, and the escape of steam + and gases is retarded until the pent-up energy bursts all bounds, are of + the explosive, type. One characteristic example is Vesuvius. + </p> + <p> + “When steam escapes from the summit of a volcanic conduit—which, in + plain terms, is a tall vessel filled with intensely hot and more or less + viscous liquid—masses of the liquid rock are blown into the air, and + on falling build up a rim or crater about the place of discharge. Commonly + the lava in the summit portion of a conduit becomes chilled and perhaps + hardened, and when a steam explosion occurs this crust is shattered and + the fragments hurled into the air and contributed to the building of the + walls of the inclosing crater. + </p> + <p> + “The solid rock blown out by volcanoes consists usually of highly + vesicular material which hardened on the surface of the column of lava + within a conduit and was shattered by explosions beneath it. These + fragments vary in size from dust particles up to masses several feet in + diameter, and during violent eruptions are hurled miles high. The larger + fragments commonly fall near their place of origin, and usually furnish + the principal part of the material of which craters are built, but the + gravel-like kernels, lapilli, may be carried laterally several miles if a + wind is blowing, while the dust is frequently showered down on thousands + of square miles of land and sea. The solid and usually angular fragments + manufactured in this manner vary in temperature, and may still be red hot + on falling. + </p> + <p> + “Volcanoes of the explosive type not uncommonly discharge streams of lava, + which may flow many miles. In certain instances these outwellings of + liquid rock occur after severe earthquakes and violent explosions, and may + have all the characteristics of quiet eruptions. There is thus no + fundamental difference between the two types into which it is convenient + to divide volcanoes.” + </p> + <p> + MOUNTAINS BLOW THEIR HEADS OFF + </p> + <p> + “In extreme examples of explosive volcanoes, the summit portion of a + crater, perhaps several miles in circumference and several thousand feet + high, is blown away. Such an occurrence is recorded in the case of the + volcano Coseguina, Nicaragua, in 1835. Or, an entire mountain may + disappear, being reduced to lapilli and dust and blown into the air, as in + the case of Krakatoa, in the Straits of Sunda, in 1883. + </p> + <p> + “The essential feature of a volcano, as stated above, is a tube or + conduit, leading from the highly heated sub-crust portion of the earth to + the crater and through which molten rock is forced upward to the surface. + The most marked variations in the process depend on the quantity of molten + rock extruded, and on the freedom of escape of the steam and gases + contained in the lava. + </p> + <p> + “The cause of the rise of the molten rock in a volcano is still a matter + for discussion. Certain geologists contend that steam is the sole motive + power; while others consider that the lava is forced to the surface owing + to pressure on the reservoir from which it comes. The view perhaps most + favorably entertained at present, in reference to the general nature of + volcanic eruptions, is that the rigid outer portion of the earth becomes + fractured, owing principally to movements resulting from the shrinking of + the cooling inner mass, and that the intensely hot material reached by the + fissures, previously solid owing to pressure, becomes liquid when pressure + is relieved, and is forced to the surface. As the molten material rises it + invades the water-charged rocks near the surface and acquires steam, or + the gases resulting from the decomposition of water, and a new force is + added which produces the most conspicuous and at times the most terrible + phenomena accompanying eruptions.” + </p> + <p> + The active agency of water is strongly maintained by many geologists, and + certainly gains support from the vast clouds of steam given off by + volcanoes in eruption and the steady and quiet emission of steam from many + in a state of rest. The quantities of water in the liquid state, to which + is due the frequent enormous outflows of mud, leads to the same + conclusion. Many scientists, indeed, while admitting the agency of water, + look upon this as the aqueous material originally pent up within the + rocks. For instance Professor Shaler, dean of the Lawrence Scientific + School, says: + </p> + <p> + “Volcanic outbreaks are merely the explosion of steam under high pressure, + steam which is bound in rocks buried underneath the surface of the earth + and there subjected to such tremendous heat that when the conditions are + right its pent-up energy breaks forth and it shatters its stone prison + walls into dust. The process by which the water becomes buried in this + manner is a long one. Some contend that it leaks down from the surface of + the earth through fissures in the outer crust, but this theory is not + generally accepted. The common belief is that water enters the rocks + during the crystalization period, and that these rocks through the natural + action of rivers and streams become deposited in the bottom of the ocean. + Here they lie for many ages, becoming buried deeper and deeper under + masses of like sediment, which are constantly being washed down upon them + from above. This process is called the blanketing process. + </p> + <p> + “Each additional layer of sediment, while not raising the level of the sea + bottom, buries the first layers just so much the deeper and adds to their + temperature just as does the laying of extra blankets on a bed. When the + first layer has reached a depth of a few thousand feet the rocks which + contain the water of crystalization are subjected to a terrific heat. This + heat generates steam, which is held in a state of frightful tension in its + rocky prison. Wrinklings in the outer crust of the earth’s surface occur, + caused by the constant shrinking of the earth itself and by the + contraction of the outer surface as it settles on the plastic centers + underneath. Fissures are caused by these foldings, and as these fissures + reach down into the earth the pressure is removed from the rocks and the + compressed steam in them, being released, explodes with tremendous force.” + </p> + <p> + This view is, very probably, applicable to many cases, and the exceedingly + fine dust which so often rises from volcanoes has, doubtless, for one of + its causes the sudden and explosive conversion of water into steam in the + interior of ejected lava, thus rending it into innumerable fragments. But + that this is the sole mode of action of water in volcanic eruptions is + very questionable. It certainly does not agree with the immense volumes at + times thrown out, while explosions of such extreme intensity as that of + Krakatoa very strongly lead to the conclusion that a great mass of water + has made its way through newly opened fissures to the level of molten + rock, and exploded into steam with a suddenness which gave it the rending + force of dynamite or the other powerful chemical explosives. + </p> + <p> + As the earthquake is so intimately associated with the volcano the causes + of the latter are in great measure the causes of the former, and the + forces at work frequently produce a more or less violent quaking of the + earth’s surface before they succeed in opening a channel of escape through + the mountain’s heart. One agency of great potency, and one whose work + never ceases, has doubtless much to do with earthquake action. In the + description of this we cannot do better than to quote from “The Earth’s + Beginning” of Sir Robert S. Ball. + </p> + <p> + CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES + </p> + <p> + “As to the immediate cause of earthquakes there is no doubt considerable + difference of opinion. But I think it will not be doubted that an + earthquake is one of the consequences, though perhaps a remote one, of the + gradual loss of internal heat from the earth. As this terrestrial heat is + gradually declining, it follows from the law that we have already so often + had occasion to use that the bulk of the earth must be shrinking. No doubt + the diminution in the earth’s diameter due to the loss of heat must be + exceedingly small, even in a long period of time. The cause, however, is + continually in operation, and, accordingly, the crust of the earth has + from time to time to be accommodated to the fact that the whole globe is + lessening. The circumference of our earth at the equator must be gradually + declining; a certain length in that circumference is lost each year. We + may admit that loss to be a quantity far too small to be measured by any + observations as yet obtainable, but, nevertheless, it is productive of + phenomena so important that it cannot be overlooked. + </p> + <p> + “It follows from these considerations that the rocks which form the + earth’s crust over the surface of the continents and the islands, or + beneath the bed of the ocean, must have a lessening acreage year by year. + These rocks must therefore submit to compression, either continuously or + from time to time, and the necessary yielding of the rocks will in general + take place in those regions where the materials of the earth’s crust + happen to have comparatively small powers of resistance. The acts of + compression will often, and perhaps generally, not proceed with + uniformity, but rather with small successive shifts, and even though the + displacements of the rocks in these shifts be actually very small, yet the + pressures to which the rocks are subjected are so vast that a very small + shift may correspond to a very great terrestrial disturbance. + </p> + <p> + “Suppose, for instance, that there is a slight shift in the rocks on each + side of a crack, or fault, at a depth of ten miles. It must be remembered + that the pressure ten miles down would be about thirty-five tons to the + square inch. Even a slight displacement of one extensive surface over + another, the sides being pressed together with a force of thirty-five tons + on the square inch, would be an operation necessarily accompanied by + violence greatly exceeding that which we might expect from so small a + displacement if the forces concerned had been of more ordinary magnitude. + On account of this great multiplication of the intensity of the + phenomenon, merely a small rearrangement of the rocks in the crust of the + earth, in pursuance of the necessary work of accommodating its volume to + the perpetual shrinkage, might produce an excessively violent shock, + extending far and wide. The effect of such a shock would be propagated in + the form of waves through the globe, just as a violent blow given at one + end of a bar of iron by a hammer is propagated through the bar in the form + of waves. When the effect of this internal adjustment reaches the earth’s + surface it will sometimes be great enough to be perceptible in the shaking + it gives that surface. The shaking may be so violent that buildings may + not be able to withstand it. Such is the phenomenon of an earthquake. + </p> + <p> + “When the earth is shaken by one of those occasional adjustments of the + crust which I have described, the wave that spreads like a pulsation from + the centre of agitation extends all over our globe and is transmitted + right through it. At the surface lying immediately over the centre of + disturbance there will be a violent shock. In the surrounding country, and + often over great distances, the earthquake may also be powerful enough to + produce destructive effects. The convulsion may also be manifested over a + far larger area of country in a way which makes the shock to be felt, + though the damage wrought may not be appreciable. But beyond a limited + distance from the centre of the agitation the earthquake will produce no + destructive effects upon buildings, and will not even cause vibrations + that would be appreciable to ordinary observation.” + </p> + <p> + THE RADIUS OF DISTURBANCE. + </p> + <p> + “In each locality in which earthquakes are chronic it would seem as if + there must be a particularly weak spot in the earth some miles below the + surface. A shrinkage of the earth, in the course of the incessant + adjustment between the interior and the exterior, will take place by + occasional little jumps at this particular centre. The fact that there is + this weak spot at which small adjustments are possible may provide, as it + were, a safety-valve for other places in the same part of the world. + Instead of a general shrinking, the materials would be sufficiently + elastic and flexible to allow the shrinking for a very large area to be + done at this particular locality. In this way we may explain the fact that + immense tracts on the earth are practically free from earthquakes of a + serious character, while in the less fortunate regions the earthquakes are + more or less perennial. + </p> + <p> + “Now, suppose an earthquake takes place in Japan, it originates a series + of vibrations through our globe. We must here distinguish between the + rocks—I might almost say the comparatively pliant rocks—which + form the earth’s crust, and those which form the intensely rigid core of + the interior of our globe. The vibrations which carry the tidings of the + earthquake spread through the rocks on the surface, from the centre of the + disturbance, in gradually enlarging circles. We may liken the spread of + these vibrations to the ripples in a pool of water which diverge from the + spot where a raindrop has fallen. The vibrations transmitted by the rocks + on the surface, or on the floor of the ocean, will carry the message all + over the earth. As these rocks are flexible, at all events by comparison + with the earth’s interior, the vibrations will be correspondingly large, + and will travel with vigor over land and under sea. In due time they + reach, say the Isle of Wight, where they set the pencil of the seismometer + at work. But there are different ways round the earth from Japan to the + Isle of Wight, the most direct route being across Asia and Europe; the + other route across the Pacific, America, and the Atlantic. The vibrations + will travel by both routes, and the former is the shorter of the two.” + </p> + <p> + TRANSMISSIONS OF VIBRATIONS + </p> + <p> + Some brief repetition may not here be amiss as to the products of volcanic + action, of which so much has been said in the preceding pages, especially + as many of the terms are to some extent technical in character. The most + abundant of these substances is steam or water-gas, which, as we have + seen, issues in prodigious quantities during every eruption. But with the + steam a great number of other volatile materials frequently make their + appearance. Though we have named a number of these at the beginning of + this chapter, it will not be out of order to repeat them here. The chief + among these are the acid gases known as hydrochloric acid, sulphurous + acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, and boracic acid; and with + these acid gases there issue hydrogen, nitrogen ammonia, the volatile + metals arsenic, antimony, and mercury, and some other substances. These + volatile substances react upon one another, and many new compounds are + thus formed. By the action of sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen on + each other, the sulphur so common in volcanic districts is separated and + deposited. The hydrochloric acid acts very energetically on the rocks + around the vents, uniting with the iron in them to form the yellow + ferric-chloride, which often coats the rocks round the vent and is usually + mistaken by casual observers for sulphur. + </p> + <p> + Some of the substances emitted by volcanic vents, such as hydrogen and + sulphuretted hydrogen, are inflammable, and when they issue at a high + temperature these gases burst into flame the moment that they come into + contact with the air. Hence, when volcanic fissures are watched at night, + faint lambent flames are frequently seen playing over them, and sometimes + these flames are brilliantly colored, through the presence of small + quantities of certain metallic oxides. Such volcanic flames, however, are + scarcely ever strongly luminous, and the red, glowing light which is + observed over volcanic mountains in eruption is due to quite another + cause. What is usually taken for flame during a volcanic eruption is + simply, as we have before stated, the glowing light of the surface of a + mass of red-hot lava reflected from the cloud of vapor and dust in the + air, much as the lights of a city are reflected from the water vapor of + the atmosphere during a night of fog. + </p> + <p> + Besides the volatile substances which issue from volcanic vents, mingling + with the atmosphere or condensing upon their sides, there are many solid + materials ejected, and these may accumulate around the orifice’s till they + build up mountains of vast dimensions, like Etna, Teneriffe, and + Chimborazo. Some of these solid materials are evidently fragments of the + rock-masses, through which the volcanic fissure has been rent; these + fragments have been carried upwards by the force of the steam-blast and + scattered over the sides of the volcano. But the principal portion of the + solid materials ejected from volcanic orifices consists of matter which + has been extruded from sources far beneath the surface, in highly-heated + and fluid or semi-fluid condition. + </p> + <p> + It is to these materials that the name of “lavas” is properly applied. + Lavas present a general resemblance to the slags and clinkers which are + formed in our furnaces and brick-kilns, and consist, like them, of various + stony substances which have been more or less perfectly fused. When we + come to study the chemical composition and the microscopical structure of + lavas, however, we shall find that there are many respects in which they + differ entirely from these artificial products, they consisting chiefly of + felspar, or of this substance in association with augite or hornblende. In + texture they may be stony, glassy, resin-like, vesicular or cellular and + light in weight, as in the case of pumice or scoria. + </p> + <p> + FLOATING PUMICE + </p> + <p> + The steam and other gases rising through liquid lava are apt to produce + bubbles, yielding a surface froth or foam. This froth varies greatly in + character according to the nature of the material from which it is formed. + In the majority of cases the lavas consist of a mass of crystals floating + in a liquid magma, and the distension of such a mass by the escape of + steam from its midst gives rise to the formation of the rough + cindery-looking material to which the name of “scoria” is applied. But + when the lava contains no ready-formed crystals, but consists entirely of + a glassy substance in a more or less perfect state of fusion, the + liberation of steam gives rise to the formation of the beautiful material + known as “pumice.” Pumice consists of a mass of minute glass bubbles; + these bubbles do not usually, however, retain their globular form, but are + elongated in one direction through the movement of the mass while it is + still in a plastic state. The quantity of this substance ejected is often + enormous. We have seen to what a vast extent it was thrown out from the + crater of Krakatoa. During the year 1878, masses of floating pumice were + reported as existing in the vicinity of the Solomon Isles, and covering + the surface of the sea to such extent that it took ships three days to + force their way through them. Sometimes this substance accumulates in such + quantities along coasts that it is difficult to determine the position of + the shore within a mile or two, as we may land and walk about on the great + floating raft of pumice. Recent deep-sea soundings, carried on in the + Challenger and other vessels, have shown that the bottom of the deepest + portion of the ocean, far away from the land, is covered with volcanic + materials which have been carried through the air or have floated on the + surface of the ocean. + </p> + <p> + Fragments of scoria or pumice may be thrown hundreds or thousands of feet + into the atmosphere, those that fall into the crater and are flung up + again being gradually reduced in size by friction. Thus it is related by + Mr. Poulett Scrope, who watched the Vesuvian eruption of 1822, which + lasted for nearly a month, that during the earlier stages of the outburst + fragments of enormous size were thrown out of the crater, but by constant + re-ejection these were gradually reduced in size, till at last only the + most impalpable dust issued from the vent. This dust filled the + atmosphere, producing in the city of Naples “a darkness that might be + felt.” So excessively finely divided was it, that it penetrated into all + drawers, boxes, and the most closely fastened receptacles, filling them + completely. The fragmentary materials ejected from volcanoes are often + given the name of cinders or ashes. These, however, are terms of + convenience only, and do not properly describe the volcanic material. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the passages of steam through a mass of molten glass produces + large quantities of a material resembling spun glass. Small particles of + this glass are carried into the air and leave behind them thin, glassy + filaments like a tail. At the volcano of Kilauea in Hawaii, this + substance, as previously stated, is abundantly produced, and is known as + ‘Pele’s Hair’—Pele being the name of the goddess of the mountain. + Birds’ nests are sometimes found composed of this beautiful material. In + recent years an artificial substance similar to this Pele’s hair has been + extensively manufactured by passing jets of steam through the molten slag + of iron-furnaces; it resembles cotton-wool, but is made up of fine threads + of glass, and is employed for the packing of boilers and other purposes. + </p> + <p> + The lava itself, as left in huge deposits upon the surface, assumes + various forms, some crystalline, others glassy. The latter is usually + found in the condition known as obsidian, ordinarily black in color, and + containing few or no crystals. It is brittle, and splits into sharp-edged + or pointed fragments, which were used by primitive peoples for + arrow-heads, knives and other cutting implements. The ancient Mexicans + used bits of it for shaving purposes, it having an edge of razor-like + sharpness. They also used it as the cutting part of their weapons of war. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. + </h2> + <h3> + The Active Volcanoes of the Earth. + </h3> + <p> + It is not by any means an easy task to frame an estimate of the number of + volcanoes in the world. Volcanoes vary greatly in their dimensions, from + vast mountain masses, rising to a height of nearly 25,000 feet above + sea-level, to mere molehills. They likewise exhibit every possible stage + of development and decay: while some are in a state of chronic active + eruption, others are reduced to the condition of solfataras, or vents + emitting acid vapors, and others again have fallen into a more or less + complete state of ruin through the action of denuding forces. + </p> + <p> + NUMBER OF ACTIVE VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + Even if we confine our attention to the larger volcanoes, which merit the + name of mountains, and such of these as we have reason to believe to be in + a still active condition, our difficulties will be diminished, but not by + any means removed. Volcanoes may sink into a dormant condition that at + times endures for hundreds or even thousands of years, and then burst + forth into a state of renewed activity; and it is quite impossible, in + many cases, to distinguish between the conditions of dormancy and + extinction. + </p> + <p> + We shall, however, probably be within the limits of truth in stating that + the number of great habitual volcanic vents upon the globe which we have + reason to believe are still in active condition, is somewhere between 300 + and 350. Most of these are marked by more or less considerable mountains, + composed of the materials ejected from them. But if we include mountains + which exhibit the external conical form, crater-like hollows, and other + features of volcanoes, yet concerning the activity of which we have no + record or tradition, the number will fall little, if anything, short of + 1,000. + </p> + <p> + The mountains composed of volcanic materials, but which have lost through + denudation the external form of volcanoes, are still more numerous, and + the smaller temporary openings which are usually subordinate to the + habitual vents that have been active during the periods covered by history + and tradition, must be numbered by thousands. There are still feebler + manifestations of the volcanic forces—such as steam-jets, geysers, + thermal and mineral waters, spouting saline and muddy springs, and mud + volcanoes—that may be reckoned by millions. It is not improbable + that these less powerful manifestations of the volcanic forces to a great + extent make up in number what they want in individual energy; and the + relief which they afford to the imprisoned activities within the earth’s + crust may be almost equal to that which results from the occasional + outbursts at the great habitual volcanic vents. + </p> + <p> + In taking a general survey of the volcanic phenomena of the globe, no + facts come out more strikingly than that of the very unequal distribution, + both of the great volcanoes, and of the minor exhibitions of subterranean + energy. + </p> + <p> + Thus, on the whole of the continent of Europe, there is but one habitual + volcanic vent—that of Vesuvius—and this is situated upon the + shores of the Mediterranean. In the islands of that sea, however there are + no less than six volcanoes: namely, Stromboli, and Vulcano, in the Lipari + Islands; Etna, in Sicily; Graham’s Isle, a submarine volcano, off the + Sicilian coast; and Santorin and Nisyros, in the Aegean Sea. + </p> + <p> + The African continent is at present known to contain about ten active + volcanoes—four on the west coast, and six on the east coast, while + about ten other active volcanoes occur on islands close to the African + coasts. On the continent of Asia, more than twenty active volcanoes are + known or believed to exist, but no less than twelve of these are situated + in the peninsula of Kamchatka. No volcanoes are known to exist in the + Australian continent. + </p> + <p> + The American continent contains a greater number of volcanoes than the + continents of the Old World. There are twenty in North America, + twenty-five in Central America, and thirty-seven in South America. Thus, + taken altogether, there are about one hundred and seventeen volcanoes + situated on the great continental lands of the globe, while nearly twice + as many occur upon the islands scattered over the various oceans. + </p> + <p> + ASIATIC INLAND VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + Upon examining further into the distribution of the continental volcanoes, + another very interesting fact presents itself. The volcanoes are in almost + every instance situated either close to the coasts of the continent, or at + no great distance from them. There are, indeed, only two exceptions to + this rule. In the great and almost wholly unexplored table-land lying + between Siberia and Tibet four volcanoes are said to exist, and in the + Chinese province of Manchuria several others. More reliable information + is, however, needed concerning these volcanoes. + </p> + <p> + It is a remarkable circumstance that all the oceanic islands which are not + coral-reefs are composed of volcanic rocks; and many of these oceanic + islands, as well as others lying near the shores of the continents, + contain active volcanoes. + </p> + <p> + Through the midst of the Atlantic Ocean runs a ridge, which, by the + soundings of the various exploring vessels sent out in recent years, has + been shown to divide the ocean longitudinally into two basins. Upon this + great ridge, and the spurs proceeding from it, rise numerous mountainous + masses, which constitute the well-known Atlantic islands and groups of + islands. All of these are of volcanic origin, and among them are numerous + active volcanoes. The Island of Jan Mayen contains an active volcano, and + Iceland contains thirteen, and not improbably more; the Azores have six + active volcanoes, the Canaries three; while about eight volcanoes lie off + the west coast of Africa. In the West Indies there are six active + volcanoes; and three submarine volcanoes have been recorded within the + limits of the Atlantic Ocean. Altogether, no less than forty active + volcanoes are situated upon the great submarine ridges which traverse the + Atlantic longitudinally. + </p> + <p> + But along the same line the number of extinct volcanoes is far greater, + and there are not wanting proofs that the volcanoes which are still active + are approaching the condition of extinction. + </p> + <p> + VOLCANOES OF THE PACIFIC + </p> + <p> + If the great medial chain of the Atlantic presents us with an example of a + chain of volcanic mountains verging on extinction, we have in the line of + islands separating the Pacific and Indian Oceans an example of a similar + range of volcanic vents which are in a condition of the greatest activity. + In the peninsula of Kamchatka there are twelve active volcanoes, in the + Aleutian Islands thirty-one, and in the peninsula of Alaska three. The + chain of the Kuriles contains at least ten active volcanoes; the Japanese + Islands and the islands to the south of Japan twenty-five. The great group + of islands lying to the south-east of the Asiatic continent is at the + present time the grandest focus of volcanic activity upon the globe. No + less than fifty active volcanoes occur here. + </p> + <p> + Farther south, the same chain is probably continued by the four active + volcanoes of New Guinea, one or more submarine volcanoes, and several + vents in New Britain, the Solomon Isles, and the New Hebrides, the three + active volcanoes of New Zealand, and possibly by Mount Erebus and Mount + Terror in the Antarctic region. Altogether, no less than 150 active + volcanoes exist in the chain of islands which stretch from Behring’s + Straits down to the Antarctic circle; and if we include the volcanoes on + Indian and Pacific Islands which appear to be situated on lines branching + from this particular band, we shall not be wrong in the assertion that + this great system of volcanic mountains includes at least one half of the + habitually active vents of the globe. In addition to the active vents, + there are here several hundred very perfect volcanic cones, many of which + appear to have recently become extinct, though some of them may be merely + dormant, biding their time. + </p> + <p> + A third series of volcanoes starts from the neighborhood of Behring’s + Straits, and stretches along the whole western coast of the American + continent. This is much less continuous, but nevertheless very important, + and contains, with its branches, nearly a hundred active volcanoes. On the + north this great band is almost united with the one we have already + described by the chain of the Aleutian and Alaska volcanoes. In British + Columbia about the parallel of 60 degrees N. there exist a number of + volcanic mountains, one of which, Mount St. Elias, is believed to be + 18,000 feet in height. Farther south, in the territory of the United + States, a number of grand volcanic mountains exist, some of which are + probably still active, for geysers and other manifestations of volcanic + activity abound. From the southern extremity of the peninsula of + California an almost continuous chain of volcanoes stretches through + Mexico and Guatemala, and from this part of the volcanic band a branch is + given off which passes through the West Indies, and contains the volcanoes + which have so recently given evidence of their vital activity. + </p> + <p> + In South America the line is continued by the active volcanoes of Ecuador, + Bolivia and Chile, but at many intermediate points in the chain of the + Andes extinct volcanoes occur, which to a great extent fill up the gaps in + the series. A small offshoot to the westward passes through the Galapagos + Islands. The great band of volcanoes which stretches through the American + continent is second only in importance, and in the activity of its vents, + to the band which divides the Pacific from the Indian Ocean. + </p> + <p> + The third volcanic band of the globe is that, already spoken of, which + traverses the Atlantic Ocean from north to south. This series of volcanic + mountains is much more broken and interrupted than the other two, and a + greater proportion of its vents are extinct. It attained its condition of + maximum activity during the distant period of the Miocene, and now appears + to be passing into a state of gradual extinction. + </p> + <p> + Beginning in the north with the volcanic rocks of Greenland and Bear + Island, we pass southwards, by way of Jan Mayen, Iceland and the Faroe + Islands, to the Hebrides and the north of Ireland. Thence, by way of the + Azores, the Canaries and the Cape de Verde Islands, with some active + vents, we pass to the ruined volcanoes of St. Paul, Fernando de Noronha, + Ascension, St. Helena, Trinidad and Tristan da Cunha. From this great + Atlantic band two branches proceed to the eastward, one through Central + Europe, where all the vents are now extinct, and the other through the + Mediterranean to Asia Minor, the great majority of the volcanoes along the + latter line being now extinct, though a few are still active. The + volcanoes on the eastern coast of Africa may be regarded as situated on + another branch from this Atlantic volcanic band. The number of active + volcanoes on this Atlantic band and its branches, exclusive of those in + the West Indies, does not exceed fifty. + </p> + <p> + THIAN SHAN AND HAWAIIAN VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + From what has been said, it will be seen that the volcanoes of the globe + not only usually assume a linear arrangement, but nearly the whole of them + can be shown to be thrown up along three well-marked bands and the + branches proceeding from them. The first and most important of these bands + is nearly 10,000 miles in length, and with its branches contains more than + 150 active volcanoes; the second is 8,000 miles in length, and includes + about 100 active volcanoes; the third is much more broken and interrupted, + extends to a length of nearly 1,000 miles, and contains about 50 active + vents. The volcanoes of the eastern coast of Africa, with Mauritius, + Bourbon, Rodriguez, and the vents along the line of the Red Sea, may be + regarded as forming a fourth and subordinate band. + </p> + <p> + Thus we see that the surface of the globe is covered by a network of + volcanic bands, all of which traverse it in sinuous lines with a general + north-and-south direction, giving off branches which often run for + hundreds of miles, and sometimes appear to form a connection between the + great bands. + </p> + <p> + To this rule of the linear arrangement of the volcanic vents of the globe, + and their accumulation along certain well-marked bands, there are two very + striking exceptions, which we must now proceed to notice. + </p> + <p> + In the very centre of the continent formed by Europe and Asia, the largest + unbroken land-mass of the globe, there rises from the great central + plateau the remarkable volcanoes of the Thian Shan Range. The existence of + these volcanoes, of which only obscure traditional accounts had reached + Europe before the year 1858, appears to be completely established by the + researches of recent Russian and Swedish travelers. Three volcanic vents + appear to exist in this region, and other volcanic phenomena have been + stated to occur in the great plateau of Central Asia, but the existence of + the latter appears to rest on very doubtful evidence. The only accounts + which we have of the eruptions of these Thian Shan volcanoes are contained + in Chinese histories and treatises on geography. + </p> + <p> + The second exceptionally situated volcanic group is that of the Hawaiian + Islands. While the Thian Shan volcanoes rise in the centre of the largest + unbroken land-mass, and stand on the edge of the loftiest and greatest + plateau in the world, the volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands rise in the + northern centre of the largest ocean and from almost the greatest depths + in that ocean. All round the Hawaiian Islands the sea has a depth of from + 2,000 to 3,000 fathoms, and the island-group culminates in several + volcanic cones, which rise to the height of nearly 14,000 feet above the + sea-level. The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are unsurpassed in height + and bulk by those of any other part of the globe. + </p> + <p> + With the exception of the two isolated groups of the Thian Shan and the + Hawaiian Islands, nearly all the active volcanoes of the globe are + situated near the limits which separate the great land-and-water-masses of + the globe—that is to say, they occur either on the parts of + continents not far removed from their coast-lines, or on islands in the + ocean not very far distant from the shores. The fact of the general + proximity of volcanoes to the sea is one which has frequently been pointed + out by geographers, and may now be regarded as being thoroughly + established. + </p> + <p> + VOLCANOES PARALLEL TO MOUNTAIN CHAINS + </p> + <p> + Many of the grandest mountain-chains have bands of volcanoes lying + parallel to them. This is strikingly exhibited by the great + mountain-masses which lie on the western side of the American continent. + The Rocky Mountains and the Andes consist of folded and crumpled masses of + altered strata which, by the action of denuding forces, have been carved + into series of ridges and summits. At many points, however, along the + sides of these great chains we find that fissures have been opened and + lines of volcanoes formed, from which enormous quantities of lava have + flowed and covered great tracts of country. + </p> + <p> + This is especially marked in the Snake River plain of Idaho, in the + western United States. In this, and the adjoining regions of Oregon and + Washington, an enormous tract of country has been overflowed by lava in a + late geological period, the surface covered being estimated to have a + larger area than France and Great Britain combined. The Snake River cuts + through it in a series of picturesque gorges and rapids, enabling us to + estimate its thickness, which is considered to average 4000 feet. Looked + at from any point on its surface, one of these lava-plains appears as a + vast level surface, like that of a lake bottom. This uniformity has been + produced either by the lava rolling over a plain or lake bottom, or by the + complete effacement of an original, undulating contour of the ground under + hundreds or thousands of feet of lava in successive sheets. The lava, + rolling up to the base of the mountains, has followed the sinuosities of + their margin, as the waters of a lake follow its promontories and bays. + Similar conditions exist along the Sierra Nevada range of California, and + to some extent placer mining has gone on under immense beds of lava, by a + process of tunneling beneath the volcanic rock. + </p> + <p> + In some localities the volcanoes are of such height and dimensions as to + overlook and dwarf the mountain-ranges by the side of which they lie. Some + of the volcanoes lying parallel to the great American axis appear to be + quite extinct, while others are in full activity. In the Eastern continent + we find still more striking examples of parallelism between great + mountain-chains and the lands along which volcanic activity is exhibited—volcanoes, + active or extinct, following the line of the great east and west chains + which extend through southern Europe and Asia. There are some other + volcanic bands which exhibit a similar parallelism with mountain chains; + but, on the other hand, there are volcanoes between which and the nearest + mountain-axis no such connection can be traced. + </p> + <p> + AREAS OF UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE + </p> + <p> + There is one other fact concerning the mode of distribution of volcanoes + upon the surface of the globe, to which we must allude. By a study of the + evidences presented by coral-reefs, raised beaches, submerged forests, and + other phenomena of a similar kind, it can be shown that certain wide areas + of the land and of the ocean-floor are at the present time in a state of + subsidence, while other equally large areas are being upheaved. And the + observations of the geologist prove that similar upward and downward + movements of portions of the earth’s crust have been going on through all + geological times. + </p> + <p> + Now, as Mr. Darwin has so well shown in his work on “Coral Reefs,” if we + trace upon a map the areas of the earth’s surface which are undergoing + upheaval and subsidence respectively, we shall find that nearly all the + active volcanoes of the globe are situated upon rising areas and that + volcanic phenomena are conspicuously absent from those parts of the + earth’s crust which can be proved at the present day to be undergoing + depression. + </p> + <p> + The remarkable linear arrangement of volcanic vents has a significance + that is well worthy of fuller consideration. There are facts known which + point to the cause of this state of affairs. It is not uncommon for small + cones of scoriae to be seen following lines on the flanks or at the base + of a great volcanic mountain. These are undoubtedly lines of fissure, + caused by the subterranean forces. In fact, such fissures have been seen + opening on the sides of Mount Etna, in whose bottom could be seen the + glowing lava. Along these fissures, in a few days, scoriae cones appeared; + on one occasion no less than thirty-six in number. + </p> + <p> + It is believed by geologists that the linear systems of volcanoes are + ranged along similar lines of fissure in the earth’s crust—enormous + breaks, extending for thousands of miles, and the result of internal + energies acting through vast periods of time. Along these immense fissures + in the earth’s rock-crust there appear, in place of small scoriae cones, + great volcanoes, built up through the ages by a series of powerful + eruptions, and only ceasing to spout fire themselves when the portion of + the great crack upon which they lie is closed. The greatest of these + fissures is that along the vast sinuous band of volcanoes extending from + near the Arctic circle at Behring’s Straits to the Antarctic circle at + South Victoria Land, not far from half round the earth. It doubtless marks + the line of mighty forces which have been active for millions of years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. + </h2> + <h3> + The Famous Vesuvius and the Destruction of Pompeii. + </h3> + <p> + The famous volcano of southern Italy named Vesuvius, which is now so + constantly in eruption, was described by the ancients as a cone-shaped + mountain with a flat top, on which was a deep circular valley filled with + vines and grass, and surrounded by high precipices. A large population + lived on the sides of the mountain, which was covered with beautiful + woods, and there were fine flourishing cities at its foot. So little was + the terrible nature of the valley on the top understood, that in A. D. 72, + Spartacus, a rebellious Roman gladiator, encamped there with some + thousands of fighting men, and the Roman soldiers were let down the + precipices in order to surprise and capture them. + </p> + <p> + There had been earthquakes around the mountain, and one of the cities had + been nearly destroyed; but no one was prepared for what occurred seven + years after the defeat of Spartacus. Suddenly, in the year 79 A. D., a + terrific rush of smoke, steam, and fire belched from the mountain’s + summit; one side of the valley in which Spartacus had encamped was blown + off, and its rocks, with vast quantities of ashes, burning stones, and + sand, were ejected far into the sky. They then spread out like a vast + pall, and fell far and wide. For eight days and nights this went on, and + the enormous quantity of steam sent up, together with the deluge of rain + that fell, produced torrents on the mountain-side, which, carrying onward + the fallen ashes, overwhelmed everything in their way. Sulphurous vapors + filled the air and violent tremblings of the earth were constant. + </p> + <p> + A city six miles off was speedily rendered uninhabitable, and was + destroyed by the falling stones; but two others—Herculaneum and + Pompeii—which already had suffered from the down-pour of ashes, were + gradually filled with a flood of water, sand, and ashes, which came down + the side of the volcano, and covering them entirely. + </p> + <p> + BURIED CITIES EXCAVATED. + </p> + <p> + The difference in ease of excavation is due to the following circumstance. + Herculaneum being several miles nearer the crater, was buried in a far + more consistent substance, seemingly composed of volcanic ashes cemented + by mud; Pompeii, on the contrary, was