diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-8.txt | 4915 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 90945 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 687297 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/15590-h.htm | 6884 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/cover.png | bin | 0 -> 37603 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_01.png | bin | 0 -> 8680 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_02.png | bin | 0 -> 2351 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_03.png | bin | 0 -> 13477 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_04.png | bin | 0 -> 18393 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_05.png | bin | 0 -> 7427 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_06.png | bin | 0 -> 6497 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_07.png | bin | 0 -> 6297 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_08.png | bin | 0 -> 14608 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_09.png | bin | 0 -> 7410 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_10.png | bin | 0 -> 10200 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_11.png | bin | 0 -> 19478 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_12.png | bin | 0 -> 7074 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_13.png | bin | 0 -> 6509 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_14.png | bin | 0 -> 31057 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_15.png | bin | 0 -> 29986 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_16.png | bin | 0 -> 16482 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_17.png | bin | 0 -> 16389 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_18.png | bin | 0 -> 12597 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_19.png | bin | 0 -> 20168 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_20.png | bin | 0 -> 11684 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_21.png | bin | 0 -> 14872 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/fig_22.png | bin | 0 -> 28755 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/frontispiece.jpg | bin | 0 -> 51946 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/plate_01.jpg | bin | 0 -> 46301 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/plate_02a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43738 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/plate_02b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 51274 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590-h/images/plate_03.jpg | bin | 0 -> 43959 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590.txt | 4915 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 15590.zip | bin | 0 -> 90793 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
37 files changed, 16730 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/15590-8.txt b/15590-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3beb29 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4915 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders, by T. Eric Peet + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders + +Author: T. Eric Peet + +Release Date: April 8, 2005 [EBook #15590] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +[Illustration: STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST] + + + + + ROUGH STONE + MONUMENTS + AND THEIR + BUILDERS + + + BY + + T. ERIC PEET + + FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD; + LATELY CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY + OF OXFORD AND PELHAM STUDENT AT + THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ROME + + + + + HARPER & BROTHERS + LONDON AND NEW YORK + 45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. + 1912 + + + + _Published October, 1912_. + + + + + PREFACE + +The aim of this volume is to enable those who are interested in +Stonehenge and other great stone monuments of England to learn something +of the similar buildings which exist in different parts of the world, of +the men who constructed them, and of the great archæological system of +which they form a part. It is hoped that to the archæologist it may be +useful as a complete though brief sketch of our present knowledge of the +megalithic monuments, and as a short treatment of the problems which +arise in connection with them. + +To British readers it is unnecessary to give any justification for the +comparatively full treatment accorded to the monuments of Great Britain +and Ireland. Malta and Sardinia may perhaps seem to occupy more than +their due share of space, but the usurpation is justified by the +magnificence and the intrinsic interest of their megalithic buildings. +Being of singularly complicated types and remarkably well preserved they +naturally tell us much more of their builders than do the simpler +monuments of other larger and now more important countries. In these two +islands, moreover, research has in the last few years been extremely +active, and it is felt that the accounts here given of them will contain +some material new even to the archæologist. + +In order to assist those readers who may wish to follow out the subject +in greater detail a short bibliography has been added to the book. + +For the figures and photographs with which this volume is illustrated I +have to thank many archæological societies and individual scholars. +Plate III and part of Plate II I owe to the kindness of Dr. Zammit, +Director of the Museum of Valletta, while the other part of Plate II is +from a photograph kindly lent to me by Dr. Ashby. I have to thank the +Society of Antiquaries for Figures 1 and 3, the Reale Accademia dei +Lincei for Figures 17 and 20, and the Société préhistorique de France, +through Dr. Marcel Baudouin, for Figure 10. I am indebted to the Royal +Irish Academy for Figure 8, to the Committee of the British School of +Rome for Figure 18, and to Dr. Albert Mayr and the Akademie der +Wissenschaften in Munich for the plan of Mnaidra. Professors Montelius, +Siret and Cartailhac I have to thank not only for permission to +reproduce illustrations from their works, but also for their kind +interest in my volume. Figure 19 I owe to my friend Dr. Randall MacIver. +The frontispiece and Plate I are fine photographs by Messrs. The +Graphotone Co., Ltd. + +In conclusion, I must not forget to thank Canon F.F. Grensted for much +help with regard to the astronomical problems connected with Stonehenge. + + T. ERIC PEET. + +LIVERPOOL, + _August 10th,_ 1912. + + + + + CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. INTRODUCTION 1 + + II. STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE + MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES 15 + + III. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND + AND IRELAND 34 + + IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA 52 + + V. FRANCE, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 59 + + VI. ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS 76 + + VII. AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER. + MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS 90 + + VIII. THE DOLMENS OF ASIA 114 + + IX. THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC + MONUMENTS, THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, + RELIGION, ETC 123 + + X. WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE + DID THEY COME? 143 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 + + INDEX 167 + + + + + LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + PLATES + + Stonehenge from the south-east _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + I. Stonehenge from the south-west 17 + II. Mnaidra, doorway of Room H. The _Nuraghe_ of + Madrone in Sardinia 82 +III. Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of chief room 100 + +FIGURE PAGE + 1. Plan of Stonehenge 16 + 2. Avebury and Kennet Avenue 23 + 3. Plans of English Long Barrows 31 + 4. Horned tumulus, Caithness 39 + 5. Plans of three dolmen-types 40 + 6. Type-plan of simple corridor-tomb 42 + 7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb 44 + 8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland 47 + 9. Corridor-tomb at Ottagården, Sweden 53 + 10. Plan of La Pierre aux Fées, Oise, France 61 + 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy 63 + 12. Plan of La Grotte des Fées, Arles, France 65 + 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, Petit Morin, France 66 + 14. Plan of corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain 69 + 15. Section and plan of a _talayot_, Majorca 72 + 16. Section and plan of the _nau_ d'Es Tudons 73 + 17. Elevation, section and plan of a Sardinian _nuraghe_ 83 + 18. Plan of Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia 87 + 19. Plan of stone circle at the Senâm, Algeria 94 + 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria 97 + 21. Plan of the Sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta 99 + 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat 115 + + + + + + ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS + + CHAPTER I + + INTRODUCTION + + +To the south of Salisbury Plain, about two miles west of the small +country town of Amesbury, lies the great stone circle of Stonehenge. For +centuries it has been an object of wonder and admiration, and even +to-day it is one of the sights of our country. Perhaps, however, few of +those who have heard of Stonehenge or even of those who have visited it +are aware that it is but a unit in a vast crowd of megalithic monuments +which, in space, extends from the west of Europe to India, and, in time, +covers possibly more than a thousand years. + +What exactly is a megalithic monument? Strictly speaking, it is a +building made of very large stones. This definition would, of course, +include numbers of buildings of the present day and of the medieval and +classical periods, while many of the Egyptian pyramids and temples would +at once suggest themselves as excellent examples of this type of +building. The archæologist, however, uses the term in a much more +limited sense. He confines it to a series of tombs and buildings +constructed in Western Asia, in North Africa, and in certain parts of +Europe, towards the end of the neolithic period and during part of the +copper and bronze ages which followed it. The structures are usually, +though not quite invariably, made of large blocks of unworked or +slightly worked stone, and they conform to certain definite types. The +best known of these types are as follows: Firstly, the menhir, which is +a tall, rough pillar of stone with its base fixed into the earth. +Secondly, the trilithon, which consists of a pair of tall stones set at +a short distance apart supporting a third stone laid across the top. +Thirdly, the dolmen, which is a single slab of stone supported by +several others arranged in such a way as to enclose a space or chamber +beneath it. Some English writers apply the term cromlech to such a +structure, quite incorrectly. Both menhir and dolmen are Breton words, +these two types of megalithic monument being particularly frequent in +Brittany. Menhir is derived from the Breton _men_, a stone, and _hir_, +long; similarly dolmen is from _dol_, a table, and _men_, a stone. Some +archæologists also apply the word dolmen to rectangular chambers roofed +with more than one slab. We have carefully avoided this practice, always +classing such chambers as corridor-tombs of an elementary type. +Fourthly, we have the corridor-tomb (_Ganggrab_), which usually consists +of a chamber entered by a gallery or corridor. In cases where the +chamber is no wider than, and hence indistinguishable from the corridor, +the tomb becomes a long rectangular gallery, and answers to the French +_allée couverte_ in the strict sense. Fifthly, we come to the +_alignement_, in which a series of menhirs is arranged in open lines on +some definite system. We shall find a famous example of this at Morbihan +in Brittany. Sixthly, there is the cromlech (from _crom_, curve, and +_lec'h_, a stone), which consists of a number of menhirs arranged to +enclose a space, circular, elliptical or, in rare cases, rectangular. + +These are the chief types of megalithic monument, but there are others +which, though clearly belonging to the same class of structure, show +special forms and are more complicated. They are in many cases +developments of one or more of the simple types, and will be treated +specially in their proper places. Such monuments are the _nuraghi_ of +Sardinia and the 'temples' of Malta and Gozo. + +Finally, the rock-hewn sepulchre is often classed with the megalithic +monuments, and it is therefore frequently mentioned in the following +pages. This is justified by the fact that it generally occurs in +connection with megalithic structures. The exact relation in which it +stands to them will be fully discussed in the last chapter. + + +We have now to consider what may be called the architectural methods of +the megalithic builders, for although in dealing with such primitive +monuments it would perhaps be exaggeration to speak of a style, yet +there were certain principles which were as carefully and as invariably +observed as were in later days those of the Doric or the Gothic styles +in the countries where they took root. + +The first and most important principle, that on which the whole of the +megalithic construction may be said to be based, is the use of the +orthostatic block, i.e. the block set up on its edge. It is clear that +in this way each block or slab is made to provide the maximum of wall +area at the expense of the thickness of the wall. Naturally, in +districts where the rock is of a slabby nature blocks of a more or less +uniform thickness lay ready to the builders' hand, and the appearance of +the structure was much more finished than it would be in places where +the rock had a less regular fracture or where shapeless boulders had to +be relied on. The orthostatic slabs were often deeply sunk into the +ground where this consisted of earth or soft rock; of the latter case +there are good examples at Stonehenge, where the rock is a soft chalk. +When the ground had an uneven surface of hard rock, the slabs were set +upright on it and small stones wedged in beneath them to make them stand +firm. Occasionally, as at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, a course of horizontal +blocks set at the foot of the uprights served to keep them more securely +in position. With the upright block technique went hand in hand the +roofing of narrow spaces by means of horizontal slabs laid across the +top of the uprights. + +The second principle of megalithic architecture was the use of more or +less coursed masonry set without mortar, each block lying on its side +and not on its edge. It is quite possible that this principle is less +ancient in origin than that of the orthostatic slab, for it usually +occurs in structures of a more advanced type. Thus in simple and +primitive types of building such as the dolmen it is most rare to find +dry masonry, but in the advanced corridor-tombs of Ireland, the Giants' +Graves and _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, and in the 'temples' of Malta this +technique is largely used, often in combination with the upright slab +system. Indeed, this combination is quite typical of the best megalithic +work: a series of uprights is first set in position, and over this are +laid several horizontal courses of rather smaller stones. We must note +that the dry masonry which we are describing is still strictly +megalithic, as the blocks used are never small and often of enormous +size. + +Buildings in which this system is used are occasionally roofed with +slabs, but more often corbelling is employed. At a certain height each +succeeding course in the wall begins to project inwards over the last, +so that the walls, as it were, lean together and finally meet to form a +false barrel-vault or a false dome, according as the structure is +rectangular or round. Occasionally, when the building was wide, it was +impossible to corbel the walls sufficiently to make them meet. In this +case they were corbelled as far as possible and the open space still +left was covered with long flat slabs. + +It has often been commented on as a matter of wonder that a people +living in the stone age, or at the best possessing a few simple tools of +metal, should have been able to move and place in position such enormous +blocks of stone. With modern cranes and traction engines all would be +simple, but it might have been thought that in the stone age such +building would be impossible. Thus, for instance, in the 'temple' of +Hagiar Kim in Malta, there is one block of stone which measures 21 feet +by 9, and must weigh many tons. In reality there is little that is +marvellous in the moving and setting up of these blocks, for the tools +needed are ready to the hand of every savage; but there is something to +wonder at and to admire in the patience displayed and in the +organization necessary to carry out such vast pieces of labour. Great, +indeed, must have been the power of the cult which could combine the +force of hundreds and even thousands of individuals for long periods of +time in the construction of the great megalithic temples. Perhaps slave +labour played a part in the work, but in any case it is clear that we +are in the presence of strongly organized governments backed by a +powerful religion which required the building of temples for the gods +and vast tombs for the dead. + +Let us consider for a moment what was the procedure in building a simple +megalithic monument. It was fourfold, for it involved the finding and +possibly the quarrying of the stones, the moving of them to the desired +spot, the erection of the uprights in their places, and the placing of +the cover-slab or slabs on top of them. + +With regard to the first step it is probable that in most cases the +place chosen for a tomb or cemetery was one in which numbers of great +stones lay on the surface ready to hand. By this means labour was +greatly economized. On the other hand, there are certainly cases where +the stones were brought long distances in order to be used. Thus, in +Charente in France there is at La Perotte a block weighing nearly 40 +tons which must have travelled over 18 miles. We have no evidence as to +whether stones were ever actually quarried. If they were, the means used +must have been the stone axe, fire, and water. It was not usual in the +older and simpler dolmens to dress the stones in any way, though in the +later and more complicated structures well-worked blocks were often +used. + +The required stones having been found it was now necessary to move them +to the spot. This could be done in two ways. The first and simpler is +that which we see pictured on Egyptian monuments, such as the tomb of +Tahutihotep at El Bersheh. A rough road of beams is laid in the required +direction, and wooden rollers are placed under the stone on this road. +Large numbers of men or oxen then drag the stone along by means of ropes +attached to it. Other labourers assist the work from behind with levers, +and replace the rollers in front of the stone as fast as they pass out +behind. Those who have seen the modern Arabs in excavation work move +huge blocks with wooden levers and palm-leaf rope will realize that for +the building of the dolmens little was needed except numbers and time. + +The other method of moving the stones is as follows: a gentle slope of +hard earth covered with wet clay is built with its higher extremity +close beside the block to be moved. As many men as there is room for +stand on each side of the block, and with levers resting on beams or +stones as fulcra, raise the stone vertically as far as possible. Other +men then fill up the space beneath it with earth and stones. The process +is next repeated with higher fulcra, until the stone is level with the +top of the clay slope, on to which it is then slipped. With a little +help it now slides down the inclined plane to the bottom. Here a fresh +slope is built, and the whole procedure is gone through again. The +method can even be used on a slight uphill gradient. It requires less +dragging and more vertical raising than the other, and would thus be +more useful where oxen were unobtainable. + +When the stones were once on the spot it is not hard to imagine how they +were set upright with levers and ropes. The placing of the cover-slab +was, however, a more complicated matter. The method employed was +probably to build a slope of earth leading up from one side to the +already erected uprights and almost covering them. Up this the slab +could be moved by means of rollers, ropes, and levers, until it was in +position over the uprights. The slope could then be removed. If the +dolmen was to be partly or wholly covered with a mound, as some +certainly were, it would not even be necessary to remove the slope. + +Roughly speaking, the extension of megalithic monuments is from Spain to +Japan and from Sweden to Algeria. These are naturally merely limits, and +it must not be supposed that the regions which lie between them all +contain megalithic monuments. More exactly, we find them in Asia, in +Japan, Corea, India, Persia, Syria, and Palestine. In Africa we have +them along the whole of the north coast, from Tripoli to Morocco; inland +they are not recorded, except for one possible example in Egypt and +several in the Soudan. In Europe the distribution of dolmens and other +megalithic monuments is wide. They occur in the Caucasus and the Crimea, +and quite lately examples have been recorded in Bulgaria. There are none +in Greece, and only a few in Italy, in the extreme south-east corner. +The islands, however, which lie around and to the south of Italy afford +many examples: Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Gozo, Pantelleria, and +Lampedusa are strongholds of the megalithic civilization, and it is +possible that Sicily should be included in the list. Moving westward we +find innumerable examples in the Spanish Peninsula and in France. To the +north we find them frequent in the British Isles, Sweden, Denmark, and +North Germany; they are rarer in Holland and Belgium. Two examples have +been reported from Switzerland. + +It is only to be expected that these great megalithic monuments of a +prehistoric age should excite the wonder and stimulate the imagination +of those who see them. In all countries and at all times they have been +centres of story and legend, and even at the present day many strange +beliefs concerning them are to be found among the peasantry who live +around them. Salomon Reinach has written a remarkable essay on this +question, and the following examples are mainly drawn from the +collection he has there made. The names given to the monuments often +show clearly the ideas with which they are associated in the minds of +the peasants. Thus the Penrith circle is locally known as "Meg and her +Daughters," a dolmen in Berkshire is called "Wayland the Smith's Cave," +while in one of the Orkney Isles is a menhir named "Odin's Stone." In +France many are connected with Gargantua, whose name, the origin of +which is doubtful, stands clearly for a giant. Thus we find a rock +called the "Chair of Gargantua," a menhir called "Gargantua's Little +Finger," and an _allée couverte_ called "Gargantua's Tomb." Names +indicating connections with fairies, virgins, witches, dwarfs, devils, +saints, druids, and even historical persons are frequent. Dolmens are +often "houses of dwarfs," a name perhaps suggested or at least helped by +the small holes cut in some of them; they are "huts" or "caves of +fairies," they are "kitchens" or "forges of the devil," while menhirs +are called his arrows, and cromlechs his cauldrons. In France we have +stones of various saints, while in England many monuments are connected +with King Arthur. A dolmen in Wales is his quoit; the circle at Penrith +is his round table, and that of Caermarthen is his park. Both in England +and France we find stones and altars "of the druids"; in the Pyrenees, +in Spain, and in Africa there are "graves of the Gentiles" or "tombs of +idolaters"; in Arles (France) the _allées couvertes_ are called +"prisons" or "shops of the Saracens," and the dolmens of the Eastern +Pyrenees are locally known as "huts of the Moors." Dolmens in India are +often "stones of the monkeys," and in France there are "wolves' altars," +"wolves' houses," and "wolves' tables." + +Passing now to more definite beliefs connected with megalithic +monuments, we may notice that from quite early times they have been--as +indeed they often are still--regarded with fear and respect, and even +worshipped. In certain parts of France peasants are afraid to shelter +under the dolmens, and never think of approaching them by night. In +early Christian days there must have been a cult of the menhir, for the +councils of Arles (A.D. 452), of Tours (A.D. 567), and of Nantes (A.D. +658) all condemn the cult of trees, springs, and _stones_. In A.D. 789 +Charlemagne attempted to suppress stone-worship, and to destroy the +stones themselves. In Spain, where, as in France, megalithic monuments +are common, the councils of Toledo in A.D. 681 and 682 condemned the +"Worshippers of Stones." Moreover there are many cases in which a +monument itself bears traces of having been the centre of a cult in +early or medieval times. The best example is perhaps the dolmen of +Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, which was transformed into a chapel about the +twelfth century. Similar transformations have been made in Spain. In +many cases, too, crosses have been placed or engraved on menhirs in +order to "Christianize" them. + +Remarkable powers and virtues have been attributed to many of the +monuments. One of the dolmens of Finistère is said to cure rheumatism in +anyone who rubs against the loftiest of its stones, and another heals +fever patients who sleep under it. Stones with holes pierced in them are +believed to be peculiarly effective, and it suffices to pass the +diseased limb or, when possible, the invalid himself through the hole. + +Oaths sworn in or near a megalithic monument have a peculiar sanctity. +In Scotland as late as the year A.D. 1438 "John off Erwyne and Will +Bernardson swor on the Hirdmane Stein before oure Lorde ye Erie off +Orknay and the gentiless off the cuntre." + +Many of the monuments are endowed by the credulous with life. The menhir +du Champ Dolent sinks an inch every hundred years. Others say that a +piece of it is eaten by the moon each night, and that when it is +completely devoured the Last Judgment will take place. The stones of +Carnac bathe in the sea once a year, and many of those of the Périgord +leap three times each day at noon. + +We have already remarked on the connection of the monuments with dwarfs, +giants, and mythical personages. There is an excellent example in our +own country in Berkshire. Here when a horse has cast a shoe the rider +must leave it in front of the dolmen called "The Cave of Wayland the +Smith," placing at the same time a coin on the cover-stone. He must then +retire for a suitable period, after which he returns to find the horse +shod and the money gone. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE + MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES + + +Stonehenge, the most famous of our English megalithic monuments, has +excited the attention of the historian and the legend-lover since early +times. According to some of the medieval historians it was erected by +Aurelius Ambrosius to the memory of a number of British chiefs whom +Hengist and his Saxons treacherously murdered in A.D. 462. Others add +that Ambrosius himself was buried there. Giraldus Cambrensis, who wrote +in the twelfth century, mingles these accounts with myth. He says, +"There was in Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy of +admiration called the Giants' Dance, because giants from the remotest +part of Africa brought them to Ireland, and in the plains of Kildare, +not far from the castle of Naas, miraculously set them up.... These +stones (according to the British history) Aurelius Ambrosius, King of +the Britons, procured Merlin by supernatural means to bring from Ireland +to Britain." + +From the present ruined state of Stonehenge it is not possible to state +with certainty what was the original arrangement, but it is probable +that it was approximately as follows (see frontispiece): + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. Plan of Stonehenge in 1901. (After +_Archæologia_.) The dotted stones are of porphyritic diabase.] + +There was an outer circle of about thirty worked upright stones of +square section (Fig. I). On each pair of these rested a horizontal +block, but only five now remain in position. These 'lintels' probably +formed a continuous architrave (Pl. I). The diameter of this outer +circle is about 97-1/2 feet, inner measurement. The stones used are +sarsens or blocks of sandstone, such as are to be found lying about in +many parts of the district round Stonehenge. + +[Illustration: Plate I. STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-WEST + Photo Graphotone Co. To face p. 17] + +Well within this circle stood the five huge trilithons (_a-e_), arranged +in the form of a horseshoe with its open side to the north-east. Each +trilithon, as the name implies, consists of three stones, two of which +are uprights, the third being laid horizontally across the top. The +height of the trilithons varies from 16 to 21-1/2 feet, the lowest being +the two that stand at the open end of the horseshoe, and the highest +that which is at the apex. Here again all the stones are sarsens and all +are carefully worked. On the top end of each upright of the trilithons +is an accurately cut tenon which dovetails into two mortices cut one at +each end of the lower surface of the horizontal block. Each upright of +the outer circle had a double tenon, and the lintels, besides being +morticed to take these tenons, were also dovetailed each into its two +neighbours. + +Within the horseshoe and close up to it stand the famous blue-stones, +now twelve in number, but originally perhaps more. These stones are not +so high as the trilithons, the tallest reaching only 7-1/2 feet. They +are nearly all of porphyritic diabase. It has often been asserted that +these blue-stones must have been brought to Stonehenge from a distance, +as they do not occur anywhere in the district. Some have suggested that +they came from Wales or Cornwall, or even by sea from Ireland. Now, the +recent excavations have shown that the blue-stones were brought to +Stonehenge in a rough state, and that all the trimming was done on the +spot where they were erected. It seems unlikely that if they had been +brought from a distance the rough trimming should not have been done on +the spot where they were found, in order to decrease their weight for +transport. It is therefore possible that the stones were erratic blocks +found near Stonehenge. + +Within the horseshoe, and near its apex, lies the famous "Altar Stone" +(A), a block measuring about 16 feet by 4. Between the horseshoe and the +outer circle another circle of diabase stones is sometimes said to have +existed, but very little of it now remains. + +The whole building is surrounded by a rampart of earth several feet +high, forming a circle about 300 feet in diameter. An avenue still 1200 +feet in length, bordered by two walls of earth, leads up to the rampart +from the north-east. On the axis of this avenue and nearly at its +extremity stands the upright stone known as the Friar's Heel. + +In 1901, in the course of repairing the central trilithon, careful +excavations were carried out over a small area at Stonehenge. More than +a hundred stone implements were found, of which the majority were flint +axes, probably used for dressing the softer of the sandstone blocks, and +also for excavating the chalk into which the uprights were set. About +thirty hammer-stones suitable for holding in the hand were found. These +were doubtless used for dressing the surface of the blocks. Most +remarkable of all were the 'mauls,' large boulders weighing from 36 to +64 pounds, used for smashing blocks and also for removing large chips +from the surfaces. Several antlers of deer were found, one of which had +been worn down by use as a pickaxe. + +These excavations made it clear that the blue-stones had been shaped on +the spot, whereas the sarsens had been roughly prepared at the place +where they were found, and only finished off on the spot where they were +erected. + + +What is the date of the erection of Stonehenge? The finding of so many +implements of flint in the excavations of 1901 shows that the structure +belongs to a period when flint was still largely used. The occurrence of +a stain of oxide of copper on a worked block of stone at a depth of 7 +feet does not necessarily prove that the stones were erected in the +bronze age, for the stain may have been caused by the disintegration of +malachite and not of metallic copper. At the same time, we must not +infer from the frequency of the flint implements that metal was unknown, +for flint continued to be used far on into the early metal age. +Moreover, flint tools when worn out were simply thrown aside on the +spot, while those of metal were carefully set apart for sharpening or +re-casting, and are thus seldom found in large numbers in an excavation. +We have, therefore, no means of accurately determining the date of +Stonehenge; all that can be said is that the occurrence of flint in such +large quantities points either to the neolithic age or to a +comparatively early date in the copper or bronze period. It is unlikely +that stone tools would play such a considerable rôle in the late bronze +or the iron age. + +At the same time it must not be forgotten that Sir Arthur Evans has +spoken in favour of a date in the first half of the third century B.C. +He believes that the great circles are religious monuments which in form +developed out of the round barrows, and that Stonehenge is therefore +much later than some at least of the round barrows around it. That it is +earlier than others is clear from the occurrence in some of them of +chips from the sarsen stones. He therefore places its building late in +the round barrow period, and sees confirmation of this in the fact that +the round barrows which surround the monument are not grouped in regular +fashion around it, as they should have been had they been later in +date. + +Many attempts have been made to date the monuments by means of +astronomy. All these start from the assumption that it was erected in +connection with the worship of the sun, or at least in order to take +certain observations with regard to the sun. Sir Norman Lockyer noticed +that the avenue at Stonehenge pointed approximately to the spot where +the sun rises at the midsummer solstice, and therefore thought that +Stonehenge was erected to observe this midsummer rising. If he could +find the exact direction of the avenue he would know where the sun rose +at midsummer in the year when the circle was built. From this he could +easily fix the date, for, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the +point of the midsummer rising is continually altering, and the position +for any year being known the date of that year can be found +astronomically. But how was the precise direction of this very irregular +avenue to be fixed? The line from the altar stone to the Friar's Heel, +which is popularly supposed to point to the midsummer rising, has +certainly never done so in the last ten thousand years, and therefore +could not be used as the direction of the avenue. Eventually Sir Norman +decided to use a line from the centre of the circle to a modern +benchmark on Sidbury Hill, eight miles north-east of Stonehenge. On this +line the sun rose in 1680 B.C. with a possible error of two hundred +years each way: this Sir Norman takes to be the date of Stonehenge. + +Sir Norman's reasoning has been severely handled by his +fellow-astronomer Mr. Hinks, who points out that the direction chosen +for the avenue is purely arbitrary, since Sidbury Hill has no connection +with Stonehenge at all. Moreover, Sir Norman determines sunrise for +Stonehenge as being the instant when the edge of the sun's disk first +appears, while in his attempts to date the Egyptian temple of Karnak he +defined it as the moment when the sun's centre reached the horizon. We +cannot say which alternative the builders would have chosen, and +therefore we cannot determine the date of building. + +Sir Norman Lockyer has since modified his views. He now argues that the +trilithons and outer circle are later additions to an earlier temple to +which the blue-stones belong. This earlier temple was made to observe +"primarily but not exclusively the May year," while the later temple +"represented a change of cult, and was dedicated primarily to the +solstitial year." This view seems to be disproved by the excavations of +1901, which made it clear that the trilithons were erected before and +not after the blue-stones. + +Nothing is more likely than that the builders of the megaliths had some +knowledge of the movements of the sun in connection with the seasons, +and that their priests or wise men determined for them, by observing the +sun, the times of sowing, reaping, etc., as they do among many savage +tribes at the present day. They may have been worshippers of the sun, +and their temples may have contained 'observation lines' for determining +certain of his movements. But the attempt to date the monuments from +such lines involves so many assumptions and is affected by so many +disturbing elements that it can never have a serious value for the +archæologist. The uncertainty is even greater in the case of temples +supposed to be oriented by some star, for in this case there is almost +always a choice of two or more bright stars, giving the most divergent +results. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. Avebury and the Kennet Avenue. + (After Sir R. Colt Hoare.)] + +Next in importance to Stonehenge comes the huge but now almost destroyed +circle of Avebury (Fig. 2). Its area is five times as great as that of +St. Peter's in Rome, and a quarter of a million people could stand +within it. It consists in the first place of a rampart of earth roughly +circular in form and with a diameter of about 1200 feet. Within this is +a ditch, and close on the inner edge of this was a circle of about a +hundred upright stones. Within this circle were two pairs of concentric +circles with their centres slightly east of the north-and-south diameter +of the great circle. The diameters of the outer circles of these two +pairs are 350 and 325 feet respectively. In the centre of the northern +pair was a cover-slab supported by three uprights, and in the centre of +the southern a single menhir. All the stones used are sarsens, such as +are strewn everywhere over the district. + +An avenue flanked by two rows of stones ran in a south-easterly +direction from the rampart towards the village of Kennet for a distance +of about 1430 yards in a straight line. + +At a distance of 1200 yards due south from Avebury Circle stands the +famous artificial mound called Silbury Hill. It is 552 feet in diameter, +130 in height, and has a flat top 102 feet across. A pit was driven down +into its centre in 1777, and in 1849 a trench was cut into it from the +south side to the centre, but neither gave any result. It is quite +possible that there are burials in the mound, whether in megalithic +chambers or not. + +South-west of Avebury is Hakpen Hill, where there once stood two +concentric ellipses of stones. A straight avenue is said to have run +from these in a north-westerly direction. Whether these three monuments +near Avebury have any connection with one another and, if so, what this +connection is, is unknown. + + +There are many other circles in England, but we have only space to +mention briefly some of the more important. At Rollright, in +Oxfordshire, there is a circle 100 feet in diameter with a tall menhir +50 yards to the north-east. Derbyshire possesses a famous monument, that +of Arbor Low, where a circle is surrounded by a rampart and ditch, while +that of Stanton Drew in Somerset consists of a great circle A and two +smaller circles B and C. The line joining the centres of B and A passes +through a menhir called Hauptville's Quoit away to the north-east, while +that which joins the centres of C and A cuts a group of three menhirs +called The Cove, lying to the south-west. + +In Cumberland there are several circles. One of these, 330 feet in +diameter with an outstanding menhir, is known as "Long Meg and her +Daughters." Another, the Mayborough Circle, is of much the same size, +but consists of a tall monolith in the centre of a rampart formed +entirely of rather small water-worn stones. A similar circle not far +from this is known as King Arthur's Round Table; here, however, there is +no monolith. Near Keswick there is a finely preserved circle, and at +Shap there seems to have existed a large circle with an avenue of stones +running for over a mile to the north. + +Cornwall possesses a number of fine monuments. The most celebrated is +the Dance Maen Circle, which is 76 feet in diameter and has two +monoliths to the north-east, out of sight of the circle, but stated to +be in a straight line with its centre. Local tradition calls the circle +"The Merry Maidens," and has it that the stones are girls turned into +stones for dancing on Sunday: the two monoliths are called the Pipers. +The three circles known as the Hurlers lie close together with their +centres nearly in a straight line in the direction N.N.E. by S.S.W. At +Boscawen-un, near Penzance, is a circle called the Nine Maidens, and two +circles near Tregeseal have the same name. Another well-known circle in +Cornwall is called the Stripple Stones: the circle stands on a platform +of earth surrounded by a ditch, outside which is a rampart. In the +centre is a menhir 12 feet in height. + +At Merivale, in Somersetshire, there are the remains of a small circle, +to the north of which lie two almost parallel double lines of menhirs, +running about E.N.E. by W.S.W., the more southerly of the two lines +overlapping the other at both extremities. + + +With what purpose were these great circles erected? We have already +mentioned the curious belief of Geoffrey of Monmouth with regard to +Stonehenge, and we may pass on to more modern theories. James I was +once taken to see Stonehenge when on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke at +Wilton. He was so interested that he ordered his architect Inigo Jones +to enquire into its date and purpose. The architect's conclusion was +that it was a Roman temple "dedicated to the god Caelus and built after +the Tuscan order." + +Many years later Dr. Stukeley started a theory which has not entirely +been abandoned at the present day. For him Stonehenge and other stone +circles were temples of the druids. This was in itself by no means a +ridiculous theory, but Stukeley went further than this. Relying on a +quaint story in Pliny wherein the druids of Gaul are said to use as a +charm a certain magic egg manufactured by snakes, he imagined that the +druids were serpent-worshippers, and essayed to see serpents even in the +forms of their temples. Thus in the Avebury group the circle on Hakpen +Hill was for him the head of a snake and its avenue part of the body. +The Avebury circles were coils in the body, which was completed by the +addition of imaginary stones and avenues. He also attempted with even +less success to see the form of a serpent in other British circle +groups. + +The druids, as we gather from the rather scanty references in Cæsar and +other Roman authors, were priests of the Celts in Gaul. Suetonius +further speaks of druids in Anglesey, and tradition has it that in Wales +and Ireland there were druids in pre-Christian times. But that druids +ever existed in England or in a tithe of the places in which megalithic +circles and other monuments occur is unlikely. At the same time, it is +not impossible that some of the circles of Ireland, Wales, and France +were afterwards used by the druids as suitable places for meeting and +preaching. + +Fergusson in his great work _Rude Stone Monuments_ held a remarkable +view as to the purpose of the British stone circles. He believed that +they were partly Roman in date, and that some of them at least marked +the scene of battles fought by King Arthur against the Saxons. Thus, for +example, he says with regard to Avebury, "I feel it will come eventually +to be acknowledged that those who fell in Arthur's twelfth and greatest +battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and that those who survived +raised these stones and the mound of Silbury in the vain hope that they +would convey to their latest posterity the memory of their prowess." It +is hardly necessary to take this view seriously nowadays. Stonehenge, +which Fergusson attributes to the same late era, has been proved by +excavation to be prehistoric in origin, and with it naturally go the +rest of the megalithic circles of England, except where there is any +certain proof to the contrary. + +The most probable theory is that the circles are religious monuments of +some kind. What the nature of the worship carried on in them was it is +quite impossible to determine. It may be that some at least were built +near the graves of deified heroes to whose worship they were +consecrated. On the other hand, it is possible that they were temples +dedicated to the sun or to others of the heavenly bodies. Whether they +served for the taking of astronomical observations or not is a question +which cannot be decided with certainty, though the frequency with which +menhirs occur in directions roughly north-east of the circles is +considered by some as a sign of connection with the watching of solar +phenomena. + + +Dolmens of simple type are not common in England, though they occur with +comparative frequency in Wales, where the best known are the so-called +Arthur's Quoit near Swansea, the dolmen of Pentre Ifan in Pembrokeshire, +and that of Plas Newydd on the Menai Strait: in Anglesey they are quite +common. In England we have numerous examples in Cornwall, especially +west of Falmouth, among which are Chun Quoit and Lanyon Quoit. There are +dolmens at Chagford and Drewsteignton in Devonshire, and there is one +near the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire. + +Many of the so-called cromlechs of England are not true dolmens, but the +remains of tombs of more complicated types. Thus the famous Kit's Coty +House in Kent was certainly not a dolmen, though it is now impossible to +say what its form was. Wayland the Smith's Cave was probably a +three-chambered corridor-tomb covered with a mound. The famous +Men-an-tol in Cornwall may well be all that is left of a chamber-tomb of +some kind. It is a slab about 3-1/2 feet square, in which is a hole +1-1/2 feet in diameter. There are other stones standing or lying around +it. It is known to the peasants as the Crickstone, for it was said to +cure sufferers from rickets or crick in the back if they passed nine +times through the hole in a direction against the sun. The Isle of Man +possesses a fine sepulchral monument on Meayll Hill. It consist of six +T-shaped chamber-tombs arranged in a circle with entrances to the north +and south. There is also a corridor-tomb, known as King Orry's Grave, at +Laxey, and another with a semicircular façade at Maughold. + + +Among the megalithic monuments of our islands the chambered barrows hold +an important place. It is well known that in the neolithic period the +dead in certain parts of England were buried under mounds of not +circular but elongated shape. These graves are commonest in Wiltshire +and the surrounding counties of Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and +Gloucestershire. A few exist in other counties. Some contain no chamber, +while others contain a structure of the megalithic type. It is with +these latter that we have here to deal. Chambered long barrows are most +frequent in Wiltshire, though they do occur in other counties, as, for +example, Buckinghamshire, where the famous Cave of Wayland the Smith is +certainly the remains of a barrow of this kind. In Derbyshire and +Staffordshire a type of chambered mound does occur, but it seems +uncertain from the description given whether it is round or elongated. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. (_a_)--Barrow at Stoney Littleton, Somersetshire. + (_b_)--Barrow at Rodmarton, Gloucestershire. + (_c_)--Chambers of barrow at Uley, Gloucestershire. + (After Thurnam, _Archæologia,_ XLII.)] + +Turning first to the Wiltshire and Gloucestershire group of barrows we +find that they are usually from 120 to 200 feet in length and from 30 to +60 in breadth. In some cases there is a wall of dry stone-masonry around +the foot of the mound and outside this a ditch. The megalithic chambers +within the mound are of three types. In the first there is a central +gallery entering the mound at its thicker end and leading to a chamber +or series of chambers (Fig. 3, _a_ and _c_). Where this gallery enters +the mound there is a cusp-shaped break in the outline of the mound as +marked by the dry walling, and the entrance is closed by a stone block. +The chambers are formed of large slabs set up on edge. Occasionally +there are spaces between successive slabs, and these are filled up with +dry masonry. The roof is made either by laying large slabs across the +tops of the sides or by corbelling with smaller slabs as at Stoney +Littleton. + +In the second type of chambered barrow there is no central corridor, but +chambers are built in opposite pairs on the outside edge of the mound +and opening outwards (Fig. 3, _b_). The two best known examples of this +are the tumuli of Avening and of Rodmarton. + +In the third type of barrow there is no chamber connected with the +outside, but its place is taken by several dolmens--so small as to be +mere cists--within the mound. + +The burials in these barrows seem to have been without exception +inhumations. The body was placed in the crouched position, either +sitting up or reclining. In an untouched chamber at Rodmarton were found +as many as thirteen bodies, and in the eastern chamber at Charlton's +Abbott there were twelve. With the bodies lay pottery, vases, and +implements of flint and bone. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND + + +The stone circles of Scotland have been divided into three types--the +Western Scottish, consisting of a rather irregular ring or pair of +concentric rings; the Inverness type, in which a chamber entered by a +straight passage is covered by a round tumulus with a retaining wall of +stone, the whole being surrounded by a regular stone circle; and the +Aberdeen type, which is similar to the last, but has a 'recumbent' stone +between two of the uprights of its outer circle. + +The first type occurs in the southern counties, in the islands of the +west and north coasts, and also extends into Argyll and Perthshire. The +most famous example is the Callernish Circle in the Isle of Lewis. The +circle is formed by thirteen stones from 12 to 15 feet high, and its +centre is marked by an upright 17 feet high. From the circle extends a +line of four stones to the east and another to the west. To the south +runs a line of five uprights and several fallen stones, and to the +N.N.E. runs a double line, forming as it were an avenue with nine +stones on one side and ten on the other, but having no entrance to the +circle. Inside the circle, between the central stone and the east side +of the ring, is what is described as a cruciform grave with three cells +under a low tumulus. In this tomb were found fragments of human bone +apparently burnt. It has been suggested that the tomb is not part of the +original structure, but was added later. + +The native tradition about this circle as repeated by Martin in 1700 was +that it was a druidical place of worship, and that the chief druid stood +near the central stone to address the assembled people. This tradition +seems to have now disappeared. + +In the island of Arran, between Brodick and Lamlash, is a damaged circle +21 feet in diameter. At a distance of 60 feet from its circumference in +a direction 35° east of south is a stone 4 feet high. In the centre of +the circle was found a cist cut in the underlying rock containing bluish +earth and pieces of bone. Above were an implement and some fragments of +flint. + +On the other side of the island there were still in 1860 remains of +eight circles, five of sandstone and three of granite, quite close to +one another. The diameter of the largest was 63 feet, and the highest +stone reached 18 feet. One of them was a double ring. In four of them +were found cists containing pottery, flint arrow-heads, a piece of a +bronze pin, and some fragments of bone. Others appear to contain no +cists. + +In the other islands of the west coast few circles seem to remain; there +are, however, one at Kirkabrost in Skye, and another at Kingarth in +Bute. + +At Stromness in Orkney is the famous circle called the Ring of Brogar. +It originally consisted of sixty stones forming a circle 340 feet in +diameter, outside which was a ditch 29 feet wide. In a direction 60° +east of south from the centre, and at a distance of 63 chains, is a +standing stone called the Watchstone, 18 feet high, and 42 or 43 chains +further on in the same line is a second stone, the Barnstone, 15 feet +high. To the left of this line are two stones apparently placed at +random, and to the right are the few remaining blocks of the Ring of +Stenness, somewhere to the north of which was the celebrated pierced +block called the "Stone of Odin," destroyed early in the last century. +At a distance of 42 or 43 chains to the north-east of the Barnstone lies +the tumulus of Maeshowe. This tumulus conceals a long gallery leading +into a rectangular chamber. The walls of this latter are built of +horizontal courses of stones, except at the corners, where there are +tall, vertically-placed slabs. The chamber has three niches or recesses, +one on each of its closed sides. The roof is formed by corbelling the +walls and finishing off with slabs laid across. If one sits within the +chamber and looks in a direct line along the passage one sees the +Barnstone. + +A series of measurements and alignments have been taken to connect the +Maeshowe tumulus with the Ring of Brogar. Thus we have already seen that +the distance from the Barnstone to the Watchstone is the same as from +the Barnstone to the tumulus. Moreover, the Watchstone is equidistant +from the ring and from the tumulus. Again, a line from the Barnstone to +the tumulus passes through the point of the midsummer sunrise and also, +on the other horizon, through the point of the setting sun ten days +before the winter solstice; the line from the Watchstone to the Brogar +Ring marks the setting of the sun at the Beltane festival in May and its +rising ten days before the winter solstice, while the line from Maeshowe +to the Watchstone is in the line of the equinoctial rising and setting. +These alignments are the work of Mr. Magnus Spence; readers must choose +what importance they will assign to them. + +The Inverness type of circle is entirely different from that of which we +have been speaking. The finest examples were at Clava, seven miles from +Inverness, where fifty years ago there were eight still in existence. +One of these is still partly preserved. It consists of a circle 100 feet +in diameter consisting of twelve stones. Within this is a cairn of +stones with a circular retaining wall of stone blocks 2 or 3 feet high. +The cairn originally covered a circular stone chamber 12-1/2 feet in +diameter entered by a straight passage on its south-west side. In other +words, the Inverness monuments are simply chamber-tombs covered with a +cairn and surrounded by a circle. + +Around Aberdeen we find the third type of circle. It consists of a +cist-tomb covered by a low mound, often with a retaining wall of small +blocks, but there is no entrance passage leading into the cist. Outside +the whole is a circle of large upright blocks with this peculiarity, +that between the two highest--generally to the south or slightly east of +south--lies a long block on its side, occupying the whole interval +between them. The uprights nearest this 'recumbent' block are the +tallest in the circle, and the size of the rest decreases towards the +north. Of thirty circles known near Aberdeen twenty-six still possess +the 'recumbent' stone, and in others it may originally have existed. + + +Passing now to monuments of more definitely sepulchral type we find that +the dolmen is not frequent in Scotland, though several are known in the +lowlands and in part of Argyllshire. + +To the long barrows of England answer in part at least the chambered +cairns of Caithness and the Orkneys. The best known type is a long +rectangular horned cairn (Fig. 4), of which there are two fine examples +near Yarhouse. The largest is 240 feet in length. The chamber is +circular, and roofed partly by corbelling and partly by a large slab. In +the cairn of Get we have a shorter and wider example of the horned type. +Another type is circular or elliptical. In a cairn of this sort at +Canister an iron knife was found. On the Holm of Papa-Westra in the +Orkneys there is an elliptical cairn of this kind containing a long +rectangular chamber running along its major axis with seven small +circular niches opening off it. The entrance passage lies on the minor +axis of the barrow. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. Horned tumulus at Garrywhin, Caithness. + (After Montelius.)] + +The megalithic monuments of Ireland are extremely numerous, and are +found in almost every part of the country. They offer a particular +interest from the fact that though they are of few different types they +display all the stages by which the more complex were developed from the +more simple. It must be remembered that most if not all the monuments we +shall describe were originally covered by mounds of earth, though in +most cases these have disappeared. + +The simple dolmen is found in almost all parts of the country. Its +single cover-slab is supported by a varying number of uprights, +sometimes as few as three, oftener four or more. It is of great +importance to notice the fact that here in Ireland, as elsewhere in the +megalithic area, e.g. Sardinia, we have the round and rectangular +dolmens in juxtaposition (Fig. 5, _a_ and _c_). + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. Type-plans of _(a)_ the round dolmen; + _(b)_ the dolmen with portico; + _(c)_ the rectangular dolmen.] + +Occasionally one of the end-blocks of the dolmen instead of just +closing up the space between the two nearest side-blocks is pushed back +between them so as to form with them a small three-sided portico outside +the chamber, but still under the shelter of the cover-slab (Fig. 5, +_b_). A good example of this exists at Gaulstown, Waterford, where a +table-stone weighing 6 tons rests on six uprights, three of which form +the little portico just described. The famous dolmen of Carrickglass, +Sligo, is a still more developed example of this type. Here the chamber +is an accurate rectangle, and the portico is formed by adding two +side-slabs outside one of the end-slabs, but still under the cover. This +last is a remarkable block of limestone weighing about 70 tons. This +form of tomb is without doubt a link between the simple dolmen and the +corridor-tomb. The portico was at first built under the slab by pushing +an end-stone inwards. Then external side-stones formed the portico, +though still under the slab. The next move was to construct the portico +outside the slab. The portico then needed a roof, and the addition of a +second cover to provide it completed the transition to the simpler +corridor-tomb. In many cases the Irish simple dolmens were surrounded by +a circle of upright stones. At Carrowmore, Sligo, there seems to have +been a veritable cemetery of dolmen-tombs, each of which has one or more +circles around it, the outermost being 120 feet in diameter. The tombs +in these Carrowmore circles were not always simple dolmens, but often +corridor-tombs of more or less complicated types. Their excavation has +not given very definite results. In many cases human bones have been +found in considerable quantities, sometimes in a calcined condition; but +there is no real evidence to show that cremation was the burial rite +practised. The calcination of human bones may well have been caused by +the lighting of fires in the tomb, either at some funeral ceremony, or +in even later days, when the place was used as a shelter for peasants. A +few poor flints were found and a little pottery, together with many +bones of animals and some pins and borers of bone. The most important +find made, however, was a small conical button made of bone with two +holes pierced in its flat side and meeting in the middle. It is a type +which occurs in Europe only at the period of transition from the age of +stone to that of bronze, and usually in connection with megalithic +monuments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6. Type-plan of the simple rectangular corridor-tomb + or _allée couverte_.] + +We pass on now to consider the simplest form of corridor-tomb, that in +which there are several cover-slabs, but no separate chamber (Fig. 6). +These tombs occur in most parts of Ireland. At Carrick-a-Dhirra, County +Waterford, there is a perfect example of the most simple type. The tomb +is exactly rectangular and lies east and west, with a length of 19 feet +and a breadth of 7-1/2. At each end is a single upright, and each long +side consists of seven. The chamber thus formed is roofed by five slabs. +The whole was surrounded by a circle of about twenty-six stones, and no +doubt the chamber was originally covered by a mound. In a somewhat +similar example at Coolback, Fermanagh, the remains of the elliptical +cairn are still visible. + +But in most cases the plan of the corridor-tomb is complicated by a kind +of outer lining of blocks which was added to it. Most of the monuments +are so damaged that it is difficult to see what the exact form of this +lining was. Whether it merely consisted of a line of upright blocks +close around the sides of the chamber or whether these supported some +further structure which covered up the whole chamber it is difficult to +say. In some cases the roof-slab actually covers the outer line of +blocks, and here it seems certain that this outer line served simply to +reinforce the chamber walls, the space between being filled with earth +or rubble. However, at Labbamologa, County Cork, is a tomb called Leaba +Callighe, in which this was certainly not the case. The length of the +whole monument is about 42 feet. The slabs cover the inner walls of the +chamber, but not the outer lining: this last forms a kind of outer shell +to the whole monument. It is shaped roughly like a ship, and runs to a +point at the east end, thus representing the bow. The west end is +damaged, but may have been pointed like the east. The whole reminds one +very forcibly of the _naus_ of the Balearic Isles and the Giants' Graves +of Sardinia. Occasionally the corridor-tomb has a kind of portico at its +west end. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb. The roof slabs + are two or more in number.] + +In Munster the corridor-tomb takes a peculiar form (Fig. 7). It lies +roughly east and west, and its two long sides are placed at a slight +angle to one another in such a way that the west end is broader than the +east. In a good example of this at Keamcorravooly, County Cork, there +are two large capstones and the walls consist of double rows of slabs, +the outer being still beneath the cover-slabs. On the upper surface of +the covers are several small cup-shaped hollows, some of which at least +have been produced artificially. + +These wedge-shaped structures are of remarkable interest, for exactly +the same broadening of the west end is found in Scandinavia, in the +_Hünenbetter_ of Holland, in the corridor-tombs of Portugal, and in the +dolmens of the Deccan in India. + +In some Irish tombs the corridor leads to a well-defined chamber. In a +curious tomb at Carrickard, Sligo, the chamber was rectangular and lay +across the end of the corridor in such a way as to form a T. The whole +seems to have been covered with an oval mound. In another at Highwood in +the same county a long corridor joins two small circular chambers, the +total length being 44 feet. The corridor was once divided into four +sections by cross-slabs. The cairn which covered this tomb was +triangular in form. + +In the county of Meath, in the parish of Lough Crew, is a remarkable +series of stone cairns extending for three miles along the +Slieve-na-Callighe Hills. These cairns conceal chamber-tombs. The cairns +themselves are roughly circular, and the largest have a circle of +upright blocks round the base. The chambers are built of upright slabs +and are roofed by corbelling. Cairn H covered a corridor leading to a +chamber and opening off on each side into a side-chamber, the whole +group thus being cruciform. In these chambers were found human remains +and objects of flint, bone, earthenware, amber, glass, bronze, and iron. +Cairn L had a central corridor from which opened off seven chambers in a +very irregular fashion. Cairn T consisted of a corridor leading to a +fine octagonal chamber with small chambers off it on three sides. + +The chief interest of these tombs lies in the remarkable designs +engraved on some of the stones of the passages and chambers. They are +fairly deeply cut with a rather sharp implement, probably a metal +chisel. They are arranged in the most arbitrary way on the stones and +are often crowded together in masses. There is no attempt to depict +scenes of any kind, nor is there, indeed, any example of animal life. In +fact, the designs seem to be purely ornamental. The most frequent +elements of design are cup-shaped hollows, concentric circles or ovals, +star-shaped figures, circles with emanating rays, spirals, chevrons, +reticulated figures, parallel straight or curved lines. There seems to +be no clue as to the meaning of these designs. They may have been merely +ornamental, though this is hardly likely. + +At New Grange, near Drogheda, there is a similar series of tumuli, one +of which has become famous (Fig. 8). It consists of a huge mound of +stones 280 feet in diameter surrounded by a circle of upright blocks. +Access to the corridor is gained from the south-east side. This corridor +leads to a chamber with three divisions, so that corridor and chambers +together form a cross with a long shaft. The walls are formed of rough +slabs set upright. In the passage the roof is of slabs laid right +across, but the roof of the chamber is formed by corbelling. On the +floor of each division of the chamber was found a stone basin. + +[Illustration: Figure 8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland (Coffey, + _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, 1892.)] + +Around the edge of the mound runs an enclosure wall of stones lying on +the ground edge to edge. A few of these are sculptured. The finest is a +great stone which lies in front of the entrance and shows a +well-arranged design of spirals and lozenges. There are also engravings +on one of the stones of the chambers. These designs are in general more +skilful than those of Lough Crew. They consist mainly of chevrons, +lozenges, spirals, and triangles. + + +The monuments we have so far described are all tombs. Ireland also +possesses several stone circles. The largest are situated round Lough +Gur, 10 or 12 miles south of Limerick. There was at one time a fine +circle west of Lough Gur at Rockbarton, but it is now destroyed. On the +eastern edge of the lough is a double concentric ring of stones, the +diameter of the inner circle being about 100 feet. The rings are 6 feet +apart, and the space between them is filled up with earth. In 1869 an +excavation was made within the circle and revealed some human remains, +mostly those of children from six to eight years old. + +Further north is a remarkable group of monuments known as the +Carrigalla circles. The first is a plain circle (L) 33 or 34 feet in +diameter, composed of twenty-eight stones. The space within them is +filled up with earth to form a raised platform. At a distance of 75 feet +are two concentric circles, diameters 155 and 184 feet respectively, +made of stones 5 or 6 feet high. The space between the two circles is +filled with earth. Within these is a third concentric circle about 48 +feet in diameter made of stones of the same size. This group of three +concentric circles we will call M. The line joining the centres of L and +M runs in a direction of 29° or 30° west of north and passes through a +stone (N) 8 feet high standing on the top of a ridge 2500 feet away. +There are two other stones more to the west (O and P) in such a position +that the line joining them (41° west of north) passes through the centre +of M, from which they are distant 860 and 1450 feet respectively. +Further, a line through the centre of L and a great standing stone (Q) +2480 feet from it in a direction 10° east of south passes through the +highest point in the district, 1615 feet away and 492 feet in height. + +Mr. Lewis compares this group of monuments with that of Stanton Drew in +Somersetshire. In both a line joining the centre of two circles passes +through a single stone in a northerly direction, and there is in both a +fixed line from the centre of the larger circle. Captain Boyle +Somerville, R.N., finds that the line 29° or 30° west of north would +mark the setting of Capella in B.C. 1600, or Arcturus 500 B.C.; he adds +that the direction 41° west of north would suit Capella in 2500 B.C. or +Castor in 2000 B.C. + +On the west side of Lough Gur is another group of monuments. There is in +the first place a circle 55 feet in diameter. On a line 35° east of +north from this is a stone 10 feet high, and the same line produced +strikes a prominent hill-top. Somewhere to the south-west of this +circle, perhaps with its centre in the line just described, lay a second +circle between 150 and 170 feet in diameter, destroyed in 1870. Three +other stones mentioned by early writers as being near the circles have +now disappeared. The direction 35° east of north is the same as that of +the King-stone with regard to the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire. This +line, allowing a height of 3° for the horizon, would, according to Sir +Norman Lockyer, have struck the rising points of Capella in 1700 B.C. +and Arcturus in 500 B.C. + +To the south of the destroyed circle is another about 150 to 155 feet in +diameter, with stones of over 5 feet in height set close together. Earth +is piled up outside them to form a bank 30 feet wide. There is an +entrance 3 feet wide in a direction 59° east of north from the centre of +the circle. There is said to have been at one time a cromlech 100 feet +wide due south of the circle and connected with it by a paved way. Sir +Norman Lockyer thinks that the position of the doorway is connected with +observation of the sun's rising in May. Moreover, the tallest stone of +the circle, 9 feet high, is 30° east of north from the centre, a +direction which according to him points to the rising of Capella in 1950 +B.C. and Arcturus in 280 B.C. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA + + +In Scandinavia megalithic monuments abound. They have been studied with +unusual care from quite an early date in the history of archæology, and +classified in the order of their development. The earliest type appears +to be the simple dolmen with either four or five sides and a very rough +cover-slab. This and the upper part of the sides remained uncovered by +the mound of earth which was always heaped round the tomb. In later +times the dolmen became more regularly rectangular in shape, and only +its roof-block appeared above the mound. Contemporary with this later +form of dolmen were several other types of tomb. One was simply the +earlier dolmen with one side open and in front of it a sort of portico +or elementary corridor formed by two upright slabs with no roofing (cf. +the Irish type, Fig. 5, _b_). This quickly developed into the true +corridor-tomb, which had at first a small round chamber with one or two +cover-slabs, a short corridor, and a round or rectangular mound. Later +types have an oval chamber (Fig. 9) with from one to four cover-slabs or +a rectangular chamber with a long corridor and a circular mound. +Finally we reach a type where thin slabs are used in the construction, +and the mound completely covers the cap-stones: here the corridor leads +out from one of the short ends of the rectangular chamber. + +The earliest of these types in point of view of development, the true +dolmen, is common both in Denmark and in South Sweden; only one example +exists in Norway. In Sweden it is never found far from the sea-coast. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. Corridor-tomb, Ottagården, Sweden. + (Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)] + +The corridor-tomb is also frequent in Denmark and Sweden, though it is +unknown in Norway. In Sweden it is, like all megalithic monuments, +confined to the south of the country. Of the early transition type with +elementary corridor there are fine examples at Herrestrup in Denmark and +Torebo in Sweden. A tomb at Sjöbol in Sweden where the corridor, +consisting of only two uprights, is covered in with two roof-slabs +instead of being left open, shows very clearly the transition to the +corridor-tomb proper, in which the entrance passage consists of at least +four uprights, two on each side. Of this there are numerous fine +examples. A tomb of this type at Broholm in Denmark has a roughly +circular chamber separated from the corridor by a kind of +threshold-stone. Another at Tyfta in Sweden is remarkable for its +curious construction, the uprights being set rather apart from one +another and the spaces between filled up with dry masonry of small +stones. Possibly there were not sufficient large blocks at hand to +construct a tomb of the required size. + +The still later type consisting of a rectangular chamber with a long +corridor leading out of one of its long sides often attains to very +imposing dimensions. In Westgothland, a province of Sweden, there are +fine examples with walls of limestone and often roofs of granite visible +above the surface of the mound. The largest of these tombs is that of +Karleby near Falköping. In another at Axevalla Heath were found nineteen +bodies seated round the wall of the chamber, each in a separate small +cist of stone slabs. The position of the bodies in the Scandinavian +graves is rather variable, both the outstretched and the contracted +posture being used. It is usual to find many bodies in the same tomb, +often as many as twenty or thirty: in that of Borreby on the island of +Seeland were found seventy skeletons, all of children of from two to +eighteen years of age. + +In Denmark these rectangular tombs occasionally have one or more small +round niches. In 1837 a large tomb was excavated at Lundhöj on Jütland, +which had a circular niche opposite to the entrance. The niche had a +threshold-stone, and the two uprights of the main chamber which lay on +either side of this had been crudely engraved with designs, among which +were a man, an animal, and a circle with a pair of diameters marked. +Little was found in the chamber, and only some bones and a pot in the +niche. + +In Denmark often occur mounds which contain two or more tombs, usually +of the same form, each with its separate entrance passage. At the +entrance of the chamber there is sometimes a well-worked framework into +which fitted a door of stone or wood. + +The late type in which the corridor leads out of one of the narrow ends +of the chamber is represented in both Sweden and Denmark. From this may +be derived the rather unusual types in which the corridor has become +indistinguishable from the chamber or forms a sort of antechamber to it. +An example of the former type at Knyttkärr in Sweden is wider at one end +than at the other, and has an outer coating of stone slabs. It resembles +very closely the wedge-shaped tombs of Munster (cf. Fig. 7): + +In Germany megalithic monuments are not infrequent, but they are +practically confined to the northern part of the country. They extend as +far east as Königsberg and as far west as the borders of Holland. They +are very frequent in Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover. There are even +examples in Prussian Saxony, but in South Germany they cease entirely. +Keller in one edition of his _Lake Dwellings_ figures two supposed +dolmens north of Lake Pfäffikon in Switzerland, but we have no details +with regard to them. + +The true dolmen is extremely rare in Germany, and only occurs in small +groups in particular localities. The corridor-tomb with a distinct +chamber is also very exceptional, especially east of the Elbe. The most +usual type of megalithic tomb is that known as the _Hünenbett_ or +_Riesenbett_. The latter name means Giants' Bed, and it seems probable +that the former should be similarly translated, despite the suggested +connection with the Huns, for a word _Hünen_ has been in use in North +Germany for several centuries with the meaning of giants. A _Hünenbett_ +consists of a rectangular (rarely oval or round) hill of earth covering +a megalithic tomb. This is a simple elongated rectangle in shape, made +of upright blocks and roofed with two or more cover-slabs. The great +_Hünenbett_ or Grewismühlen in Mecklenburg has a mound measuring 150 +feet by 36 with a height of 5 feet. On the edge of the mound are +arranged forty-eight tall upright blocks of stone. + +The _Hünenbetter_ of the Altmark are among the best known and explored. +Here the corridors are usually about 20 feet long, though in rare cases +they reach a length of 40 feet. Each is filled with clean sand up to +two-thirds of its height, and on this lie the bodies and their funeral +deposit. The bodies must have been laid flat, though not necessarily in +an extended position, as there was not room above the sand for them to +have been seated upright. Various implements of flint have been found in +the tombs together with stone hammers and vases of pottery. There is no +certain instance of the finding of metal. + + +A book printed by John Picardt at Amsterdam in 1660 contains quaint +pictures of giants and dwarfs engaged in the building of a megalithic +monument which is clearly a _Hünenbett_. According to tradition the +giants, after employing the labour of the dwarfs, proceeded to devour +them. _Hünenbetter_ similar to those shown in Picardt's illustrations +are still to be seen in Holland, but only in the north, where over fifty +are known. They are of elongated rectangular form, built of upright +blocks, and roofed with from two to ten cover-slabs. They all widen +slightly towards the west end. The most perfect example still remaining +is that of Tinaarloo, and the largest is that of Borger, which contains +forty-five blocks, of which ten are cap-stones. Several _Hünenbetter_ +have been excavated. In them are found pottery vases, flint celts, axes +and hammers of grey granite, basalt, and jade. + +Belgium possesses several true dolmens, of which the best known is that +called La Pierre du Diable on the right bank of the Meuse. Near Lüttich +are two simple corridor-tombs, each with a round hole in one of the +end-slabs and a small portico outside it. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL + + +France contains large numbers of megalithic monuments. Of dolmens and +corridor-tombs no less than 4458 have been recorded. In the east and +south-east they are rare, but they abound over a wide strip running from +the Breton coasts of the English Channel to the Mediterranean shores of +Hérault and Card. In 1901 Mortillef counted 6192 menhirs, including +those which formed parts of _alignements_ and cromlechs. Several of +these attain to a great size. That to Locmariaquer (Morbihan), now +unfortunately fallen and broken, measured over 60 feet in height, being +thus not much shorter than the Egyptian obelisk which stands in the +Place de la Concorde in Paris. + +Passing now to combinations of menhirs in groups, we must first mention +the remarkable _alignements_ of Brittany, of which the most famous are +those of Carnac. They run east and west over a distance of 3300 yards, +but the line is broken at two points in such a way that the whole forms +three groups. The most westerly, that of Ménec, consists of eleven lines +of menhirs and a cromlech, the total number of stones standing being +1169, the tallest of which is 13 feet in height. The central group, that +of Kermario, consists of 982 stones arranged in ten straight lines, +while the most easterly, that of Kerlescan, is formed by 579 menhirs, 39 +of which form a rectangular enclosure. + +There are other _alignements_ in Brittany, of which the most important +is that of Erdeven, comprising 1129 stones arranged in ten lines. +Outside Brittany _alignements_ are unusual, but a fine example, now +ruined, is said to have existed at Saint Pantaléon north of Autun. In +the fields around it are found large quantities of polished stone axes +with knives, scrapers, and arrow-heads of flint. + +We have already noticed the cromlechs which form part of the +_alignements_ of Brittany. There are other examples in France. At +Er-Lanic are two circles touching one another, the lower of which is +covered by the sea even at low tide. Excavations carried out within the +circles brought to light rough pottery and axes of polished stone. Two +fine circles at Can de Ceyrac (Gard) have diameters of about 100 yards, +and are formed of stones about 3 feet high. Each has a short entrance +avenue which narrows as it approaches the circle, and in the centre of +each rises a trilithon of rough stones. + +Of the definitely sepulchral monuments the dolmen is common in all +parts of the French megalithic area. It will suffice to mention the +magnificent example known as the Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer. +Perhaps the most typical structure in France is the corridor-tomb in +which the chamber is indistinguishable from the passage, and the whole +forms a long rectangular area. This is the _allée couverte_ in the +narrower sense. In the department of Oise occurs a special type of this +in which one of the end-slabs has a hole pierced in its centre and is +preceded by a small portico consisting of two uprights supporting a +roof-slab (Fig 10). A remarkable example in Brittany known as Les +Pierres Plates turns at a sharp angle in the middle, and is thus +elbow-shaped. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10. _Allée couverte_, called La Pierre aux Fées, + Oise, France. (_Compte rendu du Congrès Préhistorique + de France_.)] + +In the north of France the _allée_ is often merely cut out in the +surface of the ground and has no roof at all. It is sometimes paved +with slabs and divided into two partitions by an upright with a hole in +its centre. Tombs of this kind often contain from forty to eighty +skeletons, some of which are in the contracted position. The skulls are +in some cases trepanned, i.e. small round pieces of the bone have been +cut out of them; such pieces are sometimes found separate in the graves. +No objects of metal occur in these North French tombs. + +There are many fine examples in Brittany of the corridor-tomb with +distinct chamber. The best known lies on the island of Gavr'inis +(Morbihan). It is covered by a tumulus nearly 200 feet in diameter. The +circular chamber, 6 feet in height, is roofed by a huge block measuring +13 feet by 10. The corridor which leads out to the edge of the mound is +40 feet in length. Twenty-two of the upright blocks used in this tomb +are almost entirely covered with engraved designs. These are massed +together with very little order, the main object having been apparently +to cover the whole surface of the stone with ornament. The designs +consist of spirals, concentric circles and semicircles, chevrons, rows +of strokes, and triangles, and bear a considerable resemblance to those +of Lough Crew and New Grange in Ireland. + +Another tomb in the same district, that of Mané-er-Hroeck, was intact +when discovered in 1863. It contained within its chamber a hoard of 101 +axes of fibrolite and jadeite, 50 pebbles of a kind of turquoise known +as _callaïs_, pieces of pottery, flints, and a peculiarly fine celt of +jadeite together with a flat ring-shaped club-head of the same stone. +The tomb was concealed by a huge oval mound more than 100 yards in +length. The famous Mont S. Michel is an artificial mound containing a +central megalithic chamber and several smaller cists, some of which held +cremated bodies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, + Normandy. (After Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)] + +A very remarkable mound in Calvados (Fig. 11) was found to contain no +less than twelve circular corbelled chambers, each with a separate +entrance passage. The megalithic tombs of Brittany all belong to the +late neolithic period, and contain tools and arrow-heads of flint, small +ornaments of gold, _callaïs_, and pottery which includes among its forms +the bell-shaped cup. + +In Central and South France the _allées couvertes_ are mostly of a +semi-subterranean type, i.e. they are cut in the ground and merely +roofed with slabs of stone. The most famous is that of the Grotte des +Fées near Arles (Fig. 12), in which a passage (_a_) with a staircase at +one end and two niches (_b b_) in its sides leads into a narrow +rectangular chamber (_c_). The total length is nearly 80 feet. Another +tomb of the same type, La Grotte du Castellet, contained over a hundred +skeletons, together with thirty-three flint arrow or spear-heads, one of +which was stuck fast in a human vertebra, a bell-shaped cup, axes of +polished stone, beads and pendants of various materials, 114 pieces of +_callaïs_, and a small plaque of gold. + +On the plateau of Ger near the town of Dax are large numbers of mounds, +some of which contain cremated bodies in urns and others megalithic +tombs. Bertrand saw in this a cemetery of two different peoples living +side by side. But it has since been shown that the cremation mounds +belong to a much later period than those which contain megalithic +graves. In these last the skeletons were found seated around the walls +of the chamber accompanied by objects of flint and other stone, beads of +_callaïs_, and small gold ornaments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12. Plan and section of La Grotte des Fées, Arles, + France (_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1873).