buried only in ashes and loose + stones. The casts of statues found in Herculaneum show the plastic + character of the material that fell there, which time has hardened to + rock-like consistency. + </p> + <p> + These statues represented Hercules and Cleopatra, and the theatre proved + to be that of the long-lost city of Herculaneum. The site of Pompeii was + not discovered until forty years afterward, but work there proved far + easier than at Herculaneum, and more progress was made in bringing it back + to the light of day. + </p> + <p> + The less solid covering of Pompeii has greatly facilitated the work of + excavation, and a great part of the city has been laid bare. Many of its + public buildings and private residences are now visible, and some whole + streets have been cleared, while a multitude of interesting relics have + been found. Among those are casts of many of the inhabitants, obtained by + pouring liquid plaster into the ash moulds that remained of them. We see + them to-day in the attitude and with the expression of agony and horror + with which death met them more than eighteen centuries ago. + </p> + <p> + In succeeding eruptions much lava was poured out; and in A. D. 472, ashes + were cast over a great part of Europe, so that much fear was caused at + Constantinople. The buried cities were more and more covered up, and it + was not until about A. D. 1700 that, as above stated, the city of + Herculaneum was discovered, the peasants of the vicinity being in the + habit of extracting marble from its ruins. They had also, in the course of + years, found many statues. In consequence, an excavation was ordered by + Charles III, the earliest result being the discovery of the theatre, with + the statues above named. The work of excavation, however, has not + progressed far in this city, on account of its extreme difficulty, though + various excellent specimens of art-work have been discovered, including + the finest examples of mural painting extant from antiquity. The library + was also discovered, 1803 papyri being found. Though these had been + charred to cinder, and were very difficult to unroll and decipher, over + 300 of them have been read. + </p> + <p> + PLINY’S CELEBRATED DESCRIPTION + </p> + <p> + Pliny the Younger, to whom we are indebted for the only contemporary + account of the great eruption under consideration, was at the time of its + occurrence resident with his mother at Misenum, where the Roman fleet lay, + under the command of his uncle, the great author of the “Historia + Naturalis”. His account, contained in two letters to Tacitus (lib. vi. 16, + 20), is not so much a narrative of the eruption, as a record of his + uncle’s singular death, yet it is of great interest as yielding the + impressions of an observer. The translation which follows is adopted from + the very free version of Melmoth, except in one or two places, where it + differs much from the ordinary text. The letters are given entire, though + some parts are rather specimens of style than good examples of + description. + </p> + <p> + “Your request that I should send an account of my uncle’s death, in order + to transmit a more exact relation of it to posterity, deserves my + acknowledgments; for if this accident shall be celebrated by your pen, the + glory of it, I am assured, will be rendered forever illustrious. And, + notwithstanding he perished by a misfortune which, as it involved at the + same time a most beautiful country in ruins, and destroyed so many + populous cities, seems to promise him an everlasting remembrance; + notwithstanding he has himself composed many and lasting works; yet I am + persuaded the mention of him in your immortal works will greatly + contribute to eternize his name. Happy I esteem those to be, whom + Providence has distinguished with the abilities either of doing such + actions as are worthy of being related, or of relating them in a manner + worthy of being read; but doubly happy are they who are blessed with both + these talents; in the number of which my uncle, as his own writings and + your history will prove, may justly be ranked. It is with extreme + willingness, therefore, that I execute your commands; and should, indeed, + have claimed the task if you had not enjoined it. + </p> + <p> + “He was at that time with the fleet under his command at Misenum. On the + 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired him to + observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. He had + just returned from taking the benefit of the sun, and, after bathing + himself in cold water, and taking a slight repast, had retired to his + study. He immediately arose, and went out upon an eminence, from whence he + might more distinctly view this very uncommon appearance. It was not at + that distance discernible from what mountain the cloud issued, but it was + found afterward to ascend from Mount Vesuvius. I cannot give a more exact + description of its figure than by comparing it to that of a pine tree, for + it shot up to a great height in the form of a trunk, which extended itself + at the top into a sort of branches; occasioned, I imagine, either by a + sudden gust of air that impelled it, the force of which decreased as it + advanced upwards, or the cloud itself being pressed back again by its own + weight, and expanding in this manner: it appeared sometimes bright, and + sometimes dark and spotted, as it was more or less impregnated with earth + and cinders. + </p> + <p> + “This extraordinary phenomenon excited my uncle’s philosophical curiosity + to take a nearer view of it. He ordered a light vessel to be got ready, + and gave me the liberty, if I thought proper, to attend him. I rather + chose to continue my studies, for, as it happened, he had given me an + employment of that kind. As he was passing out of the house he received + dispatches: the marines at Retina, terrified at the imminent peril (for + the place lay beneath the mountain, and there was no retreat but by + ships), entreated his aid in this extremity. He accordingly changed his + first design, and what he began with a philosophical he pursued with an + heroical turn of mind.” + </p> + <p> + THE VOYAGE TO STABIAE + </p> + <p> + “He ordered the galleys to put to sea, and went himself on board with an + intention of assisting not only Retina but many other places, for the + population is thick on that beautiful coast. When hastening to the place + from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered a direct course + to the point of danger, and with so much calmness and presence of mind, as + to be able to make and dictate his observations upon the motion and figure + of that dreadful scene. He was now so nigh the mountain that the cinders, + which grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, fell into the + ships, together with pumice-stones, and black pieces of burning rock; they + were in danger of not only being left aground by the sudden retreat of the + sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the mountain, + and obstructed all the shore. + </p> + <p> + “Here he stopped to consider whether he should return back again; to which + the pilot advised him. ‘Fortune,’ said he, ‘favors the brave; carry me to + Pomponianus.’ Pomponianus was then at Stabiae, separated by a gulf, which + the sea, after several insensible windings, forms upon the shore. He + (Pomponianus) had already sent his baggage on board; for though he was not + at that time in actual danger, yet being within view of it, and indeed + extremely near, if it should in the least increase, he was determined to + put to sea as soon as the wind should change. It was favorable, however, + for carrying my uncle to Pomponianus, whom he found in the greatest + consternation. He embraced him with tenderness, encouraging and exhorting + him to keep up his spirits; and the more to dissipate his fears he + ordered, with an air of unconcern, the baths to be got ready; when, after + having bathed, he sat down to supper with great cheerfulness, or at least + (what is equally heroic) with all the appearance of it. + </p> + <p> + “In the meantime, the eruption from Mount Vesuvius flamed out in several + places with much violence, which the darkness of the night contributed to + render still more visible and dreadful. But my uncle, in order to soothe + the apprehensions of his friend, assured him it was only the burning of + the villages, which the country people had abandoned to the flames; after + this he retired to rest, and it was most certain he was so little + discomposed as to fall into a deep sleep; for, being pretty fat, and + breathing hard, those who attended without actually heard him snore. The + court which led to his apartment being now almost filled with stones and + ashes, if he had continued there any longer it would have been impossible + for him to have made his way out; it was thought proper, therefore, to + awaken him. He got up and went to Pomponianus and the rest of his company, + who were not unconcerned enough to think of going to bed. They consulted + together whether it would be most prudent to trust to the houses, which + now shook from side to side with frequent and violent concussions; or to + fly to the open fields, where the calcined stone and cinders, though light + indeed, yet fell in large showers and threatened destruction. In this + distress they resolved for the fields as the less dangerous situation of + the two—a resolution which, while the rest of the company were + hurried into it by their fears, my uncle embraced upon cool and deliberate + consideration. + </p> + <p> + DEATH OF PLINY THE ELDER + </p> + <p> + “They went out, then, having pillows tied upon their heads with napkins; + and this was their whole defence against the storm of stones that fell + around them. It was now day everywhere else, but there a deeper darkness + prevailed than in the most obscure night; which, however, was in some + degree dissipated by torches and other lights of various kinds. They + thought proper to go down further upon the shore, to observe if they might + safely put out to sea; but they found that the waves still ran extremely + high and boisterous. There my uncle, having drunk a draught or two of cold + water, threw himself down upon a cloth which was spread for him, when + immediately the flames, and a strong smell of sulphur which was the + forerunner of them, dispersed the rest of the company, and obliged him to + rise. He raised himself up with the assistance of two of his servants, and + instantly fell down dead, suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross and + noxious vapor, having always had weak lungs, and being frequently subject + to a difficulty of breathing. + </p> + <p> + “As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third day after + this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and without any marks + of violence upon it, exactly in the same posture as that in which he fell, + and looking more like a man asleep than dead. During all this time my + mother and I were at Misenum. But this has no connection with your + history, as your inquiry went no farther than concerning my uncle’s death; + with that, therefore, I will put an end to my letter. Suffer me only to + add, that I have faithfully related to you what I was either an + eye-witness of myself, or received immediately after the accident + happened, and before there was any time to vary the truth. You will choose + out of this narrative such circumstances as shall be most suitable to your + purpose; for there is a great difference between what is proper for a + letter and a history: between writing to a friend and writing to the + public. Farewell.” + </p> + <p> + In this account, which was drawn up some years after the event, from the + recollections of a student eighteen years old, we recognize the continual + earthquakes; the agitated sea with its uplifted bed; the flames and vapors + of an ordinary eruption, probably attended by lava as well as ashes. But + it seems likely that the author’s memory, or rather the information + communicated to him regarding the closing scene of Pliny’s life, was + defective. Flames and sulphurous vapors could hardly be actually present + at Stabiae, ten miles from the centre of the eruption. + </p> + <p> + That lava flowed at all from Vesuvius on this occasion has been usually + denied; chiefly because at Pompeii and Herculaneum the causes of + destruction were different—ashes overwhelmed the former, mud + concreted over the latter. We observe, indeed, phenomena on the shore near + Torre del Greco which seem to require the belief that currents of lava had + been solidified there at some period before the construction of certain + walls and floors, and other works of Roman date. In the Oxford Museum, + among the specimens of lava to which the dates are assigned, is one + referred to A. D. 79, but there is no mode of proving it to have belonged + to the eruption of that date. + </p> + <p> + PLINY’S SECOND LETTER + </p> + <p> + A second letter from Pliny to Tacitus (Epist. 20) was required to satisfy + the curiosity of that historian; especially as regards the events which + happened under the eyes of his friend. Here it is according to Melmoth: + </p> + <p> + “The letter which, in compliance with your request, I wrote to you + concerning the death of my uncle, has raised, it seems, your curiosity to + know what terrors and danger attended me while I continued at Misenum: for + there, I think, the account in my former letter broke off. + </p> + <p> + ‘Though my shocked soul recoils, my tongue shall tell.’ + </p> + <p> + “My uncle having left us, I pursued the studies which prevented my going + with him till it was time to bathe. After which I went to supper, and from + thence to bed, where my sleep was greatly broken and disturbed. There had + been, for many days before, some shocks of an earthquake, which the less + surprised us as they are extremely frequent in Campania; but they were so + particularly violent that night, that they not only shook everything about + us, but seemed, indeed, to threaten total destruction. My mother flew to + my chamber, where she found me rising in order to awaken her. We went out + into a small court belonging to the house, which separated the sea from + the buildings. As I was at that time but eighteen years of age, I know not + whether I should call my behavior, in this dangerous juncture, courage or + rashness; but I took up Livy, and amused myself with turning over that + author, and even making extracts from him, as if all about me had been in + full security. While we were in this posture, a friend of my uncle’s, who + was just come from Spain to pay him a visit, joined us; and observing me + sitting with my mother with a book in my hand, greatly condemned her + calmness at the same time that he reproved me for my careless security. + Nevertheless, I still went on with my author. + </p> + <p> + “Though it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid; + the buildings all around us tottered; and, though we stood upon open + ground, yet as the place was narrow and confined, there was no remaining + there without certain and great danger: we therefore resolved to quit the + town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation, and, as to a + mind distracted with terror every suggestion seems more prudent than its + own, pressed in great crowds about us in our way out. + </p> + <p> + “Being got to a convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in + the midst of a most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we + had ordered to be drawn out were so agitated backwards and forwards, + though upon the most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, + even by supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back + upon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of + the earth; it is certain at least that the shore was considerably + enlarged, and many sea animals were left upon it. On the other side a + black and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapor, + darted out a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, but much + larger. + </p> + <p> + FEAR VERSUS COMPOSURE + </p> + <p> + “Upon this the Spanish friend whom I have mentioned, addressed himself to + my mother and me with great warmth and earnestness; ‘If your brother and + your uncle,’ said he, ‘is safe, he certainly wishes you to be so too; but + if he has perished, it was his desire, no doubt, that you might both + survive him: why therefore do you delay your escape a moment?’ We could + never think of our own safety, we said, while we were uncertain of his. + Hereupon our friend left us, and withdrew with the utmost precipitation. + Soon afterward, the cloud seemed to descend, and cover the whole ocean; as + it certainly did the island of Capreae, and the promontory of Misenum. My + mother strongly conjured me to make my escape at any rate, which, as I was + young, I might easily do; as for herself, she said, her age and corpulency + rendered all attempts of that sort impossible. However, she would + willingly meet death, if she could have the satisfaction of seeing that + she was not the occasion of mine. But I absolutely refused to leave her, + and taking her by the hand, I led her on; she complied with great + reluctance, and not without many reproaches to herself for retarding my + flight. + </p> + <p> + “The ashes now began to fall upon us, though in no great quantity. I + turned my head and observed behind us a thick smoke, which came rolling + after us like a torrent. I proposed, while we yet had any light, to turn + out of the high road lest she should be pressed to death in the dark by + the crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of the path when + darkness overspread us, not like that of a cloudy night, or when there is + no moon, but of a room when it is all shut up and all the lights are + extinct. Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of women, the + screams of children and the cries of men; some calling for their children, + others for their parents, others for their husbands, and only + distinguishing each other by their voices; one lamenting his own fate, + another that of his family; some wishing to die from the very fear of + dying; some lifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part + imagining that the last and eternal night was come, which was to destroy + the gods and the world together. Among them were some who augmented the + real terrors by imaginary ones, and made the frighted multitude believe + that Misenum was actually in flames. + </p> + <p> + “At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to be rather the + forerunner of an approaching burst of flames, as in truth it was, than the + return of day. However, the fire fell at distance from us; then again we + were immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower of ashes rained upon + us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake off, otherwise we + should have been crushed and buried in the heap. + </p> + <p> + “I might boast that, during all this scene of horror, not a sigh or + expression of fear escaped me, had not my support been founded in that + miserable, though strong, consolation that all mankind were involved in + the same calamity, and that I imagined I was perishing with the world + itself! At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a + cloud of smoke; the real day returned, and soon the sun appeared, though + very faintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object that + presented itself to our eyes (which were extremely weakened) seemed + changed, being covered over with white ashes, as with a deep snow. We + returned to Misenum, where we refreshed ourselves as well as we could, and + passed an anxious night between hope and fear, for the earthquake still + continued, while several greatly excited people ran up and down, + heightening their own and their friends’ calamities by terrible + predictions. However, my mother and I, notwithstanding the danger we had + passed and that which still threatened us, had no thoughts of leaving the + place till we should receive some account from my uncle. + </p> + <p> + “And now you will read this narrative without any view of inserting it in + your history, of which it is by no means worthy; and, indeed, you must + impute it to your own request if it shall not even deserve the trouble of + a letter. Farewell!” + </p> + <p> + DION CASSIUS ON THE ERUPTION + </p> + <p> + The story told by Pliny is the only one upon which we can rely. Dion + Cassius, the historian, who wrote more than a century later, does not + hesitate to use his imagination, telling us that Pompeii was buried under + showers of ashes “while all the people were sitting in the theatre.” This + statement has been effectively made use of by Bulwer, in his “Last Days of + Pompeii.” In this he pictures for us a gladiatorial combat in the arena, + with thousands of deeply interested spectators occupying the surrounding + seats. The novelist works his story up to a thrilling climax in which the + volcano plays a leading part. + </p> + <p> + This is all very well as a vivid piece of fiction, but it does not accord + with fact, since Dion Cassius was undoubtedly incorrect in his statement. + We now know from the evidence furnished by the excavations that none of + the people were destroyed in the theatres, and, indeed, that there were + very few who did not escape from both cities. It is very likely that many + of them returned and dug down for the most valued treasures in their + buried habitations. Dion Cassius may have obtained the material for his + accounts from the traditions of the descendants of survivors, and if so he + shows how terrible must have been the impression made upon their minds. He + assures us that during the eruption a multitude of men of superhuman + nature appeared, sometimes on the mountain and sometimes in the environs, + that stones and smoke were thrown out, the sun was hidden, and then the + giants seemed to rise again, while the sounds of trumpets were heard. + </p> + <p> + LAKE AVERNUS + </p> + <p> + Not far from Vesuvius lay the famous Lake Avernus, whose name was long a + popular synonym for the infernal regions. The lake is harmless to-day, but + its reputation indicates that it was not always so. There is every reason + to believe that it hides the outlet of an extinct volcano, and that long + after the volcano ceased to be active it emitted gases as fatal to animal + life as those suffocating vapors which annihilated all the cattle on the + Island of Lancerote, in the Canaries, in the year 1730. Its name signifies + “birdless,” indicating that its ascending vapors were fatal to all birds + that attempted to fly above its surface. + </p> + <p> + In the superstition of the Middle Ages Vesuvius assumed the character + which had before been given to Avernus, and was regarded as the mouth of + hell. Cardinal Damiano, in a letter to Pope Nicholas II., written about + the year 1060 tells the story of how a priest, who had left his mother ill + at Beneventum, went on his homeward way to Naples past the crater of + Vesuvius, and heard issuing therefrom the voice of his mother in great + agony. He afterward found that her death coincided exactly with the time + at which he had heard her voice. + </p> + <p> + A trip to the summit of Vesuvius is one of the principal attractions for + strangers who are visiting Naples. There is a fascination about that awful + slayer of cities which few can resist, and no less attractive is the city + of Pompeii, now largely laid bare after being buried for eighteen + centuries. We are indebted to Henry Haynie for the following interesting + description: “Once seen, it will never be forgotten. It is full of + suggestions. It kindles emotions that are worth the kindling, and brings + on dreams that are worth the dreaming. Of the three places overwhelmed, + Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiae, the last scarcely repays excavation in + one sense, and the first in another; but to watch the diggers at Pompeii + is fascinating, even when there is no reasonable expectation of a find. + Herculaneum was buried with lava, or rather with tufa, and it is so very + hard that the expense of uncovering of only a small part of that city has + been very great. + </p> + <p> + HOW POMPEII IMPRESSES ITS VISITORS + </p> + <p> + “Pompeii was smothered in ashes, however, and most of it is uncovered now. + But while there is much that is fascinating, and all of it is instructive, + there is nothing grand or awe-inspiring in the ruins of Pompeii. No + visitor stands breathless as in the great hall of Karnak or in the once + dreadful Coliseum at Rome, or dreams with sensuous delight as before the + Jasmine Court at Agra. + </p> + <p> + “The weirdness of the scene possesses us as a haunted chamber might. We + have before us the narrow lanes, paved with tufa, in which Roman wagon + wheels have worn deep ruts. We cross streets on stepping-stones which + sandaled feet ages ago polished. We see the wine shops with empty jars, + counters stained with liquor, stone mills where the wheat was ground, and + the very ovens in which bread was baked more than eighteen centuries ago. + ‘Welcome’ is offered us at one silent, broken doorway; at another we are + warned to ‘Beware of the dog!’ The painted figures,—some of them so + artistic and rich in colors that pictures of them are disbelieved,—the + mosaic pavements, the empty fountains, the altars and household gods, the + marble pillars and the small gardens are there just as the owners left + them. Some of the walls are scribbled over by the small boys of Pompeii in + strange characters which mock modern erudition. In places we read the + advertisements of gladiatorial shows, never to come off, the names of + candidates for legislative office who were never to sit. There is nothing + like this elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + “The value of Pompeii to those classic students who would understand, not + the speech only, but the life and the every-day habits, of the ancient + world, is too high for reckoning. Its inestimable evidence may be seen in + the fact that any high-school boy can draw the plan of a Roman house, + while ripest scholars hesitate on the very threshold of a Greek dwelling. + This is because no Hellenic Pompeii has yet been discovered, but thanks to + the silent city close to the beautiful Bay of Naples, the Latin house is + known from ostium to porticus, from the front door to the back garden + wall. + </p> + <p> + STREETS AND HOUSES OF POMPEII + </p> + <p> + “The streets of Pompeii must have had a charm unapproached by those of any + city now in existence. The stores, indeed, were wretched little dens. Two + or three of them commonly occupied the front of a house on either side of + the entrance, the ostium; but when the door lay open, as was usually the + case, a passerby could look into the atrium, prettily decorated and hung + with rich stuffs. The sunshine entered through an aperture in the roof, + and shone on the waters of the impluvium, the mosaic floor, the altar of + the household gods and the flowers around the fountain. + </p> + <p> + “As the life of the Pompeiians was all outdoors, their pretty homes stood + open always. There was indeed a curtain betwixt the atrium and the + peristyle, but it was drawn only when the master gave a banquet. Thus a + wayfarer in the street could see, beyond the hall described and its busy + servants, the white columns of the peristyle, with creepers trained about + them, flowers all around, and jets of water playing through pipes which + are still in place. In many cases the garden itself could be observed + between the pillars of the further gallery, and rich paintings on the wall + beyond that. + </p> + <p> + “But how far removed those little palaces of Pompeii were from our notion + of well-being is scarcely to be understood by one who has not seen them. + It is a question strange in all points of view where the family slept in + the houses, nearly all of which had no second story. In the most graceful + villas the three to five sleeping chambers round the atrium and four round + the peristyle were rather ornamental cupboards than aught else. One did + not differ from another, and if these were devoted to the household the + slaves, male and female, must have slept on the floor outside. The master, + his family and his guest used these small, dark rooms, which were + apparently without such common luxuries as we expect in the humblest home. + All their furniture could hardly have been more than a bed and a + footstool; but it should be remembered that the public bath was a daily + amusement. The kitchen of each villa certainly was not furnished with such + ingenuity, expense or thought as the stories of Roman gormandising would + have led us to expect. In the house of the Aedile—so called from the + fact that ‘Pansam Aed.’ is inscribed in red characters by the doorway—the + cook seems to have been employed in frying eggs at the moment when + increasing danger put him to flight. His range, four partitions of brick, + was very small; a knife, a strainer, a pan lay by the fire just as they + fell from the slave’s hand.” + </p> + <p> + VALUE OF THE DISCOVERY OF POMPEII + </p> + <p> + This description strongly presents to us the principal value of the + discovery of Pompeii. Interesting as are the numerous works of art found + in its habitations, and important as is their bearing upon some branches + of the art of the ancient world, this cannot compare in interest with the + flood of light which is here thrown on ancient life in all its details, + enabling us to picture to ourselves the manners and habits of life of a + cultivated and flourishing population at the beginning of the Christian + era, to an extent which no amount of study of ancient history could yield. + </p> + <p> + Looking upon the work of the volcano as essentially destructive, as we + naturally do, we have here a valuable example of its power as a + preservative agent; and it is certainly singular that it is to a volcano + we owe much of what we know concerning the cities, dwellings and domestic + life of the people of the Roman Empire. + </p> + <p> + It would be very fortunate for students of antiquity if similar disasters + had happened to cities in other ancient civilized lands, however + unfortunate it might have been to their inhabitants. But doubtless we are + better off without knowledge gained from ruins thus produced. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. + </h2> + <h3> + Eruptions of Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli. + </h3> + <p> + Mount Vesuvius is of especial interest as being the only active volcano on + the continent of Europe—all others of that region being on the + islands of the Mediterranean—and for the famous ancient eruption + described in the last chapter. Before this it had borne the reputation of + being extinct, but since then it has frequently shown that its fires have + not burned out, and has on several occasions given a vigorous display of + its powers. + </p> + <p> + During the fifteen hundred years succeeding the destructive event + described eruptions were of occasional occurrence, though of no great + magnitude. But throughout the long intervals when Vesuvius was at rest it + was noted that Etna and Ischia were more or less disturbed. + </p> + <p> + THE BIRTH OF MONTE NUOVO + </p> + <p> + In 1538 a startling evidence was given that there was no decline of energy + in the volcanic system of Southern Italy. This was the sudden birth of the + mountain still known as Monte Nuovo, or New Mountain, which was thrown up + in the Campania near Avernus, on the spot formerly occupied by the Lucrine + Lake. + </p> + <p> + For about two years prior to this event the district had been disturbed by + earthquakes, which on September 27 and 28, 1538, became almost continuous. + The low shore was slightly elevated, so that the sea retreated, leaving + bare a strip about two hundred feet in width. The surface cracked, steam + escaped, and at last, early on the morning of the 29th, a greater rent was + made, from which were vomited furiously “smoke, fire, stones and mud + composed of ashes, making at the time of its opening a noise like the + loudest thunder.” + </p> + <p> + The ejected material in less than twelve hours built the hill which has + lasted substantially in the same form to our day. It is a noteworthy fact + that since the formation of Monte Nuovo there has been no volcanic + disturbance in any part of the Neapolitan district except in Vesuvius, + which for five centuries previous had remained largely at rest. + </p> + <p> + LAVA FROM VESUVIUS + </p> + <p> + The first recognised appearance of lava in the eruptions of Vesuvius was + in the violent eruption of 1036. This was succeeded at intervals by five + other outbreaks, none of them of great energy. After 1500 the crater + became completely quiet, the whole mountain in time being grown over with + luxuriant vegetation, while by the next century the interior of the crater + became green with shrubbery, indicating that no injurious gases were + escaping. + </p> + <p> + This was sleep, not death. In 1631 the awakening came in an eruption of + terrible violence. Almost in a moment the green mantle of woodland and + shrubbery was torn away and death and destruction left where peace and + safety had seemed assured. + </p> + <p> + Seven streams of lava poured from the crater and swept rapidly down the + mountain side, leaving ruin along their paths. Resina, Granasello and + Torre del Greco, three villages that had grown up during the period of + quiescence, were more or less overwhelmed by the molten lava. Great + torrents of hot water also poured out, adding to the work of desolation. + It was estimated that eighteen thousand of the inhabitants were killed. + </p> + <p> + What made the horror all the greater was a frightful error of judgment, + similar to that of the Governor of Martinique at St. Pierre. The Governor + of Torre del Greco had refused to be warned in time, and prevented the + people from making their escape until it was too late. Not until the lava + had actually reached the walls was the order for departure given. Before + the order could be acted upon the molten streams burst through the walls + into the crowded streets, and overwhelmed the vast majority of the + inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + In this violent paroxysm the whole top of the mountain is said to have + been swept away, the new crater which took the place of the old one being + greatly lowered. From that date Vesuvius has never been at rest for any + long interval, and eruptions of some degree of violence have been rarely + more than a few years apart. Of its various later manifestations of energy + we select for description that of 1767, of which an interesting account by + a careful observer is extant. + </p> + <p> + GREAT ERUPTION OF 1767 + </p> + <p> + From the 10th of December, 1766, to March, 1767, Vesuvius was quiet; then + it began to throw up stones from time to time. In April the throws were + more frequent, and at night the red glare grew stronger on the cloudy + columns which hung over the crater. These repeated throws of cinders, + ashes and pumice-stones so much increased the small cone of eruption which + had been left in the centre of the flat crateral space that its top became + visible at a distance. + </p> + <p> + On the 7th of August there issued a small stream of lava from a breach in + the side of a small cone; the lava gradually filled the space between the + cone and the crateral edge; on the 12th of September it overflowed the + crater, and ran down the mountain. Stones were ejected which took ten + seconds in their fall, from which it may be computed that the height which + the stones reached was 1,600 feet. Padre Torre, a great observer of + Vesuvius, says they went up above a thousand feet. The lava ceased on the + 18th of October, but at 8 A. M. on the 19th it rushed out at a different + place, after volleys of stones had been thrown to an immense height, and + the huge traditional pine-tree of smoke reappeared. On this occasion that + vast phantom extended its menacing shadow over Capri, at a distance of + twenty-eight miles from Vesuvius. + </p> + <p> + The lava at first came out of a mouth about one hundred yards below the + crater, on the side toward Monte Somma. While occupied in viewing this + current, the observer heard a violent noise within the mountain; saw it + split open at the distance of a quarter of a mile, and saw from the new + mouth a mountain of liquid fire shoot up many feet, and then, like a + torrent, roll on toward him. The earth shook; stones fell thick around + him; dense clouds of ashes darkened the air; loud thunders came from the + mountain top, and he took to precipitate flight. The Padre’s account is + too lively and instructive for his own words to be omitted. + </p> + <p> + PADRE TORRE’S NARRATIVE + </p> + <p> + “I was making my observations upon the lava, which had already, from the + spot where it first broke out, reached the valley, when, on a sudden, + about noon, I heard a violent noise within the mountain, and at a spot + about a quarter of a mile off the place where I stood the mountain split; + and with much noise, from this new mouth, a fountain of liquid fire shot + up many feet high, and then like a torrent rolled on directly towards us. + The earth shook at the same time that a volley of stones fell thick upon + us; in an instant clouds of black smoke and ashes caused almost a total + darkness; the explosions from the top of the mountain were much louder + than any thunder I ever heard, and the smell of the sulphur was very + offensive. My guide, alarmed, took to his heels; and I must confess that I + was not at my ease. I followed close, and we ran near three miles without + stopping; as the earth continued to shake under our feet, I was + apprehensive of the opening of a fresh mouth which might have cut off our + retreat. + </p> + <p> + “I also feared that the violent explosions would detach some of the rocks + off the mountain of Somma, under which we were obliged to pass; besides, + the pumice-stones, falling upon us like hail, were of such a size as to + cause a disagreeable sensation in the part upon which they fell. After + having taken breath, as the earth trembled greatly I thought it most + prudent to leave the mountain and return to my villa, where I found my + family in great alarm at the continual and violent explosions of the + volcano, which shook our house to its very foundation, the doors and + windows swinging upon their hinges. + </p> + <p> + “About two of the clock in the afternoon (19th) another lava stream forced + its way out of the same place from whence came the lava of last year, so + that the conflagration was soon as great on this side of the mountain as + on the other which I had just left. I observed on my way to Naples, which + was in less than two hours after I had left the mountain, that the lava + had actually covered three miles of the very road through which we had + retreated. This river of lava in the Atrio del Cavallo was sixty or + seventy feet deep, and in some places nearly two miles broad. Besides the + explosions, which were frequent, there was a continued subterranean and + violent rumbling noise, which lasted five hours in the night,—supposed + to arise from contact of the lava with rain-water lodged in cavities + within. The whole neighborhood was shaken violently; Portici and Naples + were in the extremity of alarm; the churches were filled; the streets were + thronged with processions of saints, and various ceremonies were performed + to quell the fury of the mountain. + </p> + <p> + “In the night of the 20th, the occasion being critical, the prisoners in + the public jail attempted to escape, and the mob set fire to the gates of + the residence of the Cardinal Archbishop because he refused to bring out + the relics of St. Januarius. The 21st was a quieter day, but the whole + violence of the eruption returned on the 22d, at 10 A. M., with the same + thundering noise, but more violent and alarming. Ashes fell in abundance + in the streets of Naples, covering the housetops and balconies an inch + deep. Ships at sea, twenty leagues from Naples, were covered with them. + </p> + <p> + “In the midst of these horrors, the mob, growing tumultuous and impatient, + obliged the Cardinal to bring out the head of St. Januarius, at the + extremity of Naples, toward Vesuvius; and it is well attested here that + the eruption ceased the moment the saint came in sight of the mountain. It + is true the noise ceased about that time after having lasted five hours, + as it had done the preceding days. + </p> + <p> + “On the 23d the lava still ran, but on the 24th it ceased; but smoke + continued. On the 25th there rose a vast column of black smoke, giving out + much forked lightning with thunder, in a sky quite clear except for the + smoke of the volcano. On the 26th smoke continued, but on the 27th the + eruption came to an end.” + </p> + <p> + This eruption was also described by Sir William Hamilton, who continued to + keep a close watch on the movements of the volcano for many years. The + next outbreak of especial violence took place in 1779, when what seemed to + the eye a column of fire ascended two miles high, while cinder fragments + fell far and wide, destroying the hopes of harvest throughout a wide + district. They fell in abundance thirty miles distant, and the dust of the + explosion was carried a hundred miles away. + </p> + <p> + In 1793 the crater became active again, and in 1794 after a period of + short tranquillity or comparative inaction, the mountain again became + agitated, and one of the most formidable eruptions known in the history of + Vesuvius began. It was in some respects unlike many others, being somewhat + peculiar as to the place of its outburst, the temperature of the lava, and + the course of the current. Breislak, an Italian geologist, observed the + characteristic phenomena with the eye of science, and his account supplies + many interesting facts. + </p> + <p> + BREISLAK ON THE ERUPTION OF 1794 + </p> + <p> + Breislak remarked certain changes in the character of the earth’s motions + during this six hours’ eruption, which led him to some particular + conjecture of the cause. At the beginning the trembling was continual, and + accompanied by a hollow noise, similar to that occasioned by a river + falling into a subterranean cavern. The lava, at the time of its being + disgorged, from the impetuous and uninterrupted manner in which it was + ejected, causing it to strike violently against the walls of the vent, + occasioned a continual oscillation of the mountain. Toward the middle of + the night this vibratory motion ceased, and was succeeded by distant + shocks. The fluid mass, diminished in quantity, now pressed less violently + against the walls of the aperture, and no longer issued in a continual and + gushing stream, but only at intervals, when the interior fermentation + elevated the boiling matter above the mouth. About 4 A. M. the shocks + began to be less numerous, and the intervals between them rendered their + force and duration more perceptible. + </p> + <p> + During this tremendous eruption at the base of the Vesuvian cone, and the + fearful earthquakes which accompanied it, the summit was tranquil. The sky + was serene, the stars were brilliant, and only over Vesuvius hung a thick, + dark smoke-cloud, lighted up into an auroral arch by the glare of a stream + of fire more than two miles long, and more than a quarter of a mile broad. + The sea was calm, and reflected the red glare; while from the source of + the lava came continual jets of uprushing incandescent stones. Nearer to + view, Torre del Greco in flames, and clouds of black smoke, with falling + houses, presented a dark and tragical foreground, heightened by the + subterranean thunder of the mountain, and the groans and lamentations of + fifteen thousand ruined men, women and children. + </p> + <p> + The heavy clouds of ashes which were thrown out on this occasion gathered + in the early morning into a mighty shadow over Naples and the + neighborhood; the sun rose pale and obscure, and a long, dim twilight + reigned afterward. + </p> + <p> + Such were the phenomena on the western side of Vesuvius. They were matched + by others on the eastern aspect, not visible at Naples, except by + reflection of their light in the atmosphere. The lava on this side flowed + eastward, along a route often traversed by lava, by the broken crest of + the Cognolo and the valley of Sorienta. The extreme length to which this + current reached was not less than an Italian mile. The cubic content was + estimated to be half that already assigned to the western currents. Taken + together they amounted to 20,744,445 cubic metres, or 2,804,440 cubic + fathoms; the constitution of the lava being the same in each, both + springing from one deep-seated reservoir of fluid rock. + </p> + <p> + The eruption of lava ceased on the 16th, and then followed heavy + discharges of ashes, violent shocks of earthquakes, thunder and lightning + in the columns of vapors and ashes, and finally heavy rains, lasting till + the 3d of July. The barometer during all the eruption was steady. + </p> + <p> + Breislak made an approximate calculation of the quantity of ashes which + fell on Vesuvius during this great eruption, and states the result as + equal to what would cover a circular area 6 kilometres (about 3 1/2 + English miles) in radius, and 39 centimetres (about 15 inches) in depth. + </p> + <p> + STRANGE EFFECTS + </p> + <p> + Among the notable things which attended this eruption, it is recorded that + in Torre del Greco metallic and other substances exposed to the current + were variously affected. Silver was melted, glass became porcelain, iron + swelled to four times its volume and lost its texture. Brass was + decomposed, and its constituent copper crystallized in cubic and + octahedral forms aggregated in beautiful branches. Zinc was sometimes + turned to blende. During the eruption, the lip of the crater toward Bosco + Tre Case on the south east, fell in, or was thrown off, and the height of + that part was reduced 426 feet. + </p> + <p> + On the 17th, the sea was found in a boiling state 100 yards off the new + promontory made by the lava of Torre del Greco, and no boat could remain + near it on account of the melting of the pitch in her bottom. For nearly a + month after the eruption vast quantities of fine white ashes, mixed with + volumes of steam, were thrown out from the crater; the clouds thus + generated were condensed into heavy rain, and large tracts of the Vesuvian + slopes were deluged with volcanic mud. It filled ravines, such as Fosso + Grande, and concreted and hardened there into pumiceous tufa—a very + instructive phenomenon. + </p> + <p> + Immense injury was done to the rich territory of Somma, Ottajano and Bosco + by heavy rains, which swept along cinders, broke up the road and bridges, + and overturned trees and houses for the space of fifteen days. + </p> + <p> + There were few years during the nineteenth century in which Vesuvius did + not show symptoms of its internal fires, and at intervals it manifested + much activity, though not equaling the terrible eruptions of its past + history. The severest eruptions in that century were those of 1871 and + 1876. In the first a sudden emission of lava killed twenty spectators at + the mouth of the crater, and only spent its fury after San Sebastian and + Massa had been well nigh annihilated. Fragments of rock were thrown up to + the height of 4,000 feet, and the explosions were so violent that the + whole countryside fled panic stricken to Naples. The activity of the + volcano, accompanied by distinct shocks of earthquake, lasted for a week. + </p> + <p> + In 1876, for three weeks together, lava streamed down the side of + Vesuvius, sweeping away the village of Cercolo and running nearly to the + sea at Ponte Maddaloni. There were then formed ten small craters within + the greater one. But these were united by a later eruption in 1888, and + pressure from beneath formed a vast cone where they had been. + </p> + <p> + HARDIHOOD OF THE PEOPLE + </p> + <p> + It may seem strange that so dangerous a neighborhood should be inhabited. + But so it is. Though Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae lie buried beneath + the mud and ashes belched out of the mouth of Vesuvius, the villages of + Portici and Revina, Torre del Greco and Torre del Annunziata have taken + their place, and a large population, cheerful and prosperous, flourishes + around the disturbed mountain and over the district of which it is the + somewhat untrustworthy safety-valve. + </p> + <p> + It is thus that man, in his eagerness to cultivate all available parts of + the earth, dares the most frightful perils and ventures into the most + threatening situations, seeking to snatch the means of life from the very + jaws of death. The danger is soon forgotten, the need of cultivation of + the ground is ever pressing, and no threats of peril seem capable of + restraining the activity of man for many years. Though the proposition of + abandoning the Island of Martinique has been seriously considered, the + chances are that, before many years have passed, a cheerful and busy + population will be at work again on the flanks of Mont Pelee. + </p> + <p> + MOUNT ETNA + </p> + <p> + On the eastern coast of the Island of Sicily, and not far from the sea, + rises in solitary grandeur Mount Etna, the largest and highest of European + volcanoes. Its height above the level of the sea is a little over 10,870 + feet, considerably above the limit of perpetual snow. It accordingly + presents the striking phenomenon of volcanic vapors ascending from a + snow-clad summit. The base of the mountain is eighty-seven miles in + circumference, and nearly circular; but there is a wide additional extent + all around overspread by its lava. The lower portions of the mountain are + exceedingly fertile, and richly adorned with corn-fields, vineyards, + olive-groves and orchards. Above this region are extensive forests, + chiefly of oak, chestnut, and pine, with here and there clumps of + cork-trees and beech. In this forest region are grassy glades, which + afford rich pasture to numerous flocks. Above the forest lies a volcanic + desert, covered with black lava and slag. Out of this region, which is + comparatively flat rises the principal cone, about 1,100 feet in height, + having on its summit the crater, whence sulphurous vapors are continually + evolved. + </p> + <p> + The great height of Etna has exerted a remarkable influence on its general + conformation: for the volcanic forces have rarely been of sufficient + energy to throw the lava quite up to the crater at the summit. The + consequence has been, that numerous subsidiary craters and cones have been + formed all around the flanks of the mountain, so that it has become rather + a cluster of volcanoes than a single volcanic cone. + </p> + <p> + The eruptions of this mountain have been numerous, records of them + extending back to several centuries before the Christian era, while + unrecorded ones doubtless took place much further back. After the + beginning of the Christian era, and more especially after the breaking + forth of Vesuvius in 79 A. D., Etna enjoyed longer intervals of repose. + Its eruptions since that time have nevertheless been numerous—more + especially during the intervals when Vesuvius was inactive—there + being a sort of alternation between the periods of great activity of the + two mountains; although there are not a few instances of their having been + both in action at the same time. + </p> + <p> + SIMILARITY IN ETNA’S ERUPTIONS + </p> + <p> + There is a great similarity in the character of the eruptions of Etna. + Earthquakes presage the outburst, loud explosions follow, rifts and bocche + del fuoco open in the sides of the mountain; smoke, sand, ashes and + scoriae are discharged, the action localizes itself in one or more + craters, cinders are thrown up and accumulate around the crater and cone, + ultimately lava rises and frequently breaks down one side of the cone + where the resistance is least; then the eruption is at an end. + </p> + <p> + Smyth says: “The symptoms which precede an eruption are generally + irregular clouds of smoke, ferilli or volcanic lightnings, hollow + intonations and local earthquakes that often alarm the surrounding country + as far as Messina, and have given the whole province the name of Val + Demone, as being the abode of infernal spirits. These agitations increase + until the vast cauldron becomes surcharged with the fused minerals, when, + if the convulsion is not sufficiently powerful to force them from the + great crater (which, from its great altitude and the weight of the candent + matter, requires an uncommon effort), they explode through that part of + the side which offers the least resistance with a grand and terrific + effect, throwing red-hot stones and flakes of fire to an incredible + height, and spreading ignited cinders and ashes in every direction.” + </p> + <p> + After the eruption of ashes, lava frequently follows, sometimes rising to + the top of the cone of cinders, at others disrupting it on the least + resisting side. When the lava has reached the base of the cone it begins + to flow down the mountain, and, being then in a very fluid state, it moves + with great velocity. As it cools, the sides and surface begin to harden, + its velocity decreases, and after several days it moves only a few yards + an hour. The internal portions, however, part slowly with their heat, and + months after the eruption clouds of steam arise from the black and + externally cold lava-beds after rain; which, having penetrated through the + cracks, has found its way to the heated mass within. + </p> + <p> + THE ERUPTION OF 1669 + </p> + <p> + The most memorable of the eruptions of Etna was that which elevated the + double cone of Monte Rossi and destroyed a large part of the city of + Catania. It happened in the year 1669, and was preceded by an earthquake, + which overthrew the town of Nicolosi, situated ten miles inland from + Catania, and about twenty miles from the top of Etna. The eruption began + with the sudden opening of an enormous fissure, extending from a little + way above Nicolosi to within about a mile of the top of the principal + cone, its length being twelve miles, its average breadth six feet, its + depth unknown. + </p> + <p> + We have a more detailed account of this eruption than of any preceding + one, as it was observed by men of science from various countries. The + account from which we select is that of Alfonso Borelli, Professor of + Mathematics in Catania. + </p> + <p> + From the fissure above mentioned, he says, there came a bright light. Six + mouths opened in a line with it and emitted vast columns of smoke, + accompanied by loud bellowings which could be heard forty miles off. + Towards the close of the day a crater opened about a mile below the + others, which ejected red-hot stones to a considerable distance, and + afterward sand and ashes which covered the country for a distance of sixty + miles. The new crater soon vomited forth a torrent of lava which presented + a front of two miles; it encircled Monpilieri, and afterward flowed + towards Belpasso, a town of 8,000 inhabitants, which was speedily + destroyed. Seven mouths of fire opened around the new crater, and in three + days united with it, forming one large crater 800 feet in diameter. All + this time the torrent of lava continued to descend, it destroying the town + of Mascalucia on the 23d of March. On the same day the crater cast up + great quantities of sand, ashes and scoriae, and formed above itself the + great double-coned hill now called Monte Rossi, from the red color of the + ashes of which it is mainly composed. + </p> + <p> + VILLAGES AND CITIES BURIED + </p> + <p> + On the 25th very violent earthquakes occurred, and the cone above the + great central crater was shaken down into the crater for the fifth time + since the first century A. D. The original current of lava divided into + three streams, one of which destroyed San Pietro, the second Camporotondo, + and the third the lands about Mascalucia and afterward the village of + Misterbianco. Fourteen villages were altogether destroyed, and the lava + flowed toward Catania. At Albanelli, two miles from the city, it + undermined a hill covered with cornfields and carried it forward a + considerable distance. A vineyard was also seen to be floating on its + fiery surface. When the lava reached the walls of Catania, it accumulated + without progression until it rose to the top of the wall, 60 feet in + height, and it then fell over in a fiery cascade and overwhelmed a part of + the city. Another portion of the same stream threw down 120 feet of the + wall and flowed into the city. + </p> + <p> + On the 23d of April the lava reached the sea, which it entered as a stream + 600 yards broad and 40 feet deep. The stream had moved at the rate of + thirteen miles in twenty days, but as it cooled it moved less quickly, and + during the last twenty-three days of its course, it advanced only two + miles. On reaching the sea the water, of course, began to boil violently, + and clouds of steam arose, carrying with them particles of scoriae. + Towards the end of April the stream on the west side of Catania, which had + appeared to be consolidated, again burst forth, and flowed into the garden + of the Benedictine Monastery of San Niccola, and then branched off into + the city. Attempts were made to build walls to arrest its progress. + </p> + <p> + An attempt of another kind was made by a gentleman of Catania, named + Pappalardo, who took fifty men with him, having previously provided them + with skins for protection from the intense heat and with crowbars to + effect an opening in the lava. They pierced the solid outer crust of + solidified lava, and a rivulet of the molten interior immediately gushed + out and flowed in the direction of Paterno, whereupon 500 men of that + town, alarmed for its safety, took up arms and caused Pappalardo and his + men to desist. The lava did not altogether stop for four months, and two + years after it had ceased to flow it was found to be red hot beneath the + surface. Even eight years after the eruption quantities of steam escaped + from the lava after a shower of rain. + </p> + <p> + THE STONES EJECTED + </p> + <p> + The stones which were ejected from the crater during this eruption were + often of considerable magnitude, and Borelli calculated that the diameter + of one which he saw was 50 feet; it was thrown to a distance of a mile, + and as it fell it penetrated the earth to a depth of 23 feet. The volume + of lava emitted during the eruption amounted to many millions of cubic + feet. Ferara considers that the length of the stream was at least fifteen + miles, while its average width was between two and three miles, so that it + covered at least forty square miles of surface. + </p> + <p> + Among the towns overflowed by this great eruption was Mompilieri. + Thirty-five years afterward, in 1704, an excavation was made on the site + of the principal church of this place, and at the depth of thirty-five + feet the workmen came upon the gate, which was adorned with three statues. + From under an arch which had been formed by the lava, one of these + statues, with a bell and some coins, were extracted in good preservation. + This fact is remarkable; for in a subsequent eruption, which happened in + 1766, a hill about fifty feet in height, being surrounded on either side + by two streams of lava, was in a quarter of an hour swept along by the + current. The latter event may be explained by supposing that the hill in + question was cavernous in its structure, and that the lava, penetrating + into the cavities, forced asunder their walls, and so detached the + superincumbent mass from its supports. + </p> + <p> + It is not by its streams of fire alone that Etna ravages the valleys and + plains at its base. It sometimes also deluges them with great floods of + water. On the 2d of March, 1755, two streams of lava, issuing from the + highest crater, were at once precipitated on an enormous mass of very deep + snow, which then clothed the summit. These fiery currents ran through the + snow to a distance of three miles, melting it as they flowed. The + consequence was, that a tremendous torrent of water rushed down the sides + of the mountain, carrying with it vast quantities of sand, volcanic + cinders and blocks of lava, with which it overspread the flanks of the + mountain and the plains beneath, which it devastated in its course. + </p> + <p> + The volume of water was estimated at 16,000,000 cubic feet, it forming a + channel two miles broad and in some places thirty-four feet deep, and + flowing at the rate of two-thirds of a mile in a minute. All the winter’s + snow on the mountain could not have yielded such a flood, and Lyell + considered that it melted older layers of ice which had been preserved + under a covering of volcanic dust. + </p> + <p> + ETNA IN 1819 + </p> + <p> + Another great eruption took place in 1819, which presented some + peculiarities. Near the point whence the highest stream of lava issued in + 1811, there were opened three large mouths, which, with loud explosions, + threw up hot cinders and sand, illuminated by a strong glare from beneath. + Shortly afterwards there was opened, a little lower down, another mouth, + from which a similar eruption took place; and still farther down there + soon appeared a fifth, whence there flowed a torrent of lava which rapidly + spread itself over the Val del Bove. During the first forty-eight hours it + flowed nearly four miles, when it received a great accession. The three + original mouths became united into one large crater, from which, as well + as from the other two mouths below, there poured forth a vastly augmented + torrent of lava, which rushed with great impetuosity down the same valley. + </p> + <p> + During its progress over this gentle slope, it acquired the usual crust of + hardened slag. It directed its course towards that point at which Val del + Bove opens into the narrow ravine beneath it—there being between the + two a deep and almost perpendicular precipice. Arrived at this point, the + lava-torrent leaped over the precipice in a vast cascade, and with a + thundering noise, arising chiefly from the crashing and breaking up of the + solid crust, which was in a great measure pounded to atoms by the fall; it + throwing up such vast clouds of dust as to awaken an alarm that a fresh + eruption had begun at this place, which is within the wooded region. + </p> + <p> + A very violent eruption, which lasted more than nine months, commenced on + the 21st of August, 1852. It was first witnessed by a party of English + tourists, who were ascending the mountain from Nicolosi in order to see + the sunrise from the summit. As they approached the Casa Inglesi the + crater commenced to give forth ashes and flames of fire. In a narrow + defile they were met by a violent hurricane, which overthrew both the + mules and their riders, and urged them toward the precipices of the Val + del Bove. They sheltered themselves beneath some masses of lava, when + suddenly an earthquake shook the mountain, and their mules in terror fled + away. As day approached they returned on foot to Nicolosi, fortunately + without having sustained injury. In the course of the night many bocche + del fuoco (small lava vents) opened in that part of the Val del Bove + called the Bazo di Trifoglietto, a great fissure opened at the base of the + Giannicola Grande, and a crater was thrown up from which for seventeen + days showers of sand and scoriae were ejected. + </p> + <p> + EFFECT OF THE ERUPTION + </p> + <p> + During the next day a quantity of lava flowed down the Val del Bove, + branching off so that one stream advanced to the foot of Monte Finocchio, + and the other to Monte Calanna. Afterwards it flowed towards Zaffarana, + and devastated a large tract of wooded region. Four days later a second + crater was formed near the first, from which lava was emitted, together + with sand and scoriae, which caused cones to arise around the craters. The + lava moved but slowly, and towards the end of August it came to a stand, + only a quarter of a mile from Zaffarana. + </p> + <p> + On the second of September, Gemellaro ascended Monte Finocchio in the Val + del Bove in order to witness the outburst. He states that the hill was + violently agitated, like a ship at sea. The surface of the Val del Bove + appeared like a molten lake; scoriae were thrown up from the craters to a + great height, and loud explosions were heard at frequent intervals. The + eruption continued to increase in violence. On October 6 two new mouths + opened in the Val del Bove, emitting lava which flowed towards the valley + of Calanna, and fell over the Salto della Giumenta, a precipice nearly 200 + feet deep. The noise which it produced was like that of a clash of + metallic masses. The eruption continued with abated violence during the + early months of 1853, and it did not finally cease till May 27. The entire + mass of lava ejected is estimated to have been equal to an area six miles + long by two miles broad, with an average depth of about twelve feet. + </p> + <p> + This eruption was one of the grandest of all the known eruptions of Etna. + During its outflow more than 2,000,000,000 cubic feet of molten lava was + spread out over a space of three square miles. There have been several + eruptions since its date, but none of marked prominence, though the + mountain is rarely quiescent for any lengthened period. + </p> + <p> + THE LIPARI VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + South-eastward of Ischia, between Calabria and Sicily, the Lipari Islands + arrest attention for the volcanic phenomena they present. On one of these + is Mount Vulcano, or Volcano, from which all this class of mountains is + named. At present the best known of the Lipari volcanoes is Stromboli, + which consists of a single mountain, having a very obtuse conical form. It + has on one side of it several small craters, of which only one is at + present in a state of activity. + </p> + <p> + The total height of the mountain is about 2000 feet, and the principal + crater is situated at about two-thirds of the height. Stromboli is one of + the most active volcanoes in the world. It is mentioned as being in a + state of activity by several writers before the Christian era, and the + commencement of its operations extends into the past beyond the limits of + tradition. Since history began its action has never wholly ceased, + although it may have varied in intensity from time to time. + </p> + <p> + It has been observed that the violence of its eruptive force has a certain + dependence on the weather—being always most intense when the + barometer is lowest. From the position of the crater, it is possible to + ascend the mountain and look down upon it from above. Even when viewed in + this manner, it presents a very striking appearance. While there is an + uninterrupted continuance of small explosions, there is a frequent + succession of more violent eruptions, at intervals varying in length from + seven to fifteen minutes. + </p> + <p> + HOFFMAN AT STROMBOLI + </p> + <p> + Several eminent observers have approached quite close to the crater, and + examined it narrowly. One of these was M. Hoffman, who visited it in 1828. + </p> + <p> + This eminent geologist, while having his legs held by his companions, + stretched his head over the precipice, and, looking right down into the + mouth of one of the vents of the crater immediately under him, watched the + play of liquid lava within it. Its surface resembled molten silver, and + was constantly rising and falling at regular intervals. A bubble of white + vapor rose and escaped, with a decrepitating noise, at each ascent of the + lava—tossing up red-hot fragments of scoria, which continued dancing + up and down with a sort of rhythmic play upon the surface. At intervals of + fifteen minutes or so, there was a pause in these movements. Then followed + a loud report, while the ground trembled, and there rose to the surface of + the lava an immense bubble of vapor. This, bursting with a crackling + noise, threw out to the height of about 1200 feet large quantities of + red-hot stones and scoriae, which, describing parabolic curves, fell in a + fiery, shower all around. After another brief repose, the more moderate + action was resumed as before. + </p> + <p> + Lipari, a neighboring volcano, was formerly more active than Stromboli, + though for centuries past it has been in a state of complete quiescence. + The Island of Volcano lies south of Lipari. Its crater was active before + the Christian era, and still emits sulphurous and other vapors. At present + its main office is to serve as a sulphur mine. Thus the peak which gives + title to all fire-breathing mountains has become a servant to man. So are + the mighty fallen! + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. + </h2> + <h3> + Skaptar Jokull and Hecla, the Great Icelandic Volcanoes. + </h3> + <p> + The far-northern island of Iceland, on the verge of the frozen Arctic + realm, is one of the most volcanic countries in the world, whether we + regard the number of volcanoes concentrated in so small a space, or the + extraordinary violence of their eruptions. Of volcanic mountains there are + no less than twenty which have been active during historical times. + Skaptar in the north, and Hecla in the south, being much the best known. + In all, twenty-three eruptions are on record. + </p> + <p> + Iceland’s volcanoes rival Mount Aetna in height and magnitude, their + action has been more continuous and intense, and the range of volcanic + products is far greater than in Sicily. The latter island, indeed, is not + one-tenth of volcanic origin, while the whole of Iceland is due to the + work of subterranean forces. It is entirely made up of volcanic rocks, and + has seemingly been built up during the ages from the depths of the seas. + It is reported, indeed, that a new island, the work of volcanic forces, + appeared opposite Mount Hecla in 1563; but this statement is open to + doubt. + </p> + <p> + VOLCANOES IN ICELAND + </p> + <p> + The eruptions of the volcanoes in Iceland have been amongst the most + terrible of those carefully recorded. The cold climate of the island and + the height of the mountains produce vast quantities of snow and ice, which + cover the volcanoes and fill up the cracks and valleys in their sides. + When, therefore, an eruption commences, the intense heat of the boiling + lava, and of the steam which rushes forth from the crater, makes the whole + mountain hot, and vast masses of ice, great fields of snow, and deluges of + water roll down the hill-sides into the plains. The lava pours from the + top and from cracks in the side of the mountain, or is ejected hundreds of + feet, to fall amongst the ice and snow; and the great masses of red-hot + stone cast forth, accompanied by cinders and fine ashes, splash into the + roaring torrent, which tears up rocks in its course and devastates the + surrounding country for miles. + </p> + <p> + DREADFUL FLOODS + </p> + <p> + An eruption of Kotlugja, in 1860, was accompanied by dreadful floods. It + began with a number of earthquakes, which shook the surrounding country. + Then a dark columnar cloud of vapor was seen to rise by day from the + mountain, and by night balls of fire (volcanic bombs) and red-hot cinders + to the height of 24,000 feet (nearly five miles), which were seen at a + distance of 180 miles. Deluges of water rushed from the heights, bearing + along whole fields of ice and rocky fragments of every size, some vomited + from the volcano, but in great part torn from the flanks of the mountain + itself and carried to the sea, there to add considerably to the coastline + after devastating the intervening country. The fountain of volcanic bombs + consisted of masses of lava, containing gases which exploded and produced + a loud sound, which was said to have been heard at a distance of 100 + miles. The size of the bombs, and the height to which they must have + reached, were very great. But the most remarkable of the historical + eruptions in Iceland were those of Skaptar Jokull in 1783, and of Hecla in + 1845. Of these an extended description is worthy of being given. + </p> + <p> + Of these two memorable eruptions, that of Skaptar Jokull began on the 11th + of June, 1783. It was preceded by a long series of earthquakes, which had + become exceedingly violent immediately before the eruption. On the 8th, + volcanic vapors were emitted from the summit of the mountain, and on the + 11th immense torrents of lava began to be poured forth from numerous + mouths. These torrents united to form a large stream, which, flowing down + into the river Skapta, not only dried it up, but completely filled the + vast gorge through which the river had held its course. This gorge, 200 + feet in breadth, and from 400 to 600 feet in depth, the lava filled so + entirely as to overflow to a considerable extent the fields on either + side. On issuing from this ravine, the lava flowed into a deep lake which + lay in the course of the river. Here it was arrested for a while; but it + ultimately filled the bed of the lake altogether—either drying up + its waters, or chasing them before it into the lower part of the river’s + course. Still forced onward by the accumulation of molten lava from + behind, the stream resumed its advance, till it reached some ancient + volcanic rocks which were full of caverns. Into these it entered, and + where it could not eat its way by melting the old rock, it forced a + passage by shivering the solid mass and throwing its broken fragments into + the air to a height of 150 feet. + </p> + <p> + A TORRENT OF LAVA + </p> + <p> + On the 18th of June there opened above the first mouth a second of large + dimensions, whence poured another immense torrent of lava, which flowed + with great rapidity over the solidified surface of the first stream, and + ultimately combined with it to form a more formidable main current. When + this fresh stream reached the fiery lake, which had filled the lower + portion of the valley of the Skapta, a portion of it was forced up the + channel of that river towards the foot of the hill whence it takes its + rise. After pursuing its course for several days, the main body of this + stream reached the edge of a great waterfall called Stapafoss, which + plunged into a deep abyss. Displacing the water, the lava here leaped over + the precipice, and formed a great cataract of fire. After this, it filled + the channel of the river, though extending itself in breadth far beyond + it, and followed it until it reached the sea. + </p> + <p> + ENORMOUS QUANTITY OF LAVA + </p> + <p> + The 3rd of August brought fresh accessions to the flood of lava still + pouring from the mountain. There being no room in the channel, now filled + by the former lurid stream, which had pursued a northwesterly course, the + fresh lava was forced to take a new direction towards the southeast, where + it entered the bed of another river with a barbaric name. Here it pursued + a course similar to that which flowed through the channel of the Skapta, + filling up the deep gorges, and then spreading itself out into great fiery + lakes over the plains. + </p> + <p> + The eruptions of lava from the mountain continued, with some short + intervals, for two years, and so enormous was the quantity poured forth + during this period that, according to a careful estimate which has been + made, the whole together would form a mass equal to that of Mont Blanc. Of + the two streams, the greater was fifty, the less forty, miles in length. + The Skapta branch attained on the plains a breadth varying from twelve to + fifteen miles—that of the other was only about half as much. Each of + the currents had an average depth of 100 feet, but in the deep gorges it + was no less than 600 feet. Even as late as 1794 vapors continued to rise + from these great streams, and the water contained in the numerous fissures + formed in their crust was hot. + </p> + <p> + The devastation directly wrought by the lava currents themselves was not + the whole of the evils they brought upon unfortunate Iceland and its + inhabitants. Partly owing to the sudden melting of the snows and glaciers + of the mountain, partly owing to the stoppage of the river courses, + immense floods of water deluged the country in the neighborhood, + destroying many villages and a large amount of agricultural and other + property. Twenty villages were overwhelmed by the lava currents, while the + ashes thrown out during the eruption covered the whole island and the + surface of the sea for miles around its shores. On several occasions the + ashes were drifted by the winds over considerable parts of the European + continent, obscuring the sun and giving the sky a gray and gloomy aspect. + In certain respects they reproduced the phenomena of the explosion of + Mount Krakatoa, which, singularly, occurred just a century later, in 1883. + The strange red sunset phenomena of the latter were reproduced by this + Icelandic event of the eighteenth century. + </p> + <p> + Out of the 50,000 persons who then inhabited Iceland, 9,336 perished, + together with 11,460 head of cattle, 190,480 sheep and 28,000 horses. This + dreadful destruction of life was caused partly by the direct action of the + lava currents, partly by the noxious vapors they emitted, partly by the + floods of water, partly by the destruction of the herbage by the falling + ashes, and lastly in consequence of the desertion of the coasts by the + fish, which formed a large portion of the food of the people. + </p> + <p> + ERUPTION OF MOUNT HECLA + </p> + <p> + After this frightful eruption, no serious volcanic disturbance took place + in Iceland until 1845, when Mount Hecla again became disastrously active. + Mount Hecla has been the most frequent in its eruptions of any of the + Icelandic volcanoes. Previous to 1845 there had been twenty-two recorded + eruptions of this mountain, since the discovery of Iceland in the ninth + century; while from all the other volcanoes in the island there had been + only twenty during the same period. Hecla has more than once remained in + activity for six years at a time—a circumstance that has rendered it + the best known of the volcanoes of this region. + </p> + <p> + LATER OUTBREAKS + </p> + <p> + After enjoying a long rest of seventy-nine years, this volcano burst again + into violent activity in the beginning of September, 1845. The first + inkling of this eruption was conveyed to the British Islands by a fall of + volcanic ashes in the Orkneys, which occurred on the night of September + 2nd during a violent storm. This palpable hint was soon confirmed by + direct intelligence from Copenhagen. On the 1st of September a severe + earthquake, followed the same night by fearful subterranean noises, + alarmed the inhabitants and gave warning of what was to come. About noon + the next day, with a dreadful crash, there opened in the sides of the + volcano two new mouths, whence two great streams of glowing lava poured + forth. They fortunately flowed down the northern and northwestern sides of + the mountain, where the low grounds are mere barren heaths, affording a + scanty pasture for a few sheep. These were driven before the fiery stream, + but several of them were burnt before they could escape. The whole + mountain was enveloped in clouds of volcanic ashes and vapors. The rivers + near the lava currents became so hot as to kill the fish, and to be + impassable even on horseback. + </p> + <p> + About a fortnight later there was a fresh eruption, of greater violence, + which lasted twenty-two hours, and was accompanied by detonations so loud + as to be heard over the whole island. Two new craters were formed, one on + the southern, the other on the eastern slope of the cone. The lava issuing + from these craters flowed to a distance of more than twenty-two miles. At + about two miles from its source the fiery stream was a mile wide, and from + 40 to 50 feet deep. It destroyed a large extent of fine pasture and many + cattle. Nearly a month later, on the 15th of October, a fresh flood of + lava burst from the southern crater, and soon heaped up a mass at the foot + of the mountain from 40 to 60 feet in height, three great columns of + vapor, dust and ashes rising at the same time from the three new craters + of the volcano. The mountain continued in a state of greater or less + activity during most of the next year; and even as late as the month of + October, 1846, after a brief pause, it began again with renewed vehemence. + The volumes of dust, ashes and vapor, thrown up from the craters, and + brightly illuminated by the glowing lava beneath, assumed the appearance + of flames, and ascended to an immense height. + </p> + <p> + ELECTRIC PHENOMENA + </p> + <p> + Among the stones tossed out of the craters was one large mass of pumice + weighing nearly half a ton, which was carried to a distance of between + four and five miles. The rivers were flooded by the melting of ice and + snow which had accumulated on the mountain. The greatest mischief wrought + by these successive eruptions was the destruction of the pasturages, which + were for the most part covered with volcanic ashes. Even where left + exposed, the herbage acquired a poisonous taint which proved fatal to the + cattle, inducing among them a peculiar murrain. Fortunately, owing to the + nature of the district through which the lava passed, there was on this + occasion no loss of human life. + </p> + <p> + The Icelandic volcanoes are remarkable for the electric phenomena which + they produce in the atmosphere. Violent thunder-storms, with showers of + rain and hail, are frequent accompaniments of volcanic eruptions + everywhere; but owing to the coldness and dryness of the air into which + the vapors from the Icelandic volcanoes ascend, their condensation is so + sudden and violent that great quantities of electricity are developed. + Thunder-storms accompanied by the most vivid lightnings are the result. + Humboldt mentions in his “Cosmos” that, during an eruption of Kotlugja, + one of the southern Icelandic volcanoes, the lightning from the cloud of + volcanic vapor killed eleven horses and two men (Cosmos i. 223). Great + displays of the aurora borealis usually accompany the volcanic eruptions + of this island—doubtless resulting from the quantity of electricity + imparted to the higher atmosphere by the condensation of the ascending + vapors. On the 18th of August, 1783, while the great eruption of Skaptar + Jokull was in progress, an immense fire-ball passed over England and the + European continent as far as Rome. This ball which was estimated to have + had a diameter exceeding half a mile, is supposed to have been of + electrical origin, and due to the high state of electric tension in the + atmosphere over Iceland at that time. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. + </h2> + <h3> + Volcanoes of the Philippines and Other Pacific Islands. + </h3> + <p> + We cannot do better than open this chapter with an account of the work of + volcanoes in the mountain-girdled East Indian island of Java. This large + and fertile tropical island has a large native population, and many + European settlers are employed in cultivating spices, coffee and woods. + The island is rather more than 600 miles long, and it is not 150 miles + broad in any part; and this narrow shape is produced by a chain of + volcanoes which runs along it. There is scarcely any other region in the + world where volcanoes are so numerous, even in the East, where the volcano + is a very common product of nature. Some of the volcanoes of Java are + constantly in eruption, while others are inactive. + </p> + <p> + One of their number, Galung Gung, was previous to 1822 covered from top to + bottom with a dense forest; around it were populous villages. The mountain + was high; there was a slight hollow on its top—a basin-like valley, + carpeted with the softest sward; brooks rippled down the hillside through + the forests, and, joining their silvery streams, flowed on through + beautiful valleys into the distant sea. In the month of July, 1822, there + were signs of an approaching disturbance; this tranquil peacefulness was + at an end; one of the rivers became muddy, and its waters grew hot. + </p> + <p> + In October, without any warning, a most terrific eruption occurred. A loud + explosion was heard; the earth shook, and immense columns of hot water, + boiling mud mixed with burning brimstone, ashes and stones, were hurled + upwards from the mountain top like a waterspout, and with such wonderful + force that large quantities fell at a distance of forty miles. Every + valley near the mountain became filled with burning torrents; the rivers, + swollen with hot water and mud, overflowed their banks, and swept away the + escaping villagers; and the bodies of cattle, wild beasts, and birds were + carried down the flooded stream. + </p> + <p> + ERUPTION OF GALUNG GUNG + </p> + <p> + A space of twenty-four miles between the mountain and a river forty miles + distant was covered to such a depth with blue mud, that people were buried + in their houses, and not a trace of the numerous villages and plantations + was visible. The boiling mud and cinders were cast forth with such + violence from the crater, that while many distant villages were utterly + destroyed and buried, others much nearer the volcano were scarcely + injured; and all this was done in five short hours. + </p> + <p> + Four days afterwards a second eruption occurred more violent than the + first, and hot water and mud were cast forth with masses of slag like the + rock called basalt some of which fell seven miles off. A violent + earthquake shook the whole district, and the top of the mountain fell in, + and so did one of its sides, leaving a gaping chasm. Hills appeared where + there had been level land before, and the rivers changed their courses, + drowning in one night 2,000 people. At some distance from the mountain a + river runs through a large town, and the first intimation the inhabitants + had of all this horrible destruction was the news that the bodies of men + and the carcases of stags, rhinoceroses, tigers, and other animals, were + rushing along to the sea. No less than 114 villages were destroyed, and + above 4,000 persons were killed by this terrible catastrophe. + </p> + <p> + Fifty years before this eruption, Mount Papandayang, one of the highest + burning mountains of Java, was constantly throwing out steam and smoke, + but as no harm was done, the natives continued to live on its sides. + Suddenly this enormous mountain fell in, and left a gap fifteen miles long + and six broad. Forty villages were destroyed, some being carried down and + others overwhelmed by mud and burning lava. No less than 2,957 people + perished, with vast numbers of cattle; moreover, most of the coffee + plantations in the neighboring districts were destroyed. + </p> + <p> + Even more terrible was the eruption of Mount Salek, another of the + volcanoes of Java. The burning of the mountain was seen 100 miles away, + while the thunders of its convulsions and the tremblings of the earth + reached the same distance. Seven hills, at whose base ran a river—crowded + with dead buffaloes, deer, apes, tigers, and crocodiles—slipped down + and became a level plain. River-courses were changed, forests were burnt + up, and the whole face of the country was completely altered. + </p> + <p> + Later volcanic eruptions in Java include that of 1843, when Mount Guntur + flung out sand and ashes estimated at the vast total of thirty million + tons, and those of 1849 and 1872 when Mount Merapi, a very active volcano, + covered a great extent of country with stones and ashes, and ruined the + coffee plantations of the neighboring districts. + </p> + <p> + We have said nothing concerning the most terrible explosion of all, that + of the volcanic island of Krakatoa, off the Javan coast. This event was so + phenomenal as to deserve a chapter of its own, for which we reserve it. + </p> + <p> + The United States, as one result of its recent acquisition of island + dominions, has added largely to its wealth in volcanic mountains. The + famous Hawaiian craters, far the greatest in the world, now belong to our + national estate, and the Philippine Islands contain various others, of + less importance, yet some of which have proved very destructive. A + description of those of the Island of Luzon, which are the most active in + the archipelago, is here sub-joined. + </p> + <p> + THE LUZON VOLCANOES. + </p> + <p> + Volcanoes have played an important part in the formation of the Philippine + Islands and have left traces of their former activity in all directions. + Most of them, however, have long been dead and silent, only a few of the + once numerous group being now active. Of these there are three of + importance in the southern region of Luzon—Taal, Bulusan and Mayon + or Albay. + </p> + <p> + The last named of these is the largest and most active of the existing + volcanoes. In form it is of marvellous grace and beauty, forming a perfect + cone, about fifty miles in circuit at base and rising to a height of 8,900 + feet. It is one of the most prominent landmarks to navigators in the + island. From its crater streams upward a constant smoke, accompanied at + times by flame, while from its depths issue subterranean sounds, often + heard at a distance of many leagues. The whole surrounding country is + marked by evidences of old eruptions. + </p> + <p> + This mountain, in 1767, sent up a cone of flame of forty feet in diameter + at base, for ten days, and for two months a wide stream of lava poured + from its crater. A month later there gushed forth great floods of water, + which filled the rivers to overflow, doing widespread damage to the + neighboring plantations. But its greatest and most destructive eruption + took place in 1812, the year of the great eruption of the St. Vincent + volcano. On this fatal occasion several towns were destroyed and no less + than 12,000 people lost their lives. The debris flung forth from the + crater were so abundant that deposits deep enough to bury the tallest + trees were formed near the mountain. In 1867 another disastrous explosion + took place, and still another in 1888. A disaster different in kind and + cause occurred in 1876, when a terrible tropical storm