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, from the tombs of + the Petit Morin. (After de Baye.)] + +France has also its rock-hewn tombs, for in the valley of the +Petit-Morin is a series of such graves. A trench leads down to the +entrance, which is closed by a slab. The chamber itself is completely +underground. In the shallower tombs were either two rows of bodies with +a passage between or separate layers parted by slabs or strata of sand. +In the deeper were seldom more than eight bodies, in the extended or +contracted position, with tools and weapons of flint, pots, and beads +of amber and of _callaïs_. On the walls were rough sculptures of human +figures (Fig. 13), to which we shall have to return later. + +The Channel Islands possess megalithic monuments not unlike those of +Brittany. They are corridor-tombs covered with a mound and often +surrounded by a circle of stones. Within the chamber, which is usually +round, lies, under a layer of shells, a mass of mingled human and animal +bones. The bodies had been buried in the sitting position, and with them +lay objects of stone and bone, but none of metal. + + +The Spanish Peninsula abounds in megalithic monuments. With the +exception of a few menhirs, whose purpose is uncertain, all are +sepulchral. Dolmens and corridor-tombs are numerous in many parts, +especially in the north-east provinces, in Galicia, in Andalusia, and, +above all, in Portugal. There is a fine dolmen in the Vall Gorguina in +North-East Spain. The cover-slab, measuring 10 feet by 8, is supported +by seven rough uprights with considerable spaces between them. In the +same region is a ruined dolmen surrounded by a circle nearly 90 feet in +circumference, consisting of seven large stones, some of which appear to +be partly worked. Circles are also found round dolmens in Andalusia. +Portugal abounds in fine dolmens both of the round and rectangular +types. At Fonte Coberta on the Douro stands a magnificent dolmen known +locally as the Moors' House. In the name of the field, Fonte Coberta, +there is doubtless an allusion to the belief that the dolmens conceal +springs of water, a belief also held in parts of Ireland. + +At Eguilaz in the Basque provinces is a fine corridor-tomb, in which a +passage 20 feet long, roofed with flat slabs, leads to a rectangular +chamber 13 feet by 15 with an immense cover-slab nearly 20 feet in +length: the whole was covered with a mound of earth. The chamber +contained human bones and "lanceheads of stone and bronze." A famous +tomb of a similar type exists at Marcella in Algarve. The chamber is a +fine circle of upright slabs. It is paved with stones, and part of its +area is divided into two or perhaps three rectangular compartments. A +couple of orthostatic slabs form a sort of neck joining the circle to +the passage, which narrows as it leads away from the circle, and was +probably divided into two sections by a doorway whose side-posts still +remain. + +In South-East Spain the brothers Siret have found corridor-tombs in +which the chamber is cut in the rock surface and roofed with slabs; the +entrance passage becomes a slope or a staircase. Here we have a parallel +to the Giants' Graves of Sardinia, which are built usually of stone +blocks on the surface, but occasionally are cut in the solid rock. +Other tombs in the same district show the common megalithic construction +consisting of a base course of upright slabs surmounted by several +courses of horizontal masonry (Fig. 14). The chamber is usually round, +and may have two or more niches in its circumference. It is roofed by +the successive overlapping or corbelling of the upper courses. The vault +thus formed is further supported by a pillar of wood or stone set in +the centre of the chamber. On the walls of some of the chambers there +are traces of rough painting in red. The whole tomb is covered with a +circular mound. In the best known example at Los Millares there are +remains of a semicircular façade in front of the entrance, as in many +other megalithic monuments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14. Corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain. + (After Siret.)] + +The finest, however, of all the Spanish monuments is the corridor-tomb +of Antequera in Andalusia. It consists of a short passage leading into a +long rectangular chamber roofed with four slabs. Within it on its axial +line are three stone pillars placed directly under the three +meeting-points of the four slabs, but quite unnecessary for their +support. The whole tomb is covered with a low mound of earth. In the +great upright slab which forms the inner end of the chamber is a +circular hole rather above the centre. + +It is not the plan of this tomb, but the size, that compels the +admiration of the beholder. He stands, as it were, within a vast cave +lighted only from its narrow end, the roof far above his head. The rough +surface of the blocks lends colour to the feeling that this is the work +of Nature and not of man. Here, even if not in Stonehenge, he will pause +to marvel at the patient energy of the men of old who put together such +colossal masses of stone. + +Among the corridor-tombs of Spain must be mentioned a wedge-shaped type +which bears a close resemblance to those of Munster in Ireland (cf. +Fig. 7). In Alemtejo, south of Cape de Sines, are several of these, +usually about 6 feet in length, with a slight portico at one end. + +A further point of similarity with the Irish monuments is seen in the +corridor-tombs of Monte Abrahaõ in Portugal, where the chamber walls +seem to have been reinforced by an outer lining of slabs. Remains of +eighty human bodies were found in this tomb, together with objects of +stone and bone, including a small conical button similar to that of +Carrowmore in Ireland. + +The Spanish Peninsula also possesses rock-hewn tombs. At Palmella, near +Lisbon, is a circular example about 12 feet in diameter preceded by a +bell-shaped passage which slopes slightly downwards. Another circular +chamber in the same group has a much longer passage, which bulges out +into two small rounded antechambers. These tombs have been excavated and +yielded some pottery vases, together with objects of copper and beads of +a peculiar precious stone called _callaïs_. All the finds made in the +megalithic remains of Spain and Portugal point to the period of +transition from the age of stone to that of metal. + +The Balearic Islands contain remarkable megalithic monuments. Those +known as the _talayots_ are towers having a circular or rarely a square +base and sloping slightly inwards as they rise. The largest is 50 feet +in diameter. The stones, which are rather large and occasionally +trimmed, are laid flat, not on edge. A doorway just large enough to be +entered with comfort leads through the thickness of the wall into a +round chamber roofed by corbelling, with the assistance sometimes of one +or more pillars. From analogy with the _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, which they +resemble rather closely, it seems probable that the _talayots_ are +fortified dwellings, perhaps only used in time of danger (Fig. 15). + +[Illustration: Fig. 15. Section and plan of the Talayot of Sa Aquila, + Majorca. (After Cartailhac.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16. Nau d'Es Tudons, plan and section. + (After Cartailhac.)] + +The _naus_ or _navetas_ are so named from their resemblance to ships. +The construction is similar to that of the _talayots_. The outer wall +has a considerable batter. The famous Nau d'Es Tudons is about 36 feet +in length. The façade is slightly concave. A low door (_a_) gives access +through a narrow slab-roofed passage (_b_) to a long rectangular chamber +(_c_), the method of whose roofing is uncertain. All the _naus_ are +built with their façades to the south or south-east, with the exception +of that of Benigaus Nou, the inner end of which is cut in the rock, +while the outer part is built up of blocks as usual. The abnormal +orientation was here clearly determined by the desire to make use of the +face of rock in the construction. The _naus_ seem to have been tombs, as +human remains have been found in them. + +Rock-tombs also occur in the islands. The most remarkable are those of +S. Vincent in Majorca. One of these has a kind of open antechamber cut +in the rock, and is exactly similar in plan to the Grotte des Fées in +France (cf. Fig. 12). + +Prehistoric villages surrounded by great stone walls can still be traced +in the Balearic Isles. The houses were of two types, built either above +ground or below. The first are square or rectangular with rounded +corners, the base course occasionally consisting of orthostatic slabs. +The subterranean dwellings are faced with stone and roofed with flat +slabs supported by columns. In each village was one building of a +different type. It stood above ground and was semicircular in plan. In +its centre stood a horizontal slab laid across the top of an upright, +forming a T-shaped structure which helped to support the roof-slabs, but +which may also have had some religious significance. The stones which +composed it were always carefully worked, and the lower was let into a +socket on the under side of the upper. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS + + +Italy cannot be called a country of megalithic monuments. In the centre +and north they do not occur, the supposed examples mentioned by Dennis +in his _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ having been proved +non-existent by the Italian Ministry of Education. It is only in the +extreme south-west that megalithic structures appear. They are dolmens +of ordinary type, except that in some cases the walls are formed not of +upright slabs, but of stones roughly superposed one upon another. On the +farm of the Grassi, near Lecce, are what appear to be two small dolmens +at a distance of only 4 feet apart; they are perhaps parts of a single +corridor-tomb. In the neighbourhood of Tarentum there is a dolmen-tomb +approached by a short passage, and at Bisceglie, near Ruvo, there is an +even finer example, the discovery of which is one of the most important +events which have occurred in Italian prehistoric archæology during the +last few years. The tomb is a simple rectangular corridor 36 feet in +length, lying east and west. Only one cover-slab, that at the west end, +remains, and the exact disposition of the rest of the tomb is +uncertain. In one of the side uprights which supports this slab is a +circular hole, which, however, seems to be the work of Nature, though +its presence may have led to the choice of the stone. The tomb was +carefully excavated, and the remains of several skeletons were found, +one of which lay in the contracted position on the right side. Three of +the skulls were observed by an expert to be dolichocephalic, but their +fragile condition prevented the taking of actual measurements. Burnt +bones of animals, fragments of pottery, a terra-cotta bead, and a stone +pendant were also found, together with flint knives and a fragment of +obsidian. + +These discoveries show that the heel of Italy fell under the influence +which caused the spread of the megalithic monuments, whatever that +influence may have been. The same influence may also have been +responsible for the bronze age rock-hewn tombs of Matera in the +Basilicata, each of which is surrounded by a circle of fairly large +stones. + +Geographical considerations would lead one to suppose that the same +conditions existed in Sicily, and it is possible that this was the case. +Yet it is an affirmation which must be made with great reserve. +Megalithic monuments in the ordinary sense of the term are unknown in +Sicily. There are, however, four tombs in the south-east of the island +which show some affinity to megalithic work. Two of these were found by +Orsi at Monteracello. They were rectangular chambers built of squared +slabs of limestone set on edge. At one end of the finer of the two was a +small opening or window cut in the upright slab. This same grave +contained a skeleton lying on the right side with the legs slightly +contracted. These two tombs can hardly be described as dolmens; they +seem to have had no cover-slabs, and the blocks, which were small, were +let into the earth, scarcely appearing above the surface. Taken by +themselves the Monteracello tombs would hardly prove the presence of the +megalithic civilization in Sicily. However, in the valley called Cava +Lazzaro there is a rock-hewn tomb where the vertical face of the rock in +which the tomb is cut has been shaped into a curved façade, a very usual +feature of megalithic architecture. This is ornamented on each side of +the entrance of the tomb with four pilasters cut in relief in the solid +rock, each pair being connected by a semicircular arch also in relief. +On the pilasters is incised a pattern of circles and V-shaped signs. A +somewhat similar arrangement of pilasters is seen in two rock-tombs at +Cava Lavinaro in the same district. This work forcibly recalls the work +of the megalithic builders in the hypogeum of Halsaflieni in Malta (see +Chap. VII), and on the façades of the Giants' Tombs in Sardinia (see +below). It affords, at any rate, a presumption that in all three +islands we have to deal with the same civilization if not the same +people. + +Such a presumption is not weakened by the fact that in Sicily the usual +form of tomb was the rock-hewn sepulchre, which, as will be seen later, +is very often a concomitant of the megalithic monument, and in many +cases is proved to be the work of the same people. In the early +neolithic period in Sicily, called by Orsi the Sicanian Period, +rock-hewn tombs seem not to have been used. It is only at the beginning +of the metal age that they begin to appear. In this period, the +so-called First Siculan, the tomb-chamber was almost always circular or +elliptical, entered by a small door or window in the face of the rock. +The dead were often seated round the wall of the chamber, evidently +engaged in a funerary feast, as is clear from the great vase set in +their midst with small cups for ladling out the liquid. A single tomb +often contained many bodies, especially in cases where the banquet +arrangement was not observed; one chamber held more than a hundred +skeletons, and it has been suggested that the bodies were only laid in +the tomb after the flesh had been removed from the bones, either +artificially or as the result of a temporary burial elsewhere. Such a +custom is not unknown in other parts of the megalithic area. With these +bodies were found large quantities of painted pottery, a few implements +of copper and many of flint. Among the ornaments which the dead +carried--for they seem to have been buried in complete costume--were +several axe-shaped pendants of polished stone, precisely similar to +those of Sardinia, Malta, and France. The most important cemeteries of +this period are those of Castelluccio, Melilli, and Monteracello. Near +this last site was also found a round hut based on a course of +orthostatic slabs of typically megalithic appearance. + +In the full bronze age, called the Second Siculan Period, burial in +rock-tombs still remained the rule. The tomb-form had developed +considerably. The circular type was still usual, though beside it a +rectangular form was fast coming into favour. The main chamber often had +side-niches, and was usually preceded by a corridor which sometimes +passed through an antechamber. Occasionally we find an elaborate +open-air court outside the façade of the tomb, built very much after the +megalithic style. Large vertical surfaces of rock were carefully sought +after for tombs, and the almost inaccessible cliffs of Pantalica and +Cassibile are literally honeycombed with them. Where such surfaces of +rock were unobtainable a vertical shaft was sunk in the level rock and a +chamber was opened off the bottom of it. The tradition of the banquet of +the dead is still kept up, but the number of the skeletons in each tomb +steadily decreases. The sitting posture is still frequent, though +occasionally the body lies flat on one side with the legs slightly +contracted. Flint is now rare, but objects of bronze are plentiful. The +local painted pottery has almost entirely given place to simpler yet +better wares with occasional Mycenean importations. + +It is impossible to decide whether this Sicilian civilization ought to +be included under the term megalithic. If, as seems probable, the idea +of megalithic building was brought to Europe by the immigration of a new +race it is possible that a branch of this race entered Sicily. In that +case I should prefer to think that they came not at the beginning of the +First Siculan Period as we know it, but rather earlier. Certain vases +found with neolithic burials in a cave at Villafrati and elsewhere in +Sicily resemble the pottery usually found in megalithic tombs; one of +them is in fact a bell-shaped cup, a form typical of megalithic pottery. +It is thus possible that an immigration of megalithic people into Sicily +took place during the stone age, definitely later than the period of the +earliest neolithic remains on the island, but earlier than that of such +sites as the Castelluccio cemetery. This, however, is and will perhaps +remain a mere conjecture, though it is quite possible that there are in +the interior of Sicily dolmens which have not yet come to the notice of +the archæologist; in this connection it is worth while to remember that +up to five years ago the existence of dolmens in both Sardinia and Malta +passed unnoticed. + + +If the inclusion of Sicily in the megalithic area is doubtful there is +fortunately no question about the island of Sardinia. Here we have one +of the chief strongholds of the megalithic civilization, where the +architecture displays its greatest variety and flexibility. The simplest +manifestation of megalithic building, the dolmen, was up till lately +thought to be absent from Sardinia, but the researches of the last few +years have brought to light several examples, of which the best known +are those of Birori, where the chamber is approximately circular in +plan. + +The monuments, however, for which Sardinia is most famous are the +_nuraghi._ A _nuraghe_ is a tower-like structure of truncated conical +form, built of large stones laid in comparatively regular courses (Pl. +II, Fig. 2). The stones are often artificially squared, and set with a +clay mortar. The plan and arrangement of a simple _nuraghe_ are usually +as follows (Fig. 17): The diameter of the building is generally under 30 +feet. A door of barely comfortable height even for an average man and +surmounted by a single lintel-block gives access to a narrow passage cut +through the thickness of the wall. In this passage are, to the right, a +small niche (_c_) just large enough to hold a man, and, on the left, +a winding staircase in the wall (_d_) leading to an upper storey. The +passage itself leads into the chamber (_a_), which is circular, often +with two or three side-niches (_b b_), and roofed by corbelling, i.e. by +making each of the upper courses of stones in its wall project inwards +over the last. The upper chamber, which is rarely preserved, is similar +in form to the lower. + +[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 1. MNAIDRA, DOORWAY OF ROOM H] + +[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 2. THE NURAGHE OF MADRONE IN SARDINIA + To face p. 82] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17. Elevation, section and plan of a _nuraghe_. + (Pinza, _Monumenti Antichi_.)] + +Considerable speculation has been indulged in concerning the purpose of +the _nuraghi_. For many years they were regarded as tombs, a view which +was first combated by Nissardi at the International Congress in Rome in +1903. Further exploration since that time has placed it beyond all doubt +that the _nuraghi_ were fortified dwellings. The form of the building +itself is almost conclusive. The lowness of the door would at once put +an enemy at a disadvantage in attempting to enter; it is significant +that in the _nuraghe_ of Su Cadalanu, where the doorway was over 6 feet +in height, its breadth was so much reduced that it was necessary to +enter sideways. Arrangements were made for the closing of the entrance +from inside by a heavy slab of stone, often fitted into grooves. The +niche on the right of the passage clearly served to hold a man, who +would command the passage itself and the staircase to the upper floor; +he would, moreover, be able to attack the undefended flank of an enemy +entering with his shield on his left arm. To the same effort at +impregnability we may safely ascribe the fact that the staircase leading +to the upper room did not begin on the floor-level of the passage, but +was reached through a hole high up in the wall. Many of the _nuraghi_ +are surrounded by elaborate fortifications consisting of walls, towers, +and bastions, sometimes built at the same time as the dwelling itself, +sometimes added later. Those of Aiga, Losa, and s'Aspru are among the +most famous of this type. All the _nuraghi_ stand in commanding +situations overlooking large tracts of country, and the more important a +position is from the strategical point of view the stronger will be the +_nuraghe_ which defends it. All are situated close to streams and +springs of good water, and some, as for instance that of Abbameiga, are +actually built over a natural spring. At Nossiu is a building which can +only be described as a fortress. It consists of a rhomboidal enclosure +with _nuraghe_-like towers at its corners and four narrow gateways in +its walls. It is surrounded by the ruins of a village of stone huts. +There cannot be the least doubt that in time of danger the inhabitants +drove their cattle into the fortified enclosure, entered it themselves, +and then closed the gates. + +Each _nuraghe_ formed the centre of a group of stone huts. Mackenzie has +described such a village at Serucci, where the circular plan of the +huts was still visible. The walls in one case stood high enough to +show, from the corbelling of their upper courses, that the huts were +roofed in the same fashion as the _nuraghi_ themselves. Another village, +that which surrounds the _nuraghe_ of Su Chiai, was protected by a wall +of huge stones. + +It is thus clear that the _nuraghi_ were the fortified centres of the +various villages of Sardinia. Probably each formed the residence of the +local chieftain; that they were actually inhabited is clear from the +remains of everyday life found in them, and from the polish which +continual use has set on the side-walls of some of the staircases. In +general appearance and design the _nuraghi_ recall the modern _truddhi_, +hundreds of which dot the surface of Apulia and help to beguile the +tedium of the railway journey from Brindisi to Foggia. The _truddhi_, +however, are built in steps or terraces and have no upper chamber. + +Who were the foes against whom such elaborate preparations for defence +were made? Two alternatives are possible. Either Sardinia was a +continual prey to some piratical Mediterranean people, or she was +divided against herself through the rivalry of the local chieftains. + +The second explanation is perhaps the more probable. Mackenzie seems to +adopt it, and fancies that in the growth of the largest _nuraghi_ we may +trace the rise to power of some of these local dynasts at the expense of +their neighbours. He suggests that the existence of the fortified +enclosure of Nossiu, where there is no sign of a true _nuraghe_, may +mean that there were certain communities which succeeded in maintaining +their independence in the face of these powerful rulers. But here, as he +himself is the first to admit, we are in the realm of pure conjecture. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18. Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia. (Mackenzie, +_Papers of the British School of Rome_, V.)] + +It is now established that in the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia we are to +see the graves of the inhabitants of the _nuraghe_ villages. Every +Giant's Tomb lies close to such a village, and almost every village has +its Giants' Tombs, one or more in number according to its size. A +Giant's Tomb consists of a long rectangular chamber of upright slabs +roofed by corbelled masonry (Fig. 18). The slab which closes one end of +the tomb is of great size, and consists of a lower rectangular half with +a small hole at the base and an upper part shaped like a rounded gable. +There is a raised border to the whole slab, and a similar band in relief +marks out the two halves. This front slab forms the centre-piece in a +curved façade of upright slabs. The chamber is covered with a coating of +ashlar masonry, which is shaped into an apsidal form at the end opposite +to the façade. Occasionally more than 50 feet in length, the Giants' +Tombs served as graves for whole families, or even for whole villages. +Mackenzie has shown that the form is derived from the simple dolmen, and +has pointed out several of the intermediate stages. + +The inhabitants of Sardinia in the megalithic period also buried their +dead in rock-hewn sepulchres, of which there are numerous examples at +Anghelu Ruju. The contents of these graves make it clear that they are +the work of the same people as the Giants' Graves. Were further proof +needed it could be afforded by a grave at Molafà, where a Giant's Grave +with its façade and gabled slab has been faithfully imitated in the +solid rock. There is a similar tomb at St. George. Two natural caves in +Cape Sant' Elia on the south of the island contain burials of this same +period. + +The neighbouring island of Corsica also contains important megalithic +remains. They consist of thirteen dolmens, forty-one menhirs, two +_alignements_, and a cromlech. They fall geographically into two groups, +one in the extreme north and the other in the extreme south of the +island. + +The stones used are chiefly granite and gneiss. The dolmens, which are +of carefully chosen flat blocks showing no trace of work, are all +rectangular in plan, and usually consist of four side-walls and a +cover-slab. The finest of all, however, the dolmen of Fontanaccia, has +seven blocks supporting the cover, one at each short end, three in one +of the long sides, and two in the other. None of the dolmens are covered +by mounds. + +Of the _alignements_, that of Caouria seems to consist, in part at +least, of two parallel lines of menhirs, the rest of the plan being +uncertain. There are still thirty-two blocks, of which six have fallen. +The other _alignement_, that of Rinaiou, consists of seven menhirs set +in a straight line. The cromlech is circular and stands on Cape Corse. + +On the small island of Pianosa, near Elba, are several rock-hewn tombs +of the æneolithic period which ought perhaps to be classed with the +megalithic monuments of Sardinia and Corsica. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER + MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS + + +North Africa is a great stronghold of the megalithic civilization, +indeed it is thought by some that it is the area in which megalithic +building originated. Morocco, Tunis, Algeria, and Tripoli all abound in +dolmens and other monuments. Even in the Nile Valley they occur, for +what looks like a dolmen surrounded by a circle was discovered by de +Morgan in the desert near Edfu, and Wilson and Felkin describe a number +of simple dolmens which exist near Ladò in the Sudan. Tripoli remains as +yet comparatively unexplored. The traveller Barth speaks of stone +circles near Mourzouk and near the town of Tripoli. The great trilithons +(_senams_) with holes pierced in their uprights and 'altar tables' at +their base, which Barth, followed by Cooper in his _Hill of the Graces_, +described as megalithic monuments, have been shown to be nothing more +than olive-presses, the 'altar tables' being the slabs over which the +oil ran off as it descended. True dolmens do, however, occur in Tripoli, +and Cooper figures a fine monument at Messa in the Cyrenaica, which +appears to consist of a single straight line of tall uprights with a +continuous entablature of blocks similar to that of the outer circle at +Stonehenge. + +Algeria has been far more completely explored, and possesses a +remarkable number of megalithic monuments. Many of the finest are +situated near the town of Constantine. Thus at Bou Nouara there is a +hill about a mile in length which is a regular necropolis of +dolmen-tombs. Each grave consists of a dolmen within a circle of stones. +The blocks are all natural and completely unworked. The circle consists +of a wall of stone blocks so built as to neutralize the slope of the +hill and to form a level platform for the dolmen. Thus on the lower side +there are three courses of carefully laid stones rising to about five +feet, while on the upper side there is only one course. The diameter of +the circles varies from 22 to 33 feet. In the centre of the circle lies +the dolmen with its single long cover-slab. This usually rests on two +entire side-slabs, the ends being filled up either with entire slabs or +with masonry of small stones. In rare cases the side-slabs are replaced +by masonry walls. The average size of the cover-slab is 6-1/2 by 5 feet. +The dolmen itself is, of course, built directly on to the platform, and +the space between it and the circle is filled up with rough stones. The +orientation of the dolmens varied considerably, but the cover-slab was +never placed in such a way that its length ran up the hill-slope, +probably because in moving the slab into place this would have been an +awkward position. + +Another equally fine site is that of Bou Merzoug, near Oulad Rahmoun, +about an hour's railway journey from Constantine. The place is naturally +adapted for a settlement as there is a spring of water there. This +spring was later utilized by the Romans to provide water for the city of +Cirta. The dolmen-graves lie in great numbers on the hill at the foot of +which the spring rises, and extend down into the valley. Each dolmen +lies in the centre of a stone circle. This last is in some cases formed +by very large slabs set on edge, but more often by two or three courses +of rough oblong blocks. Many of the graves are badly damaged. One of the +finest had an outer circle about 27 feet in diameter, and an inner +circle 14 feet in diameter. Between these two a third circle, much more +irregular and of small stones, could just be distinguished. But in most +cases it was impossible to make out clearly more than the one outer +circle and the dolmen within it. The dolmen itself consisted of a large +slab resting on walls formed of several large blocks, the spaces between +which were filled up with smaller stones. None of the stones used were +worked. The dolmens were not oriented according to any fixed system. M. +Féraud states that the separate graves were united together by open +corridors formed by double or triple rows of large stones, but no traces +of such a system could be found by the later visitors to the site, +Messrs. MacIver and Wilkin. + +Fortunately we have some record of what these graves contained, for +thirteen were opened by Mr. Christy and M. Féraud. One contained a human +skeleton in good condition, buried in the contracted position with the +knees to chin and arms crossed. With this were two whole vases, +fragments of others, and pieces of cedar wood. At the feet of the +skeleton were two human heads, and as the graves would not have +accommodated more than one whole body M. Féraud suggests that these +belong to decapitated victims. Another grave contained, in addition to +human bones, those of a horse, together with three objects of copper, +viz. a ring, an earring, and a buckle. In another were found the teeth +and bones of a horse and an iron bit. + +An entirely different type of monument is found near Msila, south-west +of Algiers. Here is a long low hill called the Senâm, covered with large +numbers of stone circles. These consist of large slabs of natural +limestone set up on edge and not very closely fitted. The height of the +slabs varies from 2 to 3 feet, and the diameters of the three still +perfect circles are 23-1/2, 26-3/4, and 34-1/3 feet respectively. At a +point roughly south-east there is a break in the circumference, filled +by a rectangular niche (Fig. 19) consisting of three large slabs, and +varying in width from 2 ft. 6 in. to 6 feet. There is a possibility that +the niches were originally roofed, but the evidence on this point is far +from conclusive. The interior of the circle is filled with blocks of +stone, apparently heaped up without any definite plan. There seems to be +no clue as to the meaning of these circles, as none have as yet been +explored. MacIver and Wilkin are probably right in classing them as +graves. + +[Illustration: FIG 19. Stone circle at the Senâm, Algeria. + (After MacIver and Wilkin).] + +The most famous, however, of the Algerian sites is unquestionably that +of Roknia. Here the tombs lie on the side of a steep hill. They consist +of dolmens often surrounded by stone circles from 25 to 33 feet in +diameter. The cover-slabs of the dolmens usually rest on single +uprights, and never on built walls. Several of the graves excavated +contained more than one body, one yielding as many as seven. It is +remarkable that three of the skulls showed wounds, the dead having been +apparently killed in battle. Several vases have been found and a few +pieces of bronze. + +We have seen that in some of the tombs of Bou Merzoug objects of iron +were found. This makes it clear that some at least of the Algerian tombs +belong to the iron age, i.e. that they are probably later than 1000 +B.C., but beyond this we cannot go. The medal of Faustina sometimes +quoted as evidence for a very late date proves nothing, as it is not +stated to have been found in a tomb. There is no evidence to show how +far back the graves go. It may be that, as MacIver and Wilkin suggest, +the parts of the cemeteries excavated chance to be the latest. At Bou +Merzoug the excavators worked chiefly among the graves on the plain and +at the bottom of the hill. The more closely crowded graves which lie on +the hill itself may well be older than these. In fact, all that may be +said of the Algerian graves is that some are of the iron age, while +others may be and probably are earlier. + + +In Tunis the dolmen is not uncommon, and several groups or cemeteries +have been reported. Near Ellez occurs a type of corridor-tomb in which +three dolmen-like chambers lie on either side of a central passage, and +a seventh at the end opposite to the entrance. The whole is constructed +of upright slabs of stone, and is surrounded by a circle formed in the +same way. + +Morocco, too, has its dolmens, especially in the district of Kabylia, +while near Tangier there is a stone circle. + +Off the north coast of Africa, and thus on the highway which leads from +Africa to Europe, lie the Italian islands of Lampedusa and Linosa. The +latter is volcanic in origin, and its surface presents no opportunity +for the building of megalithic monuments. Lampedusa, on the other hand, +consists of limestone, which lies about in great blocks on its surface. +On the slopes of the south coast there are several remains of megalithic +construction, but they are too damaged to show much of their original +form. However, on the north side of the island there are megalithic huts +in a very fair state of preservation. They are oval in form and have in +many cases a base course of orthostatic slabs. + +Some miles to the north of Linosa lies the much larger volcanic island +of Pantelleria, also a possession of Italy. Here megalithic remains both +of dwellings and of tombs have been found. On the plateau of the Mursia +are the remains of rectangular huts made of rough blocks of stone. These +huts seemed to have formed a village, which was surrounded by a wall for +purposes of defence. In the huts were found implements of obsidian and +flat stones used for grinding. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria. + (Orsi, _Monumenti Antichi_, IX.)] + +The tombs of the people who inhabited this village are, unlike the +houses, circular or elliptical in form. They are locally known as +_sesi._ The smaller are of truncated conical shape, the circular chamber +being entered by a low door and having a corbelled roof. In one of the +_sesi_ a skeleton was found buried in the contracted position. The +finest of the tombs, known as the Sese Grande, elliptical in form (Fig. +20), has a major diameter of more than 60 feet, and rises in ridges, +being domed at the top. It contains not one chamber, but twelve, each of +which has a separate entrance from the outside of the _sese._ To judge +by the remains found in the _sesi_ they belong entirely to the neolithic +period. + + +The island of Malta as seen to-day is an almost treeless, though not +unfertile, stretch of rock, with a harbour on the north coast which must +always make the place a necessary possession to the first sea power of +Europe. Much of its soil is of comparatively modern creation, and four +thousand years ago the island may well have had a forbidding aspect. +This is perhaps the reason why the first great inroads of neolithic man +into the Mediterranean left it quite untouched, although it lay directly +in the path of tribes immigrating into Europe from Africa. The earliest +neolithic remains of Italy, Crete, and the Ægean seem to have no +parallel in Malta, and the first inhabitants of whom we find traces in +the island were builders of megalithic monuments. Small as Malta is it +contains some of the grandest and most important structures of this kind +ever erected. The two greatest of these, the so-called "Phoenician +temples" of Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra, were constructed on opposite sides +of one of the southern valleys, each within sight of the other and of +the little rocky island of Filfla. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21. Plan of the megalithic sanctuary of Mnaidra, + Malta. (After Albert Mayr's plan.)] + +The temple of Mnaidra is the simpler of the two in plan (Fig. 21). It +consists of two halves, the more northerly of which was almost certainly +built later than the other. Each half consists of two elliptical +chambers set one behind the other. The south half is the better +preserved. It has a concave façade of large orthostatic slabs with +horizontal blocks set in front of them to keep them in position. In the +centre of this opens a short paved passage formed of fine upright slabs +of stone, one of which is 13 feet in height. The first elliptical +chamber (_E_) into which this passage leads us has a length of 45 feet. +Its walls (Pl. III) consist of roughly squared orthostatic slabs over 6 +feet in height, above which are several courses of horizontal blocks +which carry the walls in places up to a height of nearly 14 feet. This +combination of vertical and horizontal masonry is typical of all the +Maltese temples. To the left of the entrance is a rectangular niche in +the wall containing one of the remarkable trilithons (_a_) which form so +striking a feature of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim. It consists of a +horizontal slab of stone nearly 10 feet in length, supported at its ends +by two vertical slabs about 5 feet high. To the right of the entrance is +a window-like opening (_b_, behind the seated figure in Pl. III) in one +of the slabs of the wall, preceded by two steps and giving access to +an irregular triangular space (_F_). In the north-west angle of this +triangle is fixed a trilithon table (_c_) of the usual type, 32 inches +high; at a like height above the table is fixed another horizontal slab +which serves as a roof to the corner. The south corner of the triangle +is shut off by a vertical slab, in which is cut a window 29 inches by +17. Through this is seen a shrine (?) consisting of a box (_d_) made of +five well-cut slabs of stone, the front being open. The aperture by +which _F_ is entered was evidently intended to be closed with a slab of +stone from the inside of _F_, for it was rebated on that side, and there +are holes to be used in securing the slab. When the entrance was thus +blocked _F_ still communicated with _E_ by means of a small rectangular +window 16 inches by 12 in one of the adjacent slabs (visible in Pl. +III). + +[Illustration: PLATE III TEMPLE OF MNAIDRA, MALTA. APSE OF CHIEF ROOM + To face p. 100] + +Returning to the area _E_ we find in the south-west wall an elaborate +doorway (Pl. II, Fig. I, p. 82) leading to a rectangular room _H_. The +doorway consists of two tall pillars with a great lintel laid across the +top. The space between the pillars is closed by a fixed vertical slab in +which is a window-like aperture similar to that which gives access to +Room _F_. All the stones in this doorway are ornamented with pit-marks. +The rectangular room _H_ has niches in its walls to the north, south, +and west. Each niche is formed by a pair of uprights with a block laid +across the top. The west niche is occupied by a horizontal table or +slab (_e_) supported at its centre by a stone pillar 39 inches in +height, of circular section narrowing in the centre (visible through the +doorway in Pl. II, Fig. I). The southern niche contains an ordinary +trilithon table (_f_): the northern niche is damaged, but apparently +held a table like that of the western. + +The area _I_ consists of only half an ellipse, the southern half being +replaced by the area _H_, which we have already described. It has a +rectangular niche to the west containing a fine trilithon with a +cover-slab nearly 10 feet long. + +The whole of the southern half of the Mnaidra temple is surrounded by a +wall of huge rough blocks of stone, presenting a great contrast to the +dressed slabs of which the inner walls are formed. They are placed +alternately with their broad faces and their narrow edges outwards. The +roughness of this enclosure wall gives the structure a remarkably wild +and craggy appearance from a distance. The northern half of Mnaidra is +clearly a later addition. + +There is no doubt as to the way in which the areas were roofed. In the +apse-like ends of the elliptical rooms the horizontal courses are +corbelled, i.e. each course projects slightly forward over the last. +Thus the space narrows as the walls rise, until the aperture is small +enough to be roofed by great slabs laid across. The corbelling of the +apse is just perceptible in Pl. III. Whether the roofing of the Mnaidra +temple was ever complete it is impossible to say: in any case the system +we have described could only be applied to the apsidal portions of the +areas, and their centres must either have been open to the sky or roofed +quite simply with slabs. + + +In the still more famous temple of Hagiar Kim we have a complicated +building, in which the original plan has been much altered and enlarged. +The main portion doubtless consisted originally of a curved façade and a +pair of elliptical areas, the inner of which has been fitted with a +second entrance to the north-west and completely remodelled at its +south-west end. Four elliptical chambers, one of which is at a much +higher level than the rest of the building, have been added. Here, too, +as at Mnaidra, we find niches containing trilithon tables. In the first +elliptical area, in which the apsidal ends are divided from the central +space by means of walls of vertical slabs, a remarkable group of objects +was found. In front of a well-cut vertical block stood what must be an +altar, cut in one piece of stone. It is square in section except for the +top, which is circular. On the four vertical edges are pilasters in +relief, and in the front between these is cut in relief what looks like +a plant growing out of a pot or box. To the left of the altar and the +vertical slab behind were an upright stone with two hanging spirals cut +on it in relief, and at its foot a horizontal slab. Both the altar and +the carved stone are covered with small pit-marks. + +In the outside wall of the building, quite unconnected with the +interior, is a niche partly restored on old foundations, in which stands +a rough stone pillar 6-1/2 feet high. In front of this pillar is a +vertical slab nearly 3 feet high, narrowing towards the base, and +covered with pit-markings. This pillar can hardly be anything but a +baetyl, or sacred stone. + +The temple called the Gigantia, on the island of Gozo, is no less +remarkable than the two which we have already described; in one place +its wall is preserved up to a height of over 20 feet. The plan is +similar to that of Mnaidra, though here the two halves seem to have been +built at one and the same time. Several of the blocks show a design of +spirals in relief, while on others there are the usual pit-markings. +Another bears a figure of a fish or serpent. At the foot of one of the +trilithons was found a baetyl 51 inches in height, now in the museum at +Valletta. + +That these three buildings were sanctuaries of some kind seems almost +certain from their form and arrangement. We do not, however, know what +was the exact nature of the worship carried on in them, though there can +be no doubt that the stone tables supported by single pillars and the +trilithons found in the niches played an important part in the ritual. +Sir Arthur Evans in his famous article _Mycenæan Tree and Pillar Cult_ +has suggested that in Malta we have a cult similar to that seen in the +Mycenæan world. This latter was an aneiconic worship developed out of +the cult of the dead; in it the deity or hero was represented by a +baetyl, i.e. a tree or pillar sometimes standing free, sometimes placed +in a 'dolmen-like' cell or shrine, in which latter case the pillar often +served to support the roof of the shrine. In Malta Sir Arthur Evans sees +signs of a baetyl-worship very similar to this. Thus at Hagiar Kim we +have a pillar still standing free in a niche, and another pillar, which, +to judge from its shape, must have stood free, was found in the +Gigantia. On the other hand, at Mnaidra we have pillars which support +slabs in a cell or shrine, and at Cordin several small pillars were +found which must originally have served a similar purpose. + +There can hardly be any doubt that Sir Arthur Evans is right in seeing +in the Maltese temples signs of a baetylic worship. But is he right in +his further assertion that the cult was a cult of the dead? Albert Mayr +assumes that he is, and endeavours to show that the 'dolmen-like' cells +in the niches are not altars, but stereotyped representations of the +dolmen-tombs of the heroes worshipped. He thinks that the slabs which +cover them are too large for altar-tables, and that the niches in which +they stand are too narrow and inaccessible to have been the scene of +sacrificial rites. Neither of these arguments has much force, nor is it +easy to see how the cells are derived from dolmens. The fact is that the +word 'dolmen-like,' which has become current coin in archæological +phraseology, is a question-begging epithet. The Maltese cells are not +like dolmens at all, they are either trilithons or tables resting on a +pillar. They are always open to the front, and instead of the rough +unhewn block which should cover a dolmen they are roofed with a +well-squared slab. If the pillar which supports the slab is, like the +free-standing pillars, a baetyl, the slab is probably a mere roof to +cover and protect it; if not, the slab is almost certainly a table. + +At the same time, although we may not accept the hypothesis that the +cell is derived from a dolmen, Sir Arthur Evans may still be right in +supposing the worship to have originated in a cult of the dead. But he +was almost certainly wrong, as recent excavation has shown, in supposing +that the cells were the actual burial place of the deified heroes. + +A number of statuettes were found at Hagiar Kim, two of which are of +pottery and the rest of limestone. One figure represents a woman +standing, but in the rest she is seated on a rather low stool with her +feet tucked under her. There is no sign of clothing, except on one +figure which shows a long shirt and a plain bodice with very low neck. +All these statuettes are characterized by what is known as steatopygy, +that is, the over-development of the fat which lies on and behind the +hips and thighs. + +Steatopygous figures have been found in many places, viz. France, Malta, +Crete, the Cyclades, Greece, Thessaly, Servia, Transylvania, Poland, +Egypt, and the Italian colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea. The French +examples are from caves of the palæolithic period; the rest mainly +belong to the neolithic and bronze ages. Various reasons have been given +for the abnormal appearance of these figures. In the first place it has +been suggested that they represent women of a steatopygous type, like +the modern Bushwomen, and that this race was in early days widely +diffused in the Mediterranean and in South Europe. Another hypothesis is +that they represent not a truly steatopygous type of women, but only an +abnormally fat type. A third suggestion is that they portray the +generative aspect of nature in the form of a pregnant goddess. + +Naturally there are considerable local differences in the shapes of the +figures from the various countries we have enumerated, and it may be +that no single hypothesis will explain them all. + +There are other megalithic buildings in Malta besides the three which +we have discussed, but none of them call for more than passing mention. +On the heights of Cordin or Corradino, overlooking the Grand Harbour of +Valletta, there are no less than three groups, all of which have been +lately excavated. In all three we see signs of the typical arrangement +of elliptical areas one behind another, and in the finest of the three +the curved façade and the paved court which lies before it are still +preserved. + +It was for a long time believed that there were no dolmens in Malta. +Professor Tagliaferro has been able to upset this belief by discovering +two, one near Musta and the other near Siggewi. It is hardly credible +that these are the only two dolmens which ever existed in Malta. More +will no doubt yet be found, especially in the wild north-west corner of +the isle. + + +The megalithic builders of Malta did not confine their achievements to +structures above ground, they could also work with equal facility below. +In the village of Casal Paula, which lies about a mile from the head of +the Grand Harbour of Valletta, is a wonderful complex of subterranean +chambers known as the Hypogeum of Halsaflieni, which may justly be +considered as one of the wonders of the world. + +The chambers, which seem to follow no definite plan, are excavated in +the soft limestone and arranged in two storeys connected by a staircase, +part of which still remains in place. The finest rooms are in the upper +storey. The largest is circular, and contains in its walls a series of +false doors and windows. It is in this room that the remarkable nature +of the work in the hypogeum is most apparent. On entering it one sees at +once that the intention of the original excavator was to produce in +solid rock underground a copy of a megalithic structure above ground. +Thus the walls curve slightly inwards towards the top as do those of the +apses of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, and the ceiling is cut to represent a +roof of great blocks laid across from wall to wall with a space left +open in the centre where the width would be too great for the length of +the stones. The treatment of the doors and windows recalls at once that +of the temples above ground. The mason was not content, when he needed a +door, to cut a rectangular opening in the rock; he must represent in +high relief the monolithic side-posts and lintel which were the great +features of the megalithic 'temples' of Malta. Nor has he failed in his +intention, for, as one moves from room to room in the hypogeum, one +certainly has the feeling of being in a building constructed of separate +blocks and not merely cut in the solid rock. No description can do +justice to the grace of the curves and the flow of the line in the +circular chamber and in the passage beyond it, and we have here the +work of an architect who felt the æsthetic effect of every line he +traced. + +Behind the circular chamber and across the passage just referred to lies +a small room which, rightly or wrongly, has been called the 'Holy of +Holies,' the idea being that it formed a kind of inner sanctuary to the +chamber. It contains a rough shelf cut in the wall, and in the centre of +this a shallow circular pit. It has been suggested that this pit was +made to hold the base of the cult-object, whether it was a baetyl or an +idol. This, however, is a mere conjecture. In the passage just outside +the door of this room are two small circular pits about 6 inches in +diameter and the same distance apart. They connect with one another +below, and are closed with tightly fitting limestone plugs. In one of +them was found a cow's horn. Their purpose is unknown, but similar pairs +of pits occur elsewhere at Halsaflieni. + +In two of the largest chambers in the hypogeum the roof and walls are +still decorated with designs in red paint. The patterns consist of +graceful combinations of curved lines and spirals. Many other rooms, +including the circular chamber, were originally painted with designs in +red, which have now almost wholly disappeared. + +Many of the chambers are extremely small, too small for an adult even to +stand upright in them, and their entrances are merely windows, perhaps +a foot square and well above the ground. + +What then was the purpose of this wonderful complex of rooms? Before +attempting to answer this question we must consider what has been found +in them. When the museum authorities first took over the hypogeum +practically all the chambers were filled to within a short distance of +their roofs with a mass of reddish soil, which proved to contain the +remains of thousands of human skeletons. In other words, Halsaflieni was +used as a burial place, though this may not have been its original +purpose. The bones lay for the most part in disorder, and so thickly +that in a space of about 4 cubic yards lay the remains of no less than +120 individuals. One skeleton, however, was found intact, lying on the +right side in the crouched position, i.e. with arms and knees bent up. + +With the bones were found enormous quantities of pottery and other +objects, buried with the dead as provision for the next world. The +pottery is rough in comparison with the fine painted wares of Crete, but +it is extremely varied in its decoration. One particularly fine bowl +shows a series of animals which have been identified by Professor +Tagliaferro as the long-horned buffalo, an animal which once existed on +the northern coasts of Africa. Ornaments of all kinds were common, and +include beads, pendants, and conical buttons of stone and shell. The +most remarkable of all are a large number of model celts made of +jadeite and other hard stones. These are of the same shape as the stone +axes used by neolithic man, but they are far too small ever to have been +used, and they must therefore have been models hung round the neck as +amulets. Each is provided with a small hole for this purpose. The +popularity of the axe-amulet makes it probable that the axe had some +religious significance. + +Finally Halsaflieni has yielded several steatopygous figurines. Some of +these resemble those of Hagiar Kim, but two are of rather different +type. Each of these represents a female lying on a rather low couch. In +the better preserved of the two she lies on her right side, her head on +a small uncomfortable-looking pillow. The upper part of her body is +naked, but from the waist downwards she is clad in a flounced skirt +which reaches to the ankles. The other figurine is very similar, but the +woman here is face downwards on the couch. + +The bodies themselves were so damaged with damp that only ten skulls +could be saved whole. These, however, afford very valuable +anthropological evidence. They have been carefully measured by Dr. +Zammit, and they prove to belong to a long-headed (dolichocephalic) type +usual among the neolithic races of the Mediterranean. + +We have still to discuss the purpose of this great complex of +underground chambers and passages. It is quite clear that its eventual +fate was to be used as a burial place for thousands of individuals, but +it is far from certain that this was the purpose for which it was built. +The existence of the central chamber, with its careful work and +laborious imitation of an open-air 'temple,' is against this +interpretation. It has therefore been suggested that the hypogeum was +meant for a burial place, and that the central chamber was the chapel or +sanctuary in which the funeral rites were performed, after which the +body was buried in one of the smaller rooms. This, however, does not +explain the presence of burials in the chapel itself, and it is far more +likely that it was only after Halsaflieni had ceased to be used for its +original purpose that it was seized upon as a convenient place for +burial. + +The question of the date of the Maltese megalithic buildings is a +difficult one. It is true that no metal has been found in them, and that +we can therefore speak of them as belonging to the neolithic age. But +the neolithic age of Malta need not be parallel in date with that of +Crete for example. It is extremely probable that Malta lay outside the +main currents of civilization, and that flint continued to be used there +long after copper had been adopted by her more fortunate neighbours. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE DOLMENS OF ASIA + + +In the south-east of Europe lie three groups of dolmens which are no +doubt in origin more closely connected with those of Asia than with +those of the rest of Europe. The first group lies in Bulgaria, where no +less than sixty dolmens have been found north of Adrianople. The second +consists of a few dolmens which still remain in the Crimea, and the +third lies in the Caucasus in two divisions, one to the south-east and +the other to the south-west of the town of Ekaterinodar. These last are +made of slabby rock, and thus have a finished appearance. A dolmen near +Tzarskaya has a small semicircular hole at the bottom of one of its +end-slabs, while another in the valley of Pehada has sides consisting of +single blocks, placed so as to slant inwards considerably, and a +circular hole in the centre of the slab which closes one of its ends. + +In Asia megalithic monuments are not infrequent. We first find them in +Syria, they have been reported from Persia, and in Central and South +India they exist in large numbers. Corridor-tombs occur in Japan, but +they are late in date, and there is no evidence to show whether they +are connected with those of India or not. + +Syria is comparatively rich in megalithic monuments, but it is +remarkable that almost all of them lie to the east of the Jordan. Thus +while there are hundreds of dolmens in the country of Pera and in Ammon +and Moab, very few have been found in Galilee, and only one in Judæa, +despite careful search. There is, however, a circle of stones west of +Tiberias, and an enclosure of menhirs between Tyre and Sidon. According +to Perrot and Chipiez some of the Moabite monuments are very similar in +type to the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia. Others are simple dolmens. In a +good example at Ala Safat (Fig. 22) the floor of the tomb is formed by a +single flat slab of stone. The great cover-slab rests on two long +blocks, one on either side, placed on edge. The narrow ends are closed +up with smaller slabs, one of which, that which faces north, has a small +hole pierced in it. A similar closure slab with a hole is also found in +certain rock-tombs quite close to this dolmen. Apparently none of these +dolmens have been systematically excavated, and nothing is known of +their date. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat. (After de +Luynes.)] + +Menhirs, too, are not wanting in Syria. Perrot and Chipiez figure an +example from Gebel-Mousa in Moab which is quite unworked, except for a +shallow furrow across the centre of the face. In many cases the menhir +is surrounded by one or more rows of stones. Thus at Der Ghuzaleh a +menhir about 3 feet in height is set in the centre of what when complete +must have been a rectangle. In other cases the enclosure was elliptical +or circular in form. In an example at Minieh the menhir stands in the +centre of a double (in part triple) circle of stones, on which abuts an +elliptical enclosure. In some cases the circle has no proper entrance, +in others it has a door consisting of a large slab resting on two +others. The largest of the circles attains a diameter of 600 feet, and +has a double line of stones. + +Within these circles and near them are found large numbers of monuments +consisting each of a large flat slab resting on two others. On the +upper surface of the top slab are often seen a number of basin-shaped +holes, sometimes connected by furrows. Many of the slabs are slightly +slanting, and it has been suggested that the series of holes and furrows +was intended for the pouring a libation of some kind. In a monument of +this type at Ammân the cover-slab slopes considerably; the upper part of +its surface is a network of small channels converging on a hole 11 +inches deep about the centre of the slab. Here, again, no excavations +have been carried out, and we do not even know what was the purpose of +these structures. It is, however, probable that these trilithons were +not, like the dolmens, tombs, but served some religious purpose, +possibly connected with the worship of the menhirs. + +In the Jaulân, where the rock consists of a slabby type of basalt, there +are many dolmens of fine appearance. They often lie east and west, and +are often broader at the west end. Many are surrounded by a double +circle of stones. In one of them two copper rings were found. At Ain +Dakkar more than 160 dolmen-tombs are visible from a single spot. They +are built on circular terraces of earth and stones about 3 feet high. +The Arabs call them Graves of the Children of Israel. Most of them lie +east and west, and are broader at the west. In the eastern slab there is +often a hole about 2 feet in diameter. Near Tsîl are several +corridor-tombs of simple type. Each consists of a long rectangular +chamber with only one cover-slab, that being at the west end. In a +well-known example of this type at Kosseir there is a hole in one of the +two uprights which support the cover. + +These examples will serve to show the importance and variety of the +Syrian monuments. They present analogies with those of many parts of the +megalithic area, and we therefore await anxiously the publication of +Mackenzie's promised article on his own explorations in this district. + + +The central and southern parts of India afford numerous examples of +dolmens. They are to be found in almost all parts of Lower India from +the Nerbudda River to Cape Comorin. In the Nilgiri hills there are stone +circles and dolmens, and numbers of dolmens are said to exist in the +Neermul jungle in Central India. In the collectorate of Bellary dolmens +and other monuments to the number of 2129 have been recorded. Others +occur in the principality of Sorapoor and near Vellore in the Madras +presidency. These latter appear to be of two types, either with three +supports only or with four supports, one of which is pierced with a +circular hole. Of the 2200 dolmens known in the Deccan, half are of this +pierced type. They are known to the natives as "dwarfs' houses." One +only had a pair of uprights outside the pierced stone, thus forming a +sort of portico to the dolmen. Near Chittore in North Arcot there is +said to be a square mile of ground covered with these monuments. In them +were found human remains in sarcophagi, and fragments of black pottery. +Several of the Indian dolmens are said to have contained objects of +iron. Occasionally the dolmen is surrounded by a double circle of stones +or covered with a cairn. The Deccan, in addition to its numerous +dolmens, possesses also megalithic monuments of another type. They +consist each of two rows, each of thirteen unworked stones set as close +together as possible, in front of which is a row of three stones, each +about 4 feet high, not let into the ground. The planted stones were +whitewashed, and each was marked with a large spot of red paint with +black in the centre. These stones seem to have been in use in modern +times. Colonel Forbes Leslie thinks that a cock had been sacrificed on +one of the three stones which lie in front of the double row, but there +seems to be no certain evidence for this. It is, however, very probable +that these _alignements_ had some religious signification, and the same +is no doubt true of certain small circles of small stones, also found in +the Deccan. + +The modern inhabitants of the Khasi Hills in India still make use of +megalithic monuments. They set up a group of an odd number of menhirs, +3, 5, 7, 9, or 11, and in front of these two structures of dolmen form. +These are raised in honour of some important member of the tribe who has +died, and whose spirit is thought to have done some good to the tribe. +If the benefits continue it is usual to increase the number of menhirs. + +The earliest burials in Japan are marked by simple mounds of earth. It +was not until the beginning of the iron age that megalithic tombs came +into use. The true dolmen is not found in Japan, and all the known +graves are corridor-tombs covered with a mound. They are of four types. +First, we have a simple corridor with no separate chamber; secondly, a +corridor broadening out at one side near the end; thirdly, a true +chamber with a corridor of access; and fourthly, a type in which the +corridor is preceded by an antechamber. All four types occur in rough +unworked stone, roofed with huge slabs, but a few examples of the third +type are made of well-cut and dressed blocks. The mounds are usually +conical, though some are of a complex form shortly to be described. Some +of these contain stone sarcophagi. The bodies were never cremated, but +the bones are so damaged that it is impossible to say what the most +usual position was. Objects of bronze and iron together with pottery and +ornaments were found in the tombs. + +The more important tombs are of a more complicated type. They seem to +have contained the remains of emperors and their families. They consist +each of a circular mound, to which is added on one side another mound of +trapezoidal form. The megalithic tomb-chamber or the sarcophagus which +sometimes replaces it lies in the circular part of the mound. The total +axial length of the basis of the whole mound is in a typical case--that +of Nara (Yamato)--674 feet, the diameter of the round end being 420 +feet. The mounds have in most cases terraced sides, and are surrounded +by a moat. In early times it seems to have been the custom to slay or +bury alive the servants of the emperor on his mound, but this was given +up about the beginning of the Christian era. + +These imperial double mounds seem to begin about two centuries before +the Christian era, and to continue for five or six centuries after it. +Many of them can be definitely assigned to their owners, and others are +attributed by tradition. Thus a rather small mound at the foot of Mount +Unebi (Yamato) is considered to be the burial place of the Emperor +Jimmu, the founder of the Imperial dynasty, and annual ceremonies are +performed before it. + +The Japanese Emperors are still buried in terraced mounds, and in the +group of huge stone blocks which have been placed on the mound of the +Emperor Komei, who died in 1866, we may be tempted to see a survival of +the ancient megalithic chamber. + +These early corridor-tombs are evidently not the work of the Ainu, the +aborigines of Japan, but of the Japanese invaders who conquered them. +These latter do not seem to have brought the idea of megalithic building +with them, as their earlier tombs are simple mounds. As no dolmen has +yet been found in Japan we cannot at present derive the corridor-tomb +there from it. It is, however, worthy of mention that true dolmens occur +as near as Corea, though none have been reported from China. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS, + THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ETC. + + +With regard to the date of the megalithic monuments it only remains to +sum up the evidence given in the previous chapters. It may be said that +in Europe they never belong to the beginning of the neolithic age, but +either to its end or to the period which followed it, i.e. to the age of +copper and bronze. The majority date from the dawn of this latter +period, though some of the chambered cairns of Ireland seem to belong to +the iron age. Outside Europe there are certainly megalithic tombs which +are late. In North Africa, for example, we know that the erection of +dolmens continued into the early iron age; many of the Indian tombs are +clearly late, and the corridor-tombs of Japan can be safely attributed +in part at least to the Christian era. + +With what purpose were the megalithic monuments erected? The most simple +example, the menhir or upright stone, may have served many purposes. In +discussing the temples of Malta we saw reason for believing that the +megalithic peoples were in the habit of worshipping great stones as +such. Other stones, not actually worshipped, may mark the scene of some +great event. Jacob commemorated a dream by setting up the stone which +had served him as a pillow, and Samuel, victorious over the Philistines, +set up twelve stones, and called the place "Stones of Deliverance." +Others again perhaps stood in a spot devoted to some particular national +or religious ceremony. Thus the Angami of the present day in Assam set +up stones in commemoration of their village feasts. It seems clear from +the excavations that the menhirs do not mark the place of burials, +though they may in some cases have been raised in honour of the dead. + +The question of the purpose of stone circles has already been dealt with +in connection with those of Great Britain. _Alignements_ are more +difficult to explain, for, from their form, they cannot have served as +temples in the sense of meeting-places for worship. Yet they must surely +have been connected with religion in some way or other. Possibly they +were not constructed once and for all, but the stones were added +gradually, each marking some event or the performance of some periodic +ceremony, or even the death of some great chief. The so-called +"Canaanite High Place" recently found at Gezer consists of a line of +ten menhirs running north and south, together with a large block in +which was a socket for an idol or other object of worship. Several +bodies of children found near it have suggested that the monument was a +place of sacrifice. + +Other megalithic structures can be definitely classed as dwellings or +tombs, as we have seen in our separate treatment of them. It is not +improbable that, if we are right in considering the dolmen as the most +primitive form of megalithic monument, megalithic architecture was +funerary in origin. Yet, as we find it in its great diffusion, it +provides homes for the living as well as for the dead. In their original +home, perhaps in Africa, the megalithic race may have lived in huts of +wattle or skins, but after their migration the need of protection in a +hostile country and the exigencies of a colder climate may have forced +them to employ stone for their dwellings. In any case, in megalithic +architecture as seen in Europe the tomb and the dwelling types are +considerably intermixed, and may have reacted on one another. This, +however, does not justify the assertion so often made that the +megalithic tomb was a conscious imitation of the hut. It is true that +some peoples make the home of their dead to resemble that of the living. +Among certain tribes of Greenland it is usual to leave the dead man +seated in his hut by way of burial. But such a conception does not exist +among all peoples, and to say that the dolmen is an imitation in stone +of a hut is the purest conjecture. Still more improbable is Montelius's +idea that the corridor-tomb imitates a dwelling. It is true that the +Eskimos have a type of hut which is entered by a low passage often 30 +feet in length, but for one who believes as Montelius does that the +corridor-tomb is southern or eastern in origin such a derivation is +impossible, for this type of house is essentially northern, its aim +being to exclude the icy winds. In the south it would be intolerably +close, and its low passage besides serving no purpose would be +inconvenient. + +There is really no reason to derive either the dolmen or the +corridor-tomb from dwellings at all. Granted the use of huge stones, +both are purely natural forms, and the presence of the corridor in the +latter is dictated by necessity. The problem was how to cover a large +tomb-chamber with a mound and to leave it still accessible for later +interments, and the obvious solution was to add a covered passage +leading out to the edge of the mound. + +A remarkable feature of the megalithic tombs is the occurrence in many +of them of a small round or rectangular hole in one of the walls, +usually an end-wall, more rarely a partition-wall between two chambers. +Occasionally the hole was formed by placing side by side two upright +blocks each with a semicircular notch in its edge. Tombs with a holed +block or blocks occur in England, instances being the barrows of Avening +and Rodmarton, King Orry's Grave in the Isle of Man, Lanyon Quoit in +Cornwall, and Plas Newydd in Wales, which has two holes. There are also +examples in Ireland, France, Belgium, Central Germany, and Scandinavia, +where they are common. Passing further afield we find holes in the +Giants' Graves of Sardinia, and in Syria, the Caucasus, and India, where +half the dolmens in the Deccan are of this type. The holes are usually +too small to allow of the passage of a human body. It has been suggested +that they served as an outlet for the soul of the deceased, or in some +cases as a means of passing in food to him. + +Attention has been frequently drawn to curious round pits so often found +on the stones of dolmens and usually known as cup-markings. They vary in +diameter from about two to four inches, and are occasionally connected +by a series of narrow grooves in the stone. They vary considerably in +number, sometimes there are few, sometimes many. They occur nearly +always on the upper surface of the cover-slab, very rarely on its under +surface or on the side-walls. + +Some have attempted to show that these pits are purely natural and not +artificial. It has been suggested, for instance, that they are simply +the casts of a species of fossil sea-urchin which has weathered out +from the surface of the stone. This explanation may be true in some +cases, but it will not serve in all, for the 'cups' are sometimes +arranged in such regular order that their artificial origin is palpable. +These markings are found on dolmens and corridor-tombs in Palestine, +North Africa, Corsica, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Great Britain. +In Wales there is a fine example of a dolmen with pits at Clynnog Fawr, +while in Cornwall we may instance the monument called "The Three +Brothers of Grugith" near Meneage. + +There is no clue to the purpose of these pits. Some have thought that +they were made to hold the blood of sacrifice which was poured over the +slab, and from some such idea may have arisen some of the legends of +human victims which still cling round the dolmens. Others have opposed +to this the fact that the pits sometimes occur on vertical walls or +under the cover-slabs, and have preferred to see in them some totemistic +signification or some expression of star-worship. It is possible that we +have to deal with a complex and not a simple phenomenon, and that the +pits were not all made to serve a single purpose. Those which cover some +of the finest stones at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim are certainly meant to be +ornamental, though there may be in them a reminiscence of some religious +tradition. In any case, it is worth while to remember that cup-markings +also occur on natural rocks and boulders in Switzerland, Scandinavia, +Great Britain (where there is a good example near Ilkley in Yorkshire), +near Como in Italy, and in Germany, Russia, and India. + + +Of the builders of the megalithic monuments themselves we cannot expect +to know very much, especially while their origin remains veiled in +obscurity. Yet there are a few facts which stand out clearly. We even +know something about their appearance, for the skulls found in the +megalithic tombs have in many cases been subjected to careful +examination and measurement. Into the detail of these measurements we +cannot enter here; suffice it to say that the most important of them are +the maximum length of the skull from front to back and its maximum +breadth, both measures, of course, being taken in a straight line with a +pair of callipers, and not round the contour of the skull. If we now +divide the maximum breadth by the maximum length and multiply the result +by 100 we get what is known as the cephalic index of the skull. Thus if +a skull has a length of 180 millimetres and a breadth of 135, its +cephalic index is 135/180 X 100, i.e. 75. It is clear that in a roundish +type of head the breadth will be greater in proportion to the length +than in a narrow elliptical type. Thus in a broad head the cephalic +index is high, while in a narrow head it is low. The former is called +brachycephalic (short-headed), and the latter dolichocephalic +(long-headed). + +This index is now accepted by most anthropologists as a useful criterion +of race, though, of course, there are other characteristics which must +often be taken into account, such as the height and breadth of the face, +the cubic capacity of the skull and its general contour. At any rate, if +we can show that the skulls of the megalithic tombs conform to a single +type in respect of their index we shall have a presumption, though not a +certainty, that they belong to a single race. + +For Africa the evidence consists in a group of twenty skulls from +dolmen-tombs giving cephalic indices which range from 70.5 to 84.4. The +average index is 75.27, and the majority of the indices lay within a few +units of that number. Ten skulls from Halsaflieni in Malta have cephalic +indices running from 66 to 75.1, the average being 71.84. Of a series of +44 skulls from the rock-tombs of the Petit Morin in France, 12 had an +index of over 80, 22 were between 75 and 80, and 10 were below 75. But +in the dolmens of Lozère distinctly broad skulls were frequent. A series +of British neolithic skulls, mostly from barrows, ran from 67 to 77. + +The builders of the megalithic monuments thus belonged in the main to a +fairly dolichocephalic race or races, for the large majority of the +skulls measured are of a long-headed type. There are, however, in +various localities, especially in France, occasional anomalous types of +skull which are distinctly brachycephalic, and show that contamination +of some kind was taking or had taken place. + + +Of the state of civilization to which the builders of the megalithic +monuments had attained, and of the social condition in which they lived, +there is something to be gathered. It is clear in the first place from +the evidence of the Maltese buildings that they were a pastoral people +who domesticated the ox, the sheep, the pig, and the goat, upon whose +flesh they partly lived. Shellfish also formed a part of their diet, and +the shells when emptied of their contents were occasionally pierced to +be used as pendants or to form necklaces or bracelets. + +Whether these people were agricultural is a question more difficult to +answer. It is true that flat stones have been found, on which some kind +of cereal was ground up with the aid of round pebbles, but the grain for +which these primitive mills were used may have been wild and not +cultivated. No grain of any kind has been found in the Maltese +settlements. + +The megalithic race do not seem to have been great traders. This is +remarkably exemplified in Malta, where there is not a trace of +connection with the wonderful civilization which must have been +flourishing so near at hand in Crete and the Ægean at the time when the +megalithic temples were built. The island seems to have been entirely +self-sufficing, except for the importation of obsidian, probably from +the neighbouring island of Linosa. Of copper, which wide trade would +have introduced, there is no sign. + +Some writers, however, have argued the existence of extensive +trade-relations from the occurrence of a peculiar kind of turquoise +called _callaïs_ in some of the megalithic monuments of France and +Portugal. The rarity of this stone has inclined some archæologists to +attribute it to a single source, while some have gone so far as to +consider it eastern in origin. For the last theory there is no evidence +whatsoever. No natural deposit of _callaïs_ is known, but it is highly +probable that the sources of the megalithic examples lay in France or +Portugal. + +It would of course be foolish to suppose that the megalithic people +received none of the products of other countries, especially at a time +when the discovery of copper was giving a great impetus to trade. No +doubt they enjoyed the benefits of that kind of slow filtering trade +which a primitive tribe, even if it had wished, could hardly have +avoided, but they were not a great trading nation as were the Cretans of +the Middle and Late Minoan Periods, or the Egyptians of the XIIth and +XVIIIth Dynasties. We know nothing of their political conditions, of the +groups into which they were divided, or the centres from which they were +governed. That there were strong centres of government is, however, +clear from the very existence of such huge monuments, many of which must +have required the combined and organized labour of large armies of +workers, in the gathering of which the state was doubtless strongly +backed by religion. + +We have seen that the megalithic peoples frequently dwelt in huts of +great stones. Yet in the majority of cases their huts must have been, +like those of most primitive races, of perishable material, such as +wood, wattle, skins, turf, and clay. As for their form there was +probably a continual conflict between the round and the rectangular +plan, just as there was in the stone examples. Which form prevailed in +any particular district was probably determined almost by accident. Thus +in Sardinia the round type was mostly kept for the huts and _nuraghi_, +while the rectangular was reserved for the dolmens and Giants' Graves. +Even here the confusion between the two types is shown by the fact that +near Birori there are two dolmens with a round plan. Again, in +Pantelleria the huts of the Mursia are rectangular, while the _sesi_, +which are tombs, are roughly circular. It is therefore probable that the +round and rectangular types of building were both in use among the +megalithic people before they spread over Europe. + +Within their huts these people led a life of the simplest description. +Their weapons and tools, though occasionally of copper, were for the +most part of stone. Flint was the most usual material. In Scandinavia it +was often polished, but elsewhere it was merely flaked. The implements +made from it were of simple types, knives, borers, scrapers, lanceheads, +and more rarely arrowheads. Many of these were quite roughly made, no +more flaking being done than was absolutely necessary to produce the +essential form, and the work being, when possible, confined to one face +of the flint. + +In the Mediterranean obsidian, a volcanic rock, occasionally took the +place of flint, especially in Sardinia and Pantelleria. Axes or celts +were often made of flint in Scandinavia and North Germany, but elsewhere +other stones, such as jade, jadeite, and diorite were commonly used. + +We can only guess at the way in which the megalithic people were +clothed. No doubt the skins of the animals they domesticated and of +those they hunted provided them with some form of covering, at any rate +in countries where it was needed. Possibly they spun wool or flax into a +thread, for at Halsaflieni two objects were found which look like +spindle-whorls, and others occur on sites which are almost certainly to +be attributed to the megalithic people. There is, however, nothing to +show that they wove the thread into stuffs. + +The love of personal decoration was highly developed among them, and all +branches of nature were called upon to minister to their desire for +ornament. Shells, pierced and strung separately or in masses, were +perhaps their favourite adornment, but close on these follow beads and +pendants of almost every conceivable substance, bone, horn, stone, clay, +nuts, beans, copper, and occasionally gold. + +One small object assumes a great importance on account of its wide +distribution. This is the conical button with two converging holes in +its base to pass the thread through. This little object, which may have +served exactly the purpose of the modern button, occurs in several parts +of the megalithic area. There are examples in Malta made of stone and +shell. Elsewhere it is most usually of bone. It occurs in Sardinia, in +France, in the rock-tombs of Gard, and in the corridor and rock-tombs of +Lozère and Ardèche, in Portugal in the _allée couverte_ of Monte +Abrahaõ, in Bohuslän (Sweden), and at Carrowmore in Ireland. Outside the +megalithic area it has been found in two of the Swiss lake-dwellings and +in Italy. + +The pottery of the megalithic people was of a simple type. It was all +made by hand, the potter's wheel being still unknown to the makers. +Pottery with painted designs does not occur outside Sicily, except for +a few poor and late examples in Malta. The best vases were of fairly +purified clay, moderately well fired, and having a polished surface, +usually of a darkish colour. On this surface were often incised +ornamental designs, varying both in type and in the skill with which +they were engraved. As a rule the schemes were rectilinear, more rarely +they were carried out in curves. Sardinia furnishes some fine examples +of rectilinear work, while the best of the curved designs are found in +Malta, where elaborate conventional and even naturalistic patterns are +traced out with wonderful freedom and steadiness of hand. + +The pottery of the megalithic area is not all alike; it would be +surprising if it were. Even supposing that the invaders brought with +them a single definite style of pottery-making this would rapidly become +modified by local conditions and by the already existing pottery +industry of the country, often, no doubt, superior to that of the +new-comers. Nevertheless, there are a few points of similarity between +the pottery of various parts of the megalithic area. The most remarkable +example is the bell-shaped cup, which occurs in Denmark, England, +France, Spain, Sardinia, and possibly Malta (the specimen is too broken +for certainty). Outside the area it is found in Bohemia, Hungary, and +North Italy. Here, as in the case of the conical button, we cannot argue +that the form was actually introduced by the megalithic race, though +there is a certain possibility in favour of such a hypothesis. + + +That the megalithic people possessed a religion of some kind will hardly +be doubted. Their careful observance of the rites due to the dead, and +their construction of buildings which can hardly have been anything but +places of worship, is a strong testimony to this. We have seen that in +the Maltese temples the worship of baetyls or pillars of stone seems to +have been carried on. Several stone objects which can scarcely have been +anything but baetyls were found in the megalithic structures of Los +Millares in Spain, but none are known elsewhere in the megalithic area. + +There is some reason for thinking that among the megalithic race there +existed a cult of the axe. In France, for instance, the sculptured +rock-tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin show, some a human figure, +some an axe, and some a combination of the two. This same juxtaposition +of the two also occurs on a slab which closed the top of a corbelled +chamber at Collorgues in Gard. A simple _allée couverte_ at Göhlitzsch +in Saxony has on one of its blocks an axe and handle engraved and +coloured red. There are further examples in the _allée couverte_ of +Gavr'inis and the dolmen called La Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer. + +These sculptured axes call to mind at once the numerous axe-shaped +pendants of fine polished stone (jade, jadeite, etc.) found in Malta, +Sicily, Sardinia, and France, and apparently used as amulets. The +excavation of Crete has brought to light a remarkable worship of the +double axe, and it has been argued with great probability that one of +the early boat signs figured on the pre-dynastic painted vases of Egypt +is a double axe, and that this was a cult object. It seems very probable +that in the megalithic area, or at least in part of it, there was a +somewhat similar worship, the object of cult, however, being not a +double but a single axe, usually represented as fitted with a handle. It +need not be assumed that the axe itself was worshipped, though this is +not impossible; it is more likely that it was an attribute of some god +or goddess. + +Among the rock-hewn tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin in the +department of Marne, France, were seven which contained engravings on +one of the walls. Several of these represent human figures (Fig. 13). +The eyes are not marked, but the hair and nose are clear. In some the +breasts are shown, in others they are omitted. On each figure is +represented what appears to be a collar or necklace. Similar figures +occur on the slabs of some of the _allées couvertes_ of Seine et Oise, +and on certain blocks found in and near megalithic burials in the South +of France. Moreover, in the departments of Aveyron, Tarn, and Hérault +have been found what are known as menhir-statues, upright pillars of +stone roughly shaped into human semblance at the top; they are of two +types, the one clearly female and the other with no breasts, but always +with a collar or baldric. + +It has been argued that these figures represent a deity or deities of +the megalithic people. Déchelette, comparing what are apparently tattoo +marks on a menhir-statue at Saint Sermin (Aveyron) with similar marks on +a figure cut on a schist plaque at Idanha a Nova (Portugal) and on a +marble idol from the island of Seriphos in the Ægean, seems inclined to +argue that in France and Portugal we have the same deity as in the +Ægean. This seems rather a hazardous conjecture, for we know that many +primitive peoples practised tattooing, and, moreover, it is not certain +that the French figures represent deities at all. It is quite as likely, +if not more so, that they represent the deceased, and take the place of +a grave-stone: this would account for the occurrence of both male and +female types. This was almost certainly the purpose of six stones that +remain of a line that ran parallel to a now destroyed tomb at Tamuli +(Sardinia). Three have breasts as if to distinguish the sex of three of +those buried in the tomb. We must not therefore assume that any of the +French figures represents a 'dolmen-deity.' + +The method of burial observed in the megalithic tombs is almost +universally inhumation. Cremation seems to occur only in France, but +there it is beyond all doubt. The known examples are found in the +departments of Finistère, Marne, and Aisne, and in the neighbourhood of +Paris. In Finistère out of 92 megalithic burials examined 61 were +cremations, 26 were inhumations, and 5 were uncertain. It is extremely +curious that this small portion of France should be the only part of the +megalithic area where cremation was practised. It is generally held that +cremation was brought into Europe by the broad-headed 'Alpine' people, +who seem to have invaded the centre of the continent at some period in +the neolithic age. It is possible that in parts of France a mixture took +place between the megalithic builders and the Alpine race. Intermarriage +would no doubt lead to confusion in many cases between the two rites. + +In all other cases the builders of the megalithic monuments buried their +dead unburned. Often the body was lying stretched out on its back, or +was set in a sitting position against the side of the tomb; but most +frequently it was placed in what is known as the contracted position, +laid on one side, generally the left, with the knees bent and drawn up +towards the chin, the arms bent at the elbow, and the hands placed close +to the face. Many explanations of this position have been suggested. +Some see in it a natural posture of repose, some an attempt to crowd the +body into as small a space as possible. Some have suggested that the +corpse was tightly bound up with cords in order that the spirit might +not escape and do harm to the living. Perhaps the most widely approved +theory is that which considers this position to be embryonic, i.e. the +position of the embryo previous to birth. None of these explanations is +entirely convincing, but no better one has been put forward up to the +present. + +This custom, it must be noted, was not limited to the megalithic +peoples. It was the invariable practice of the pre-dynastic Egyptians +and has been found further east in Persia. It occurs in the neolithic +period in Crete and the Ægean, in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and other +parts of Europe, and it is one of the facts which go to show that the +builders of the megaliths were ethnologically connected, however +remotely, with their predecessors in Europe. + +At Halsaflieni, in Malta, we have perhaps examples of the curious custom +of secondary interment; the body is buried temporarily in some suitable +place, and after the flesh has left the bones the latter are collected +and thrown together into a common ossuary. That the bones at Halsaflieni +were placed there when free from flesh is probable from the closeness +with which they were packed together (see p. 111). There are also +possible examples in Sicily (see p. 79). The custom was not unknown in +neolithic days, especially in Crete. It is still occasionally practised +on the island and on the Greek mainland, where, after the dead have lain +a few years in hallowed soil, their bones are dug up, roughly cleaned, +and deposited in caves. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE DID THEY COME? + + +Modern discussion of the origin of the megalithic monuments may be said +to date from Bertrand's publication of the French examples in 1864. In +this work Bertrand upheld the thesis that "the dolmens and _allées +couvertes_ are sepulchres; and their origin seems up to the present to +be northern." In 1865 appeared Bonstetten's famous _Essai sur les +dolmens_, in which he maintained that the dolmens were constructed by +one and the same people spreading over Europe from north to south. At +this time the dolmens of North Africa were still unstudied. In 1867 +followed an important paper by Bertrand. In 1872 two events of +importance to the subject occurred, the publication of Fergusson's _Rude +Stone Monuments in All Countries_, and the discussion raised at the +Brussels Congress by General Faidherbe's paper on the dolmens of +Algeria. Faidherbe maintained the thesis that dolmens, whether in Europe +or Africa, were the work of a single people moving southward from the +Baltic Sea. + +The question thus raised has been keenly debated since. At the +Stockholm Congress in 1874 de Mortillet advanced the theory that +megalithic monuments in different districts were due to different +peoples, and that what spread was the custom of building such structures +and not the builders themselves. This theory has been accepted by most +archæologists, including Montelius, Salomon Reinach, Sophus Müller, +Hoernes, and Déchelette. But while the rest believe the influences which +produced the megalithic monuments to have spread from east to west, i.e. +from Asia to Europe, Salomon Reinach holds the contrary view, which he +has supported in a remarkable paper called _Le Mirage Oriental_, +published in 1893. + +The questions we have to discuss are, therefore, as follows: Are all the +megalithic monuments due to a single race or to several? If to a single +race, whence did that race come and in what direction did it move? If to +several, did the idea of building megalithic structures arise among the +several races independently, or did it spread from one to another? + +We shall consider first the theory that the idea of megalithic building +was evolved among several races independently, i.e. that it was a phase +of culture through which they separately passed. + +On the whole, this idea has not found favour among archæologists. The +use of stone for building might have arisen in many places +independently. But megalithic architecture is something much more than +this. It is the use of great stones in certain definite and particular +ways. We have already examined what may be called the style of +megalithic architecture and found that the same features are noticeable +in all countries where these buildings occur. In each case we see a type +of construction based on the use of large orthostatic slabs, sometimes +surmounted by courses of horizontal masonry, with either a roof of +horizontal slabs or a corbelled vault. Associated with this we +frequently find the hewing of underground chambers in the rock. In +almost all countries where megalithic structures occur certain fixed +types prevail; the dolmen is the most general of these, and it is clear +that many of the other forms are simply developments of this. The +occurrence of structures with a hole in one of the walls and of blocks +with 'cup-markings' is usual over the whole of the megalithic area. +There are even more remarkable resemblances in detail between structures +in widely separated countries. Thus the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia all +have a concave façade which forms a kind of semicircular court in front +of the entrance to the tomb. This feature is seen also in the temples of +Malta, in the tomb of Los Millares in Spain, in the _naus_ of the +Balearic Isles (where, however, the curve is slight), in the Giant's +Grave of Annaclochmullin and the chambered cairn of Newbliss in Ireland, +in the tomb of Cashtal-yn-Ard in the Isle of Man, in the barrow of West +Tump in Gloucestershire, and in the horned cairns of the north of +Scotland. These parallels are due to something more than coincidence; in +fact, it is clear that megalithic building is a widespread and +homogeneous system, which, despite local differences, always preserves +certain common features pointing to a single origin. It is thus +difficult to accept the suggestion that it is merely a phase through +which many races have passed. The phases which occur in many races alike +are always those which are natural and necessary in the development of a +people, such as the phase of using copper. But there is nothing either +natural or necessary in the use of huge unwieldy blocks of stone where +much smaller ones would have sufficed. + +There are further objections to this theory in the distribution of the +megalithic buildings both in space and time. In space they occupy a very +remarkable position along a vast sea-board which includes the +Mediterranean coast of Africa and the Atlantic coast of Europe. In other +words, they lie entirely along a natural sea route. It is more than +accident that the many places in which, according to this theory, the +megalithic phase independently arose all lie in most natural sea +connection with each other, while not one is in the interior of Europe. + +In time the vast majority of the megalithic monuments of Europe seem to +begin near the end of the neolithic period and cover the copper age, +the later forms continuing occasionally into that of bronze. Here again +it is curious that megalithic building, if merely an independent phase +in many countries, should arise in so many at about the same time, and +with no apparent reason. Had it been the use of _worked_ stones that +arose, and had this followed the appearance of copper tools, the +advocates of this theory would have had a stronger case, but there seems +to be no reason why huge unworked stones should _simultaneously_ begin +to be employed for tombs in many different countries unless this use +spread from a single source. + +For these reasons it is impossible to consider megalithic building as a +mere phase through which many nations passed, and it must therefore have +been a system originating with one race, and spreading far and wide, +owing either to trade influence or migration. But can we determine +which? + +Great movements of races by sea were not by any means unusual in +primitive days, in fact, the sea has always been less of an obstacle to +early man than the land with its deserts, mountains, and unfordable +rivers. There is nothing inherently impossible or even improbable in the +suggestion that a great immigration brought the megalithic monuments +from Sweden to India or vice versa. History is full of instances of such +migrations. According to the most widely accepted modern theory the +whole or at least the greater part of the neolithic population of Europe +moved in from some part of Africa at the opening of the neolithic age. +In medieval history we have the example of the Arabs, who in their +movement covered a considerable portion of the very megalithic area +which we are discussing. + +On the other hand, many find it preferable to suppose that over this +same distance there extended a vast trade route or a series of trade +routes, along which travelled the influences which account for the +presence of precisely similar dolmens in Denmark, Spain, and the +Caucasus. Yet although much has been written about neolithic trade +routes little has been proved, and the fact that early man occasionally +crossed large tracts of land and sea in the great movements of migration +does not show that he also did so by way of trade, nor does it prove the +existence of such steady and extensive commercial relations as such a +theory of the megalithic monuments would seem to require. Immigration is +often forced on a race. Change of climate or the diverting of the course +of a great river may make their country unfit for habitation, or they +may be expelled by a stronger race. In either case they must migrate, +and we know from history that they often covered long distances in their +attempt to follow the line of least resistance. Thus there is nothing a +priori improbable in the idea that the megalithic monuments were built +by a single invading race. + +There are other considerations which support such a theory. It will be +readily admitted that the commonest and most widely distributed form of +the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both this and its obvious +derivatives, the Giant's Grave, the _allée couverte_, and others, are +known to have been tombs, while other types of structure, such as the +Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech, almost certainly had a +religious purpose. It is difficult to believe that these types of +building, so closely connected with religion and burial, were introduced +into all these regions simply by the influence of trade relations. +Religious customs and the burial rites connected with them are perhaps +the most precious possession of a primitive people, and they are those +in which they most oppose and resent change of any kind, even when it +only involves detail and not principle. Thus it is almost incredible +that the people, for instance, of Spain, because they were told by +traders that the people of North Africa buried in dolmens, gave up, even +in isolated instances, their habit of interment in trench graves in +favour of burial in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe that +this unnatural event happened in one country after another. It is true +that the use of metal was spread by means of commerce, but here there +was something to be gained by adopting the new discovery, and there was +no sacrifice of religious custom or principle. An exchange of products +between one country and another is not unnatural, but a traffic in +burial customs is unthinkable. + +Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the dolmen which was brought by +commerce, but simply the art of architecture in general, and this was +adapted to burial purposes. To this there are serious objections. In the +first place it does not explain why exactly the same types of building +(e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities of peculiar detail, +occur in countries so far apart; and in the second place, if what was +carried by trade was the art of building alone, why should the learners +go out of their way to use huge stones when smaller ones would have +suited their purpose equally well? That the megalithic builders knew how +to employ smaller stones we know from their work; that they preferred to +use large ones for certain purposes was not due to ignorance or chance, +it was because the large stone as such had some particular meaning and +association for them. We cannot definitely say that large stones were +themselves actually worshipped, but there can be no possible doubt that +for some reason or other they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used +in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead. It is impossible +that the men who possessed the skill to lay the horizontal upper courses +of the Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble to haul to the +spot and use vast blocks over 20 feet in length where far smaller ones +would have been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated +prejudice in favour of great stones. + +Such are the main difficulties involved by the influence theory. On the +other hand, objections have been urged against the idea that the +monuments were all built by one and the same race. Thus Dr. Montelius in +his excellent _Orient und Europa_ says, "In Europe at this time dwelt +Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be Aryans," the inference +being, of course, that the European dolmens were built by a different +race from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan. Unfortunately, +however, the major premise is not completely true, for though it is true +that Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were also people in +Europe who were not Aryans, and it is precisely among them that +megalithic buildings occur. + +The French archæologist Déchelette also condemns the idea of a single +race. "Anthropological observations," he says, "have long since ruined +this adventurous hypothesis." He does not tell us what these +observations are, but we presume that he refers to the occurrence of +varying skull types among the people buried in the megalithic tombs. +Nothing is more natural than that some variation should occur. We are +dealing with a race which made enormous journeys, and thus became +contaminated by the various other races with which it came in contact. +It may even have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even if we found +skulls of very different types in the dolmens this would not in the +least disprove the idea that dolmen building was introduced into various +countries by one and the same race. It would be simply a case of the +common anthropological fact that a race immigrating into an already +inhabited country becomes to some extent modified by intermarriage with +the earlier inhabitants. The measurements given in the last chapter +would seem to show that despite local variation there is an underlying +homogeneity in the skulls of the megalithic people. + +It thus seems that the most probable theory of the origin of the +megalithic monuments is that this style of building was brought to the +various countries in which we find it by a single race in an immense +migration or series of migrations. It is significant that this theory +has been accepted by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first +authority on the megalithic structures of the Mediterranean basin. + + +One question still remains to be discussed. From what direction did +megalithic architecture come, and what was its original home? This is +clearly a point which is not altogether dependent on the means by which +this architecture was diffused. Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic +origin. He considers that caves, and tombs accessible from above, i.e. +simple pits dug in the earth, were native in Europe, while tombs reached +from the side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were introduced into +Europe from the east. Salomon Reinach, arguing mainly from the early +appearance of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia and the +rarity of the simpler types of monument, such as the dolmen, in Germany +and South Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first appeared in +North Europe and spread southwards. Mackenzie is more inclined to +believe in an African origin. If he is right it may be that some +climatic change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what is now the +Sahara desert, caused a migration from Africa to Europe very similar to +that which many believe to have given to Europe its early neolithic +population. The megalithic people may even have been a branch of the +same vast race as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that both +inhumed their dead in the contracted position. + +It is probable that the problem will never be solved. The only way to +attempt a solution would be to show that in some part of the megalithic +area the structures were definitely earlier than in any other, and that +as we move away from that part in any direction they become later and +later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful, for the earliest form +of structure, the dolmen, occurs in all parts of the area, and if we +attempt to date by objects we are met by the difficulty that a dolmen in +one place which contained copper might be earlier than one in another +place which contained none, copper having been known in the former place +earlier than in the latter. + + +It still remains to consider the question of the origin of the rock-hewn +sepulchre and its relation to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb +occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, South Italy, Sicily, +Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and +France. In all these places there are examples which are certainly +early, i.e. belong to the neolithic or early metal age, with the +exception of Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two types are +common, the chamber cut in the vertical face of rock and thus entered +from the side, sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the chamber cut +underground and entered from a vertical or sloping shaft placed not +directly over the chamber, but immediately to one side of it. It is +unlikely that these two types have a separate origin, for they are +clearly determined by geological reasons. A piece of country where +vertical cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the first type, +while the other alone was possible when the ground consisted of a flat +horizontal surface of rock. We frequently find the two side by side and +containing identically the same type of remains. In South-East Sicily we +have the horizontal entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge of +Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule in the tombs of the +Plemmirio, only a few miles distant. + +Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to the distribution of the +rock-hewn tombs. In the first place they are all in the vicinity of the +Mediterranean, and in the second some occur in the megalithic area, +while others do not. The examples of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that +this type of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean. Was it from +here that the type was introduced into the megalithic area, or did the +megalithic people bring with them a tradition of building rock-tombs +totally distinct from that which is represented by the tombs of Egypt, +Cyprus, and Crete? + +The question is difficult to answer. One thing alone is clear, that in +certain places, such as Malta and Sardinia, the megalithic people were +not averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms which they more +usually erected with large stones above ground. The finest instance of +this is the Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid rock is hewn +out with infinite care to imitate the form and even the details of +surface building. + +Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia and in France the same +forms of tomb were rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost +indifferently. + +There can therefore be no doubt that the hewing out of rock was +practised by the megalithic