burst upon the + mountain. The floods of rain swept from its sides the loose volcanic + material, and brought destruction to the neighboring country, more than + six thousand houses being ruined by the rushing flood. + </p> + <p> + BULUSAN AND TAAL + </p> + <p> + Bulusan, a volcano on the southern extremity of the island, resembles + Vesuvius in shape. For many years it remained dormant, but in 1852 smoke + began to issue from its crater. In some respects the most interesting of + these three volcanoes is that of Taal, which lies almost due south of + Manila and about forty-five miles distant, on a small island in the middle + of a large lake, known as Bombom or Bongbong. A remarkable feature of this + volcanic mountain is that it is probably the lowest in the world, its + height being only 850 feet above sea level. There are doubtful traditions + that Lake Bombom, a hundred square miles in extent, was formed by a + terrible eruption in 1700, by which a lofty mountain 8000 or 9000 feet + high, was destroyed. The vast deposits of porous tufa in the surrounding + country are certainly evidences of former great eruptions from Mount Taal. + </p> + <p> + The crater of this volcano is an immense, cup-shaped depression, a mile or + more in diameter and about 800 feet deep. When recently visited by + Professor Worcester, during his travels in these islands, he found it to + contain three boiling lakelets of strangely-colored water, one being of a + dirty brown hue, a second intensely yellow in tint, and the third of a + brilliant emerald green. The mountain still steams and fumes, as if too + actively at work below to be at rest above. In past times it has shown the + forces at play in its depths by breaking at times into frightful activity. + Of the various explosions on record, the three most violent were those of + 1716, 1749, and 1754. In the last-named year the earth for miles round + quaked with the convulsive throes of the deeply disturbed mountain, and + vast quantities of volcanic dust were hurled high into the air, sufficient + to make it dark at midday for many leagues around. The roofs of distant + Manila were covered with volcanic dust and ashes. Molten lava also poured + from the crater and flowed into the lake, which boiled with the intense + heat, while great showers of stones and ashes fell into its waters. + </p> + <p> + VOLCANOES IN THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS + </p> + <p> + Extinct volcanoes are numerous in Luzon, and there are smoking cones in + the north, and also in the Babuyanes Islands still farther north. + Volcanoes also exist in several of the other islands. On Negros is the + active peak of Malaspina, and on Camiguin, an island about ninety miles to + the southeast, a new volcano broke out in 1876. The large island of + Mindanao has three volcanoes, of which Cottabato was in eruption in 1856 + and is still active at intervals. Apo, the largest of the three, estimated + to be 10,312 feet high, has three summits, within which lies the great + crater, now extinct and filled with water. + </p> + <p> + In evidence of former volcanic activity are the abundant deposits of + sulphur on the island of Leyte, the hot springs in various localities, and + the earthquakes which occasionally bring death and destruction. Of the + many of these on record, the most destructive was in 1863, when 400 people + were killed and 2,000 injured, while many buildings were wrecked. Another + in 1880 wrought great destruction in Manila and elsewhere, though without + loss of life. An earthquake in Mindanao in 1675 opened a passage to the + sea, and a vast plain emerged. These convulsions of the earth affect the + form and elevation of buildings, which are rarely more than two stories + high and lightly built, while translucent sea-shells replace glass in + their windows. + </p> + <p> + While Java is the most prolific in volcanoes of the islands of the Malayan + Archipelago, other islands of the group possess active cones, including + Sumatra, Bali, Amboyna, Banda and others. In Sanguir, an island north of + Celebes, is a volcanic mountain from which there was a destructive + eruption in 1856. The country was devastated with lava, stones and + volcanic ashes, ruining a wide district and killing nearly 3,000 of the + inhabitants. Mount Madrian in one of the Spice Islands, was rent in twain + by a fierce eruption in 1646, and since then has remained two distinct + mountains. It became active again in 1862, after two centuries of repose, + and caused great loss of life and property. Sorea, a small island of the + same group, forming but a single volcanic mountain, had an eruption in + 1693, the cone crumbling gradually till a vast crater was formed, filled + with liquid lava and occupying nearly half the island. This lake of fire + increased in size by the same process till in the end it took possession + of the island and forced all the inhabitants to flee to more hospitable + shores. + </p> + <p> + THE GREAT ERUPTION OF TOMBORO + </p> + <p> + But of the East Indian Islands Sumbawa, lying east of Java, contains the + most formidable volcano—one indeed scarcely without a rival in the + world. This is named Tomboro. Of its various eruptions the most furious on + record was that of 1815. This, as we are told by Sir Stamford Raffles, far + exceeded in force and duration any of the known outbreaks of Etna or + Vesuvius. The ground trembled and the echoes of its roar were heard + through an area of 1,000 miles around the volcano, and to a distance of + 300 miles its effects were astounding. + </p> + <p> + In Java, 300 miles away, ashes filled the air so thickly that the solar + rays could not penetrate them, and fell to the depth of several inches. + The detonations were so similar to the reports of artillery as to be + mistaken for them. The Rajah of Sang’ir, who was an eye-witness of the + eruption, thus described it to Sir Stamford: + </p> + <p> + “About 7 P. M. on the 10th of April, three distinct columns of flame burst + forth near the top of the Tomboro mountain (all of them apparently within + the verge of the crater), and, after ascending separately to a very great + height, their tops united in the air in a troubled, confused manner. In + short time the whole mountain next Sang’ir appeared like a body of liquid + fire, extending itself in every direction. The fire and columns of flame + continued to rage with unabated fury, until the darkness caused by the + quantity of falling matter obscured them, at about 8 P. M. Stones at this + time fell very thick at Sang’ir—some of them as large as two fists, + but generally not larger than walnuts. Between 9 and 10 P. M. ashes began + to fall, and soon after a violent whirlwind ensued, which blew down nearly + every house in the village of Sang’ir—carrying the roofs and light + parts away with it. In the port of Sang’ir, adjoining Tomboro, its effects + were much more violent—tearing up by the roots the largest trees, + and carrying them into the air, together with men, horses, cattle, and + whatever else came within its influence. This will account for the immense + number of floating trees seen at sea. The sea rose nearly twelve feet + higher than it had ever been known to do before, and completely spoiled + the only spots of rice-land in Sang’ir—sweeping away houses and + everything within its reach. The whirlwind lasted about an hour. No + explosions were heard till the whirlwind had ceased, at about 11 P.M. From + midnight till the evening of the 11th, they continued without + intermission. After that time their violence moderated, and they were + heard only at intervals; but the explosions did not cease entirely until + the 15th of July. Of all the villages of Tomboro, Tempo, containing about + forty inhabitants, is the only one remaining. In Pekate no vestige of a + house is left; twenty-six of the people, who were at Sumbawa at the time, + are the whole of the population who have escaped. From the most particular + inquiries I have been able to make, there were certainly no fewer than + 12,000 individuals in Tomboro and Pekate at the time of the eruption, of + whom only five or six survive. The trees and herbage of every description, + along the whole of the north and west sides of the peninsula, have been + completely destroyed, with the exception of those on a high point of land, + near the spot where the village of Tomboro stood.” + </p> + <p> + Tomboro village was not only invaded by the sea on this occasion, but its + site permanently subsided; so that there is now eighteen feet of water + where there was formerly dry land. + </p> + <p> + THE VOLCANOES OF JAPAN + </p> + <p> + The Japanese archipelago, as stated in an earlier chapter, is abundantly + supplied with volcanoes, a number of them being active. Of these the best + known to travelers is Asamayama, a mountain 8,500 feet high, of which + there are several recorded eruptions. The first of these was in 1650; + after which the volcano remained feebly active till 1783, when it broke + out in a very severe eruption. In 1870 there was another of some severity, + accompanied by violent shocks of earthquake felt at Yokohama. The crater + is very deep, with irregular rocky walls of a sulphurous character. + </p> + <p> + Far the most famous of all the Japanese mountains, however, is that named + Fuji-san, but commonly termed in English Fujiyama or Fusiyama. It is in + the vicinity of the capital, and is the most prominent object in the + landscape for many miles around. The apex is shaped somewhat like an + eight-petaled lotus flower, and offers to view from different directions + from three to five peaks. + </p> + <p> + Though now apparently extinct, it was formerly an active volcano, and is + credited in history with several very disastrous eruptions. The last of + these was in 1707, at which time the whole summit burst into flames. Rocks + were split and shattered by the heat, and stones fell to the depth of + several inches in Yeddo (now Tokyo), sixty miles away. At present there + are in its crater, which has a depth of 700 or 800 feet, neither + sulphurous exhalations nor steam. According to Japanese tradition this + great peak was upheaved in a single night from the bottom of the sea, more + than twenty-one hundred years ago. + </p> + <p> + Nothing can be more majestic than this volcano, extinct though it be, + rising in an immense cone from the plain to the height of over twelve + thousand feet, truncated at the top, and with its peak almost always + snow-covered. Its ascent is not difficult to an expert climber, and has + frequently been made. From its summit is unfolded a panorama beyond the + power of words to describe, and probably the most remarkable on the globe. + Mountains, valleys, lakes, forests and the villages of thirteen counties + may be seen. As we gaze upon its beautifully shaped and lofty mass, + visible even from Yokohama and a hundred miles at sea, one does not wonder + that it should be regarded as a holy mountain, and that it should form a + conspicuous object in every Japanese work of art. It is to the natives of + Japan as Mont Blanc is to Europeans, the “monarch of mountains.” + </p> + <p> + In summer pilgrimages are made around the base of the summit elevation, + and there are on the upward path a number of Buddhist temples and shrines, + made of blocks of stone, for devotion, shelter and the storage of food for + pilgrims. Hakone Lake is three thousand feet above the sea, and probably + lies in the crater of an extinct volcano. Its waters are very deep; it is + several miles long and wide, and is surrounded by high hills which abound + in fine scenery, solfataras and mineral springs. + </p> + <p> + HOT SPRINGS NEAR HAKONE LAKE + </p> + <p> + At this place the mountain seems to be smouldering, as sulphur fumes and + steam issue at many points, and the ground is covered with a friable white + alkaline substance. In many a hollow the water bubbles with clouds of + vapor and sulphuretted hydrogen; here the soil is hot and evidently + underlaid by active fires. It is not safe to go very near, as the crust is + thin and crumbling. The water running down the hills has a refreshing + sound and a tempting clearness, but the thirsty tongue at once detects it + to be a very strong solution of alum. The whole aspect of the place is + infernal, and naturally suggests the name given its principal geyser, + O-gigoko (Big Hell). + </p> + <p> + Fujiyama is almost a perfect cone, with, as above said, a truncated top, + in which is the crater. It is, however, less steep than Mayon. Its upper + part is comparatively steep, even to thirty-five degrees, but below this + portion the inclination gradually lessens, till its elegant outlines are + lost in the plain from which it rises. The curves of the sides depend + partly on the nature, size and shape of the ejected material, the fine + uniform pieces remaining on comparatively steep slopes, while the larger + and rounder ones roll farther down, resting on the inclination that + afterward becomes curved from the subsidence of the central mass. + </p> + <p> + The most recent and one of the most destructive of volcanic eruptions + recorded in Japan was that of Bandaisan or Baldaisan. For ages this + mountain had been peaceful, and there was scarcely an indication of its + volcanic character or of the terrific forces which lay dormant deep within + its heart. On its flanks lay some small deposits of scoriae, indications + of far-past eruptions, and there were some hot springs at its base, while + steam arose from a fissure. Yet there was nothing to warn the people of + the vicinity that deadly peril lay under their feet. + </p> + <p> + BANDAISAN’S WORK OF TERROR + </p> + <p> + This sense of security was fatally dissipated on a day in July, 1888, when + the mountain suddenly broke into eruption and flung 1,600 million cubic + yards of its summit material so high into the air that many of the falling + fragments, in their fall, struck the ground with such velocity as to be + buried far out of sight. The steam and dust were driven to a height of + 13,000 feet, where they spread into a canopy of much greater elevation, + causing pitchy darkness beneath. There were from fifteen to twenty violent + explosions, and a great landslide devastated about thirty square miles and + buried many villages in the Nagase Valley. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Norman, a traveler who visited the spot shortly afterward, thus + describes the scene of ruin. After a journey through the forests which + clothed the slopes of the volcanic mountain and prevented any distant + view, the travelers at last found themselves “standing upon the ragged + edge of what was left of the mountain of Bandaisan, after two-thirds of + it, including, of course, the summit, had been literally blown away and + spread over the face of the country. + </p> + <p> + “The original cone of the mountain,” he continues, “had been truncated at + an acute angle to its axis. From our very feet a precipitous mud slope + falls away for half a mile or more till it reaches the level. At our + right, still below us, rises a mud wall a mile long, also sloping down to + the level, and behind it is evidently the crater; but before us, for five + miles in a straight line, and on each side nearly as far, is a sea of + congealed mud, broken up into ripples and waves and great billows, and + bearing upon its bosom a thousand huge boulders, weighing hundreds of tons + apiece.” + </p> + <p> + On reaching the crater he found it to resemble a gigantic cauldron, fully + a mile in width, and enclosed with precipitous walls of indurated mud. + From several orifices volumes of steam rose into the air, and when the + vapor cleared away for a moment glimpses of a mass of boiling mud were + obtained. Before the eruption the mountain top had terminated in three + peaks. Of these the highest had an elevation of about 5,800 feet. The peak + destroyed was the middle one, which was rather smaller than the other two. + </p> + <p> + “The explosion was caused by steam; there was neither fire nor lava of any + kind. It was, in fact, nothing more nor less than a gigantic boiler + explosion. The whole top and one side of Sho-Bandai-san had been blown + into the air in a lateral direction, and the earth of the mountain was + converted by the escaping steam, at the moment of the explosion, into + boiling mud, part of which was projected into the air to fall at a long + distance, and then take the form of an overflowing river, which rushed + with vast rapidity and covered the country to a depth of from 20 to 150 + feet. Thirty square miles of country were thus devastated.” + </p> + <p> + In the devastated lowlands and buried villages below and on the slopes of + the mountain many lives were lost. From the survivors Mr. Norman gathered + some information, enabling him to describe the main features of the + catastrophe. We append a brief outline of his narrative: + </p> + <p> + MR. NORMAN’S NARRATIVE + </p> + <p> + “At a few minutes past 8 o’clock in the morning a frightful noise was + heard by the inhabitants of a village ten miles distant from the crater. + Some of them instinctively took to flight, but before they could run much + more than a hundred yards the light of day was suddenly changed into a + darkness more intense than that of midnight; a shower of blinding hot + ashes and sand poured down upon them; the ground was shaken with + earthquakes, and explosion followed explosion, the last being the most + violent of all. Many fugitives, as well as people in the houses, were + overwhelmed by the deluge of mud, none of the fugitives, when overtaken by + death, being more than two hundred yards from the village.” From the + statements made by those fortunate enough to escape with their lives, and + from a personal examination of the ground, Mr. Norman inferred that the + mud must have been flung fully six miles through the air and then have + poured in a torrent along the ground for four miles further. All this was + done in less than five minutes, so that “millions of tons of boiling mud + were hurled over the country at the rate of two miles a minute.” + </p> + <p> + The velocity of the mud torrent may perhaps be overestimated, but in its + awful suddenness this catastrophe was evidently one with few equals. The + cone destroyed may have been largely composed of rather fine ashes and + scoriae, which was almost instantaneously converted into mud by the + condensing steam and the boiling water ejected. The quantity of water thus + discharged must have been enormous. + </p> + <p> + Of the remaining volcanic regions of the Pacific, the New Zealand islands + present some of the most striking examples of activity. All the central + parts, indeed, of the northern island of the group are of a highly + volcanic character. There is here a mountain named Tongariro, on whose + snow-clad summit is a deep crater, from which volcanic vapors are seen to + issue, and which exhibits other indications of having been in a state of + greater activity at a not very remote period of time. There is also, at no + great distance from this mountain, a region containing numerous + funnel-shaped chasms, emitting hot water, or steam, or sulphurous vapors, + or boiling mud. The earthquakes in New Zealand had probably their origin + in this volcanic focus. + </p> + <p> + THE NEW ZEALAND VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + Tongariro has a height of about 6,500 feet, while Egmont, 8,270 feet in + height, is a perfect cone with a perpetual cap of snow. There are many + other volcanic mountains, and also great numbers of mud volcanoes, hot + springs and geysers. It is for the latter that the island is best known to + geologists. Their waters are at or near the boiling point and contain + silica in abundance. + </p> + <p> + At a place called Rotomahana, in the vicinity of Mount Tarawera, there was + formerly a lake of about one hundred and twenty acres in area, which was + in its way one of the most remarkable bodies of water upon the earth. + Formerly, we say, for this lake no longer exists, it having been destroyed + by the very forces to which it owed its fame. Its waters were maintained + nearly at the boiling point by the continual accession of boiling water + from numerous springs. The most abundant of those sources was situated at + the height of about 100 feet above the level of the lake. It kept + continually filled an oval basin about 250 feet in circumference—the + margins of which were fringed all round with beautiful pure white + stalactites, formed by deposits of silica, with which the hot water was + strongly impregnated. At various stages below the principal spring were + several others, that contributed to feed the lake at the bottom, in the + centre of which was a small island. Minute bubbles continually escaped + from the surface of the water with a hissing sound, and the sand all round + the lake was at a high temperature. If a stick was thrust into it, very + hot vapors would ascend from the hole. Not far from this lake were several + small basins filled with tepid water, which was very clear, and of a blue + color. + </p> + <p> + The conditions here were of a kind with those to which are due the great + geysers of Iceland and the Yellowstone Park, but different in the fact + that instead of being intermittent and throwing up jets at intervals, the + springs allowed the water to flow from them in a continuous stream. + </p> + <p> + THE PINK AND WHITE TERRACES + </p> + <p> + The silicious incrustations left by the overflow from the large pool had + made a series of terraces, two to six feet high, with the appearance of + being hewn from white or pink marble; each of the basins containing a + similar azure water. These terraces covered an area of about three acres, + and looked like a series of cataracts changed into stone, each edge being + fringed with a festoon of delicate stalactites. The water contained about + eighty-five per cent. of silica, with one or two per cent of iron alumina, + and a little alkali. + </p> + <p> + There were no more beautiful products of nature upon the earth than those + “pink and white terraces,” as they were called. The hot springs of the + Yellowstone have produced formations resembling them, but not their equal + in fairy-like charm. One series of these terraced pools and cascades was + of the purest white tint, the other of the most delicate pink, the waters + topping over the edge of each pool and falling in a miniature cascade to + the one next below, thus keeping the edges built up by a continual renewal + of the silicious incrustation. But all their beauty could not save them + from utter and irremediable destruction by the forces below the earth’s + surface. + </p> + <p> + On June 9, 1886, a great volcanic disturbance began in the Auckland Lake + region with a tremendous earthquake, followed during the night by many + others. At seven the next morning a lead-covered cloud of pumice sand, + advancing from the south, burst and discharged showers of fine dust. The + range of Mount Tarawera seemed to be in full volcanic activity, including + some craters supposed to be extinct, and embracing an area of one hundred + and twenty miles by twenty. + </p> + <p> + The showers of dust were so thick as to turn day into night for nearly two + days. Some lives were lost, and several villages were destroyed, these + being covered ten feet deep with ashes, dust and clayey mud. The volcanic + phenomena were of the most violent character, and the whole island appears + to have been more or less convulsed. Mount Tarawera is said to be five + hundred feet higher than before the eruption; glowing masses were thrown + up into the air, and tongues of fiery hue, gases or illuminated vapors, + five hundred feet wide, towered up one thousand feet high. The mountain + was 2,700 feet in height. + </p> + <p> + TARAWERA IN ERUPTION + </p> + <p> + This eruption presented a spectacle of rarely-equalled grandeur. To + travelers and strangers the greatest resultant loss will be the + destruction of those world-famous curiosities, the white and pink + terraces, in the vicinity of Lake Rotomahana and the region of the famous + geysers. The natives have a superstition that the eruption of the extinct + Tarawera was caused by the profanation of foreign footsteps. It was to + them a sacred place, and its crater a repository for their dead. The first + earthquake occurred in this region. One side of the mountain fell in, and + then the eruption began. The basin of the lake was broken up and + disappeared, but again reappeared as a boiling mud cauldron; craters burst + out in various places, and the beautiful terraces were no more. After the + first day the violence gradually diminished, and in a week had ceased. + Very possibly another lake will be formed, and in time other terraces; but + it is hardly within the range of probability that the beauty of the lost + terraces will ever be paralleled. + </p> + <p> + In this eruption, as usual, we find the earthquake preceding the volcanic + outburst. New Zealand, like the Philippines, Java and the Japanese + Islands, is situated over a great earth-fissure or line of weakness. + Subsidence or dislocation from tensile strain of the crust took place, and + the influx of water to new regions of heated strata may have developed the + explosive force. The earthquake and the volcano worked together here, as + they frequently do, unfortunately in this case destroying one of the most + beautiful scenes on the surface of the globe. + </p> + <p> + THE ANTARCTIC VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + Much further south, on the frozen shore of Victoria Land in the Antarctic + regions, Sir James Ross, in 1841, sailing in his discovery ships the + Erebus and Terror, discovered two great volcanic mountains, which he named + after those two vessels. Mount Erebus is continually covered, from top to + bottom, with snow and glaciers. The mountain is about 12,000 feet high, + and although the snow reaches to the very edge of the crater, there rise + continually from the summit immense volumes of volcanic fumes, illuminated + by the glare of glowing lava beneath them. The vapors ascend to an + estimated height of 2,200 feet above the top of the mountain. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. + </h2> + <h3> + The Wonderful Hawaiian Craters and Kilauea’s Lake of Fire. + </h3> + <p> + In the central region of the North Pacific Ocean lies the archipelago + formerly known as the Sandwich Islands, now collectively designated as + Hawaii. The people of the United States should be specially interested in + this island group, for it has become one of our possessions, an outlying + Territory of our growing Republic, and in making it part of our national + domain we have not alone extended our dominion far over the seas, but have + added to the many marvels of nature within our land one of the chief + wonders of the world, the stupendous Hawaiian volcanoes, before whose + grandeur many of more ancient fame sink into insignificance. + </p> + <p> + THE ISLAND OF HAWAII + </p> + <p> + The Island of Hawaii, the principal island of the group, we may safely say + contains the most enormous volcano of the earth. Indeed, the whole island, + which is 4000 square miles in extent, may be regarded as of volcanic + origin. It contains four volcanic mountains—Kohola, Hualalia, Mauna + Kea and Mauna Loa. The two last named are the chief, the former being + 13,800 feet, the latter 13,600 feet, above the sea-level. Although their + height is so vast, the ascent to their summits is so gradual that their + circumference at the base is enormous. The bulk of each of them is + reckoned to be equal to two and a half times that of Etna. Some of the + streams of lava which have emanated from them are twenty-six miles in + length by two miles in breadth. + </p> + <p> + On the adjoining island of Maui is a still larger volcano, the mighty + Haleakala, long since extinct, but memorable as possessing the most + stupendous crater on the face of the earth. The mountain itself is over + 10,000 feet high, and forms a great dome-like mass of 90 miles + circumference at base. The crater on its summit has a length of 7 1/2 and + a width of 2 1/4 miles, with a total area of about sixteen square miles. + The only approach in dimensions to this enormous opening exists in the + still living crater of Kilauea, on the flank of Mauna Loa. + </p> + <p> + A VOLCANIC ISLAND GROUP + </p> + <p> + The peaks named are the most apparent remnants of a world-rending volcanic + activity in the remote past, by whose force this whole Hawaiian island + group was lifted up from the depths of the ocean, here descending some + three and a half miles below the surface level. The coral reefs which + abound around the islands are of comparatively recent formation, and rest + upon a substratum of lava probably ages older, which forms the base of the + archipelago. The islands are volcanic peaks and ridges that have been + pushed up above the surrounding seas by the profound action of the + interior forces of the earth. + </p> + <p> + It must not be supposed that this action was a violent perpendicular + thrust upward over a very limited locality, for the mountains continue to + slope at about the same angle under the sea and for great distances on + every side, so that the islands are really the crests of an extensive + elevation, estimated to cover an area of about 2000 miles in one direction + by 150 or 200 miles in the other. The process was probably a gradual one + of up-building, by means of which the sea receded as the land steadily + rose. Some idea of the mighty forces that have been at work beneath the + sea and above it can be gained by considering the enormous mass of + material now above the sea-level. Thus, the bulk of the island of Hawaii, + the largest of the group, has been estimated by the Hawaiian Surveyor + General as containing 3,600 cubic miles of lava rock above sea-level. + Taking the area of England at 50,000 square miles, this mass of volcanic + matter would cover that entire country to a depth of 274 feet. We must + remember, however, that what is above sea-level is only a small fraction + of the total amount, since it sweeps down below the waves hundreds of + miles on every side. + </p> + <p> + CRATER OF HALEAKALA + </p> + <p> + Of the lava openings on these islands, the extinct one of Haleakala, as + stated, with its twenty-seven miles circumference, is far the most + stupendous. It is easy of access, the mountain sides leading to it + presenting a gentle slope; while the walls of the crater, in places + perpendicular, in others are so sloping that man and horse can descend + them. The pit varies from 1500 to 2000 feet in depth, its bottom being + very irregular from the old lava flows and the many cinder cones, these + still looking as fresh as though their fires had just gone out. Some of + these cones are over 500 feet high. There is a tradition among the natives + that the vast lava streams which in the past flowed from the crater to the + sea continued to do so in the period of their remote ancestors. They + still, indeed, appear as if recent, though there are to-day no signs of + volcanic activity anywhere on this island. + </p> + <p> + In fact, the only volcano now active in the Hawaiian Islands is Mauna Loa, + in the southern section of the Island of Hawaii. A striking feature of + this is that it has two distinct and widely disconnected craters, one on + its summit, the other on its flank, at a much lower level. The latter is + the vast crater of Kilauea, the largest active crater known on the face of + the globe. + </p> + <p> + MISS BIRD IN THE CRATER OF KILAUEA + </p> + <p> + We cannot offer a better description of the aspect of this lava abyss than + to give Miss Bird’s eloquent description of her adventurous descent into + it: + </p> + <p> + “The abyss, which really is at a height of four thousand feet on the flank + of Mauna Loa, has the appearance of a pit on a rolling plain. But such a + pit! It is quite nine miles in circumference, and at its lowest area—which + not long ago fell about three hundred feet, just as the ice on a pond + falls when the water below is withdrawn—covers six square miles. The + depth of the crater varies from eight hundred to one thousand feet, + according as the molten sea below is at flood or ebb. Signs of volcanic + activity are present more or less throughout its whole depth and for some + distance along its margin, in the form of steam-cracks, jets of sulphurous + vapor, blowing cones, accumulating deposits of acicular crystals of + sulphur, etc., and the pit itself is constantly rent and shaken by + earthquakes. Great eruptions occur with circumstances of indescribable + terror and dignity; but Kilauea does not limit its activity to these + outbursts, but has exhibited its marvellous phenomena through all known + time in a lake or lakes on the southern part of the crater three miles + from this side. + </p> + <p> + “This lake—the Hale-mau-mau, or ‘House of everlasting Fire’, of the + Hawaiian mythology, the abode of the dreaded goddess Pele—is + approachable with safety, except during an eruption. The spectacle, + however, varies almost daily; and at times the level of the lava in the + pit within a pit is so low, and the suffocating gases are evolved in such + enormous quantities, that travellers are unable to see anything. + </p> + <p> + “At the time of our visit there had been no news from it for a week; and + as nothing was to be seen but a very faint bluish vapor hanging round its + margin, the prospect was not encouraging. After more than an hour of very + difficult climbing, we reached the lowest level of the crater, pretty + nearly a mile across, presenting from above the appearance of a sea at + rest; but on crossing it, we found it to be an expanse of waves and + convolutions of ashy-colored lava, with huge cracks filled up with black + iridescent rolls of lava only a few weeks old. Parts of it are very rough + and ridgy, jammed together like field-ice, or compacted by rolls of lava, + which may have swelled up from beneath; but the largest part of the area + presents the appearance of huge coiled hawsers, the ropy formation of the + lava rendering the illusion almost perfect. These are riven by deep + cracks, which emit hot sulphurous vapors. + </p> + <p> + “As we ascended, the flow became hotter under our feet, as well as more + porous and glistening. It was so hot that a shower of rain hissed as it + fell upon it. The crust became increasingly insecure, and necessitated our + walking in single file with the guide in front, to test the security of + the footing. I fell through several times, and always into holes full of + sulphurous steam so malignantly acid that my strong dogskin gloves were + burned through as I raised myself on my hands. + </p> + <p> + “We had followed the lava-flow for thirty miles up to the crater’s brink, + and now we had toiled over recent lava for three hours, and, by all + calculations, were close to the pit; yet there was no smoke or sign of + fire, and I felt sure that the volcano had died out for once for my + special disappointment. + </p> + <p> + “Suddenly, just above and in front of us, gory drops were tossed in the + air, and springing forwards, we stood on the brink of Hale-mau-mau, which + was about thirty-five feet below us. I think we all screamed. I know we + all wept; but we were speechless, for a new glory and terror had been + added to the earth. It is the most unutterable of wonderful things. The + words of common speech are quite useless. It is unimaginable, + indescribable; a sight to remember forever; a sight which at once took + possession of every faculty of sense and soul, removing one altogether out + of the range of ordinary life. Here was the real ‘bottomless pit’, ‘the + fire which is not quenched’, ‘the place of Hell’, ‘the lake which burneth + with fire and brimstone’, ‘the everlasting burnings’, ‘the fiery sea whose + waves are never weary’. Perhaps those Scripture phrases were suggested by + the sight of some volcano in eruption. There were groanings, rumblings, + and detonations; rushings, hissings, splashings, and the crashing sound of + breakers on the coast; but it was the surging of fiery waves upon a fiery + shore. But what can I write? Such words as jets, fountains, waves, spray, + convey some idea of order and regularity, but here there are none. + </p> + <p> + “The inner lake, while we stood there, formed a sort of crater within + itself; the whole lava sea rose about three feet; a blowing cone about + eight feet high was formed; it was never the same two minutes together. + And what we saw had no existence a month before, and probably will be + changed in every essential feature a month from hence. The prominent + object was fire in motion; but the surface of the double lake was + continually skimming over for a second or two with a cool crust of + lustrous grey-white, like frost-silver, broken by jagged cracks of a + bright rose-color. The movement was nearly always from the sides to the + centre; but the movement of the centre itself appeared independent, and + always took a southerly direction. Before each outburst of agitation there + was much hissing and throbbing, with internal roaring as of imprisoned + gases. Now it seemed furious, demoniacal, as if no power on earth could + bind it, then playful and sportive; then for a second languid, but only + because it was accumulating fresh force. Sometimes the whole lake took the + form of mighty waves, and, surging heavily against the partial barrier + with a sound like the Pacific surf, lashed, tore, covered it, and threw + itself over it in clots of living fire. It was all confusion, commotion, + forces, terror, glory, majesty, mystery, and even beauty. And the color, + ‘eye hath not seen’ it! Molten metal hath not that crimson gleam, nor + blood that living light.” + </p> + <p> + To this description we may add that of Mr. Ellis, a former missionary to + these islands, and one of the number who have descended to the shores of + Kilauea’s abyss of fire. He says, after describing his difficult descent + and progress over the lava-strewn pit: + </p> + <p> + MR. ELLIS VISITS THE LAKE OF LAVA + </p> + <p> + “Immediately before us yawned an immense gulf, in the form of a crescent, + about two miles in length, from northeast to southwest; nearly a mile in + width, and apparently 800 feet deep. The bottom was covered with lava, and + the southwestern and northern parts of it were one vast flood of burning + matter in a state of terrific ebullition, rolling to and fro its ‘fiery + surges’ and flaming billows. Fifty-one conical islands, of varied form and + size, containing as many craters, rose either round the edge or from the + surface of the burning lake; twenty-two constantly emitted columns of gray + smoke or pyramids of brilliant flame, and several of these at the same + time vomited from their ignited mouths streams of lava, which rolled in + blazing torrents down their black indented sides into the boiling mass + below. + </p> + <p> + “The existence of these conical craters led us to conclude that the + boiling cauldron of lava before us did not form the focus of the volcano; + that this mass of melted lava was comparatively shallow, and that the + basin in which it was contained was separated by a stratum of solid matter + from the great volcanic abyss, which constantly poured out its melted + contents through these numerous craters into this upper reservoir. The + sides of the gulf before us, although composed of different strata of + ancient lava, were perpendicular for about 400 feet, and rose from a wide + horizontal ledge of solid black lava of irregular breadth, but extending + completely round. Beneath this ledge the sides sloped gradually towards + the burning lake, which was, as nearly as we could judge, 300 or 400 feet + lower. + </p> + <p> + “It was evident that the large crater had been recently filled with liquid + lava up to this black ledge, and had, by some subterraneous canal, emptied + itself into the sea or spread under the low land on the shore. The gray + and in some places apparently calcined sides of the great crater before + us, the fissures which intersected the surface of the plain on which we + were standing, the long banks of sulphur on the opposite side of the + abyss, the vigorous action of the numerous small craters on its borders, + the dense columns of vapor and smoke that rose at the north and west end + of the plain, together with the ridge of steep rocks by which it was + surrounded, rising probably in some places 300 or 400 feet in + perpendicular height, presented an immense volcanic panorama, the effect + of which was greatly augmented by the constant roaring of the vast + furnaces below.” + </p> + <p> + MAUNA LOA IN ERUPTION + </p> + <p> + Of the two great craters of Mauna Loa, the summit one has frequently in + modern times overflowed its crest and poured its molten streams in glowing + rivers over the land. This has rarely been the case with the lower and + incessantly active crater of Kilauea, whose lava, when in excess, appears + to escape by subterranean channels to the sea. We append descriptions of + some of the more recent examples of Mauna Loa’s eruptive energy. The lava + from this crater does not alone flow over the crater’s lip, but at times + makes its way through fissures far below, the immense pressure causing it + to spout in great flashing fountains high into the air. In 1852 the fiery + fountains reached a height of 500 feet. In some later eruptions they have + leaped 1,000 feet high. The lava is white hot as it ascends, but it + assumes a blood-red tint in its fall, and strikes the ground with a + frightful noise. + </p> + <p> + The quantities of lava ejected in some of the recent eruptions have been + enormous. The river-like flow of 1855 was remarkable for its extent, being + from two to eight miles wide, with a depth of from three to three hundred + feet, and extending in a winding course for a distance of sixty miles. The + Apostle of Hawaiian volcanoes, the Rev. Titus Coan, who ventured to the + source of this flow while it was in supreme action, thus describes it:— + </p> + <p> + “We ascended our rugged pathway amidst steam and smoke and heat which + almost blinded and scathed us. We came to open orifices down which we + looked into the fiery river which rushed madly under our feet. These fiery + vents were frequent, some of them measuring ten, twenty, fifty or one + hundred feet in diameter. In one place we saw the river of lava uncovered + for thirty rods and rushing down a declivity of from ten to twenty-five + degrees. The scene was awful, the momentum incredible, the fusion perfect + (white heat), and the velocity forty miles an hour. The banks on each side + of the stream were red-hot, jagged and overhanging. As we viewed it + rushing out from under its ebon counterpane, and in the twinkling of an + eye diving again into its fiery den, it seemed to say, ‘Stand off! Scan me + not! I am God’s messenger. A work to do. Away!’” + </p> + <p> + Later he wrote again:—“The great summit fountain is still playing + with fearful energy, and the devouring stream rushes madly down toward us. + It is now about ten miles distant, and heading directly for our bay. In a + few days we may be called to announce the painful fact that our beauteous + Hilo is no more,—that our lovely, our inimitable landscape, our + emerald bowers, our crescent strand and our silver bay are blotted out. A + fiery sword hangs over us. A flood of burning ruin approaches us. + Devouring fires are near us. With sure and solemn progress the glowing + fusion advances through the dark forest and the dense jungle in our rear, + cutting down ancient trees of enormous growth and sweeping away all + vegetable life. For months the great summit furnace on Mauna Loa has been + in awful blast. Floods of burning destruction have swept wildly and widely + over the top and down the sides of the mountain. The wrathful stream has + overcome every obstacle, winding its fiery way from its high source to the + bases of the everlasting hills, spreading in a molten sea over the plains, + penetrating the ancient forests, driving the bellowing herds, the wild + goats and the affrighted birds before its lurid glare, leaving nothing but + ebon blackness and smoldering ruin in its track.” + </p> + <p> + His anticipation of the burial of Hilo under the mighty flow was happily + not realized. It came to an abrupt halt while seven miles distant, the + checked stream standing in a threatening and rugged ridge, with rigid, + beetling front. + </p> + <p> + THE ERUPTIONS OF 1859 AND 1865 + </p> + <p> + In January, 1859, Mauna Loa was again at its fire-play, throwing up lava + fountains from 800 to 1,000 feet in height. From this great fiery fountain + the lava flowed down in numerous streams, spreading over a width of five + or six miles. One stream, probably formed by the junction of several + smaller, attained a height of from twenty to twenty-five feet, and a + breadth of about an eighth of a mile. Great stones were thrown up along + with the jet of lava, and the volume of seeming smoke, composed probably + of fine volcanic dust, is said to have risen to the height of 10,000 feet. + </p> + <p> + An eruption of still greater violence took place in 1865, characterized by + similar phenomena, particularly the throwing up of jets of lava. This + fiery fountain continued to play without intermission for twenty days and + nights, varying only as respects the height to which the jet arose, which + is said to have ranged between 100 and 1,000 feet, the mean diameter of + the jet being about 100 feet. This eruption was accompanied by explosions + so loud as to have been heard at a distance of forty miles. + </p> + <p> + A cone of about 300 feet in height, and about a mile in circumference, was + accumulated round the orifice whence the jet ascended. It was composed of + solid matters ejected with the lava, and it continued to glow like a + furnace, notwithstanding its exposure to the air. The current of lava on + this occasion flowed to a distance of thirty-five miles, burning its way + through the forests, and filling the air with smoke and flames from the + ignited timber. The glare from the glowing lava and the burning trees + together was discernible by night at a distance of 200 miles from the + island. + </p> + <p> + THE LAVA FLOW OF 1880 + </p> + <p> + A succeeding great lava flow was that which began on November 6, 1880. Mr. + David Hitchcock, who was camping on Mauna Kea at the time of this + outbreak, saw a spectacle that few human eyes have ever beheld. “We + stood,” writes he, “on the very edge of that flowing river of rock. Oh, + what a sight it was! Not twenty feet from us was this immense bed of rock + slowly moving forward with irresistible force, bearing on its surface huge + rocks and immense boulders of tons’ weight as water would carry a + toy-boat. The whole front edge was one bright red mass of solid rock + incessantly breaking off from the towering mass and rolling down to the + foot of it, to be again covered by another avalanche of white-hot rocks + and sand. The whole mass at its front edge was from twelve to thirty feet + in height. Along the entire line of its advance it was one crash of + rolling, sliding, tumbling red-hot rock. We could hear no explosions while + we were near the flow, only a tremendous roaring like ten thousand blast + furnaces all at work at once.” + </p> + <p> + This was the most extensive flow of recent years, and its progress from + the interior plain through the dense forests above Hilo and out on to the + open levels close to the town was startling and menacing enough. Through + the woods especially it was a turbulent, seething mass that hurled down + mammoth trees, and licked up streams of water, and day and night kept up + an unintermitting cannonade of explosions. The steam and imprisoned gases + would burst the congealing surface with loud detonations that could be + heard for many miles. It was not an infrequent thing for parties to camp + out close to the flow over night. Ordinarily a lava-flow moves sluggishly + and congeals rapidly, so that what seems like hardihood in the narrating + is in reality calm judgment, for it is perfectly safe to be in the close + vicinity of a lava-stream, and even to walk on its surface as soon as one + would be inclined to walk on cooling iron in a foundry. This notable flow + finally ceased within half a mile of Hilo, where its black form is a + perpetual reminder of a marvellous deliverance from destruction. + </p> + <p> + KILAUEA IN 1840 + </p> + <p> + Kilauea seems never, in historic times, to have filled and overflowed its + vast crater. To do so would need an almost inconceivable volume of liquid + rock material. But it approached this culmination in 1840, when it became, + through its whole extent, a raging sea of fire. The boiling lava rose in + the mighty mountain-cup to a height of from 500 to 600 feet. Then it + forced a passage through a subterranean cavity twenty-seven miles long, + and reached the sea forty miles distant, in two days. The stream where it + fell into the sea was half a mile wide, and the flow kept up for three + weeks, heating the ocean twenty miles from land. An eye-witness of this + extraordinary flow thus describes it: + </p> + <p> + “When the torrent of fire precipitated itself into the ocean, the scene + assumed a character of terrific and indescribable grandeur. The + magnificence of destruction was never more perceptibly displayed than when + these antagonistic elements met in deadly strife. The mightiest of earth’s + magazines of fire poured forth its burning billows to meet the mightiest + of oceans. For two score miles it came rolling, tumbling, swelling + forward, an awful agent of death. Rocks melted like wax in its path; + forests crackled and blazed before its fervent heat; the works of man were + to it but as a scroll in the flames. Imagine Niagara’s stream, above the + brink of the Falls, with its dashing, whirling, madly-raging waters + hurrying on to their plunge, instantaneously converted into fire; a + gory-hued river of fused minerals; volumes of hissing steam arising; some + curling upward from ten thousand vents, which give utterance to as many + deep-toned mutterings, and sullen, confined clamorings; gases detonating + and shrieking as they burst from their hot prison-house; the heavens lurid + with flame; the atmosphere dark and oppressive; the horizon murky with + vapors and gleaming with the reflected contest! + </p> + <p> + “Such was the scene as the fiery cataract, leaping a precipice of fifty + feet, poured its flood upon the ocean. The old line of coast, a mass of + compact, indurated lava, whitened, cracked and fell. The waters recoiled, + and sent forth a tempest of spray; they foamed and dashed around and over + the melted rock, they boiled with the heat, and the roar of the + conflicting agencies grew fiercer and louder. The reports of the exploding + gases were distinctly heard twenty-five miles distant, and were likened to + a whole broadside of heavy artillery. Streaks of the intensest light + glanced like lightning in all directions; the outskirts of the burning + lava as it fell, cooled by the shock, were shivered into millions of + fragments, and scattered by the strong wind in sparkling showers far into + the country. For three successive weeks the volcano disgorged an + uninterrupted burning tide, with scarcely any diminution, into the ocean. + On either side, for twenty miles, the sea became heated, with such + rapidity that, on the second day of the junction of the lava with the + ocean, fishes came ashore dead in great numbers, at a point fifteen miles + distant. Six weeks later, at the base of the hills, the water continued + scalding hot, and sent forth steam at every wash of the waves.” + </p> + <p> + THE SINKING OF KILAUEA’S FIRE-LAKE + </p> + <p> + In 1866 the great crater of Kilauea presented a new and unlooked-for + spectacle in the sinking and vanishing of its great lava lake. In March of + that year the fires in the ancient cauldron totally disappeared, and the + surrounding lava rock sank to a depth of nearly 600 feet. Mr. Thrum, in a + pamphlet on “The Suspended Activity of Kilauea,” says of it: + </p> + <p> + “Distant rumbling noises were heard, accompanied by a series of + earthquakes, forty-three in number. With the fourth shock the brilliancy + of New Lake disappeared, and towards 3 A. M. the fires in Halemaumau + disappeared also, leaving the whole crater in darkness. + </p> + <p> + “With the dawn the shocks and noises ceased, and revealed the changes + which Kilauea had undergone in the night. All the high cliffs surrounding + Halemaumau and New Lake, which had become a prominent feature in the + crater, had vanished entirely, and the molten lava of both lakes had + disappeared by some subterranean passage from the bottom of Halemaumau. + There was no material change in the sunken portion of the crater except a + continual falling in of rocks and debris from its banks as the contraction + from its former intense heat loosened their compactness and sent them + hurling some 200 or 300 feet below, giving forth at times a boom as of + distant thunder, followed by clouds of cinders and ashes shooting up into + the air 100 to 300 feet, proportionate, doubtless, to the size of the + newly fallen mass. + </p> + <p> + “This remarkable recession of the liquid lava in Halemaumau was probably + due to the opening of some deep subterranean passage through which the + lake of lava made its way unseen to the ocean’s depths. The Rev. Mr. + Baker, probably the most adventuresome explorer of Hawaiian volcanoes, + actually descended into that crumbling pit to a point within what he + judged to be fifty feet of the bottom. But Halemaumau had only taken an + intermission, for in two short months signs of returning life became + frequent and unmistakable, and, in June, culminated in the sudden outbreak + of a lake that has since then steadily increased in activity.” + </p> + <p> + THE GODDESS PELE + </p> + <p> + We cannot close this chapter without some reference to the Goddess Pele, + to whom the Hawaiians long imputed the wonder-work of their volcanic + mountains. When there is unusual commotion in Kilauea myriads of + thread-like filaments float in the air and fall upon the cliffs, making + deposits much resembling matted hair. A single filament over fifteen + inches long was picked up on a Hilo veranda, having sailed in the air a + distance of fifty miles. This is the famous Pele’s Hair, being the + glass-like product of volcanic fires. It resembles Prince Rupert’s Drops, + and the tradition is that whenever the volcano becomes active it is + because Pele, the Goddess of the crater, emerges from her fiery furnace + and shakes her vitreous locks in anger. + </p> + <p> + This fabled being, according to Emerson, in a paper on “The Lesser + Hawaiian Gods,” “could at times assume the appearance of a handsome young + woman, as when Kamapauaa, to his cost, was smitten with her charms when + first he saw her with her sisters at Kilauea.” Kamapauaa was a gigantic + hog, who “could appear as a handsome young man, a hog, a fish or a tree.” + “At other times the innate character of the fury showed itself, and Pele + appeared in her usual form as an ugly and hateful old hag, with tattered + and fire-burnt garments, scarcely concealing the filth and nakedness of + her person. Her bloodshot eyes and fiendish countenance paralyzed the + beholder, and her touch turned him to stone. She was a jealous and + vindictive monster, delighting in cruelty, and at the slightest + provocation overwhelming the unoffending victims of her rage in widespread + ruin.” + </p> + <p> + The superstition regarding the Goddess Pele was thought to have received a + death blow in 1825, when Kapiolani, an Hawaiian princess and a Christian + convert, ascended, with numerous attendants, to the crater of Kilauea, + where she publicly defied the power and wrath of the goddess. No response + came to her defiance, she descended in safety, and faith in Pele’s power + was widely shaken. + </p> + <p> + Yet as late as 1887 the old superstition revived and claimed an exalted + victim, for in that year the Princess Like Like, the youngest sister of + the king, starved herself to death to appease the anger of the Goddess + Pele, supposed to be manifested in Mauna Loa’s eruption of that year, and + to be quieted only by the sacrifice of a victim of royal blood. Thus + slowly do the old superstitions die away. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. + </h2> + <h3> + Popocatapetl and Other Volcanoes of Mexico and Central America. + </h3> + <p> + Mexico is very largely a vast table-land, rising through much of its + extent to an elevation of from 7,000 to 8,000 feet above sea-level, and + bounded east and west by wide strips of torrid lowlands adjoining the + oceans. It is crossed at about 19 degrees north latitude by a range of + volcanic mountains, running in almost a straight line east and west, upon + which are several extinct volcanic cones, and five active or quiescent + volcanoes. The highest of these is Popocatapetl, south of the city of + Mexico and nearly midway between the Atlantic and Pacific. + </p> + <p> + East of this mountain lies Orizabo, little below it in height, and San + Martin or Tuxtla, 9,700 feet high, on the coast south of Vera Cruz. West + of it is Jorullo, 4,000 feet, and Colima, 12,800, near the Pacific coast. + The volcanic energy continues southward toward the Isthmus, but decreases + north of this volcanic range. These mountains have shown little signs of + activity in recent times. Popocatapetl emits smoke, but there is no record + of an eruption since 1540. Orizabo has been quiet since 1566. Tuxtla had a + violent eruption in 1793, but since then has remained quiescent. Colima is + the only one now active. For ten years past it has been emitting ashes and + smoke. The most remarkable of these volcanoes is Jorullo, which closely + resembled Monte Nuovo, described in Chapter XIII., in its mode of origin. + </p> + <p> + Popocatapetl, the hill that smokes, in the Mexican language, the huge + mountain clothed in eternal snows, and regarded by the idolaters of old as + a god, towers up nearly 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, and in the + days of the conquest of Mexico was a volcano in a state of fierce + activity. It was looked upon by the natives with a strange dread, and they + told the white strangers with awe that no man could attempt to ascend its + slopes and yet live; but, from a feeling of vanity, or the love of + adventure, the Spaniards laughed at these fears, and accordingly a party + of ten of the followers of Cortes commenced the ascent, accompanied by a + few Indians. But these latter, after ascending about 13,000 feet to where + the last remains of stunted vegetation existed, became alarmed at the + subterranean bellowings of the volcano, and returned, while the Spaniards + still painfully toiled on through the rarefied atmosphere, their feet + crushing over the scoriae and black-glazed volcanic sand, until they stood + in the region of perpetual snow, amidst the glittering, treacherous + glaciers and crevasses, with vast slippery-pathed precipices yawning + round. + </p> + <p> + Still they toiled on in this wild and wondrous region. A few hours before + they were in a land of perpetual summer; here all was snow. They suffered + the usual distress awarded to those who dare to ascend to these solitudes + of nature but it was not given to them to achieve the summit, for + suddenly, at a higher elevation, after listening to various ominous + threatenings from the interior of the volcano, they encountered so fierce + a storm of smoke, cinders, and sparks, that they were driven back half + suffocated to the lower portions of the mountain. + </p> + <p> + Some time after another attempt was made; and upon this occasion with a + definite object. The invaders had nearly exhausted their stock of + gunpowder, and Cortes organized a party to ascend to the crater of the + volcano, to seek and bring down sulphur for the manufacture of this + necessary of warfare. This time the party numbered but five, led by one + Francisco Montano; and they experienced no very great difficulty in + winning their way upwards. The region of verdure gave place to the wild, + lava-strewn slope, which was succeeded in its turn by the treacherous + glaciers; and at last the gallant little band stood at the very edge of + the crater, a vast depression of over a league in circumference, and 1,000 + feet in depth. + </p> + <p> + SULPHUR FROM THE CRATER + </p> + <p> + Flame was issuing from the hideous abysses, and the stoutest man’s heart + must have quailed as he peered down into the dim, mysterious cavity to + where the sloping sides were crusted with bright yellow sulphur, and + listened to the mutterings which warned him of the pent-up wrath and power + of the mighty volcano. They knew that at any moment flame and stifling + sulphurous vapor might be belched forth, but now no cowardice was shown. + They had come provided with ropes and baskets, and it only remained to see + who should descend. Lots were therefore drawn, and it fell to Montano, who + was accordingly lowered by his followers in a basket 400 feet into the + treacherous region of eternal fires. + </p> + <p> + The basket swayed and the rope quivered and vibrated, but the brave + cavalier sturdily held to his task, disdaining to show fear before his + humble companions. The lurid light from beneath flashed upon his tanned + features, and a sulphurous steam rose slowly and condensed upon the sides; + but, whatever were his thoughts, the Spaniard collected as much sulphur as + he could take up with him, breaking off the bright incrustations, and even + dallying with his task as if in contempt of the danger, till he had + leisurely filed his basket, when the signal was given and he was drawn up. + The basket was emptied, and then he once more descended into the lurid + crater, collected another store and was again drawn up; but far from + shrinking from his task, he descended again several times, till a + sufficiency had been obtained, with which the party descended to the + plain. + </p> + <p> + THE VOLCANO JORULLO + </p> + <p> + No further back than the middle of the eighteenth century the site of + Jorullo was a level plain, including several highly-cultivated fields, + which formed the farm of Don Pedro di Jorullo. The plain was watered by + two small rivers, called Cuitimba and San Pedro, and was bounded by + mountains composed of basalt—the only indications of former volcanic + action. These fields were well irrigated, and among the most fertile in + the country, producing abundant crops of sugar-cane and indigo. + </p> + <p> + In the month of June, 1759, the cultivators of the farm began to be + disturbed by strange subterranean noises of an alarming kind, accompanied + by frequent shocks of earthquake, which continued for nearly a couple of + months; but they afterward entirely ceased, so that the inhabitants of the + place were lulled into security. On the night between the 28th and 29th of + September, however, the subterranean noises were renewed with greater + loudness than before, and the ground shook severely. The Indian servants + living on the place started from their beds in terror, and fled to the + neighboring mountains. Thence gazing upon their master’s farm they beheld + it, along with a tract of ground measuring between three and four square + miles, in the midst of which it stood, rise up bodily, as if it had been + inflated from beneath like a bladder. At the edges this tract was uplifted + only about 39 feet above the original surface, but so great was its + convexity that toward the middle it attained a height of no less than 524 + feet. + </p> + <p> + The Indians who beheld this strange phenomenon declared that they saw + flames issuing from several parts of this elevated tract, that the entire + surface became agitated like a stormy sea, that great clouds of ashes, + illuminated by volcanic fires glowing beneath them, rose at several + points, and that white-hot stones were thrown to an immense height. Vast + chasms were at the same time opened in the ground, and into these the two + small rivers above mentioned plunged. Their waters, instead of + extinguishing the subterranean conflagration, seemed only to add to its + intensity. Quantities of mud, enveloping balls of basalt, were then thrown + up, and the surface of the elevated ground became studded with small + cones, from which volumes of dense vapor, chiefly steam, were emitted, + some of the jets rising from 20 to 30 feet in height. + </p> + <p> + These cones the Indians called ovens, and in many of them was long heard a + subterranean noise resembling that of water briskly boiling. Out of a + great chasm in the midst of those ovens there were thrown up six larger + elevations, the highest being 1,640 feet above the level of the plain, + 4,315 above sea level, and now constituting the principal volcano of + Jorullo. The smallest of the six was 300 feet in height; the others of + intermediate elevation. The highest of these hills had on its summit a + regular volcanic crater, whence there have been thrown up great quantities + of dross and lava, containing fragments of older rocks. The ashes were + transported to immense distances, some of them having fallen on the houses + at Queretaro, more than forty-eight leagues from Jorullo. The volcano + continued in this energetic state of activity for about four months; in + the following years its eruptions became less frequent, but it still + continues to emit volumes of vapor from the principal crater, as well as + from many of the ovens in the upheaved ground. + </p> + <p> + EFFECT ON THE RIVERS + </p> + <p> + The two rivers, which disappeared on the first night of this great + eruption, now pursue an underground course for about a mile and a quarter, + and then reappear as hot springs, with a temperature of 126 degrees F. + </p> + <p> + This wonderful volcanic upheaval is all the more remarkable, from the + inland situation of the plain on which it occurred, it being no less than + 120 miles distant from the nearest ocean, while there is no other volcano + nearer to it than 80 miles. The activity of the ovens has now ceased, and + portions of the upheaved plain on which they are situated have again been + brought under cultivation, and the volcano is in a state of quiescence. + </p> + <p> + The crater of Popocatapetl, which towers to a height of 17,000 feet, is a + vast circular basin, whose nearly vertical walls are in some parts of a + pale rose tint, in others quite black. The bottom contains several small + fuming cones, whence arise vapors of changeable color, being successively + red, yellow and white. All round them are large deposits of sulphur, which + are worked for mercantile purposes. + </p> + <p> + Orizaba has a little less lofty snow-clad peak. This mountain was in brisk + volcanic activity from 1545 to 1560, but has since then relapsed into a + prolonged repose. It was climbed, in 1856, by Baron Muller, to whose mind + the crater appeared like the entrance to a lower world of horrible + darkness. He was struck with astonishment on contemplating the tremendous + forces required to elevate and rend such enormous masses—to melt + them, and then pile them up like towers, until by cooling they became + consolidated into their present forms. The internal walls of the crater + are in many places coated with sulphur, and at the bottom are several + small volcanic craters. At the time of his visit the summit was wholly + covered with snow, but the Indians affirmed that hot vapors occasionally + ascend from fissures in the rocks. Since then others have reached its + summit, among them Angelo Heilprin, the first to gaze into the crater of + Mont Pelee after its eruption. + </p> + <p> + ERUPTIONS IN NICARAGUA + </p> + <p> + On the 14th of November, 1867, there commenced an eruption from a mountain + about eight leagues to the eastward of the city of Leon, in Nicaragua. + This mountain does not appear to have been previously recognized as an + active volcano, but it is situated in a very volcanic country. The + outburst had probably some connection with the earthquake at St. Thomas, + which took place on the 18th of November following. The mountain continued + in a state of activity for about sixteen days. There was thrown out an + immense quantity of black sand, which was carried as far as to the coast + of the Pacific, fifty miles distant. Glowing stones were projected from + the crater to an estimated height of three thousand feet. + </p> + <p> + Central America is more prolific of volcanoes than Mexico, and the State + of Guatemala in particular. One authority credits this State with fifteen + or sixteen and another with more than thirty volcanic cones. Of these at + least five are decidedly active. Tajumalco, which was in eruption at the + time of the great earthquake of 1863, yields great quantities of sulphur, + as also does Quesaltenango. The most famous is the Volcan de Agua (Water + Volcano), so called from its overwhelming the old city of Guatemala with a + torrent of water in 1541. + </p> + <p> + Nicaragua is also rich in volcanoes, being traversed its entire length by + a remarkable chain of isolated volcanic cones, several of which are to + some extent active. We have already told the story of the tremendous + eruption of Coseguina in 1835, one of the most violent of modern times. + The latest important eruption here was that of Ometepec, a volcanic mount + on an island of the same name in Lake Nicaragua. This broke a long period + of repose on June 19, 1883, with a severe eruption, in which the lava, + pouring from a new crater, in seven days overflowed the whole island and + drove off its population. Incessant rumblings and earthquake shocks + accompanied the eruption, and mud, ashes, stones and lava covered the + mountain slopes, which had been cultivated for many centuries. These were + the most recent strong displays of volcanic energy in Central America, + though former great outflows of lava are indicated by great fields of + barren rock, which extend for miles. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. + </h2> + <h3> + The Terrible Eruption of Krakatoa. + </h3> + <p> + The most destructive volcanic explosion of recent times, one perhaps + unequalled in violence in all times, was that of the small mountain island + of Krakatoa, in the East Indian Archipelago, in 1883. This made its + effects felt round the entire globe, and excited such wide attention that + we feel called upon to give it a chapter of its own. + </p> + <p> + The island of Krakatoa lies in the Straits of Sunda, between Java and + Sumatra. In size it is insignificant, and had been silent so long that its + volcanic character was almost lost sight of. Of its early history we know + nothing. At some remote time in the past it may have appeared as a large + cone, of some twenty-five miles in circumference at base and not less than + 10,000 feet high. Then, still in unknown times, its cone was blown away by + internal forces, leaving only a shattered and irregular crater ring. This + crater was two or three miles in diameter, while the highest part of its + walls rose only a few hundred feet above the sea. Later volcanic work + built up a number of small cones within the crater, and still later a new + cone, called Rakata, rose on the edge of the old one to a height of 2,623 + feet. + </p> + <p> + The first known event in the history of the island volcano was an eruption + in the year 1680. After that it lay in repose, forming a group of islands, + one much larger than the others. Some of the smaller islands indicated the + rim of the old crater, much of which was buried under the sea. Its state + of quiescence continued for two centuries, a tropical vegetation richly + mantled the island, and to all appearance it had sunk permanently to rest. + </p> + <p> + Indications of a coming change appeared in 1880, in the form of + earthquakes, which shook all the region around. These continued at + intervals for more that two years. Then, on May 20, 1883, there were heard + at Batavia, a hundred miles away, “booming sounds like the firing of + artillery.” Next day the captain of a vessel passing through the Straits + saw that Krakatoa was in eruption, sending up clouds of smoke and showers + of dust and pumice. The smoke was estimated to reach a height of seven + miles, while the volcanic dust drifted to localities 300 miles away. + </p> + <p> + AWFUL PREMONITIONS + </p> + <p> + The mountain continued to play for about fourteen weeks with varying + activity, several parties meanwhile visiting it and making observations. + Such an eruption, in ordinary cases, would have ultimately died away, with + no marked change other than perhaps the ejection of a stream of lava. But + such was not now the case. The sequel was at once unexpected and terrible. + As the island was uninhabited, no one actually saw what took place, those + nearest to the scene of the eruption having enough to do to save their own + lives, while the dense clouds of vapor and dust baffled observation. + </p> + <p> + The phase of greatest violence set in on Sunday, August 26th. Soon after + midday sailors on passing ships saw that the island had vanished behind a + dense cloud of black vapor, the height of which was estimated at not less + than seventeen miles. At intervals frightful detonations resounded, and + after a time a rain of pumice began to fall at places ten miles distant. + For miles round fierce flashes of lightning rent the vapor, and at a + distance of fully forty miles ghostly corposants gleamed on the rigging of + a vessel. + </p> + <p> + These phenomena grew more and more alarming until August 27th, when four + explosions of fearful intensity shook earth and sea and air, the third + being “far the most violent and productive of the most widespread + results.” It was, in fact, perhaps the most tremendous volcanic outburst, + in its intensity, known in human history. It seemed to overcome the + obstruction to the energy of the internal forces, for the eruption now + declined, and in a day or two practically died away, though one or two + comparatively insignificant outbursts took place later. + </p> + <p> + FAR-REACHING DESTRUCTION + </p> + <p> + The eruption spread ruin and death over many surrounding leagues. At + Krakotoa itself, when men once more reached its shores, everything was + found to be changed. About two-thirds of the main island were blown + completely away. The marginal cone was cut nearly in half vertically, the + new cliff falling precipitously toward the centre of the crater. Where + land had been before now sea existed, in some places more than one hundred + feet deep. But the part of the island that remained had been somewhat + increased in size by ejected materials. + </p> + <p> + Of the other islands and islets some had disappeared; some were partially + destroyed; some were enlarged by fallen debris, while many changes had + taken place in the depth of the neighboring sea-bed. Two new islands, + Steers and Calmeyer, were formed. The ejected pumice, so cavernous in + structure as to float upon the water, at places formed great floating + islands which covered the sea for miles, and sometimes rose from four to + seven feet above it, proving a serious obstacle to navigation. On vessels + near by dust fell to the depth of eighteen inches. The enormous clouds of + volcanic dust which had been flung high into the air darkened the sky for + a great area around. At Batavia, about a hundred miles from the volcano, + it produced an effect not unlike that of a London fog. This began about + seven in the morning of August 27th. Soon after ten the light had become + lurid and yellow, and lamps were required in the houses; then came a + downfall of rain, mingled with dust, and by about half-past eleven the + town was in complete darkness. It soon after began to lighten, and the + rain to diminish, and about three o’clock it had ceased. + </p> + <p> + At Buitenzorg, twenty miles further away, the conditions were similar, but + lasted for a shorter time. In places much farther away the upper sky + presented a strangely murky aspect, and the sun assumed a green color. + Phenomena of this kind were traced over a broad area of the globe, even as + far as the Hawaiian Islands, while over a yet wider area the sky after + sunset was lit up by after-glows of extraordinary beauty. The height to + which the dust was projected has been calculated from various data, with + the result that 121,500 feet, or nearly 25 miles, is thought to be a + probable maximum estimate, though it may be that occasional fragments of + larger size were shot up to a still greater height. + </p> + <p> + A GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE ERUPTION + </p> + <p> + Another effect, of a distressing character, followed the eruption. A + succession of enormous waves, emanating from Krakatoa, traversed the sea, + and swept the coast bordering the Straits of Sunda with such force as to + destroy many villages on the low-lying shores in Java, Sumatra and other + islands. Some buildings at a height of fifty feet above sea-level were + washed away, and in some places the water rose higher, in one place + reaching the height of 115 feet. At Telok Betong, in Sumatra, a ship was + carried inland a distance of nearly two miles, and left stranded at a + height of thirty feet above the sea. + </p> + <p> + The eruption of Krakatoa seems to have been due to some deep-lying causes + of extraordinary violence, this appearing not only in the terrible + explosion which tore the island to fragments and sent its remnants as + floating dust many miles high into the air, but also from an internal + convulsion that affected many of the volcanoes of Java, which almost + simultaneously broke into violent eruption. We extract from Dr. Robert + Bonney’s “Our Earth and its Story” a description of these closely-related + events. + </p> + <p> + “The disturbances originated on the island of Krakatoa, with eruptions of + red hot stones and ashes, and by noon next day Semeru, the largest of the + Javanese volcanoes, was reported to be belching forth flames at an + alarming rate. The eruption soon spread to Gunung Guntur and other + mountains, until more than a third of the forty-five craters of Java were + either in activity or seriously threatening it. + </p> + <p> + “Just before dusk a great cloud hung over Gunung Guntur, and the crater of + the volcano began to emit enormous streams of white sulphurous mud and + lava, which were rapidly succeeded by explosions, followed by tremendous + showers of cinders and enormous fragments of rock, which were hurled high + into the air and scattered in all directions, carrying death and + destruction with them. The overhanging clouds were, moreover, so charged + with electricity that water-spouts added to the horror of the scene. The + eruption continued all Saturday night, and next day a dense cloud, shot + with lurid red, gathered over the Kedang range, intimating that an + eruption had broken out there. + </p> + <p> + “This proved to be the case, for soon after streams of lava poured down + the mountain sides into the valleys, sweeping everything before them. + About two o’clock on Monday morning—we are drawing on the account of + an eye-witness—the great cloud suddenly broke into small sections + and vanished. When light came it was seen that an enormous tract of land, + extending from Point Capucin on the south, and Negery Passoerang on the + north and west, to the lowest point, covering about fifty square miles, + had been temporarily submerged by the ‘tidal wave.’ Here were situated the + villages of Negery and Negery Babawang. Few of the inhabitants of these + places escaped death. This section of the island was less densely + populated than the other portions, and the loss of life was comparatively + small, although it must have aggregated several thousands. The waters of + Welcome Bay in the Sunda Straits, Pepper Bay on the east, and the Indian + Ocean on the south, had rushed in and formed a sea of turbulent waves. + </p> + <p> + DETONATIONS HEARD FOR MANY MILES AWAY + </p> + <p> + “On Monday night the volcano of Papandayang was in an active state of + paroxysmal eruption, accompanied by detonations which are said to have + been heard for many miles away. In Sumatra three distinct columns of flame + were seen to rise from a mountain to a vast height, and its whole surface + was soon covered with fiery lava streams, which spread to great distances + on all sides. Stones fell for miles around, and black fragmentary matter + carried into the air caused total darkness. A whirlwind accompanied the + eruption, by which house-roofs, trees, men, and horses were swept into the + air. The quantity of matter ejected was such as to cover the ground and + the roofs of the houses at Denamo to the depth of several inches. Suddenly + the scene changed. At first it was reported that Papandayang had been + split into seven distinct peaks. This proved untrue; but in the open seams + formed could be seen great balls of molten matter. From the fissures + poured forth clouds of steam and black lava, which, flowing in steady + streams, ran slowly down the mountain sides, forming beds 200 or 300 feet + in extent. At the entrance to Batavia was a large group of houses + extending along the shore, and occupied by Chinamen. This portion of the + city was entirely destroyed, and not many of the Chinese who lived on the + swampy plains managed to save their lives. They stuck to their homes till + the waves came and washed them away, fearing torrents of flame and lava + more than torrents of water. + </p> + <p> + “Of the 3,500 Europeans and Americans in Batavia—which for several + hours was in darkness, owing to the fall of ashes—800 perished at + Anjer. The European and American quarter was first overwhelmed by rocks, + mud and lava from the crater, and then the waters came up and swallowed + the ruins, leaving nothing to mark the site, and causing the loss of about + 200 lives of the inhabitants and those who sought refuge there.” + </p> + <p> + The loss of life above mentioned was but a small fraction of the total + loss. All along the coasts of the adjoining large islands towns and + villages were swept away and their inhabitants drowned, till the total + loss was, as nearly as could be estimated, 36,000 souls. Krakatoa thus + surpassed Mont Pelee in its tale of destruction. These two, indeed, have + been the most destructive to life of known volcanic explosions, since the + volcano usually falls far short of the earthquake in its murderous + results. + </p> + <p> + The distant effects of this explosion were as remarkable as the near ones. + The concussion of the air reached to an unprecedented distance and the + clouds of floating dust encircled the earth, producing striking phenomena + of which an account is given at the end of this chapter. + </p> + <p> + The rapidity with which the effects of the Krakatoa eruption made + themselves evident in all parts of the earth is perhaps the most + remarkable outcome of this extraordinary event. The floating pumice + reached the harbor of St. Paul on the 22nd of March, 1884, after having + made a voyage of some two hundred and sixty days at a rate of six-tenths + of a mile an hour. Immense quantities of pumice of a similar description, + and believed to have been derived from the same source, reached Tamatave + in Madagascar five months later, and no doubt much of it long continued to + float round the world. + </p> + <p> + SERIES OF ATMOSPHERIC WAVES + </p> + <p> + Another result of the eruption was the series of atmospheric waves, caused + by the disturbance in the atmosphere, which affected the barometer over + the entire world. The velocity with which these waves traveled has been + variously estimated at from 912.09 feet to 1066.29 feet per second. This + speed is, of course, very much inferior to that at which sound travels + through the air. Yet, in three distinct cases, the noise of the Krakatoa + explosions was plainly heard at a distance of at least 2,200 miles, and in + one instance—that recorded from Rodriguez—of nearly 3,000. The + sound travelled to Ceylon, Burmah, Manila, New Guinea and Western + Australia, places, however, within a radius of about 2,000 miles; out + Diego Garcia lies outside that area, and Rodriguez a thousand miles beyond + it. Six days subsequent to the explosion, after the atmospheric waves had + traveled four times round the globe, the barometer was still affected by + them. + </p> + <p> + Another result, similar in kind, was the extraordinary dissemination of + the great ocean wave, which in a like manner seems to have encircled the + earth, since high waves, without evident cause, appeared not only in the + Pacific, but at many places on the Atlantic coast within a few days after + the event. They were observed alike in England and at New York. The writer + happened to be at Atlantic City, on the New Jersey coast, at this time. It + was a period of calm, the winds being at rest, but, unheralded, there came + in an ocean wave of such height as to sweep away the ocean-front boardwalk + and do much other damage. He ascribed this strange wave at the time to the + Krakatoa explosion, and is of the same opinion still. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the account given of this extraordinary volcanic event, it + seems desirable to give Sir Robert S. Ball’s description of it in his + recent work, “The Earth’s Beginnings.” While repeating to some extent what + we have already said, it is worthy, from its freshness of description and + general readability, of a place here. + </p> + <p> + SIR ROBERT S. BALL’S DESCRIPTION + </p> + <p> + “Until the year 1883 few had ever heard of Krakatoa. It was unknown to + fame, as are hundreds of other gems of glorious vegetation set in tropical + waters. It was not inhabited, but the natives from the surrounding shores + of Sumatra and Java used occasionally to draw their canoes up on its + beach, while they roamed through the jungle in search of the wild fruits + that there abounded. It was known to the mariner who navigated the Straits + of Sunda, for it was marked on his charts as one of the perils of the + intricate navigation in those waters. It was no doubt recorded that the + locality had been once, or more than once, the seat of an active volcano. + In fact, the island seemed to owe its existence to some frightful eruption + of by-gone days; but for a couple of centuries there had been no fresh + outbreak. It almost seemed as if Krakatoa might be regarded as a volcano + that had become extinct. In this respect it would only be like many other + similar objects all over the globe, or like the countless extinct + volcanoes all over the moon. + </p> + <p> + “As the summer of 1883 advanced the vigor of Krakatoa, which had sprung + into notoriety at the beginning of the year, steadily increased and the + noises became more and more vehement; these were presently audible on + shores ten miles distant, and then twenty miles distant; and still those + noises waxed louder and louder, until the great thunders of the volcano, + now so rapidly developing, astonished the inhabitants that dwelt over an + area at least as large as Great Britain. And there were other symptoms of + the approaching catastrophe. With each successive convulsion a quantity of + fine dust was projected aloft into the clouds. The wind could not carry + this dust away as rapidly as it was hurled upward by Krakatoa, and + accordingly the atmosphere became heavily charged with suspended + particles. + </p> + <p> + “A pall of darkness thus hung over the adjoining seas and islands. Such + was the thickness and density of these atmospheric volumes of Krakatoa + dust that, for a hundred miles around, the darkness of midnight prevailed + at midday. Then the awful tragedy of Krakatoa took place. Many thousands + of the unfortunate inhabitants of the adjacent shores of Sumatra and Java + were destined never to behold the sun again. They were presently swept + away to destruction in an invasion of the shore by the tremendous waves + with which the seas surrounding Krakatoa were agitated. + </p> + <p> + “As the days of August passed by the spasms of Krakatoa waxed more and + more vehement. By the middle of that month the panic was widespread, for + the supreme catastrophe was at hand. On the night of Sunday, August 26, + 1883, the blackness of the dust-clouds, now much thicker than ever in the + Straits of Sunda and adjacent parts of Sumatra and Java, was only + occasionally illumined by lurid flashes from the volcano. + </p> + <p> + “At the town of Batavia, a hundred miles distant, there was no quiet that + night. The houses trembled with subterranean violence, and the windows + rattled as if heavy artillery were being discharged in the streets. And + still these efforts seemed to be only rehearsing for the supreme display. + By ten o’clock on the morning of Monday, August 27, 1883, the rehearsals + were over, and the performance began. An overture, consisting of two or + three introductory explosions, was succeeded by a frightful convulsion + which tore away a large part of the island of Krakatoa and scattered it to + the winds of heaven. In that final outburst all records of previous + explosions on this earth were completely broken. + </p> + <p> + AN EXTRAORDINARY NOISE + </p> + <p> + “This supreme effort it was which produced the mightiest noise that, so + far as we can ascertain, has ever been heard on this globe. It must have + been indeed a loud noise which could travel from Krakatoa to Batavia and + preserve its vehemence over so great a distance; but we should form a very + inadequate conception of the energy of the eruption of Krakatoa if we + thought that its sounds were heard by those merely a hundred miles off. + This would be little indeed compared with what is recorded on testimony + which it is impossible to doubt. + </p> + <p> + “Westward from Krakatoa stretches the wide expanse of the Indian Ocean. On + the opposite side from the Straits of Sunda lies the island of Rodriguez, + the distance from Krakatoa being almost three thousand miles. It has been + proved by evidence which cannot be doubted that the thunders of the great + volcano attracted the attention of an intelligent coast-guard on + Rodriguez, who carefully noted the character of the sounds and the time of + their occurrence. He had heard them just four hours after the actual + explosion, for this is the time the sound occupied on its journey. + </p> + <p> + A CONSTANT WIND + </p> + <p> + “This mighty incident at Krakatoa has taught us other lessons on the + constitution of our atmosphere. We previously knew little, or I might say + almost nothing, as to the conditions prevailing above the height of ten + miles overhead. It was Krakatoa which first gave us a little information + which was greatly wanted. How could we learn what winds were blowing at a + height four times as great as the loftiest mountain on the earth, and + twice as great as the loftiest altitude to which a balloon has ever + soared? No doubt a straw will show which way the wind blows, but there are + no straws up there. There was nothing to render the winds perceptible + until Krakatoa came to our aid. Krakatoa drove into those winds prodigious + quantities of dust. Hundreds of cubic miles of air were thus deprived of + that invisibility which they had hitherto maintained. + </p> + <p> + “With eyes full of astonishment men watched those vast volumes of Krakatoa + dust on a tremendous journey. Of course, every one knows the so-called + trade-winds on our earth’s surface, which blow steadily in fixed + directions, and which are of such service to the mariner. But there is yet + another constant wind. It was first disclosed by Krakatoa. Before the + occurrence of that eruption, no one had the slightest suspicion that far + up aloft, twenty miles over our heads, a mighty tempest is incessantly + hurrying, with a speed much greater than that of the awful hurricane which + once laid so large a part of Calcutta on the ground and slew so many of + its inhabitants. Fortunately for humanity, this new trade-wind does not + come within less than twenty miles of the earth’s surface. We are thus + preserved from the fearful destruction that its unintermittent blasts + would produce, blasts against which no tree could stand and which would, + in ten minutes, do as much damage to a city as would the most violent + earthquake. When this great wind had become charged with the dust of + Krakatoa, then, for the first, and, I may add, for the only time, it stood + revealed to human vision. Then it was seen that this wind circled round + the earth in the vicinity of the equator, and completed its circuit in + about thirteen days. + </p> + <p> + A VAST CLOUD Of DUST + </p> + <p> + “The dust manufactured by the supreme convulsion was whirled round the + earth in the mighty atmospheric current into which the volcano discharged + it. As the dust-cloud was swept along by this incomparable hurricane it + showed its presence in the most glorious manner by decking the sun and the + moon in hues of unaccustomed splendor and beauty. The blue color in the + sky under ordinary circumstances is due to particles in the air, and when + the ordinary motes of the sunbeam were reinforced by the introduction of + the myriads of motes produced by Krakatoa even the sun itself sometimes + showed a blue tint. Thus the progress of the great dust-cloud was traced + out by the extraordinary sky effects it produced, and from the progress of + the dust-cloud we inferred the movements of the invisible air current + which carried it along. Nor need it be thought that the quantity of + material projected from Krakatoa should have been inadequate to produce + effects of this world-wide description. Imagine that the material which + was blown to the winds of heaven by the supreme convulsion of Krakatoa + could be all recovered and swept into one vast heap. Imagine that the heap + were to have its bulk measured by a vessel consisting of a cube one mile + long, one mile broad and one mile deep; it has been estimated that even + this prodigious vessel would have to be filled to the brim at least ten + times before all the products of Krakatoa had been measured.” + </p> + <p> + It is not specially to the quantity of material ejected from Krakatoa that + it owes its reputation. Great as it was, it has been much surpassed. + Professor Judd says that the great eruptions of Papapandayang, in Java, in + 1772, of Skaptur Jokull, in Iceland, in 1783, and of Tamboro, in Sumbawa, + in 1815, were marked by the extrusion of much larger quantities of + material. The special feature of the Krakatoa eruption was its extreme + violence, which flung volcanic dust to a height probably never before + attained, and produced sea and air waves of an intensity unparalleled in + the records of volcanic action. Judd thinks this was due to the situation + of the crater, and the possible inflow through fissures of a great volume + of sea water to the interior lava, the result being the sudden production + of an enormous volume of steam. + </p> + <p> + EXTRAORDINARY RED SUNSETS + </p> + <p> + The red sunsets spoken of above were so extraordinary in character that a + fuller description of them seems advisable. A remarkable fact concerning + them is the great rapidity with which they were disseminated to distant + regions of the earth. They appeared around the entire equatorial zone in a + few days after the eruption, this doubtless being due to the great + rapidity with which the volcanic dust was carried by the upper air + current. They were seen at Rodriguez, 3,000 miles away, on August 28, and + within a week in every part of the torrid zone. From this zone they spread + north and south with less rapidity. Their first appearance in Australia + was on September 15th, and at the Cape of Good Hope on the 20th. On the + latter day they were observed in California and the Southern United + States. They were first seen in England on November 9th. Elsewhere in + Europe and the United States they appeared from November 20th to 30th. + </p> + <p> + The effect lasted in some instances as long as an hour and three-quarters + after sunset. In India the sun and skies assumed a greenish hue, and there + was much curiosity regarding the cause of the “green sun.” Another + remarkable phenomenon of this period was the great prevalence of rain + during the succeeding winter. This probably was due to the same cause; + that is, to the fact of the air being so filled with dust; the prevailing + theory in regard to rain being that the existence of dust in the air is + necessary to its fall. The vapor of the air concentrates into drops around + such minute particles, the result being that where dust is absent rain + cannot fall. + </p> + <p> + As regards the sunsets spoken of, there are three similar instances on + record. The first of these was in the year 526, when a dry fog covered the + Roman Empire with a red haze. Nothing further is known concerning it. The + other instances were in the years 1783 and 1831. The former of these has + been traced to the great eruption of Skaptur Jokull in that year. It + lasted for several months as a pale blue haze, and occasioned so much + obscurity that the sun was only visible when twelve degrees above the + horizon, and then it had a blood-red appearance. Violent thunderstorms + were associated with it, thus assimilating it with that of 1883. Alike in + 1783 and 1831 there was a pearly, phosphorescent gleam in the atmosphere, + by which small print could be read at midnight. We know nothing regarding + the meteorological conditions of 1831. + </p> + <p> + The red sunsets of 1883 were remarkable for their long persistence. They + were observed in the autumn of 1884 with almost their original brilliancy, + and they were still visible in 1885, being seen at intervals, as if the + dust was then distributed in patches, and driven about by the winds. In + fact, similar sunsets were occasionally visible for several years + afterwards. These may well have been due to the same cause, when we + consider with what extreme slowness very fine dust makes its way through + the air, and how much it may be affected by the winds. + </p> + <p> + THE RED SUNSETS DESCRIBED + </p> + <p> + One writer describes the appearance of these sunsets in the following + terms: “Immediately after sunset a patch of white light appeared ten or + fifteen degrees above the horizon, and shone for ten minutes with a pearly + lustre. Beneath it a layer of bright red rested on the horizon, melting + upward into orange, and this passed into yellow light, which spread around + the lucid spot. Next the white light grew of a rosy tint, and soon became + an intense rose hue. A vivid golden oriole yellow strip divided it from + the red fringe below and the rose red above.” This description, although + exaggerated, represents the general conditions of the phenomenon. + </p> + <p> + On October 20th, 1884, the author observed the sunset effect as follows: + “Immediately after the sun had set, a broad cone of silvery lustre rested + upon a horizon of smoky pink. After fifteen minutes the white became rose + color above and yellowish below, deepening to lemon color, and finally + into reddish tint, while the rose faded out. The whole cone gradually sank + and died away in the brownish red flush on the horizon, more than an hour + after sunset.” The time of duration varied, since, on the succeeding + evening, it lasted only a half-hour. These sunset effects, if we can + justly attribute them all to the Krakatoa eruption, were extraordinary not + alone for their intensity and beauty but for their extended duration, the + influence of this remarkable volcanic outbreak being visible for several + years after the event. + </p> + <p> + Though no doubt is entertained concerning the cause of the red sunset + effects of 1783 and 1883, that of 1831 is not so readily explained, there + having been no known volcanic explosion of great intensity in that year. + But in view of the fact that volcanoes exist in unvisited parts of the + earth, some of which may have been at work unknown to scientific man, this + difficulty is not insuperable. Possibly Mounts Erebus or Terror, the + burning mountains of the Antarctic zone, may, unseen by man, have prepared + for civilized lands this grand spectacular effect of Nature’s doings. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. + </h2> + <h3> + Mount Pelee and its Harvest of Death. + </h3> + <p> + St. Pierre, the principal city of the French island of Martinique, in the + West Indies, lies for the length of about a mile along the island coast, + with high cliffs hemming it in, its houses climbing the slope, tier upon + tier. At one place where a river breaks through the cliffs, the city + creeps further up towards the mountains. As seen from the bay, its + appearance is picturesque and charming, with the soft tints of its tiles, + the grey of its walls, the clumps of verdure in its midst, and the wall of + green in the rear. Seen from its streets this beauty disappears, and the + chief attraction of the town is gone. + </p> + <p> + Back from the three miles of hills which sweep in an arc round the town, + is the noble Montagne Pelee lying several miles to the north of the city, + a mass of dark rock some four thousand feet high, with jagged outline, and + cleft with gorges and ravines, down which flow numerous streams, gushing + from the crater lake of the great volcano. + </p> + <p> + Though known to be a volcano, it was looked upon as practically extinct, + though as late as August, 1856, it had been in eruption. No lava at that + time came from its crater, but it hurled out great quantities of ashes and + mud, with strong sulphurous odor. Then it went to rest again, and slept + till 1902. + </p> + <p> + The people had long ceased to fear it. No one expected that grand old + Mount Pelee, the slumbering (so it was thought) tranquil old hill, would + ever spurt forth fire and death. This was entirely unlooked for. Mont + Pelee was regarded by the natives as a sort of protector; they had an + almost superstitious affection for it. From the outskirts of the city it + rose gradually, its sides grown thick with rich grass, and dotted here and + there with spreading shrubbery and drooping trees. There was no pleasanter + outing for an afternoon than a journey up the green, velvet-like sides of + the towering mountain and a view of the quaint, picturesque city + slumbering at its base. + </p> + <p> + A PEACEFUL SCENE + </p> + <p> + There were no rocky cliffs, no crags, no protruding boulders. The mountain + was peace itself. It seemed to promise perpetual protection. The poetic + natives relied upon it to keep back storms from the land and frighten, + with its stern brow, the tempests from the sea. They pointed to it with + profoundest pride as one of the most beautiful mountains in the world. + </p> + <p> + Children played in its bowers and arbors; families picnicked there day + after day during the balmy weather; hundreds of tourists ascended to the + summit and looked with pleasure at the beautiful crystal lake which + sparkled and glinted in the sunshine. Mont Pelee was the place of + enjoyment of the people of St. Pierre. I can hear the placid natives say: + “Old Father Pelee is our protector—not our destroyer.” + </p> + <p> + Not until two weeks before the eruption did the slumbering mountain show + signs of waking to death and disaster. On the 23d of April it first + displayed symptoms of internal disquiet. A great column of smoke began to + rise from it, and was accompanied from time to time by showers of ashes + and cinders. + </p> + <p> + Despite these signals, there was nothing until Monday, May 5th, to + indicate actual danger. On that day a stream of smoking mud and lava burst + through the top of the crater and plunged into the valley of the River + Blanche, overwhelming the Guerin sugar works and killing twenty-three + workmen and the son of the proprietor. Mr. Guerin’s was one of the largest + sugar works on the island; its destruction entailed a heavy loss. The mud + which overwhelmed it followed the beds of streams towards the north of the + island. + </p> + <p> + The alarm in the city was great, but it was somewhat allayed by the report + of an expert commission appointed by the Governor, which decided that the + eruption was normal and that the city was in no peril. To further allay + the excitement, the Governor, with several scientists, took up his + residence in St. Pierre. He could not restrain the people by force, but + the moral effect of his presence and the decision of the scientists had a + similar disastrous result. + </p> + <p> + A GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION BY A SUFFERER. + </p> + <p> + The existing state of affairs during these few waiting days is so + graphically given in a letter from Mrs. Thomas T. Prentis, wife of the + United States Consul at St. Pierre, to her sister in Melrose, a suburban + city of Boston, that we quote it here: + </p> + <p> + “My Dear Sister: This morning the whole population of the city is on the + alert and every eye is directed toward Mont Pelee, an extinct volcano. + Everybody is afraid that the volcano has taken into its heart to burst + forth and destroy the whole island. + </p> + <p> + “Fifty years ago Mont Pelee burst forth with terrific force and destroyed + everything within a radius of several miles. For several days the mountain + has been bursting forth in flame and immense quantities of lava are + flowing down its sides. + </p> + <p> + “All the inhabitants are going up to see it. There is not a horse to be + had on the island, those belonging to the natives being kept in readiness + to leave at a moment’s notice. + </p> + <p> + “Last Wednesday, which was April 23d, I was in my room with little + Christine, and we heard three distinct shocks. They were so great that we + supposed at first that there was some one at the door, and Christine went + and found no one there. The first report was very loud, and the second and + third were so great that dishes were thrown from the shelves and the house + was rocked. + </p> + <p> + “We can see Mont Pelee from the rear windows of our house, and although it + is fully four miles away, we can hear the roar of the fire and lava + issuing from it. + </p> + <p> + “The city is covered with ashes and clouds of smoke have been over our + heads for the last five days. The smell of sulphur is so strong that + horses on the streets stop and snort, and some of them are obliged to give + up, drop in their harness and die from suffocation. Many of the people are + obliged to wear wet handkerchiefs over their faces to protect them from + the fumes of sulphur. + </p> + <p> + “My husband assures me that there is no immediate danger, and when there + is the least particle of danger we will leave the place. There is an + American schooner, the R. F. Morse, in the harbor, and she will remain + here for at least two weeks. If the volcano becomes very bad we shall + embark at once and go out to sea. The papers in this city are asking if we + are going to experience another earthquake similar to that which struck + here some fifty years ago.” + </p> + <p> + THE FATEFUL EIGHTH OF MAY + </p> + <p> + The writer of this letter and her husband, Consul Prentis, trusted Mont + Pelee too long. They perished, with all the inhabitants of the city, in a + deadly flood of fire and ashes that descended on the devoted place on the + fateful morning of Thursday, May 8th. Only for the few who were rescued + from the ships in the harbor there would be scarcely a living soul to tell + that dread story of ruin and death. The most graphic accounts are those + given by rescued officers of the Roraima, one of the fleet of the Quebec + Steamship Co., trading with the West Indies. This vessel had left the + Island of Dominica for Martinique at midnight of Wednesday, and reached + St. Pierre about 7 o’clock Thursday morning. The greatest difficulty was + experienced in getting into port, the air being thick with falling ashes + and the darkness intense. The ship had to grope its way to the anchorage. + Appalling sounds were issuing from the mountain behind the town, which was + shrouded in darkness. The ashes were falling thickly on the steamer’s + deck, where the passengers and others were gazing at the town, some being + engaged in photographing the scene. + </p> + <p> + The best way in which we can describe a scene of which few lived to tell + the story, is to give the narratives of a number of the survivors. From + their several stories a coherent idea of the terrible scene can be formed. + From the various accounts given of the terrible explosion by officers of + the Roraima, we select as a first example the following description by + Assistant Purser Thompson: + </p> + <p> + A TALE OF SUDDEN RUIN + </p> + <p> + “I saw St. Pierre destroyed. It was blotted out by one great flash of + fire. Nearly 40,000 persons were all killed at once. Out of eighteen + vessels lying in the roads only one, the British steamship Roddam, + escaped, and she, I hear, lost more than half on board. It was a dying + crew that took her out. + </p> + <p> + “Our boat, the Roraima, of the Quebec Line, arrived at St. Pierre early + Thursday morning. For hours before we entered the roadstead we could see + flames and smoke rising from Mont Pelee. No one on board had any idea of + danger. Captain G. T. Muggah was on the bridge, and all hands got on deck + to see the show. + </p> + <p> + “The spectacle was magnificent. As we approached St. Pierre we could + distinguish the rolling and leaping of the red flames that belched from + the mountain in huge volumes and gushed high in to the sky. Enormous + clouds of black smoke hung over the volcano. + </p> + <p> + “When we anchored at St. Pierre I noticed the cable steamship Grappler, + the Roddam, three or four American schooners and a number of Italian and + Norwegian barks. The flames were then spurting straight up in the air, now + and then waving to one side or the other for a moment and again leaping + suddenly higher up. + </p> + <p> + “There was a constant muffled roar. It was like the biggest oil refinery + in the world burning up on the mountain top. There was a tremendous + explosion about 7.45 o’clock, soon after we got in. The mountain was blown + to pieces. There was no warning. The side of the volcano was ripped out, + and there was hurled straight toward us a solid wall of flame. It sounded + like thousands of cannon. + </p> + <p> + “The wave of fire was on us and over us like a lightning flash. It was + like a hurricane of fire. I saw it strike the cable steamship Grappler + broadside on and capsize her. From end to end she burst into flames and + then sank. The fire rolled in mass straight down upon St. Pierre and the + shipping. The town vanished before our eyes and the air grew stifling hot, + and we were in the thick of it. + </p> + <p> + “Wherever the mass of fire struck the sea the water boiled and sent up + vast clouds of steam. The sea was torn into huge whirlpools that careened + toward the open sea. + </p> + <p> + “One of these horrible hot whirlpools swung under the Roraima and pulled + her down on her beam ends with the suction. She careened way over to port, + and then the fire hurricane from the volcano smashed her, and over she + went on the opposite side. The fire wave swept off the masts and + smokestack as if they were cut with a knife. + </p> + <p> + HEAT CAUSED EXPLOSIONS + </p> + <p> + “Captain Muggah was the only one on deck not killed outright. He was + caught by the fire wave and terribly burned. He yelled to get up the + anchor, but, before two fathoms were heaved in the Roraima was almost + upset by the boiling whirlpool, and the fire wave had thrown her down on + her beam ends to starboard. Captain Muggah was overcome by the flames. He + fell unconscious from the bridge and toppled overboard. + </p> + <p> + “The blast of fire from the volcano lasted only a few minutes. It + shriveled and set fire to everything it touched. Thousands of casks of rum + were stored in St. Pierre, and these were exploded by the terrific heat. + The burning rum ran in streams down every street and out to the sea. This + blazing rum set fire to the Roraima several times. Before the volcano + burst the landings of St. Pierre were crowded with people. After the + explosion not one living being was seen on land. Only twenty-five of those + on the Roraima out of sixty-eight were left after the first flash. + </p> + <p> + “The French cruiser Suchet came in and took us off at 2 P. M. She remained + nearby, helping all she could, until 5 o’clock, then went to Fort de + France with all the people she had rescued. At that time it looked as if + the entire north end of the island was on fire.” + </p> + <p> + C. C. Evans, of Montreal, and John G. Morris, of New York, who were among + those rescued, say the vessel arrived at 6 o’clock. As eight bells were + struck a frightful explosion was heard up the mountain. A cloud of fire, + toppling and roaring, swept with lightning speed down the mountain side + and over the town and bay. The Roraima was nearly sunk, and caught fire at + once. + </p> + <p> + “I can never forget the horrid, fiery, choking whirlwind which enveloped + me,” said Mr. Evans. “Mr. Morris and I rushed below. We are not very badly + burned, not so bad as most of them. When the fire came we were going to + our posts (we are engineers) to weigh anchor and get out. When we came up + we found the ship afire aft, and fought it forward until 3 o’clock, when + the Suchet came to our rescue. We were then building a raft.” + </p> + <p> + “Ben” Benson, the carpenter of the Roraima, said: “I was on deck, + amidships, when I heard an explosion. The captain ordered me to up anchor. + I got to the windlass, but when the fire came I went into the forecastle + and got my ‘duds.’ When I came out I talked with Captain Muggah, Mr. + Scott, the first officer and others. They had been on the bridge. The + captain was horribly burned. He had inhaled flames and wanted to jump into + the sea. I tried to make him take a life-preserver. The captain, who was + undressed, jumped overboard and hung on to a line for a while. Then he + disappeared.” + </p> + <p> + THE COOPER’S STORY. + </p> + <p> + James Taylor, a cooper employed on the Roraima, gives the following + account of his experience of the disaster: + </p> + <p> + “Hearing a tremendous report and seeing the ashes falling thicker, I dived + into a room, dragging with me Samuel Thomas, a gangway man and fellow + countryman, shutting the door tightly. Shortly after I heard a voice, + which I recognized as that of the chief mate, Mr. Scott. Opening the door + with great caution, I drew him in. The nose of Thomas was burned by the + intense heat. + </p> + <p> + “We three and Thompson, the assistant purser, out of sixty-eight souls on + board, were the only persons who escaped practically uninjured. The heat + being unbearable, I emerged in a few moments, and the scene that presented + itself to my eyes baffles description. All around on the deck were the + dead and dying covered with boiling mud. There they lay, men, women and + little children, and the appeals of the latter for water were + heart-rending. When water was given them they could not swallow it, owing + to their throats being filled with ashes or burnt with the heated air. + </p> + <p> + “The ship was burning aft, and I jumped overboard, the sea being intensely + hot. I was at once swept seaward by a tidal wave, but, the sea receding a + considerable distance, the return wave washed me against an upturned sloop + to which I clung. I was joined by a man so dreadfully burned and + disfigured as to be unrecognizable. Afterwards I found he was the captain + of the Roraima, Captain Muggah. He was in dreadful agony, begging + piteously to be put on board his ship. + </p> + <p> + “Picking up some wreckage which contained bedding and a tool chest, I, + with the help of five others who had joined me on the wreck, constructed a + rude raft, on which we placed the captain. Then, seeing an upturned boat, + I asked one of the five, a native of Martinique, to swim and fetch it. + Instead of returning to us, he picked up two of his countrymen and went + away in the direction of Fort de France. Seeing the Roddam, which arrived + in port shortly after we anchored, making for the Roraima, I said good-bye + to the captain and swam back to the Roraima. + </p> + <p> + “The Roddam, however, burst into flames and put to sea. I reached the + Roraima at about half-past 2, and was afterwards taken off by a boat from + the French warship Suchet. Twenty-four others with myself were taken on to + Fort de France. Three of these died before reaching port. A number of + others have since died.” + </p> + <p> + Samuel Thomas, the gangway man, whose life was saved by the forethought of + Taylor, says that the scene on the burning ship was awful. The groans and + cries of the dying, for whom nothing could be done, were horrible. He + describes a woman as being burned to death with a living babe in her arms. + He says that it seemed as if the whole world was afire. + </p> + <p> + CONSUL AYME’S STATEMENT + </p> + <p> + The inflammable material in the forepart of the ship that would have + ignited that part of the vessel was thrown overboard by him and the other + two uninjured men. The Grappler, the telegraph company’s ship, was seen + opposite the Usine Guerin, and disappeared as if blown up by a submarine + explosion. The captain’s body was subsequently found by a boat from the + Suchet. + </p> + <p> + Consul Ayme, of Guadeloupe, who, as already stated, had hastened to Fort + de France on hearing of the terrible event, tells the story of the + disaster in the following words: + </p> + <p> + “Thursday morning the inhabitants of the city awoke to find heavy clouds + shrouding Mont Pelee crater. All day Wednesday horrid detonations had been + heard. These were echoed from St. Thomas on the north to Barbados on the + south. The cannonading ceased on Wednesday night, and fine ashes fell like + rain on St. Pierre. The inhabitants were alarmed, but Governor Mouttet, + who had arrived at St. Pierre the evening before, did everything possible + to allay the panic. + </p> + <p> + “The British steamer Roraima reached St. Pierre on Thursday with ten + passengers, among whom were Mrs. Stokes and her three children, and Mrs. + H. J. Ince. They were watching the rain of ashes, when, with a frightful + roar and terrific electric discharges, a cyclone of fire, mud and steam + swept down from the crater over the town and bay, sweeping all before it + and destroying the fleet of vessels at anchor off the shore. There the + accounts of the catastrophe so far obtainable cease. Thirty thousand + corpses are strewn about, buried in the ruins of St. Pierre, or else + floating, gnawed by sharks, in the surrounding seas. Twenty-eight charred, + half-dead human beings were brought here. Sixteen of them are already + dead, and only four of the whole number are expected to recover.” + </p> + <p> + A WOMAN’S EXPERIENCE ON THE “RORAIMA” + </p> + <p> + Margaret Stokes, the 9 year old daughter of the late Clement Stokes, of + New York, who, with her mother, a brother aged 4 and a sister aged 3 + years, was on the ill-fated steamer Roraima, was saved from that vessel, + but is not expected to live. Her nurse, Clara King, tells the following + story of her experience: + </p> + <p> + She says she was in her stateroom, when the steward of the Roraima called + out to her: + </p> + <p> + “Look at Mont Pelee.” + </p> + <p> + She went on deck and saw a vast mass of black cloud coming down from the + volcano. The steward ordered her to return to the saloon, saying, “It is + coming.” + </p> + <p> + Miss King then rushed to the saloon. She says she experienced a feeling of + suffocation, which was followed by intense heat. The afterpart of the + Roraima broke out in flames. Ben Benson, the carpenter of the Roraima, + severely burned, assisted Miss King and Margaret Stokes to escape. With + the help of Mr. Scott, the first mate of the Roraima, he constructed a + raft, with life preservers. Upon this Miss King and Margaret were placed. + </p> + <p> + While this was being done Margaret’s little brother died. Mate Scott + brought the child water at great personal danger, but it was unavailing. + Shortly after the death of the little boy Mrs. Stokes succumbed. Margaret + and Miss King eventually got away on the raft, and were picked up by the + steamer Korona. Mate Scott also escaped. Miss King did not sustain serious + injuries. She covered the face of Margaret with her dress, but still the + child was probably fatally burned. + </p> + <p> + The only woman known at that time to have survived the disaster at St. + Pierre was a negress named Fillotte. She was found in a cellar Saturday + afternoon, where she had been for three days. She was still alive, but + fearfully burned from head to toes. She died afterward in the hospital. + </p> + <p> + CAPTAIN FREEMAN’S THRILLING ACCOUNT + </p> + <p> + Of the vessels in the harbor of St. Pierre on the fateful morning, only + one, the British steamer Roddam, escaped, and that with a crew of whom few + reached the open sea alive. Those who did escape were terribly injured. + Captain Freeman, of this vessel, tells what he experienced in the + following thrilling language: + </p> + <p> + “St. Lucia, British West Indies, May 11.—The steamer Roddam, of + which I am captain, left St. Lucia at midnight of May 7, and was off St. + Pierre, Martinique, at 6 o’clock on the morning of the 8th. I noticed that + the volcano, Mont Pelee, was smoking, and crept slowly in toward the bay, + finding there among others the steamer Roraima, the telegraph repairing + steamer Grappler and four sailing vessels. I went to anchorage between 7 + and 8 and had hardly moored when the side of the volcano opened out with a + terrible explosion. A wall of fire swept over the town and the bay. The + Roddam was struck broadside by the burning mass. The shock to the ship was + terrible, nearly capsizing her. + </p> + <p> + AWFUL RESULTS + </p> + <p> + “Hearing the awful report of the explosion and seeing the great wall of + flames approaching the steamer, those on deck sought shelter wherever it + was possible, jumping into the cabin, the forecastle and even into the + hold. I was in the chart room, but the burning embers were borne by so + swift a movement of the air that they were swept in through the door and + port holes, suffocating and scorching me badly. I was terribly burned by + these embers about the face and hands, but managed to reach the deck. + Then, as soon as it was possible, I mustered the few survivors who seemed + able to move, ordered them to slip the anchor, leaped for the bridge and + ran the engine for full speed astern. The second and the third engineer + and a fireman were on watch below and so escaped injury. They did their + part in the attempt to escape, but the men on deck could not work the + steering gear because it was jammed by the debris from the volcano. We + accordingly went ahead and astern until the gear was free, but in this + running backward and forward it was two hours after the first shock before + we were clear of the bay. + </p> + <p> + “One of the most terrifying conditions was that, the atmosphere being + charged with ashes, it was totally dark. The sun was completely obscured, + and the air was only illuminated by the flames from the volcano and those + of the burning town and shipping. It seems small to say that the scene was + terrifying in the extreme. As we backed out we passed close to the + Roraima, which was one mass of blaze. The steam was rushing from the + engine room, and the screams of those on board were terrible to hear. The + cries for help were all in vain, for I could do nothing but save my own + ship. When I last saw the Roraima she was settling down by the stern. That + was about 10 o’clock in the morning. + </p> + <p> + “When the Roddam was safely out of the harbor of St. Pierre, with its + desolations and horrors, I made for St. Lucia. Arriving there, and when + the ship was safe, I mustered the survivors as well as I was able and + searched for the dead and injured. Some I found in the saloon where they + had vainly sought for safety, but the cabins were full of burning embers + that had blown in through the port holes. Through these the fire swept as + through funnels and burned the victims where they lay or stood, leaving a + circular imprint of scorched and burned flesh. I brought ten on deck who + were thus burned; two of them were dead, the others survived, although in + a dreadful state of torture from their burns. Their screams of agony were + heartrending. Out of a total of twenty-three on board the Roddam, which + includes the captain and the crew, ten are dead and several are in the + hospital. My first and second mates, my chief engineer and my supercargo, + Campbell by name, were killed. The ship was covered from stem to stern + with tons of powdered lava, which retained its heat for hours after it had + fallen. In many cases it was practically incandescent, and to move about + the deck in this burning mass was not only difficult but absolutely + perilous. I am only now able to begin thoroughly to clear and search the + ship for any damage done by this volcanic rain, and to see if there are + any corpses in out-of-the-way places. For instance, this morning, I found + one body in the peak of the forecastle. The body was horribly burned and + the sailor had evidently crept in there in his agony to die. + </p> + <p> + “On the arrival of the Roddam at St. Lucia the ship presented an appalling + appearance. Dead and calcined bodies lay about the deck, which was also + crowded with injured helpless and suffering people. Prompt assistance was + rendered to the injured by the authorities here and my poor, tortured men + were taken to the hospital. The dead were buried. I have omitted to + mention that out of twenty-one black laborers that I brought from Grenada + to help in stevedoring, only six survived. Most of the others threw + themselves overboard to escape a dreadful fate, but they met a worse one, + for it is an actual fact that the water around the ship was literally at a + boiling heat. The escape of my vessel was miraculous. The woodwork of the + cabins and bridge and everything inflammable on deck were constantly + igniting, and it was with great difficulty that we few survivors managed + to keep the flames down. My ropes, awnings, tarpaulins were completely + burned up. + </p> + <p> + “I witnessed the entire destruction of St. Pierre. The flames enveloped + the town in every quarter with such rapidity that it was impossible that + any person could be saved. As I have said, the day was suddenly turned to + night, but I could distinguish by the light of the burning town people + distractedly running about on the beach. The burning buildings stood out + from the surrounding darkness like black shadows. All this time the + mountain was roaring and shaking, and in the intervals between these + terrifying sounds I could hear the cries of despair and agony from the + thousands who were perishing. These cries added to the terror of the + scene, but it is impossible to describe its horror or the dreadful + sensations it produced. It was like witnessing the end of the world. + </p> + <p> + “Let me add that, after the first shock was over, the survivors of the + crew rendered willing help to navigate the ship to this port. Mr. + Plissoneau, our agent in Martinique, happening to be on board, was saved, + and I really believe that he is the only survivor of St. Pierre. As it is, + he is seriously burned on the hands and face. + </p> + <p> + “FREEMAN, + </p> + <p> + “Master British Steamship Roddam.” + </p> + <p> + THE “ETONA” PASSES ST. PIERRE + </p> + <p> + The British steamer Etona, of the Norton Line, stopped at St. Lucia to + coal on May 10th. Captain Cantell there visited the Roddam and had an + interview with Captain Freeman. On the 11th the Elona put to sea again, + passing St. Pierre in the afternoon. We subjoin her captain’s story: + </p> + <p> + “The weather was clear and we had a fine view, but the old outlines of St. + Pierre were not recognizable. Everything was a mass of blue lava, and the + formation of the land itself seemed to have changed. When we were about + eight miles off the northern end of the island Mount Pelee began to belch + a second time. Clouds of smoke and lava shot into the air and spread over + all the sea, darkening the sun. Our decks in a few minutes were covered + with a substance that looked like sand dyed a bluish tint, and which + smelled like phosphorus. For all that the day was clear, there was little + to be seen satisfactorily. Over the island there hung a blue haze. It + seemed to me that the formation, the topography, of the island was + altered. + </p> + <p> + “Everything seemed to be covered with a blue dust, such as had fallen + aboard us every day since we had been within the affected region. It was + blue lava dust. For more than an hour we scanned the coast with our + glasses, now and then discovering something that looked like a ruined + hamlet or collection of buildings. There was no life visible. Suddenly we + realized that we might have to fight for our lives as the Roddam’s people + had done. + </p> + <p> + “We were about four miles off the northern end of the island when suddenly + there shot up in the air to a tremendous height a column of smoke. The sky + darkened and the smoke seemed to swirl down upon us. In fact, it spread + all around, darkening the atmosphere as far as we could see. I called + Chief Engineer Farrish to the deck. + </p> + <p> + “‘Do you see that over there?’ I asked, pointing to the eruption, for it + was the second eruption of Mont Pelee. He saw it all right. Captain + Freeman’s story was fresh in my mind. + </p> + <p> + “‘Well, Farrish, rush your engines as they have never been rushed before,’ + I said to him. He went below, and soon we began to burn coal and pile up + the feathers in our forefoot. + </p> + <p> + “I was on watch with Second Officer Gibbs. At once we began to furl + awnings and make secure against fire. The crew were all showing an anxious + spirit, and everybody on board, including the four passengers, were + serious and apprehensive. + </p> + <p> + “We began to cut through the water at almost twelve knots. Ordinarily we + make ten knots. We could see no more of the land contour, but everything + seemed to be enveloped in a great cloud. There was no fire visible, but + the lava dust rained down upon us steadily. In less than an hour there + were two inches of it upon our deck. + </p> + <p> + “The air smelled like phosphorus. No one dared to look up to try to locate + the sun, because one’s eyes would fill with lava dust. Some of the blue + lava dust is sticking to our mast yet, although we have swabbed decks and + rigging again and again to be clear of it. + </p> + <p> + “After a little more than an hour’s fast running we saw daylight ahead and + began to breathe easier. If I had not talked with Captain Freeman and + heard from him just how the black swirl of wind and fire rolled down upon + him, I would not have been so apprehensive, but would have thought that + the darkness and cloud that came down upon us meant just an unusually + heavy squall.” + </p> + <p> + CHIEF ENGINEER FARRISH’S STORY + </p> + <p> + “The Etona’s run from Montevideo was a fast one—I think a record + breaker. We were 22 days and 21 hours from port to port. Off Martinique I + stared at the coast for about an hour, and then went below. The blue lava + that covered everything faded into the haze that hung over the island so + that nothing was distinctly visible. Through my glass I discovered a + stream of lava, though. It stretched down the mountain side, and seemed to + be flowing into the sea. It was not clearly and distinctly visible, + however. + </p> + <p> + “About 3 o’clock I went below to take forty winks. I had been in my berth + only a few minutes when the steward told me the captain wanted me on the + bridge. + </p> + <p> + “‘Do you see that, Farrish?’ he asked, pointing at the land. An outburst + of smoke seemed to be sweeping down upon us. It made me think of the + Roddam’s experience. Smoke and dust closed in about us, shutting out the + sunlight, and precipitating a fall of lava on our decks. + </p> + <p> + “‘Go below and drive her,’ said the captain, and I didn’t lose any time, I + can tell you. We burned coal as though it didn’t cost a cent. The safety + valve was jumping every second, even though we were making twelve knots an + hour. For two hours we kept up the pace, and then, running into clear + daylight, let the engines slow down and we all cheered up a bit.” + </p> + <p> + CAPTAIN CANTELL VISITS THE “RODDAM” + </p> + <p> + Captain Cantell went on board the Roddam, whose frightful condition he + thus describes: + </p> + <p> + “At St. Lucia, on May 11th, I went on board the British steamship Roddam, + which had escaped from the terrible volcanic eruption at Martinique two + days before. The state of the ship was enough to show that those on board + must have undergone an awful experience. + </p> + <p> + “The Roddam was covered with a mass of fine bluish gray dust or ashes of + cement-like appearance. In some parts it lay two feet deep on the decks. + This matter had fallen in a red-hot state all over the steamer, setting + fire to everything it struck that was burnable, and, when it fell on the + men on board, burning off limbs and large pieces of flesh. This was shown + by finding portions of human flesh when the decks were cleared of the + debris. The rigging, ropes, tarpaulins, sails, awnings, etc., were charred + or burned, and most of the upper stanchions and spars were swept overboard + or destroyed by fire. Skylights were smashed and cabins were filled with + volcanic dust. The scene of ruin was deplorable. + </p> + <p> + “The captain, though suffering the greatest agony, succeeded in navigating + his vessel safely to the port of Castries, St. Lucia, with eighteen dead + bodies on the deck and human limbs scattered about. A sailor stood by + constantly wiping the captain’s injured eyes. + </p> + <p> + “I think the performance of the Roddam’s captain was most wonderful, and + the more so when I saw his pitiful condition. I do not understand how he + kept up, yet when the steamer arrived at St. Lucia and medical assistance + was procured, this brave man asked the doctors to attend to the others + first and refused to be treated until this was done. + </p> + <p> + “My interview with the captain brought out this account. I left him in + good spirits and receiving every comfort. The sight of his face would + frighten anyone not prepared to see it.” + </p> + <p> + THE VIVID ACCOUNT OF M. ALBERT + </p> + <p> + To the accounts given by the survivors of the Roraima and the officers of + the Etona, it will be well to add the following graphic story told by M. + Albert, a planter of the island, the owner of an estate situated only a + mile to the northeast of the burning crater of Mont Pelee. His escape from + death had in it something of the marvellous. He says: + </p> + <p> + “Mont Pelee had given warning of the destruction that was to come, but we, + who had looked upon the volcano as harmless, did not believe that it would + do more than spout fire and steam, as it had done on other occasions. It + was a little before eight o’clock on the morning of May 8 that the end + came. I was in one of the fields of my estate when the ground trembled + under my feet, not as it does when the earth quakes, but as though a + terrible struggle was going on within the mountain. A terror came upon me, + but I could not explain my fear. + </p> + <p> + “As I stood still Mont Pelee seemed to shudder, and a moaning sound issued + from its crater. It was quite dark, the sun being obscured by ashes and + fine volcanic dust. The air was dead about me, so dead that the floating + dust seemingly was not disturbed. Then there was a rending, crashing, + grinding noise, which I can only describe as sounding as though every bit + of machinery in the world had suddenly broken down. It was deafening, and + the flash of light that accompanied it was blinding, more so than any + lightning I have ever seen. + </p> + <p> + “It was like a terrible hurricane, and where a fraction of a second before + there had been a perfect calm, I felt myself drawn into a vortex and I had + to brace myself firmly. It was like a great express train rushing by, and + I was drawn by its force. The mysterious force levelled a row of strong + trees, tearing them up by the roots and leaving bare a space of ground + fifteen yards wide and more than one hundred yards long. Transfixed I + stood, not knowing in what direction to flee. I looked toward Mont Pelee, + and above its apex there appeared a great black cloud which reached high + in the air. It literally fell upon the city of St. Pierre. It moved with a + rapidity that made it impossible for anything to escape it. From the cloud + came explosions that sounded as though all of the navies of the world were + in titanic combat. Lightning played in and out in broad forks, the result + being that intense darkness was followed by light that seemed to be of + magnifying power. + </p> + <p> + “That St. Pierre was doomed I knew, but I was prevented from seeing the + destruction by a spur of the hill that shut off the view of the city. It + is impossible for me to tell how long I stood there inert. Probably it was + only a few seconds, but so vivid were my impressions that it now seems as + though I stood as a spectator for many minutes. When I recovered + possession of my senses I ran to my house and collected the members of the + family, all of whom were panic stricken. I hurried them to the seashore, + where we boarded a small steamship, in which we made the trip in safety to + Fort de France. + </p> + <p> + “I know that there was no flame in the first wave that was sent down upon + St. Pierre. It was a heavy gas, like firedamp, and it must have + asphyxiated the inhabitants before they were touched by the fire, which + quickly followed. As we drew out to sea in the small steamship, Mont Pelee + was in the throes of a terrible convulsion. New craters seemed to be + opening all about the summit and lava was flowing in broad streams in + every direction. My estate was ruined while we were still in sight of it. + Many women who lived in St. Pierre escaped only to know that they were + left widowed and childless. This is because many of the wealthier men sent + their wives away, while they remained in St. Pierre to attend to their + business affairs.” + </p> + <p> + WHAT HAPPENED ON THE “HORACE” + </p> + <p> + The British steamer Horace experienced the effect of the explosion when + farther from land. After touching at Barbados, she reached the vicinity of + Martinique on May 9th, her decks being covered with several inches of dust + when she was a hundred and twenty-five miles distant. We quote engineer + Anderson’s story: + </p> + <p> + “On the afternoon of May 8 (Thursday) we noticed a peculiar haze in the + direction of Martinique. The air seemed heavy and oppressive. The weather + conditions were not at all unlike those which precede the great West + Indian hurricanes, but, knowing it was not the season of the year for + them, we all remarked in the engine room that there must be a heavy storm + approaching. + </p> + <p> + “Several of the sailors, experienced deep water seamen, laughed at our + prognostications, and informed us there would be no storm within the next + sixty hours, and insisted that, according to all fo’cas’le indications, a + dead calm was in sight. + </p> + <p> + “So unusually peculiar were the weather conditions that we talked of + nothing else during the evening. That night, in the direction of + Martinique, there was a very black sky, an unusual thing at this season of + the year, and a storm was apparently brewing in a direction from which + storms do not come at this season. + </p> + <p> + GREAT FLASHES OF LIGHT + </p> + <p> + “As the night wore on those on watch noticed what appeared to be great + flashes of lightning in the direction of Martinique. It seemed as though + the ordinary conditions were reversed, and even the fo’cas’le prophets + were unable to offer explanations. + </p> + <p> + “Occasionally, over the pounding of the engines and the rush of water, we + thought we could hear long, deep roars, not unlike the ending of a deep + peal of thunder. Several times we heard the rumble or roar, but at the + time we were not certain as to exactly what it was, or even whether we + really heard it. + </p> + <p> + “There would suddenly come great flashes of light from the dark bank + toward Martinique. Some of them seemed to spread over a great area, while + others appeared to spout skyward, funnel shaped. All night this continued, + and it was not until day came that the flashes disappeared. The dark bank + that covered the horizon toward Martinique, however, did not fade away + with the breaking of day, and at eight in the morning of the 9th (Friday) + the whole section of the sky in that direction seemed dark and troubled. + </p> + <p> + “About nine o’clock Friday morning I was sitting on one of the hatches aft + with some of the other engineers and officers of the ship, discussing the + peculiar weather phenomena. I noticed a sort of grit that got into my + mouth from the end of the cigar I was smoking. + </p> + <p> + “I attributed it to some rather bad coal which we had shipped aboard, and, + turning to Chief Engineer Evans, I remarked that ‘that coal was mighty + dirty,’ and he said that it was covering the ship with a sort of grit. + Then I noticed that grit was getting on my clothes, and finally some one + suggested that we go forward of the funnels, so we would not get dirt on + us. As we went forward we met one or two of the sailors from the + forecastle, who wanted to know about the dust that was falling on the + ship. Then we found that the grayish-looking ash was sifting all over the + ship, both forward and aft. + </p> + <p> + ASHES RAINED ON THE SHIP + </p> + <p> + “Every moment the ashes rained down all over the ship, and at the same + time grew thicker. A few moments later, the lookout called down that we + were running into a fog-bank dead ahead. Fog banks in that section are + unheard of at nine o’clock in the morning at this season, and we were more + than a hundred miles from land, and what could fog and sand be doing + there. + </p> + <p> + “Before we knew it, we went into the fog, which proved to be a big dense + bank of this same sand, and it rained down on us from every side. + Ventilators were quickly brought to their places, and later even the + hatches were battened down. The dust became suffocating, and the men at + times had all they could do to keep from choking. What the stuff was we + could not at first conjecture, or rather, we didn’t have much time to + speculate on it, for we had to get our ship in shape to withstand we + hardly knew what. + </p> + <p> + “At first we thought that the sand must have been blown from shore. Then + we decided that if the Captain’s figures were right we wouldn’t be near + enough to shore to have sand blow on us, and as we had just cleared + Barbados, we knew that the Captain’s figures had to be right. + </p> + <p> + “Just as the storm of sand was at its height, Fourth Engineer Wild was + nearly suffocated by it, but was easily revived. About this time it became + so dark that we found it necessary to start up the electric lights, and it + was not until after we got clear from the fog that we turned the current + off. In the meantime they had burned from nine o’clock in the morning + until after two in the afternoon. + </p> + <p> + THE ENGINE BECAME CHOKED + </p> + <p> + “Then there was another anxious moment shortly after nine o’clock. Third + Engineer Rennie had been running the donkey engine, when suddenly it + choked, and when he finally got it clear from the sand or ashes, he found + the valves were all cut out, and then it was we discovered that it was not + sand, but some sort of a composition that seemed to cut steel like emery. + Then came the danger that it would get into the valves of the engine and + cut them out, and for several moments all hands scurried about and helped + make the engine room tight, and even then the ash drifted in and kept all + the engine room force wiping the engines clear of it. + </p> + <p> + “Toward three o’clock in the afternoon of Friday we were practically clear + of the sand, but at eleven o’clock that night we ran into a second bank of + it, though not as bad as the first. We made some experiments, and found + the stuff was superior to emery dust. It cut deeper and quicker, and only + about half as much was required to do the work. We made up our minds we + would keep what came on board, as it was better than the emery dust and + much cheaper, so we gathered it up. + </p> + <p> + “That night there were more of the same electric phenomena toward + Martinique, but it was not until we got into St. Lucia, where we saw the + Roddam, that we learned of the terrible disaster at St. Pierre, and then + we knew that our sand was lava dust.” + </p> + <p> + The volcanic ash which fell on the decks of the Horace was ground as fine + as rifle powder, and was much finer than that which covered the decks of + the Etona. + </p> + <p> + Returning to the stories told by officers of the Roraima, of which a + number have been given, it seems desirable to add here the narrative of + Ellery S. Scott, the mate of the ruined ship, since it gives a vivid and + striking account of his personal experience of the frightful disaster, + with many details of interest not related by others. + </p> + <p> + MATE SCOTT’S GRAPHIC STORY + </p> + <p> + “We got to St. Pierre in the Roraima,” began Mr. Scott, “at 6.30 o’clock + on Thursday morning. That’s the morning the mountain and the town and the + ships were all sent to hell in a minute. + </p> + <p> + “All hands had had breakfast. I was standing on the fo’c’s’l head trying + to make out the marks on the pipes of a ship ‘way out and heading for St. + Lucia. I wasn’t looking at the mountain at all. But I guess the captain + was, for he was on the bridge, and the last time I heard him speak was + when he shouted, ‘Heave up, Mr. Scott; heave up.’ I gave the order to the + men, and I think some of them did jump to get the anchor up, but nobody + knows what really happened for the next fifteen minutes. I turned around + toward the captain and then I saw the mountain. + </p> + <p> + “Did you ever see the tide come into the Bay of Fundy. It doesn’t sneak in + a little at a time as it does ‘round here. It rolls in in waves. That’s + the way the cloud of fire and mud and white-hot stones rolled down from + that volcano over the town and over the ships. It was on us in almost no + time, but I saw it and in the same glance I saw our captain bracing + himself to meet it on the bridge. He was facing the fire cloud with both + hands gripped hard to the bridge rail, his legs apart and his knees braced + back stiff. I’ve seen him brace himself that same way many a time in a + tough sea with the spray going mast-head high and green water pouring + along the decks. + </p> + <p> + “I saw the captain, I say, at the same instant I saw that ruin coming down + on us. I don’t know why, but that last glimpse of poor Muggah on his + bridge will stay with me just as long as I remember St. Pierre and that + will be long enough. + </p> + <p> + “In another instant it was all over for him. As I was looking at him he + was all ablaze. He reeled and fell on the bridge with his face toward me. + His mustache and eyebrows were gone in a jiffy. His hat had gone, and his + hair was aflame, and so were his clothes from head to foot. I knew he was + conscious when he fell, by the look in his eyes, but he didn’t make a + sound. + </p> + <p> + “That all happened a long way inside of half a minute; then something new + happened. When the wave of fire was going over us, a tidal wave of the sea + came out from the shore and did the rest. That wall of rushing water was + so high and so solid that it seemed to rise up and join the smoke and + flame above. For an instant we could see nothing but the water and the + flame. + </p> + <p> + “That tidal wave picked the ship up like a canoe and then smashed her. + After one list to starboard the ship righted, but the masts, the bridge, + the funnel and all the upper works had gone overboard. + </p> + <p> + “I had saved myself from fire by jamming a metal ventilator cover over my + head and jumping from the fo’c’s’l head. Two St. Kitts negroes saved me + from the water by grabbing me by the legs and pulling me down into the + fo’c’s’l after them. Before I could get up three men tumbled in on top of + me. Two of them were dead. + </p> + <p> + “Captain Muggah went overboard, still clinging to the fragments of his + wrecked bridge. Daniel Taylor, the ship’s cooper, and a Kitts native + jumped overboard to save him. Taylor managed to push the captain on to a + hatch that had floated off from us and then they swam back to the ship for + more assistance, but nothing could be done for the captain. Taylor wasn’t + sure he was alive. The last we saw of him or his dead body it was drifting + shoreward on that hatch. + </p> + <p> + “Well, after staying in the fo’c’s’l about twenty minutes I went out on + deck. There were just four of us left aboard who could do anything. The + four were Thompson, Dan Taylor, Quashee, and myself. It was still raining + fire and hot rocks and you could hardly see a ship’s length for dust and + ashes, but we could stand that. There were burning men and some women and + two or three children lying around the deck. Not just burned, but burning, + then, when we got to them. More than half the ship’s company had been + killed in that first rush of flame. Some had rolled overboard when the + tidal wave came and we never saw so much as their bodies. The cook was + burned to death in his galley. He had been paring potatoes for dinner and + what was left of his right hand held the shank of his potato knife. The + wooden handle was in ashes. All that happened to a man in less than a + minute. The donkey engineman was killed on deck sitting in front of his + boiler. We found parts of some bodies—a hand, or an arm or a leg. + Below decks there were some twenty alive. + </p> + <p> + “The ship was on fire, of course, what was left of it. The stumps of both + masts were blazing. Aft she was like a furnace, but forward the flames had + not got below deck, so we four carried those who were still alive on deck + into the fo’c’s’l. All of them were burned and most of them were half + strangled. + </p> + <p> + “One boy, a passenger and just a little shaver [the four-year-old son of + the late Clement Stokes, above spoken of] was picked up naked. His hair + and all his clothing had been burned off, but he was alive. We rolled him + in a blanket and put him in a sailor’s bunk. A few minutes later we looked + at him and he was dead. + </p> + <p> + “My own son’s gone, too. It had been his trick at lookout ahead during the + dog watch that morning, when we were making for St. Pierre, so I supposed + at first when the fire struck us that he was asleep in his bunk and safe. + But he wasn’t. Nobody could tell me where he was. I don’t know whether he + was burned to death or rolled overboard and drowned. He was a likely boy. + He had been several voyages with me and would have been a master some day. + He used to say he’d make me mate. + </p> + <p> + “After getting all hands that had any life left in them below and ‘tended + to the best we could, the four of us that were left half way ship-shape + started in to fight the fire. We had case oil stowed forward. Thanks to + that tidal wave that cleared our decks there wasn’t much left to burn, so + we got the fire down so’s we could live on board with it for several hours + more and then the four turned to to knock a raft together out of what + timber and truck we could find below. Our boats had gone overboard with + the masts and funnel. + </p> + <p> + PREPARED TO TRUST TO LUCK + </p> + <p> + “We made that raft for something over thirty that were alive. We put + provisions on for two days and rigged up a make-shift mast and sail, for + we intended to go to sea. We were only three boats’ length from the shore, + but the shore was hell itself. We intended to put straight out and trust + to luck that the Korona, that was about due at St. Pierre, would pick us + up. But we did not have to risk the raft, for about 3 o’clock in the + afternoon, when we were almost ready to put the raft overboard, the Suchet + came along and took us all off. We thought for a minute just after we were + wrecked that we were to get help from a ship that passed us. We burned + blue lights, but she kept on. We learned afterward that she was the + Roddam.” + </p> + <p> + Soundings made off Martinique after the explosion showed that earthquake + effects of much importance had taken place under the sea bottom, which had + been lifted in some places and had sunk in others. While deep crevices had + been formed on the land, a still greater effect had seemingly been + produced beneath the water. During the explosion the sea withdrew several + hundred feet from its shore line, and then came back steaming with fury; + this indicating a lift and fall of the ocean bed off the isle. Soundings + made subsequently near the island found in one place a depth of 4,000 feet + where before it had been only 600 feet deep. The French Cable Company, + which was at work trying to repair the cables broken by the eruption, + found the bottom of the Caribbean Sea so changed as to render the old + charts useless. + </p> + <p> + New charts will need to be made for future navigation. The changes in sea + levels were not confined to the immediate centre of volcanic activity, but + extended as far north as Porto Rico, and it was believed that the seismic + wave would be found to have altered the ocean bed round Jamaica. Vessels + plying between St. Thomas, Martinique, St. Lucia and other islands found + it necessary to heave the lead while many miles at sea. + </p> + <p> + It is estimated that the sea had encroached from ten feet to two miles + along the coast of St. Vincent near Georgetown, and that a section on the + north of the island had dropped into the sea. Soundings showed seven + fathoms where before the eruption there were thirty-six fathoms of water. + Vessels that endeavored to approach St. Vincent toward the north reported + that it was impossible to get nearer than eight miles to the scene of the + catastrophe, and that at that distance the ocean was seriously perturbed + as from a submarine volcano, boiling and hissing continually. + </p> + <p> + In this connection the remarkable experience reported by the officers of + the Danish steamship Nordby, on the day preceding the eruption, is of much + interest, as seeming to show great convulsions of the sea bottom at a + point several hundred miles from Martinique. The following is the story + told by Captain Eric Lillien-skjold: + </p> + <p> + THE STRANGE EXPERIENCE OF THE “NORDBY” + </p> + <p> + “On May 5th,” the captain said, “we touched at St. Michael’s for water. We + had had an easy voyage from Girgenti, in Sicily, and we wanted to finish + an easy run here. We left St. Michael’s on the same day. Nothing worth + while talking about occurred until two days afterward—Wednesday, May + 7th. + </p> + <p> + “We were plodding along slowly that day. About noon I took the bridge to + make an observation. It seemed to be hotter than ordinary. I shed my coat + and vest and got into what little shade there was. As I worked it grew + hotter and hotter. I didn’t know what to make of it. Along about 2 o’clock + in the afternoon it was so hot that all hands got to talking about it. We + reckoned that something queer was coming off, but none of us could explain + what it was. You could almost see the pitch softening in the seams. + </p> + <p> + “Then, as quick as you could toss a biscuit over its rail, the Nordby + dropped—regularly dropped—three or four feet down into the + sea. No sooner did it do this than big waves, that looked like they were + coming from all directions at once, began to smash against our sides. This + was queerer yet, because the water a minute before was as smooth as I ever + saw it. I had all hands piped on deck and we battened down everything + loose to make ready for a storm. And we got it all right—the + strangest storm you ever heard tell of. + </p> + <p> + “There was something wrong with the sun that afternoon. It grew red and + then dark red and then, about a quarter after 2, it went out of sight + altogether. The day got so dark that you couldn’t see half a ship’s length + ahead of you. We got our lamps going, and put on our oilskins, ready for a + hurricane. All of a sudden there came a sheet of lightning that showed up + the whole tumbling sea for miles and miles. We sort of ducked, expecting + an awful crash of thunder, but it didn’t come. There was no sound except + the big waves pounding against our sides. There wasn’t a breath of wind. + </p> + <p> + “Well, sir, at that minute there began the most exciting time I’ve ever + been through, and I’ve been on every sea on the map for twenty-five years. + Every second there’d be waves 15 or 20 feet high, belting us head-on, + stern-on and broadside, all at once. We could see them coming, for without + any stop at all flash after flash of lightning was blazing all about us. + </p> + <p> + “Something else we could see, too. Sharks! There were hundreds of them on + all sides, jumping up and down in the water. Some of them jumped clear out + of it. And sea birds! A flock of them, squawking and crying, made for our + rigging and perched there. They seemed like they were scared to death. But + the queerest part of it all was the water itself. It was hot—not so + hot that our feet could not stand it when it washed over the deck, but hot + enough to make us think that it had been heated by some kind of a fire. + </p> + <p> + “Well that sort of thing went on hour after hour. The waves, the + lightning, the hot water and the sharks, and all the rest of the odd + things happening, frightened the crew out of their wits. Some of them + prayed out loud—I guess the first time they ever did in their lives. + Some Frenchmen aboard kept running around and yelling, ‘Cest le dernier + jour!’ (This is the last day.) We were all worried. Even the officers + began to think that the world was coming to an end. Mighty strange things + happen on the sea, but this topped them all. + </p> + <p> + “I kept to the bridge all night. When the first hour of morning came the + storm was still going on. We were all pretty much tired out by that time, + but there was no such thing as trying to sleep. The waves still were + batting us around and we didn’t know whether we were one mile or a + thousand miles from shore. At 2 o’clock in the morning all the queer + goings on stopped just the way they began—all of a sudden. We lay to + until daylight; then we took our reckonings and started off again. We were + about 700 miles off Cape Henlopen. + </p> + <p> + “No, sir; you couldn’t get me through a thing like that again for $10,000. + None of us was hurt, and the old Nordby herself pulled through all right, + but I’d sooner stay ashore than see waves without wind and lightning + without thunder.” + </p> + <p> + FIERY STREAM CONTAINED POISONOUS GASES + </p> + <p> + Careful inspection showed that the fiery stream which so completely + destroyed St. Pierre must have been composed of poisonous gases, which + instantly suffocated every one who inhaled them, and of other gases + burning furiously, for nearly all the victims had their hands covering + their mouths, or were in some other attitude showing that they had + perished from suffocation. + </p> + <p> + It is believed that Mont Pelee threw off a great gasp of some exceedingly + heavy and noxious gas, something akin to firedamp, which settled upon the + city and rendered the inhabitants insensible. This was followed by the + sheet of flame that swept down the side of the mountain. This theory is + sustained by the experience of the survivors who were taken from the ships + in the harbor, as they say that their first experience was one of + faintness. + </p> + <p> + The dumb animals were wiser than man, and early took warning of the storm + of fire which Mont Pelee was storing up to hurl upon the island. Even + before the mountain began to rumble, late in April, live stock became + uneasy, and at times were almost uncontrollable. Cattle lowed in the + night. Dogs howled and sought the company of their masters, and when + driven forth they gave every evidence of fear. + </p> + <p> + Wild animals disappeared from the vicinity of Mont Pelee. Even the snakes, + which at ordinary times are found in great numbers near the volcano, + crawled away. Birds ceased singing and left the trees that shaded the + sides of Pelee. A great fear seemed to be upon the island, and though it + was shared by the human inhabitants, they alone neglected to protect + themselves. + </p> + <p> + Of the villages in the vicinity of St. Pierre only one escaped, the others + suffering the fate of the city. The fortunate one was Le Carbet, on the + south, which escaped uninjured, the flood of lava stopping when within two + hundred feet of the town. Morne Rouge, a beautiful summer resort, + frequented by the people of the island during the hot season as a place of + recreation, also escaped. In the height of the season several thousand + people gathered there, though at the time of the explosion there were but + a few hundred. Though located on an elevation between the city and the + crater, it was by great good fortune saved. + </p> + <p> + The Governor of Martinique, Mr. Mouttet, whose precautions to prevent the + people fleeing from the city aided to make the work of death complete, was + himself among the victims of the burning mountain. With him in this fate + was Colonel Dain, commander of the troops who formed a cordon round the + doomed city. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX. + </h2> + <h3> + St. Vincent Island and Mont Soufriere in 1812. + </h3> + <p> + Among all the islands of the Caribbees St. Vincent is unique in natural + wonders and beauties. Situated about ninety-five miles west of Barbados, + it has a length of eighteen and a width of eleven miles, the whole mass + being largely composed of a single peak which rises from the ocean’s bed. + From north to south volcanic hills traverse its length, their ridges + intersected by fertile and beautiful valleys. + </p> + <p> + A ridge of mountains crosses the island, dividing it into eastern and + western parts. Kingstown, the capital, a town of 8,000 inhabitants, is on + the southward side and extends along the shores of a beautiful bay, with + mountains gradually rising behind it in the form of a vast amphitheatre. + Three streets, broad and lined with good houses, run parallel to the + water-front. There are many other intersecting highways, some of which + lead back to the foothills, from which good roads ascend the mountains. + </p> + <p> + The majority of the houses have red tile roofing and a goodly number of + them are of stone, one story high, with thick walls after the Spanish + style—the same types of houses that were in St. Pierre and which are + not unlike the old Roman houses which in all stages of ruin and + semi-preservation are found in Pompeii to this day. + </p> + <p> + Behind the general group of the houses of the town loom the Governor’s + residence and the buildings of the botanical gardens which overlook the + town. + </p> + <p> + Kingstown is the trading centre and the town of importance in the island. + It contains the churches and chapels of five Protestant denominations and + a number of excellent schools. Away from Kingstown, and the smaller + settlement of Georgetown, the population is almost wholly rural, occupying + scattered villages which consist of negro huts clustering around a few + substantial buildings or of cabins grouped about old plantation buildings + somewhat after the ante-bellum fashion in our own Southern States. + </p> + <p> + One of the tragedies of the West Indies was the sinking of old Port Royal, + the resort of buccaneers, in 1692. The harbor of Kingstown is commonly + supposed to cover the site of the old settlement. There is a tradition + that a buoy for many years was attached to the spire of a sunken church in + order to warn mariners. Three thousand persons perished in the disaster. + </p> + <p> + DESCENDANTS OF ORIGINAL INDIAN POPULATION + </p> + <p> + The northern portion of the island, that desolated by the recent volcanic + eruption, was inhabited by people living in the manner just described, the + great majority of them being negroes. The total population of the island + is about 45,000, of whom 30,000 are Africans and about 3,000 Europeans, + the remainder being nearly all Asiatics. There are, or rather were, a + number of Caribs, the descendants of the original warlike Indian + population of these islands. Many of these live in St. Vincent, though + there are others in Dominico. As their residence was in the northern + section of the island, the volcano seems to have completed the work for + the Caribs of this island which the Spaniard long ago began. These Caribs + were really half-breds, having amalgamated with the negroes. Many of the + blacks own land of their own, raising arrow root, which, since the decay + of the sugar industry, is the chief export. + </p> + <p> + In an island only eighteen miles long by eleven broad there is not room + for any distinctly marked mountain range. The whole of St. Vincent, in + fact, is a fantastic tumble of hills, culminating in the volcanic ridge + which runs lengthwise of the oval-shaped island. The culminating peak of + the great volcanic mass, for St. Vincent is nothing more, is Mont Garou, + of which La Soufriere is a sort of lofty excrescence in the northwest, + 4,048 feet high, and flanking the main peak at some distance away. + </p> + <p> + It may be said that all the volcanic mountains in this part of the West + Indies have what the people call a “soufriere”—a “sulphur pit,” or + “sulphur crater”—the name coming, as in the case of past + disturbances of Mont Pelee, from the strong stench of sulphuretted + hydrogen which issues from them when the volcano becomes agitated. + </p> + <p> + In 1812 it was La Soufriere adjacent to Mont Garou which broke loose on + the island of St. Vincent, and it is the same Soufriere which again has + devastated the island and has bombarded Kingstown with rocks, lava and + ashes. + </p> + <p> + The old crater of Mont Garou has long been extinct, and, like the old + crater of Mont Pelee, near St. Pierre, it had far down in its depths, + surrounded by sheer cliffs from 500 to 800 feet high, a lake. Glimpses of + the lake of Mont Garou are difficult to get, owing to the thick verdure + growing about the dangerous edges of the precipices, but those who have + seen it describe it as a beautiful sheet of deep blue water. + </p> + <p> + THE APPEARANCE OF THE SOUFRIERE + </p> + <p> + Previous to the eruption of 1812 the appearance of the Soufriere was most + interesting. The crater was half a mile in diameter and five hundred feet + in depth. In its centre was a conical hill, fringed with shrubs and vines; + at whose base were two small lakes, one sulphurous, the other pure and + tasteless. This lovely and beautiful spot was rendered more interesting by + the singularly melodious notes of a bird, an inhabitant of these upper + solitudes, and altogether unknown to the other parts of the island—hence + called, or supposed to be, “invisible,” as it had never been seen. (It is + of interest to state that Frederick A. Ober, in a visit to the island some + twenty years ago, succeeded in obtaining specimens of this previously + unknown bird.) From the fissures of the cone a thin white smoke exuded, + occasionally tinged with a light blue flame. Evergreens, flowers and + aromatic shrubs clothed the steep sides of the crater, which made, as the + first indication of the eruption on April 27, 1812, a tremulous noise in + the air. A severe concussion of the earth followed, and then a column of + thick black smoke burst from the crater. + </p> + <p> + THE ERUPTION OF 1812 + </p> + <p> + The eruption which followed these premonitory symptoms was one of the most + terrific which had occurred in the West Indies up to that time. It was the + culminating event which seemed to relieve a pressure within the earth’s + crust which extended from the Mississippi Valley to Caracas, Venezuela, + producing terrible effects in the latter place. Here, thirty-five days + before the volcanic explosion, the ground was rent and shaken by a + frightful earthquake which hurled the city in ruins to the ground and + killed ten thousand of its inhabitants in a moment of time. + </p> + <p> + La Soufriere made the first historic display of its hidden powers in 1718, + when lava poured from its crater. A far more violent demonstration of its + destructive forces was that above mentioned. On this occasion the eruption + lasted for three days, ruining a number of the estates in the vicinity and + destroying many lives. Myriads of tons of ashes, cinders, pumice and + scoriae, hurled from the crater, fell in every section of the island. + Volumes of sand darkened the air, and woods, ridges and cane fields were + covered with light gray ashes, which speedily destroyed all vegetation. + The sun for three days seemed to be in a total eclipse, the sea was + discolored and the ground bore a wintry appearance from the white crust of + fallen ashes. + </p> + <p> + Carib natives who lived at Morne Rond fled from their houses to Kingstown. + As the third day drew to a close flames sprang pyramidically from the + crater, accompanied by loud thunder and electric flashes, which rent the + column of smoke hanging over the volcano. Eruptive matter pouring from the + northwest side plunged over the cliff, carrying down rocks and woods in + its course. The island was shaken by an earthquake and bombarded with + showers of cinders and stones, which set houses on fire and killed many of + the natives. + </p> + <p> + THE TERRIBLE EARTHQUAKE AT CARACAS + </p> + <p> + For nearly two years before this explosion earthquakes had been common, + and sea and land had been agitated from the valley of the Mississippi to + the coasts of Venezuela and the mountains of New Grenada, and from the + Azores to the West Indies. On March 26, 1812, these culminated in the + terrible tragedy, spoken of above, of which Humboldt gives us a vivid + account. + </p> + <p> + On that day the people of the Venezuelan city of Caracas were assembled in + the churches, beneath a still and blazing sky, when the earth suddenly + heaved and shook, like a great monster waking from slumber, and in a + single minute 10,000 people were buried beneath the walls of churches and + houses, which tumbled in hideous ruin upon their heads. The same + earthquake made itself felt along the whole line of the Northern + Cordilleras, working terrible destruction, and shook the earth as far as + Santa Fe de Bogota and Honda, 180 leagues from Caracas. This was a + preliminary symptom of the internal disorder of the earth. + </p> + <p> + While the wretched inhabitants of Caracas who had escaped the earthquake + were dying of fever and starvation, and seeking among villages and farms + places of safety from the renewed earthquake shocks, the almost forgotten + volcano of St. Vincent was muttering in suppressed wrath. For twelve + months it had given warning, by frequent shocks of the earth, that it was + making ready to play its part in the great subterranean battle. On the + 27th of April its deep-hidden powers broke their bonds, and the conflict + between rock and fire began. + </p> + <p> + THE MOUNTAIN STONES A HERD-BOY + </p> + <p> + The first intimation of the outbreak was rather amusing than alarming. A + negro boy was herding cattle on the mountain side. A stone fell near him. + Another followed. He fancied that some other boys were pelting him from + the cliff above, and began throwing stones upward at his fancied concealed + tormentors. But the stones fell thicker, among them some too large to be + thrown by any human hand. Only then did the little fellow awake to the + fact that it was not a boy like himself, but the mighty mountain, that was + flinging these stones at him. He looked up and saw that the black column + which was rising from the crater’s mouth was no longer harmless vapor, but + dust, ashes and stones. Leaving the cattle to their fate, he fled for his + life, while the mighty cannon of the Titans roared behind him as he ran. + For three days and nights this continued; then, on the 30th, a stream of + lava poured over the crater’s rim and rushed downward, reaching the sea in + four hours, and the great eruption was at an end. + </p> + <p> + On the same day, says Humboldt, at a distance of more than 200 leagues, + “the inhabitants not only of Caracas, but of Calabozo, situated in the + midst of the Lianos, over a space of 4,000 square leagues, were terrified + by a subterranean noise which resembled frequent discharges of the + heaviest cannon. It was accompanied by no shock, and, what is very + remarkable, was as loud on the coast as at eighty leagues’ distance + inland, and at Caracas, as well as at Calabozo, preparations were made to + put the place in defence against an enemy who seemed to be advancing with + heavy artillery.” + </p> + <p> + It was no enemy that man could deal with. Fortunately, it confined its + assault to deep noises, and desisted from earthquake shocks. Similar + noises were heard in Martinique and Guadeloupe, and here also without + shocks. The internal thunder was the signal of what was taking place on + St. Vincent. With this last warning sound the trouble, which had lasted so + long, was at an end. The earthquakes which for two years had shaken a + sheet of the earth’s surface larger than half Europe, were stilled by the + eruption of St. Vincent’s volcanic peak. + </p> + <p> + BARBADOS COVERED WITH ASHES + </p> + <p> + Northeast of the original crater of the Soufriere a new one was formed + which was a half mile in diameter and five hundred feet deep. The old + crater was in time transformed into a beautiful blue lake, as above + stated, walled in by ragged cliffs to a height of eight hundred feet. + </p> + <p> + It was looked upon as a remarkable circumstance that although the air was + perfectly calm during the eruption, Barbados, which is ninety-five miles + to the windward, was covered inches deep with ashes. The inhabitants there + and on other neighboring islands were terrified by the darkness, which + continued for four hours and a half. Troops were called under arms, the + supposition from the continued noise being that hostile fleets were in an + engagement. + </p> + <p> + The movement of the ashes to windward, as just stated, was viewed as a + remarkable phenomenon, and is cited by Elise Reclus, in “The Ocean,” to + show the force of different aerial currents; “On the first day of May, + 1812, when the northeast trade-wind was in all its force, enormous + quantities of ashes obscured the atmosphere above the Island of Barbados, + and covered the ground with a thick layer. One would have supposed that + they came from the volcanoes of the Azores, which were to the northeast; + nevertheless they were cast up by the crater in St. Vincent, one hundred + miles to the west. It is therefore certain that the debris had been + hurled, by the force of the eruption, above the moving sheet of the + trade-winds into an aerial river proceeding in a contrary direction.” For + this it must have been hurled miles high into the air, till caught by the + current of the anti-trade winds. + </p> + <p> + KINGSLEY’S VISIT TO SAINT VINCENT + </p> + <p> + From Charles Kingsley’s “At Last” we extract, from the account of the + visit of the author to St. Vincent, some interesting matter concerning the + 1812 eruption and its effect on the mountain; also its influence upon + distant Barbados, as just stated. + </p> + <p> + “The strangest fact about this eruption was, that the mountain did not + make use of its old crater. The original vent must have become so jammed + and consolidated, in the few years between 1785 and 1812, that it could + not be reopened, even by a steam force the vastness of which may be + guessed at from the vastness of the area which it had shaken for two + years. So, when the eruption was over, it was found that the old + crater-lake, incredible as it may seem, remained undisturbed, so far as + has been ascertained; but close to it, and separated only by a knife-edge + of rock some 700 feet in height, and so narrow that, as I was assured by + one who had seen it, it is dangerous to crawl along it, a second crater, + nearly as large as the first, had been blasted out, the bottom of which, + in like manner, was afterward filled with water. + </p> + <p> + “I regretted much that I could not visit it. Three points I longed to + ascertain carefully—the relative heights of the water in the two + craters; the height and nature of the spot where the lava stream issued; + and, lastly, if possible, the actual causes of the locally famous Rabacca, + or ‘Dry River,’ one of the largest streams in the island, which was + swallowed up during the eruption, at a short distance from its source, + leaving its bed an arid gully to this day. But it could not be, and I owe + what little I know of the summit of the soufriere principally to a most + intelligent and gentleman-like young Wesleyan minister, whose name has + escaped me. He described vividly, as we stood together on the deck, + looking up at the volcano, the awful beauty of the twin lakes, and of the + clouds which, for months together, whirl in and out of the cups in + fantastic shapes before the eddies of the trade wind. + </p> + <p> + BLACK SUNDAY AT BARBADOS + </p> + <p> + “The day after the explosion, ‘Black Sunday,’ gave a proof of, though no + measure of, the enormous force which had been exerted. Eighty miles to + windward lies Barbados. All Saturday a heavy cannonading had been heard to + the eastward. The English and French fleets were surely engaged. The + soldiers were called out; the batteries manned; but the cannonade died + away, and all went to bed in wonder. On the 1st of May the clocks struck + six, but the sun did not, as usual in the tropics, answer to the call. The + darkness was still intense, and grew more intense as the morning wore on. + A slow and silent rain of impalpable dust was falling over the whole + island. The negroes rushed shrieking into the streets. Surely the last day + was come. The white folk caught (and little blame to them) the panic, and + some began to pray who had not prayed for years. The pious and the + educated (and there were plenty of both in Barbados) were not proof + against the infection. Old letters describe the scene in the churches that + morning as hideous—prayers, sobs, and cries, in Stygian darkness, + from trembling crowds. And still the darkness continued and the dust fell. + </p> + <p> + INCIDENTS AT BARBADOS + </p> + <p> + “I have a letter written by one long since dead, who had at least powers + of description of no common order, telling how, when he tried to go out of + his house upon the east coast, he could not find the trees on his own lawn + save by feeling for their stems. He stood amazed not only in utter + darkness, but in utter silence; for the trade-wind had fallen dead, the + everlasting roar of the surf was gone, and the only noise was the crashing + of branches, snapped by the weight of the clammy dust. He went in again, + and waited. About one o’clock the veil began to lift; a lurid sunlight + stared in from the horizon, but all was black overhead. Gradually the dust + drifted away; the island saw the sun once more, and saw itself inches deep + in black, and in this case fertilizing, dust. The trade-wind blew suddenly + once more out of the clear east, and the surf roared again along the + shore. + </p> + <p> + “Meanwhile a heavy earthquake-wave had struck part at least of the shores + of Barbados. The gentleman on the east coast, going out, found traces of + the sea, and boats and logs washed up some ten to twenty feet above + high-tide mark; a convulsion which seemed to have gone unmarked during the + general dismay. + </p> + <p> + “One man at least, an old friend of John Hunter, Sir Joseph Banks and + others their compeers, was above the dismay, and the superstitious panic + which accompanied it. Finding it still dark when he rose to dress, he + opened (so the story used to run) his window; found it stick, and felt + upon the sill a coat of soft powder. ‘The volcano in St. Vincent has + broken out at last,’ said the wise man, ‘and this is the dust of it.’ So + he quieted his household and his negroes, lighted his candles, and went to + his scientific books, in that delight, mingled with an awe not the less + deep, because it is rational and self-possessed, with which he, like the + other men of science, looked at the wonders of this wondrous world.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXX. + </h2> + <h3> + Submarine Volcanoes and their Work of Island Building. + </h3> + <p> + In November, 1867, a volcano suddenly began to show signs of activity + beneath the deep sea of the Pacific Ocean. There are some islands nearly + two thousands miles to the east of Australia called the Navigator’s Group, + in which there had been no history of an eruption, nor had such an event + been handed down by tradition. Most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean + are old volcanoes, or are made up of rocks cast forth from extinct burning + mountains. They rise up like peaks through the great depths of the ocean, + and the top, which just appears above the sea-level, is generally + encircled by a growth of coral. Hence they are termed coral islands. These + islands every now and then rise higher than the sea-level, owing to some + deep upheaving force, and then the coral is lifted up above the water, and + become a solid rock. But occasionally the reverse of this takes place, and + the islands begin to sink into the sea, owing to a force which causes the + base of the submarine mountain to become depressed. Sometimes they + disappear. All this shows that some great disturbing forces are in action + at the bottom of the sea, and just within the earth’s crust, and that they + are of a volcanic nature. + </p> + <p> + For some time before the eruption in question, earthquakes shook the + surrounding islands of the Navigator’s Group, and caused great alarm, and + when the trembling of the earth was very great, the sea began to be + agitated near one of the islands, and vast circles of disturbed water were + formed. Soon the water began to be forced upwards, and dead fish were seen + floating about. After a while, steam rushed forth, and jets of mud and + volcanic sand. Moreover, when the steam began to rush up out of the water, + the violence of the general agitation of the land and of the surface of + the sea increased. + </p> + <p> + AN ERUPTION DESCRIBED + </p> + <p> + When the eruption was at its height vast columns of mud and masses of + stone rushed into the air to a height of 2,000 feet, and the fearful crash + of masses of rock hurled upwards and coming in collision with others which + were falling attested the great volume of ejected matter which accumulated + in the bed of the ocean, although no trace of a volcano could be seen + above the surface of the sea. Similar submarine volcanic action has been + observed in the Atlantic Ocean, and crews of ships have reported that they + have seen in different places sulphurous smoke, flame, jets of water, and + steam, rising up from the sea, or they have observed the waters greatly + discolored and in a state of violent agitation, as if boiling in large + circles. + </p> + <p> + New shoals have also been encountered, or a reef of rocks just emerging + above the surface, where previously there was always supposed to have been + deep water. On some few occasions, the gradual building up of an island by + submarine volcanoes has been observed, as that of Sabrina in 1181, off St. + Michael’s, in the Azores. The throwing up of ashes in this case, and the + formation of a conical hill 300 feet high, with a crater out of which + spouted lava and steam, took place very rapidly. But the waves had the + best of it, and finally washed Sabrina into the depths of the ocean. + Previous eruptions in the same part of the sea were recorded as having + happened in 1691 and 1720. + </p> + <p> + In 1831, a submarine volcanic eruption occurred in the Mediterranean Sea, + between Sicily and that part of the African coast where Carthage formerly + stood. A few years before, Captain Smyth had sounded the spot in a survey + of the sea ordered by Government, and he found the sea-bottom to be under + 500 feet of water. On June 28, about a fortnight before the eruption was + visible, Sir Pulteney Malcom, in passing over the spot in his ship, felt + the shock of an earthquake as if he had struck on a sandbank, and the same + shocks were felt on the west coast of Sicily, in a direction from + south-west to north-east. + </p> + <p> + BUILDING UP OF AN ISLAND BY SUBMARINE VOLCANOES + </p> + <p> + About July 10, the captain of a Sicilian vessel reported that as he passed + near the place he saw a column of water like a waterspout, sixty feet + high, and 800 yards in circumference, rising from the sea, and soon after + a dense rush of steam in its place, which ascended to the height of 1,800 + feet. The same captain, on his return eighteen days after, found a small + island twelve feet high, with a crater in its centre, throwing forth + volcanic matter and immense columns of vapor, the sea around being covered + with floating cinders and dead fish. The eruption continued with great + violence to the end of the same month. By the end of the month the island + grew to ninety feet in height, and measured three-quarters of a mile + round. By August 4th it became 200 feet high and three miles in + circumference; after which it began to diminish in size by the action of + the waves. Towards the end of October the island was levelled nearly to + the surface of the sea. + </p> + <p> + Naval officers and foreign ministers alike took an absorbing interest in + this new island. The strong national thirst for territory manifested + itself and eager mariners waited only till the new land should be cool + enough to set foot on to strive who should be first to plant there his + country’s flag. Names in abundance were given it by successive observers,—Nerita, + Sciacca, Fernandina, Julia, Hotham, Corrao, and Graham. The last holds + good in English speech, and as Graham’s Island it is known in books + to-day, though the sea took back what it had given, leaving but a shoal of + cinders and sand. + </p> + <p> + The Bay of Santorin, in the island of that name, which lies immediately to + the north of Crete, has long been noted for its submarine volcanoes. + According to one account, indeed, the whole island was at a remote period + raised from the bottom of the sea; but this is questionable. It is, with + more reason, supposed that the bay is the site of an ancient crater, which + was situated on the summit of a volcanic cone that subsequently fell in. + Certain it is that islands have from time to time been thrown up by + volcanic forces from the bottom of the sea within this bay, and that some + of them have remained, while others have sunk again. + </p> + <p> + HOW AN ISLAND GREW + </p> + <p> + Of the existing islands, some were thrown up shortly before the beginning + of the Christian era; in particular, one called the Great Cammeni, which, + however, received a considerable accession to its size by a fresh eruption + in A. D. 726. The islet nearest Santorin was raised in 1573, and was named + the Little Cammeni; and in 1707 there was added, between the other two, a + third, which is now called the Black Island. This made its appearance + above water on the 23rd of May, 1707, and was first mistaken for a wreck; + but some sailors, who landed on it, found it to be a mass of rock; + consisting of a very white soft stone, to which were adhering quantities + of fresh oysters. While they were collecting these, a violent shaking of + the ground scared them away. + </p> + <p> + During several weeks the island gradually increased in volume; but in + July, at a distance of about sixty paces from the new islet, there was + thrown up a chain of black calcined rocks, followed by volumes of thick + black smoke, having a sulphurous smell. A few days thereafter the water + all around the spot became hot, and many dead fishes were thrown up. Then, + with loud subterraneous noises, flames arose, and fresh quantities of + stones and other substances were ejected, until the chain of black rocks + became united to the first islet that had appeared. This eruption + continued for a long time, there being thrown out quantities of ashes and + pumice, which covered the island of Santorin and the surface of the sea—some + being drifted to the coasts of Asia Minor and the Dardanelles. The + activity of this miniature volcano was prolonged, with greater or less + energy, for about ten years. + </p> + <p> + In 1866 similar phenomena took place in the Bay of Santorin, beginning + with underground sounds and slight shocks of earthquake, which were + followed by the appearance of flames on the surface of the sea. Soon after + there arose, out of a dense smoke, a small islet, which gradually + increased until in a week’s time it was 60 feet high, 200 long and 90 + wide. The people of Santorin named it “George,” in honor of the King of + Greece. In another week it joined and became continuous with the Little + Cammeni. The detonations increased in loudness, and large quantities of + incandescent stones were thrown up from the crater. + </p> + <p> + About the same time, at the distance of nearly 150 feet from the coast, to + the westward of a point called Cape Phlego, there rose from the sea + another island, to which was given the name of Aphroessa. It sank and + reappeared several times before it established itself above water. The + detonations and ejection of incandescent lava and stones continued at + intervals during three weeks. From the crater of the islet George, which + attained a height of 150 feet, some stones several cubic yards in bulk + were projected to a great distance. One of them falling on board of a + merchant vessel, killed the captain and set fire to the ship. + </p> + <p> + By the 10th of March the eruptions had partially subsided, but were then + renewed, and a third island, which was named Reka, rose alongside of + Aphroessa. They were at first separated by a channel sixty feet deep; but + in three days this was filled up, and the two islets became united. + </p> + <p> + Reference may properly be made here to Monte Nuovo and Jorullo, not that + they appertain to the present subject, but that they form examples of the + action of similar forces, in the one instance exerted on a lake bottom, in + the other on dry land, each yielding permanent volcanic elevations in + every respect analogous to those which rise as islands from the bottom of + the sea. + </p> + <p> + IN THE ICELANDIC SEAS + </p> + <p> + Off the coast of Iceland islands have appeared during several of the + volcanic eruptions which that remote dependency of Denmark has manifested, + and at various periods in Iceland’s history the sea has been covered with + pumice and other debris, which tell their own tale of what has been going + on, without being in sufficient quantity to reach the surface in the form + of an island mass. The sea off Reykjanes—Smoky Cape, as the name + means—has been a frequent scene of these submarine eruptions. In + 1240, during what the Icelandic historians describe as the eighth + outburst, a number of islets were formed, though most of them subsequently + disappeared, only to have their places occupied by others born at a later + date. In 1422 high rocks of considerable circumference appeared. In 1783, + about a month before the eruption of Skaptar Jokull, a volcanic island + named Nyoe, from which fire and smoke issued, was built up. But in time it + vanished under the waves, all that remains of it to-day being a reef from + five to thirty-five fathoms below the sea-level. In 1830, after several + long-continued eruptions of the usual character, another isle arose; while + at the same time the skerries known as the Geirfuglaska disappeared, and + with them vanished the great auks, or gare-fowls—birds now extinct—which + up to that time had bred on them. At all events, though the auks could not + well have been drowned, no traces of them were seen after the date + mentioned. In July, 1884, an island again appeared about ten miles off + Reykjanes; but it is already beginning to diminish in size, and may soon + disappear. + </p> + <p> + OFF THE COAST OF ALASKA + </p> + <p> + Elsewhere in the region of the northern seas there are other instances of + the influence of the submarine forces in raising up and lowering land. The + coast of Alaska is a region of intense volcanic action. In 1795, during a + period of volcanic activity in the craters of Makushina, on Unalaska, and + in others on Umnak Island, a volume of smoke was seen to rise out of the + sea about 42 miles to the north of Unalaska, and the next year it was + followed by a heap of cindery material, from which arose flame and + volcanic matter, the glow being visible over a radius of ten miles. In + four years the island grew into a large cone, 3000 feet above the + sea-level, and two or three miles in circumference. Two years later it was + still so hot that when some hunters landed on it they found the soil too + warm for walking. It was named Ionna Bogoslova (St. John the Theologian), + by the Russians, Agashagok by the Aleuts, and is now known to the whites + of that region as Bogosloff. Mr. Dall believes that it occupies the site + of some rocks that existed there as long as tradition extends. + </p> + <p> + There were additions to the cone up to the year 1823, when it became so + quiescent as to be the favorite haunt of seals and sea-fowls, and, when + the weather was favorable, was visited by native egg-hunters from + Unalaska. During the summer of 1883 Bogosloff was again seen in eruption, + as it was thought. However, on closely examining the neighborhood, it was + found that the old island was undisturbed, but that there had been a fresh + eruption, which had resulted in the extension of Bogosloff by the + appearance of a cone and crater (Hague Volcano), 357 feet high, connected + with the parent island by a low sand-spit, and situated in a spot where, + the year before, the lead showed 800 fathoms of water. At the same time + Augustin and two other previously quiet islands on the peninsula of Alaska + began simultaneously to emit smoke, dust and ashes, while a reef running + westward and formerly submerged became elevated to the sea surface. Other + islands, of origin exactly similar to Bogosloff and those mentioned, are + to be found in this region, notably Koniugi and Kasatochi, in the western + Aleutians, and Pinnacle Island, near St. Matthew Island. Indeed, the + volcano of Kliutchevsk, which rises to a height of over 15,000 feet, is + really a volcanic island. + </p> + <p> + A permanent addition was made to the Aleutian group of Islands by the + action of a submarine volcano in 1806. This new island has the form of a + volcanic peak, with several subsidiary cones. It is four geographical + miles in circumference. In 1814 another arose out of the sea in the same + archipelago, the cone of which attained a height of 3,000 feet; but at the + end of a year it lost a portion of this elevation. + </p> + <p> + In 1856, in the sea in the same neighborhood, Captain Newell, of the + whaling bark Alice Fraser, witnessed a submarine eruption, which was also + seen by the crews of several other vessels. There was no island formed on + this occasion, but large jets of water were thrown up, and the sea was + greatly agitated all around. Then followed volcanic smoke, and quantities + of stones, ashes, and pumice; the two latter being scattered over the + surface of the sea to a great distance. Loud thundering reports + accompanied this eruption, and all the ships in the neighborhood felt + concussions like those produced by an earthquake. These phenomena seem to + have ended in the formation of some great submarine chasm, into which the + waters rushed with extreme violence and a terrific roar. + </p> + <p> + Occurrences similar to this last have been several times observed in a + tract of open sea in the Atlantic, about half a degree south of the + equator, and between 20 and 22 degrees of west longitude. Although + quantities of volcanic dross have been from time to time thrown up to the + surface in this region, no island has yet made its appearance above water. + </p> + <p> + The events here described repeat on a far smaller scale similar ones which + have occurred in remote ages in many parts of the ocean and left great + island masses as the permanent effects of their work. We may instance the + Hawaiian group, which is wholly of volcanic origin, with the exception of + its minor coral additions, and represents a stupendous activity of + underground agencies beneath the domain of Father Neptune. + </p> + <p> + In part, as we have said elsewhere in this work, all oceanic islands, + remote from those in the shoal bordering waters of the continents, have + been of volcanic or coral formation, or more often a combination of the + two. No sooner does an island mass appear above or near the surface of + tropical waters than the minute coral animals—effective only by + their myriads—begin their labors, building fringes of coral rock + around the cindery heaps lifted from the ocean floor. The atolls of the + Pacific—circular or oval rings of coral with lagunes of sea-water + within—have long been thought to be built on the rims of submarine + volcanoes, rising to within a few hundred feet of the surface, much as + coral reefs around actual islands. If the volcanic mass should + subsequently subside, as it is likely to do, the minute ocean builders + will continue their work—unless the subsidence be too rapid for + their powers of production—and in this way ring-like islands of + coral may in time rise from great depths of sea, their basis being the + volcanic island which has sunk from near the surface far toward old + ocean’s primal floor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0031" id="link2HCH0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXI. + </h2> + <h3> + Mud Volcanoes, Geysers, and Hot Springs. + </h3> + <p> + Our usual impression of a volcano is indicated in the title of “burning + mountain,” so often employed, a great fire-spouting cone of volcanic + debris, from which steam, lava, rock-masses, cinder-like fragments, and + dust, often of extreme fineness, are flung high into the air or flow in + river-like torrents of molten rock. This, no doubt, applies in the + majority of cases, but the volcanic forces do not confine themselves to + these magnificent displays of energy, nor are their products limited to + those above specified. We have seen that mud is a not uncommon product, + due to the mingling of water with volcanic dust, while water alone is + occasionally emitted, of which we have a marked instance in the Volcan de + Agua, of Guatemala, already mentioned. As regards mud flows, we may + specially instance the first outflow from Mont Pelee, that by which the + Guerin sugar works were overwhelmed. + </p> + <p> + The imprisoned forces of the earth have still other modes of + manifestation. A very frequent one of these, and the most destructive to + human life of them all, is the earthquake. + </p> + <p> + Minor manifestations of volcanic action may be seen in the geyser and the + hot spring, the latter the most widely disseminated of all the resultant + effects of the heated condition of the earth’s interior. It is these + displays of subterranean energy, differing from those usually termed + volcanic, yet due to the same general causes, that we have next to + consider. And it may be premised that their manifestations, while, except + in the case of the earthquake, less violent, are no less interesting, + especially as the minor displays are free from that peril to human life + which renders the major ones so terrible. + </p> + <p> + While the largest volcanoes at times pour out rivers of liquid mud, there + are volcanoes from which nothing is ever ejected but mud and water, the + latter being generally salt. From this circumstance they are sometimes + called salses, but they are more generally termed mud-volcanoes. Some + varieties of them throw out little else than gases of different sorts, and + these are called air-volcanoes. + </p> + <p> + THE GREAT MUD VOLCANO OF SICILY + </p> + <p> + One of the best known mud-volcanoes is at Macaluba, near Girgenti, in + Sicily. It consists of several conical mounds, varying from time to time + in their form and height, which ranges from eight to thirty feet. From + orifices on the tops of these mounds there are thrown out sometimes jets + of warmish water and mud mixed with bitumen, sometimes bubbles of gas, + chiefly carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen, occasionally pure + nitrogen. The mud ejected has often a strong sulphurous smell. The jets in + general ascend only to a moderate height; but occasionally they are thrown + up with great violence, attaining a height of about 200 feet. In 1777 + there was ejected an immense column, consisting of mud strongly + impregnated with sulphur and mixed with naphtha and stones, accompanied + also by quantities of sulphurous vapors. This mud-volcano is known to have + been in action for fifteen centuries. + </p> + <p> + Very recently a small mud-volcano has been formed on the flanks of Mount + Etna. It began with the throwing up of jets of boiling water, mixed with + petroleum and mud, great quantities of gas bubbling up at the same time. + In several of the valleys of Iceland there are similar phenomena, the + boiling water and mud being thrown up in jets to the height of fifteen + feet and upwards, the mud accumulating around the orifices whence the jets + arise. + </p> + <p> + A mud-volcano named Korabetoff, in the Crimea, presents phenomena more + akin to those of the igneous volcanoes of South America. There was an + eruption from this mountain on the 6th of August, 1853. It began by + throwing up from the summit a column of fire and smoke, which ascended to + a great height. This continued for five or six minutes, and was followed + at short intervals by two similar eruptions. There was then ejected with a + hissing noise a quantity of black fetid mud, which was so hot as to scorch + the grass on the edges of the stream. The mud continued to pour out for + three hours, covering a wide space at the mountain’s base. The + mud-volcanoes on the coast of Beloochistan are very numerous, and extend + over an area of nearly a thousand square miles. Their action resembles + that at Macaluba. + </p> + <p> + THE MUD VOLCANO OF JAVA + </p> + <p> + There is a mud volcano in Java which is of interest as somewhat resembling + the geyser in its mode of operation and apparently due to similar + agencies. It is thus described by Dr. Horsfield:— + </p> + <p> + “On approaching it from a distance, it is first discovered by a large + volume of smoke, rising and disappearing at intervals of a few seconds, + resembling the vapors rising from a violent surf. A loud noise is heard, + like that of distant thunder. Having advanced so near that the vision was + no longer impeded by the smoke, a large hemispherical mass was observed, + consisting of black earth mixed with water, about sixteen feet in + diameter, rising to the height of twenty or thirty feet in a perfectly + regular manner, and as if it were pushed up by a force beneath, which + suddenly exploded with a loud noise, and scattered about a volume of black + mud in every direction. After an interval of two or three, or sometimes + four or five seconds, the hemispherical body of mud rose and exploded + again. In the manner stated this volcanic ebullition goes on without + interruption, throwing up a globular body of mud, and dispersing it with + violence through the neighboring plain. The spot where the ebullition + occurs is nearly circular, and perfectly level. It is covered only with + the earthy particles, impregnated with salt water, which are thrown up + from below. The circumference may be estimated at about half an English + mile. In order to conduct the salt water to the circumference, small + passages or gutters are made in the loose muddy earth, which lead to the + borders, where it is collected in holes dug in the ground for the purpose + of evaporation.” + </p> + <p> + The mud has a strong, pungent, sulphurous smell, resembling that of + mineral oil, and is hotter than the surrounding atmosphere. During the + rainy season the explosions increase in violence. + </p> + <p> + There are submarine mud volcanoes as well as those of igneous kind. In + 1814 one of this character broke out in the Sea of Azof, beginning with + flame and black smoke, accompanied by earth and stones, which were flung + to a great height. Ten of these explosions occurred, and, after a period + of rest, others were heard during the night. The next morning there was + visible above the water an island of mud some ten feet high. A very + similar occurrence took place in 1827, near Baku, in the Caspian sea. This + began with a flaming display and the ejection of great fragments of rock. + An eruption of mud succeeded. A set of small volcanoes discovered by + Humboldt in Turbaco, in South America, confined their emissions almost + wholly to gases, chiefly nitrogen. + </p> + <p> + There is a close connection in character between mud volcanoes and those + intermittent boiling springs named geysers. A good many of the mud + volcanoes throw out jets of boiling water along with the mud; but in the + case of the geysers, the boiling water is ejected alone, without any + visible impregnation, though some mineral in solution, as silica, + carbonate of lime, or sulphur, is usually present. + </p> + <p> + THE GEYSER IS A WATER VOLCANO + </p> + <p> + The phenomenon of the geyser serves in a measure to support the theory + that steam is an important agent in volcanic action. A geyser, in fact, + may be designated as a water volcano, since it throws up water only. It + comprises a cone or mound, usually only a few feet high. In the middle of + this is a crater-like opening with a passage leading down into the earth. + As in the case of the volcano, the geyser cone is built up by its own + action. In the boiling water which is ejected there is dissolved a certain + amount of silica. As the water falls and cools this mineral is deposited, + gradually building up a cup-like elevation. The basin of the geyser is + generally full of clear water, with a little steam rising from its + surface; but at intervals an eruption takes place, sometimes at regular + periods, but more often at irregular intervals. + </p> + <p> + Among the largest and best known geysers in the world are those of + Iceland, chief among them being the Great Geyser. Silica is the mineral + with which the waters of this fountain are impregnated, and the substance + which they deposit, as they slowly evaporate, is named siliceous sinter. + Of this material is composed the mound, six or seven feet high, on which + the spring is situated. On the top of the mound is a large oval basin, + about three feet in depth, measuring in its larger diameter about + fifty-six, and in its shorter about forty-six feet. The centre of this + basin is occupied by a circular well about ten feet in diameter, and + between seventy and eighty feet deep. + </p> + <p> + Out of the central well springs a jet of boiling water, at intervals of + six or seven hours. When the fountain is at rest, both the basin and the + well appear quite empty, and no steam is seen. But on the approach of the + moment for action, the water rises in the well, till it flows over into + the basin. Then loud subterranean explosions are heard, and the ground all + round is violently shaken. + </p> + <p> + Instantly, and with immense force, a steaming jet of boiling water, of the + full width of the well, springs up and ascends to a great height in the + air. The top of this large column of water is enveloped in vast clouds of + steam, which diffuse themselves through the air, rendering it misty. These + jets succeed each other with great rapidity to the number of sixteen or + eighteen, the period of action of the fountain being about five minutes. + The last of the jets generally ascends to the greatest height, usually to + about 100, but sometimes to 150 feet; on one occasion it rose to the great + height of 212 feet. Having ejected this great column of water, the action + ceases, and the water that had filled the basin sinks down into the well. + There it remains till the time for the next eruption, when the same + phenomena are repeated. It has been found that, by throwing large stones + into the well, the period of the eruption may be hastened, while the + loudness of the explosions and the violence of the fountain effect are + increased, the stones being at the same time ejected with great force. + </p> + <p> + ERUPTION CAN BE INDUCED BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS + </p> + <p> + Geysers are found all over the island, presenting various peculiarities. + In the case of one of the smaller ones, which is called Strokr, or the + Churn, an eruption can be induced by artificial means. A barrow-load of + sods is thrown into the crater of the geyser, with the effect of causing + an eruption. The sensitiveness of Strokr is due to its peculiar form. An + observer states that, “The bore is eight feet in diameter at the top, and + forty-four feet deep. Below twenty-seven feet it contracts to nineteen + inches, so that the turf thrown in completely chokes it. Steam collects + below; a foaming scum covers the surface of the water, and in a quarter of + an hour it surges up the pipe. The fountain then begins playing, sending + its bundles of jets rather higher than those of the Great Geyser, flinging + up the clods of turf which have been its obstruction like a number of + rockets. This magnificent display continues for a quarter of an hour or + twenty minutes. The erupted water flows back into the pipe from the curved + sides of the bowl. This occasions a succession of bursts, the last + expiring effort, very generally, being the most magnificent. Strokr gives + no warning thumps, like the Great Geyser, and there is not the same + roaring of steam accompanying the outbreak of the water.” + </p> + <p> + The same author thus describes an eruption of the Great Geyser, which + occurred about two o’clock in the morning: “A violent concussion of the + ground brought me and my companions to our feet. We rushed out of the tent + in every condition of dishabille and were in time to see Geyser put forth + his full strength. Five strokes underground were the signal, then an + overflow, wetting every side of the mound. Presently a dome of water rose + in the centre of the basin and fell again, immediately to be followed by a + fresh bell, which sprang into the air fully forty feet high, accompanied + by a roaring burst of steam. Instantly the fountain began to play with the + utmost violence, a column rushing up to the height of ninety or one + hundred feet against the gray night sky, with mighty volumes of white + steam cloud rolling after it and swept off by the breeze to fall in + torrents of hot rain. Jets and lines of water tore their way through the + clouds, or leaped high above its domed mass. The earth trembled and + throbbed during the explosion, then the column sank, started up again, + dropped once more, and seemed to be sucked back into the earth. We ran to + the basin, which was left dry, and looked down the bore at the water, + which was bubbling at the depth of six feet.” + </p> + <p> + In the case of Strokr, the cause of this eruption is not difficult to + understand. The narrow part of the channel is choked up by the turf and + the steam, and prevented from escaping. Finally it gains such force as to + drive out the obstacle with a violent explosion, just as a bottle of + fermenting liquor may blow out the cork and discharge some of its + contents. + </p> + <p> + Geysers are somewhat abundant phenomena, existing in many parts of the + earth, while striking examples of them are found in the widely separated + regions of Iceland, New Zealand, Japan and the western United States. In + the volcanic region of New Zealand geysers and their associated hot + springs are abundant. It was to their action that we owed the famous white + and pink terraces and the warm lake of Rotomahana which were ruined by the + destructive eruption of Mount Tarawera, already described. + </p> + <p> + GEYSERS OF THE UNITED STATES + </p> + <p> + The United States is abundantly supplied with hot springs, but geysers, + outside of the Yellowstone region, are found only in California and + Nevada. Those of California exist chiefly in Napa Valley, north of San + Francisco, in a canon or defile. Their waters are impregnated not with + silica, but with sulphur, and they thus approach more nearly in their + character to mud-volcanoes, whose ejections are, in like manner, much + impregnated with that substance. They are also, like them, collected in + groups, there being no less than one hundred openings within a space of + flat ground a mile square. Owing to their number and proximity, their + individual energy is nothing like so violent as that of the geysers of + Iceland. Their jets seldom rise higher than 20 or 30 feet; but so great a + number playing within so confined a space produces an imposing effect. The + jets of boiling water issue with a loud noise from little conical mounds, + around which the ground is merely a crust of sulphur. When this crust is + penetrated, the boiling water may be seen underneath. The rocks in the + neighborhood of these fountains are all corroded by the action of the + sulphurous vapors. Nevertheless, within a distance of not more than 50 + feet from them, trees grow without injury to their health. + </p> + <p> + Few of these fountains, however, are regular geysers, most of them + discharging only steam. From the Steamboat Geyser this ascends to a height + of from 50 to 100 feet, with a roar like that of the escape from a + steamboat boiler. Associated with the geysers are numerous hot springs, + some clear, some turbid, and variously impregnated with iron, sulphur or + alum. In Nevada the Steamboat Springs, as they are designated, exist in + Washoe Valley, east of the Virginian range. They come nearer in character + to the Yellowstone geysers, their waters depositing true geyserite, or + silicious concretions. The Volcano Springs, in Lauder County, are also + true geysers, though of small importance. The ground here is so thickly + perforated by holes from which steam escapes that it looks like a + cullender. + </p> + <p> + THE YELLOWSTONE GEYSERS + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable geyser country in the world, alike for the size and + the number of its spouting fountains, is the Yellowstone region in the + northwest part of the Territory of Wyoming, in the United States, which, + by a special act of Congress, has been reserved as the Yellowstone + National Park, exempt from settlement, purchase or preemption. Here nearly + every form of geyser and unintermittent hot spring occurs, with deposits + of various kinds, silicious, calcareous, etc. Of the hot springs, Dr. + Peale enumerates 2,195, and considers that within the limits of the park—which + is about 54 miles by 62 miles, and includes 3,312 square miles—as + many as 3,000 actually exist. The same geologist notes the existence of 71 + geysers in the area mentioned, though some of the number are only inferred + to be spouting springs from the form of their basins and the character of + the surrounding deposits. Of this vast collection of still and eruptive + springs, between which there seems every gradation, those which do not + send water into the air are, owing to the magnificent cascades which they + form, often quite as remarkable as those which take the shape of geysers. + The more striking of the latter may, however, be briefly mentioned. + </p> + <p> + In the Gibbon Basin is a geyser of late origin. In 1878 this consisted of + two steam holes, roaring on the side of a hill, that looked as if they had + recently burst through the surface; and the gully leading towards the + ravine was at that date filled with sand, which appeared to have been + poured out during an eruption. Dead trees stood on the line of this sand + floor, and others, with their bark still remaining, and even with their + foliage not lost, were uprooted hard by, everything indicating that the + “steamboat vent,” as it was called, was of recent formation. In 1875 it + had no existence, but in 1879 the spouting spring—which first + opened, it is believed, on the 11th of August in the preceding year—had + “settled down to business as a very powerful flowing geyser,” with a + double period; one eruption occurring every half hour, and projecting + water to the height of 30 feet; the main eruption occurring every six or + seven days, with long continued action, and a column of nearly 100 feet. + </p> + <p> + The New Geyser in the same basin is also of quite recent origin. It + consists of two fissures in the rock, in which the water boils vigorously. + But there is no mound, and the rocks of the fissure are just beginning to + get a coating of the silicious geyserite deposited from the water, so that + it cannot long have been spouting. Again, in the Grotto Geyser—in + the Upper Geyser Basin of Fire Hole River—the main or larger crater + is hollowed into fantastic arches, beneath which are the grotto-like + cavities from which it is named, which act as lateral orifices for the + escape of water during an eruption. It plays several times in the course + of the twenty-four hours, and sends a column of water sixty feet high, the + eruption lasting an hour. As yet, however, the force of the water has not + been sufficient, or of sufficiently long duration, to break through the + arches covering the basin or crater. The Excelsior—claimed to be the + largest of its order, which sent water nearly 300 feet into the air at + intervals of about five hours, and of such volume as to wash away bridges + over small streams below—was not, until comparatively recent years, + known as a specially powerful geyser. But if it had for a time waned in + importance, its immense crater, 330 feet in length and 200 feet at the + widest part, shows that at a still earlier date it was a gigantic + fountain. In this deep pit, when the breeze wafted aside the clouds of + steam constantly arising from its surface, the water could be seen + seething 15 or 20 feet below the surrounding level. Yet into the cauldron + of boiling water a little stream of cold water, from the melting snow of + the uplands, ran unceasingly. Since 1888 this great geyser has been + inactive. + </p> + <p> + The Castle Geyser is so named on account of the fancied resemblance which + its mound of white and grey deposit presents to the ruins of a feudal + keep, the crater itself being placed on a cone or turret, which has a + somewhat imposing appearance compared with the other geysers in the + neighborhood. It throws a column usually about fifty or sixty feet high, + at intervals of two or three hours, but sometimes the discharge shoots up + much higher. + </p> + <p> + The Giant, in the Upper Geyser Basin, has a peculiar crater, which has + been likened to the stump of a hollow sycamore tree of gigantic + proportions, whose top has been wrenched off by a storm. This curious cup + is broken down at one side, as though it had been torn away during an + eruption of more than ordinary violence, and on this side the visitor is + able to look into the crater, if he can contrive to avoid the jets which + are constantly spouted from it. The periods of rest which it takes are + varied, an eruption often not occurring for several days at a time; yet + when it breaks out it continues playing for more than three hours, with a + volume of water reaching a height of from 130 to 140 feet. In the interval + little spouts are constantly in progress. Mr. Stanley saw one eruption + which he calculated to have shot a column of water to the height of more + than 200 feet. At first it seemed as though the geyser was only making a + feint, the discharge which preceded the great one being merely repeated + several times, followed by a cessation both of the rumbling noises and of + the ejection of water. But soon, after a premonitory cloud of steam, the + geyser began to work in earnest, the column discharged rising higher and + higher, until it reached the altitude mentioned. + </p> + <p> + “At first it appeared to labor in raising the immense volume, which seemed + loath to start on its heavenward tour; but it was with perfect ease that + the stupendous column was held to its place, the water breaking into jets + and returning in glittering showers to the basin. The steam ascended in + dense volumes for thousands of feet, when it was freighted on the wings of + the winds and borne away in clouds. The fearful rumble and confusion + attending it were as the sound of distant artillery, the rushing of many + horses to battle, or the roar of a fearful tornado. It commenced to act at + 2 P. M., and continued for an hour and a half, the latter part of which it + emitted little else than steam, rushing upward from its chambers below, of + which, if controlled, there was enough to run an engine of wonderful + power. The waving to and fro of such a gigantic fountain, when the column + is at its height, + </p> + <p> + ‘Tinselled o’er in robes of varying hues,’ + </p> + <p> + and glistening in the bright sunlight, which adorns it with the glowing + colors of many a gorgeous rainbow, affords a spectacle so wonderful and + grandly magnificent, so overwhelming to the mind, that the ablest attempt + at description gives the reader who has never witnessed such a display but + a feeble idea of its glory.” + </p> + <p> + A DESCRIPTION OF THE GEYSER AT WORK + </p> + <p> + The only other geysers in this remarkable geyserland which we can spare + room to notice are those known as the Giantess, the Beehive, and the + Grand. The Giantess sends a column of water to the height of 250 feet. An + eruption is usually divided into three periods—two preliminary + efforts and a final one, divided from each other by intervals of between + one and two hours, while the intervals of discharge are very long. + Sometimes it does not play for several weeks. The Beehive, which is 400 + feet from the Giantess, gets its name from the peculiar beehive-like cone + which it has formed. The eruption is also almost unique. It is heralded by + a slight escape of steam, which is followed by a column of steam and + water, shooting to the height of over 200 feet. The column is somewhat + fan-shaped, but it does not fall in rain, the spray being evaporated and + carried off as steam—if, indeed, there is not more steam than water + in the column. The duration of the discharge is between four and five + minutes, and the interval between two eruptions from twenty-one to + twenty-five hours. + </p> + <p> + The Grand is one of the most important in the Upper Geyser basin. Yet, + unlike the Grotto, the Giant, or the Old Faithful,—so called from + its frequent and regular eruptions—it has no raised cone or crater, + and a much less cavernous bowl than the Giantess and other geysers. The + column discharged ascends to the height of from eighty to two hundred + feet, and the eruptions last from fifteen minutes to three-quarters of an + hour, with intervals on an average of from seven to twenty hours. This + fountain is apparently very irregular in its action, though it is just + possible that when the Yellowstone geysers have been more consecutively + studied, it will be found that these seeming irregularities depend on the + varying supplies of water at different times of the year. + </p> + <p> + THE MAMMOTH HOT SPRINGS + </p> + <p> + The marvellous phenomena of the Yellowstone region are not confined to + geyser action, hot springs of steady flow being, as above stated, + exceedingly numerous. Of these the most striking are those known as the + Mammoth Hot Springs, whose waters find their way through underground + passages, finally flowing from an opening as the “Boiling River,” which + empties into the Gardiner River. + </p> + <p> + These springs are marvels of beauty. Their terraced bowls, adorned with + delicate fret-work, are among the finest specimens of Nature’s handiwork + in the world, and the colored waters themselves are startling in their + brilliancy. Red, pink, black, canary, green, saffron, blue, chocolate, and + all their intermediate gradations are found here in exquisite harmony. The + springs rise in terraces of various heights and widths, having + intermingled with their delicate shades chalk-like cliffs, soft and + crumbly, these latter being the remains of springs from which the life and + beauty have departed. The great spring is the largest in the country, the + water flowing through three openings into a basin forty feet long by + twenty-five feet wide. From this the hot mineral waters drip over into + lower basins, of gracefully curved and scalloped outline, the minerals + deposited on the lips of the basin forming stalagmites of variegated hue, + yielding a brilliant and beautiful effect. The terraced basins bear a + close resemblance to the former New Zealand pink and white terraces, and + since the annihilation of the latter are the most charming examples in + existence of this rare form of Nature’s artistic handiwork. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The San Francisco Calamity, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SAN FRANCISCO CALAMITY *** + +***** This file should be named 1560-h.htm or 1560-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/6/1560/ + +Produced by Donald Lainson; David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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