people, and that they were no mean exponents +of the art. We have no proof that they brought this art along with them +from their original centre of dispersion, though if they did it is +curious that they did not carry it into other countries where they +penetrated besides those of the Mediterranean. It may be that early +rock-tombs will yet be found in North Africa, but it seems improbable +that, had they existed in the British Isles, in North Germany, or in +Scandinavia, not a single example should have been found. + +On the other hand, if the megalithic people did not bring the idea of +the rock-tomb with them we must suppose either that it evolved among +them after their migration, or that they adopted it from the Eastern +Mediterranean. The last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it +would involve the modification of a burial custom by foreign influence. + +We have, in fact, no evidence on which to judge the question. Perhaps it +is least unreasonable to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb was +brought into the megalithic area by the same people who introduced the +megalithic monuments, and did not result from contact with the Eastern +Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to disclaim any direct +connection between the corridor-tombs of the megalithic area and the +great _tholoi_ of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first sight there is +a considerable similarity between them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ +with its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular corridor seems +very little removed, except in size and finish, from the tombs of Gavr' +Inis and Lough Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference. The two +last are tombs built partly with upright slabs on the surface of the +ground, entered by horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds. The +Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated rock-tomb cut underground +with a sloping shaft; as the ground consisted only of loose soil a +coating of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance to a +megalithic monument. + + + + + BIBLIOGRAPHY + + OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS + + + GENERAL + +Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_ (London 1872). +Bonstetten, _Essai sur les dolmens_ (Geneva 1865). +Mortillet, _Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie + préhistorique_, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff. +Reinach, _Le mirage oriental_, in _L'Anthropologie_, 1893, pp. 557 ff. +Montelius, _Orient und Europa_. +Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_, Vols. II and III. +Reinach, _Terminologie des monuments mégalithiques + in Revue archéologique_, 3^{e} sér., XXII, 1893. +Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_ (London 1872). + + + ENGLAND AND WALES + +Fergusson, _op. cit._ +_Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Archæologia_, LVIII, pp. 37 ff. +Flinders Petrie, _Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and + Theories_ (London 1880). +Windle, _Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England._ +James, Sir Henry, _Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan + in the Island of Lewis_ (Southampton 1867). +Evans, Sir A., _Archæological Review_, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff. +Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, November 21st, 1901. +Hinks, _XIXth Century_, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff. +Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff., + 345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff. +Lewis, A. A., _Stone Circles in Britain, Archæological + Journal_, XLIX, pp. 136 ff. +Thurnam, _Ancient British Barrows, Archæologia_, + XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff. +Lewis, A. A., _Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the + Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905. +Kermode and Herdman, _Illustrated Notes on Manks + Antiquities_ (Liverpool 1904). + + + SCOTLAND + +Wilson, _The Archæological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland._ +Forbes Leslie, _Early Races of Scotland._ +Spence, Magnus, _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness._ + + + IRELAND + +Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland._ +Lewis, A. A., _Some Stone Circles in Ireland_, in + _Journal Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXXIX, pp. 517 ff. + + + SWEDEN + +Montelius, _Orient und Europa._ +Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens._ +Montelius, _Dolmens en France et en Suède_ (Le Mans 1907). +Montelius, Graf från stenåldern, upptäckt vid + Öringe i Ekeby socken, 1907. +Nilsson, _Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des + Scandinavischen Nordens_ (Hamburg 1865). + + + DENMARK + +Montelius, _Orient und Europa._ +Sophus Müller, _L'Europe préhistorique._ +Sophus Müller, _Nordische Alterthumskunde._ + + + HOLLAND + +_Archæological Journal_, 1870, pp. 53 ff. +_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, VI, 1876, p. 158. +_Compte rendu du congrès d'arch. préhist._, Stockholm, 1874. + + + BELGIUM + +Engelhardt, _Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse_, + in _Aarböger f. nord. Oldkynd._, 1870, pp. 177 ff. + + + GERMANY + +Krause und Schoetensack in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, + 1893 (Altmark only). +Morlot, _L'archéologie du Meclenbourg_ (Zurich 1868). +von Estorff, _Heidnische Altertümer der Gegend von + Aelzen_ (Hanover 1846). + + + SWITZERLAND + +Keller, _Pfahlbauten_, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101; + Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9. + + + FRANCE + +Cartailhac, _La France préhistorique._ +Bertrand in _Revue archéologique_, 1864 (List of monuments). +Bertrand, _Archéologie celtique et gauloise_, 2nd edit., 1889. +Déchelette, _Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique celtique + et gallo-romaine_, Vol. I. +Lewis, _Alignements at Autun_ in _Journal Anthrop. + Inst._, XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff. +Lewis, _On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit._, + XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff. +de Baye, _L'archéologie préhistorique_ (Petit-Morin tombs). +Reinach, S., _La Sculpture en Europe_ (Angers 1896. + Figures of the 'dolmen deity'). + + + SPAIN + +Cartailhac, _Âges préhistorique de l'Espagne_. +Cartailhac, _Monuments primitifs des îles baléares_. +Bezzenberger in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, XXXIX, + 1907, pp. 567 ff. + + + ITALY + +_Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXV, pp. 178 ff. +Nicolucci, _Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di + Terra d'Otranto_, 1893. +_Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXXVII, pp. 6 ff. +Mosso and Samarelli, _Il dolmen di Bisceglie_, in _Bull. + Paletn. Ital._, XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff. + + + SICILY + +Orsi in _Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello). +Orsi in _Ausonia_, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro). +Orsi in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro). + + + SARDINIA + +La Marmora, _Voyage en Sardaigne_. +Pinza in _Monumenti Antichi_, Vol. VIII. +Nissardi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale_, Roma, + 1903, sezione preistorica. +Nissardi and Taramelli in _Mon. Ant._, Vol. XVII. +Taramelli in _Memnon_, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35. +Préchac in _Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire_, XXVIII. +Mackenzie in _Ausonia_, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff. +Mackenzie in _Memnon_, Vol. II, fasc. 3. +Mackenzie in _Papers of the British School of Rome_, V, pp. 89 ff. +Taramelli, _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju). +Colini in _Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXIV, pp. 252 ff. + + + CORSICA + +_Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques_, Vol. III, +1892, pp. 49 ff. + + + PIANOSA +_Bullettino di Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 281 ff. + + + MALTA + +Mayr, A., _Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmäler von Malta_. +Mayr, A., _Die Insel Malta_. +Zammit, _First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum_. +Tagliaferro, _The Prehistoric Pottery found in the + Hypogeum at Halsaflieni_, in _Annals of Archæology + and Anthropology_, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff. +Zammit and Peet, _Report on the small objects found + at Halsaflieni_ (Valletta, in the Press). +Magri, _Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo_. +Ashby, T., and others, _Report on Excavations at + Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim_, appearing + in Vol. VI of _Papers of the British School of Rome_. +Peet, _Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric + Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of + Rome_, V, pp. 141 ff. +Tagliaferro, _Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez_, + in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff. + + + NORTH AFRICA + +Faidherbe in _Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie + préhistorique_, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff. +Flower in _Transactions of the International Congress +of Prehistoric Archæology_, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff. +MacIver and Wilkin, _Libyan Notes_. + + + MOROCCO + +_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, V, p. 342; + VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112. + + + TUNIS + +Cartailhac in _L'Anthropologie_, 1903, pp. 620 ff. +Carton in _L'Anthropologie_, 1891, pp. 1 ff. +_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, XXI, Pl. VI; + XXII, pp. 373 and 416. + + + EGYPT AND THE SUDAN + +Wilson and Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan_, + Vol. II, p. 123. +de Morgan, _Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte_, p. 239, Fig. 398. + + + PANTELLERIA + +Orsi in _Monumenti Antichi_, IX, pp. 449 ff. + + + LAMPEDUSA + +Ashby in _Annals of Archæology and Anthropology_, Vol. IV. + + + BULGARIA + +_Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in + Wien_, 1888, pp. 285 ff. +_L'Anthropologie_, 1890, p. 110. + + + CRIMEA + +Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722. + + + CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA + +Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_, + Vol. I, pp. 50 ff. +Chantre in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen + Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 344. +_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1885, pp. 545 ff. +Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722. + + + SYRIA AND PALESTINE + +_Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports_ for + 1882; _Annual_, 1911, pp. 1 ff. +Conder, _Heth and Moab_, pp. 190, 293. +Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9. + + + PERSIA + +de Morgan in _Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie + de Paris_, 1902, p. 187. +de Morgan, _La délégation en Perse_, 1902. +de Morgan, _L'histoire d'Elam_, Paris, 1902. + + + INDIA + +_Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, XXIV, 1865. +Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_. + + + COREA + +_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, XXIV, p. 330. + + + JAPAN + +Gowland in _Archæologia_, LV, pp. 439 ff. +Gowland in _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, 1907, pp. 10 ff. + + + + + INDEX + +Abbameiga, 85 +Aberdeen, circles near, 38 +Adrianople, 114 +Africa, 90-6 +Aiga, 85 +Ain Dakkar, 117 +Ainu, the, 122 +Ala Safat, 116 +Alemtejo, 71 +Algeria, 91-5 +_Alignements_, 3, 59-60, 89, + 119-20, 124, 154-7 +_Allées couvertes_, 3, 61, 64 +Altar Stone at Stonehenge, 18 +Altmark, 57 +Ammân, 117 +Ammon, 115 +Anghelu Ruju, 88 +Anglesey, 27, 29 +Annaclochmullin, 145 +Antequera, 70 +Arbor Low, 25 +Arcturus, 50, 51 +Arles, 64 +Arles, Council of, 12 +Arran, circles on, 35-6 +Arthur, King, 11, 25 +Arthur's Quoit, 29 +Asia, 114-22 +Atreus, Treasury of, 157 +Aurelius Ambrosius, 15 +Avebury, 23-4, 27-8 +Avening, 33, 127 +Axe, cult of, 137-8 +Axe-shaped pendants, 80, 112 +Axevalla Heath, 54 + + +Baetyls, 104, 105-6, 137 +Balearic Isles, 71-5 +Barnstone, the, 36-7 +Barrows, long, 30-3 +Barth, 90 +Belgium, 58 +Bellary, 118 +Bell-shaped cup, 64, 81, 136 +Beltane festival, 37 +Benigaus Nou, 74 +Bertrand, 64, 143 +Birori, 82, 133 +Bisceglie, 76 +Bonstetten, 143 +Borreby, 54-5 +Boscawen-un, 26 +Bou Merzoug, 92 +Bou Nouara, 91 +Boyle Somerville, Captain, 50 +Brittany, 59-60 +Brogar, Ring of, 36-7 +Broholm, 54 +Bulgaria, 114 +Button, conical, 42, 71, 111, 135 + + +Cæsar, 27 +Cairns, horned, 38-9 +Caithness, cairns of, 38-9 +_Callaïs_, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 132 +Callernish Circle, 34 +Calvados, 64 +Camster, 39 +Can de Ceyrac, 60 +Caouria, 89 +Capella, 50, 51 +Carnac, 13, 59-60 +Carrick-a-Dhirra, 43 +Carrickard, 45 +Carrickglass, 41 +Carrigalla, 49 +Carrowmore, 41-2 +Cashtal-yn-Ard, 145 +Cassibile, 80 +Castelluccio, 80, 81 +Castor, 50 +Caucasus, 114 +Cava Lavinaro, 78 +Cava Lazzaro, 78 +Cave burial, 81, 88 +Chagford, 29 +Champ Dolent, menhir of, 13 +Channel Isles, 67 +Charlemagne, 12 +Charlton's Abbott, 33 +China, 122 +Chittore, 119 +Chun Quoit, 29 +Circles, stone, 15-28, 34-8, 48-51, + 60, 96, 115 +Cirta, 92 +Clava, 37 +Clynnog Fawr, 128 +Collorgues, 137 +Constantine, 91 +Contracted burials, 33, 54, 62, 77, 80, + 81, 93, 97, 111, 140-1, 153 +Coolback, 43 +Corbelled roofs, 6, 32, 45, 48, + 69, 73, 84, 86, 87, 102-3 +Cordin, 105, 108 +Corea, 122 +Cornwall, dolmens in, 29 + monuments of, 26 +Corridor-tombs, 3, 43-8, 52-5, 56-8, + 62-4, 67-71, 76-7, 96, 118, 120-2 +Corse, Cape, 89 +Corsica, 88-9 +Coursed masonry, use of, 5, 73, 82 +Cove, the, 25 +Cremation, 35, 42, 66, 140 +Crete, 113, 132, 142, 155, 157 +Crickstone, the, 30 +Crimea, 114 +Cromlechs, 3 +Cumberland, monuments of, 25 +Cup-markings, 117, 127-8 +Cyprus, 155 +Cyrenaica, 91 + + +Dance Maen Circle, 26 +Date of megaliths, 123 +Dax, 64 +Deccan, 118-9 +Déchelette, 139, 151 +de Morgan, 90 +Denmark, 53-5 +Dennis, 76 +Der Ghuzaleh, 116 +Dolmens, 2, 29, 40-1, 52-3, 56, 58, 61, 67-8, + 82, 89, 90, 91-6, 108, 114-9 +Drawings on stones, 46, 48, 55, 62, 110 +Drewsteignton, 29 +Druids, 11, 27-8 + + +Edfu, 90 +Eguilaz, 68 +Egypt, 155 +Ellez, 96 +England, monuments of, 15-33 +Erdeven, 60 +Er-Lanic, 60 +Eskimos, 126 +Es Tudons, _nau_ of, 73-4 +Evans, Sir Arthur, 20, 105 + + +Façades, curved, 78, 145-6 +Faidherbe, General, 143 +Faustina, medal of, 95 +Féraud, M., 92-3 +Fergusson, 28, 143 +Fibrolite, 63 +Finistère, dolmens of, 13 +Fontanaccia, 89 +Fonte Coberta, 68 +Forbes Leslie, Colonel, 119 +France, 59-67 +Friar's Heel, 18, 21 + + +Galilee, 115 +Gargantua, 11 +Gaulstown, 41 +Gavr'inis, 62, 137 +Gebel Mousa, 116 +Geoffrey of Monmouth, 26 +Ger, 64 +Germany, 56-7 +Get, 39 +Gezer, 124 +Giant's Bed, 56 +Giant's Tombs, 87-8 +Gigantia, 104 + +Giraldus Cambrensis, 15 +Göhlitzsch, 137 +Gozo, Is., 104 +Greenland, 125 +Grewismühlen, 56 +Grotte des Fées, 64, 74 +Grotte du Castellet, 64 + + +Hagiar Kim, 6, 103-4 +Hakpen Hill, 24, 27 +Halsaflieni, 108-13, 130 +Hauptville's Quoit, 25 +Hengist, 15 +Herrestrup, 53 +Highwood, 45 +Hinks, Mr., 22 +Hirdmane Stone, 13 +Holed tombs, 77, 114, 116, 117, 126-7 +Holland, 57-8 +Horned cairns, 146 +_Hünenbetter_, 45, 56-8 +Hurlers, the, 26 + + +Idanha a Nova, 139 +India, 118-20 +Inigo Jones, 27 +Inverness, circles in, 37-8 +Ireland, monuments of, 40-51 +Iron, 39, 46, 93, 119 +Italy, 76-7 + + +Jadeite, 63 +James I, 27 +Japan, 120-2 +Jaulân, 117 +Jimmu, 121 +Judæa, 115 + + +Karleby, 54 +Karnak (Egypt), 22 +Keamcorravooly, 44 +Keller, 56 +Kennet Avenue, 24 +Kerlescan, 60 +Kermario, 60 +Keswick Circle, 25 +Khasi Hills, 119 +Kingarth, circle at, 36 +Kirkabrost, circle at, 36 +Kit's Coty House, 29 +Knyttkärr, 55 +Komei, 121 +Kosseir, 118 + + +Labbamologa, 43 +Ladò, 90 +Lampedusa, Isle of, 96 +Lanyon Quoit, 29, 127 +La Perotte, 7 +Leaba Callighe, 43 +Lecce, 76 +Lewis, Isle of, 34 +Linosa, Isle of, 96, 132 +Lockyer, Sir Norman, 21-2, 51 +Long Meg and her daughters, 25 +Losa, 85 +Los Millares, 70, 137, 145 +Lough Crew, 45, 48, 62 +Lough Gur, 48-51 +Lozère, 130 +Lundhöj, 55 +Lüttich, 58 + + +MacIver, D.R., 93-4 +Mackenzie, Duncan, 85, 152, 153 +Maeshowe, 36-7 +Malta, 98-113 +Man, Isle of, 30 +Mané-er-Hroeck, 62-3 +Marcella, 68 +Matera, 77 +Maughold, 30 +Mayborough Circle, 25 +Mayr, Albert, 105 +Meayll Hill, 30 +Melilli, 80 +Men-an-tol, 30 +Ménec, 59 +Menhirs, 2, 29, 59, 115-6, 123-4 + cult of, 12, 123-4 +Merivale, circle at, 26 +Merlin, 15 +Merry Maidens, the, 26 +Messa, 90 +Minieh, 116 +Mnaidra, 100-3 +Moab, 115-7 +Molafà, 88 +Monte Abrahaõ, 71 +Montelius, O., 126, 151, 153 +Monteracello, 78 +Morocco, 96 +Mortillet, de, 59, 144 +Mourzouk, 90 +Msila, 93 +Munster, tombs of, 44 +Mursia, 97 +Musta, 108 +Mycenean vases, 81 + + +Naas, 15 +Nantes, Council of, 12 +Nara, 121 +_Naus_, 73-4, 145 +_Navetas_, see _Naus_ +Neermul jungle, 118 +Newbliss, 145 +New Grange, 46, 62 +Nile valley, 90 +Nilgiri Hills, 118 +Nine Maidens, the, 26 +Nissardi, 84 +Norway, 53 +Nossiu, 85, 87 +_Nuraghi_, 82-7 + + +Obsidian, 77, 134 +Odin's Stone, 11, 36 +Orkney Isles, cairns of, 38-9 +Orry's Grave, 30, 127 +Orsi, Paolo, 78, 79 +Orthostatic slabs, use of, 4, 69, 74, + 80, 96, 100 + + +Palmella, 71 +Pantalica, 80, 155 +Pantelleria, Isle of, 96-8 +Papa-Westra, 39 +Pehada, 114 +Penrith Circle, 11 +Pentre Ifan, 29 +Pera, 115 +Périgord, 13 +Persia, 114 +Petit Morin, 66-7, 130 +Pfäffikon, Lake, 56 +Phoenicia, 154 +Pianosa, 89 +Picardt, John, 57 +Pierre du Diable, La, 58 +Pierres Plates, Les, 61 +Piper, the, 26 +Plas Newydd, 29, 127 +Plemmirio, 155 +Pliny, 27 +Portico-dolmens, 40-1, 52, 119 +Portugal, 67 +Pottery, 135-6 + + +Reinach, Salomon, 144 +Religion, megalithic, 105-6, 137-9 +Rhodes, 154 +Rinaiou, 89 +Rock-tombs, 3, 66-7, 71, 74, 79-81, 88 +Rockbarton, 48 +Rodmarton, 33, 127 +Roknia, 94 +Rollright Circle, 25, 29, 50 + + +Saint George, 88 +Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, 12 +Saint Michel, Mont, 63 +Saint Pantaléon, 60 +Saint Sermin, 139 +Saint Vincent, 74 +Sant' Elia, Cape, 88 +Sardinia, 82-8 +S'Aspru, 85 +Scandinavia, 52-5 +Scotland, monuments of, 34-9 +Sculptures, 67, 138 +Secondary burial, 79, 141-2 +Senâm, the, 93-4 +Seriphos, 139 +Serucci, 85 +_Sesi_, the, 97-8 +Shap, circle at, 23 +Sicily, 77-82 +Sidbury Hill, 21 +Sidon, 115 +Siggewi, 108 +Silbury Hill, 24, 28 +Siret, Messieurs, 68 +Sjöbol, 53 +Skulls, 77, 112, 129-31 +Sorapoor, 118 +Spain, 67-71 +Spence, Magnus, 37 +Stanton Drew, 25, 49 +Star-worship, 23, 50-1, 128 +Steatopygous figures, 107, 112 +Stenness, Ring of, 36 +Stonehenge, 15-23 +Stoney-Littleton, 32 +Stripple Stones, the, 26 +Stromness, circle at, 36 +Stukeley, Dr., 27 +Su Cadalanu, 84 +Sudan, 90 +Suetonius, 27 +Sun-worship, 21-3, 28-9, 37, 51 +Sweden, 52-5 +Switzerland, 56 +Syria, 115-8 + + +Table des Marchands, La, 16, 137 +Tagliaferro, Professor, 108, 111 +Tahutihotep, tomb of, 8 +_Talayots_, 71-3 +Tamuli, 139 +Tangier, 96 +Tarentum, 76 +Tattooing, 139 +"Three Brothers of Grugith," the, 128 +Tiberias, 115 +Tinaarloo, 57 +Toledo, Council of, 12 +Torebo, 53 +Tours, Council of, 12 +Trade relations, 131-3 +Tregeseal, circles near, 26 +Trepanned skulls, 62 +Trilithons, 2, 17, 90, 100-1, 103-4, 117 +Tripoli, 90-1 +_Truddhi_, 86 +Tsîl, 117-8 +Tunis, 95-6 +Tyfta, 54 +Tyre, 115 +Tzarskaya, 114 + + +Unebi, Mt., 121 + + +Vail Gorguina, 67 +Vellore, 118 +Villafrati, 81 +Villages, megalithic, 74, 85-6, 97 + + +Wales, monuments of, 29 +Watchstone, the, 36-7 +Wayland the Smith's Cave, 11, 14, 30, 32 +Wedge-shaped tomb, 44-5, 55, 70-1, 117 +Westgothland, 54 +West Tump, 146 + + +Yarhouse, 39 + + +Zammit, Dr. T., 112 + + + + + WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD. + PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH + + + + + ------------------------------------------------ + | | + | HARPER'S LIBRARY OF LIVING THOUGHT | + | | + | _Foolscap 8vo, gilt tops, decorative covers, | + | richly gilt backs | + | | + | Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather | + | 3s. 6d. net._ | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D. | + |(Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons)| + | | + | ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN | + | | + | _Illustrated_ | + | | + | | + | From discoveries of ancient human remains | + | made within the last half-century, | + | anthropologists are now able to place in | + | order changes that have taken place in the | + | posture, gait, height, and to some extent | + | the habits of man during a period of at | + | least a half-million years. Prof. Keith, who | + | is one of the foremost investigators in this | + | field, tells the story of the various forms | + | which the body of the man has assumed, in a | + | lucid and attractive way. | + | | + | "The kind of book that only a master of his | + | subject could write. It must interest every | + | thinking person."--_British Medical | + | Journal._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE | + | | + | PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT | + | BEFORE CHRISTIANITY | + | | + | | + | "The author gauges what ideas were already | + | part of the religious thought in the first | + | century, and what were the terms and ideas | + | in Christianity which were new to mankind. | + | The current literature of the time was as | + | naturally taken for granted by Christians as | + | were the books of the Old Testament which | + | were familiar to them. The separation of the | + | new ideas in the teaching of Christ and of | + | the Apostles from the general terms of | + | religion at the time, is the only road to | + | understanding what Christianity meant to | + | those who actually heard the teaching." | + | | + | _Notts Guardian._ | + | | + | "A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a | + | real contribution to the study of | + | comparative religion." | + | | + | _Methodist Recorder._ | + | | + | | + ----------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER | + | | + | RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE | + | | + | | + | "Anything from such an authority on Greek | + | art is welcome. This subject in the hands of | + | Professor Gardner becomes a profoundly | + | interesting study in the philosophy of | + | religion. He has dealt with the religion of | + | Greece as it affected the art of sculpture, | + | and with the reaction of that art upon the | + | ideals and aspirations of the people and its | + | influence upon the popular and the educated | + | conceptions of the gods. It is well worth | + | the trouble to study the religious art of | + | such a people, and this is an epitome of the | + | subject such as readers can get nowhere | + | else." | + | | + | _Scotsman._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE | + | | + | THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION | + | | + | _Illustrated_ | + | | + | | + | In the light of history--so enormously | + | extended in recent years--the author surveys | + | the waxing and waning of civilisation as | + | evidenced in sculpture, painting, | + | literature, mechanics, and wealth. In | + | tracing the various forces at work in this | + | fluctuation he arrives at most significant | + | conclusions, notably in connection with race | + | mixture and forms of government. | + | | + | "We know nothing that exhibits in so brief a | + | compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of | + | human progress and retrogression since the | + | dawn of history."--_Birmingham Post._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ------------------------------------------------ + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and | + | HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D. | + | | + | CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE | + | | + | _Map, Plans, etc._ | + | | + | | + | "The wondrous story of a great civilisation | + | which flourished before Abraham was born, | + | and left behind a memory of itself in the | + | Arts of Ancient Greece and in the traditions | + | of a golden age and a 'Lost | + | Atlantis.'"--_Evening Standard._ | + | | + | "We have now the material for forming a very | + | fair conception of the fruitful contribution | + | made by Crete to Grecian and European | + | civilisation. What was long accounted | + | fable--statements of Herodotus and | + | Thucydides--have been turned into | + | established fact. The book supplies material | + | for forming judgments on some of the most | + | interesting and still highly debated | + | problems of early Greek history." | + | _Glasgow Herald._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + + ------------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. G. ELLIOT SMITH | + | | + | THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS | + | | + | _Illustrated_ | + | | + | | + | An account of the Egyptians of the | + | unrecorded past as revealed by the | + | investigations of the anthropologist. The | + | author traces to their source the various | + | streams of alien immigrants which made their | + | way into the Nile valley, and correlates his | + | facts with the great racial movements in the | + | neighbouring continents. He shows how the | + | Egyptians inaugurated a higher | + | civilisation--particularly in bringing the | + | Stone Age to a close and introducing the use | + | of metals. | + | | + | "This is a brilliant little book, | + | illuminating the whole subject of the | + | history of the human race since man assumed | + | his proper shape."--_Manchester Guardian._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | Algernon Charles Swinburne | + | THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE | + | | + | Leo Tolstoy | + | THE TEACHING OF JESUS | + | | + | Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie | + | PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE | + | CHRISTIANITY | + | | + | Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S. | + | THE ETHER OF SPACE. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. William Wrede | + | (University of Breslau) | + | THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT | + | | + | Prof. C.H. Becker | + | (Colonial Institute, Hamburg) | + | CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM | + | | + | Prof. Svante Arrhenius | + | (Nobel Institute, Stockholm) | + | THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE. | + | 2 vols. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich) | + | JESUS OR PAUL? | + | | + | Prof. D.A. Bertholet (University of Basle) | + | THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS | + | | + | Prof. Reinhold Seeberg | + | (University of Berlin) | + | REVELATION AND INSPIRATION | + | | + | Prof. Johannes Weiss | + | (University of Heidelberg) | + | PAUL AND JESUS | + | | + | Prof. Rudolph Eucken (University of Jena) | + | CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM | + | | + | Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University) | + | ROMAN LAW IN MEDIÆVAL EUROPE | + | | + | Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., LL.D. | + | DIAMONDS. Illustrated | + | | + | _PLEASE WRITE FOR PROSPECTUS | + | AND ANNOUNCEMENTS_ | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | C.H. Hawes, M.A., and | + | Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A. | + | CRETE THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE. Maps, etc. | + | | + | Sir William A. Tilden, F.R.S. | + | THE ELEMENTS: Speculations as to their | + | Nature and Origin. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. Ernest A. Gardner | + | (University of London) | + | RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE | + | | + | Prof. F.W. Mott, F.R.S., M.D. | + | THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND | + | SONG. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. G. Elliott Smith | + | (University of Manchester) | + | THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, and their | + | Influence upon the Civilisation | + | of Europe. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. Frederick Czapek | + | (University of Prague) | + | CHEMICAL PHENOMENA IN LIFE | + | | + | Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie | + | THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION. | + | Copiously Illustrated | + | | + | The Very Rev. the Hon. W.H. Fremantle, D.D. | + | (Dean of Ripon) | + | NATURAL CHRISTIANITY | + | | + | Prof. A.W. Bickerton | + | THE BIRTH OF WORLDS AND SYSTEMS. | + | Illustrated. | + | Preface by Prof. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. | + | | + | Prof. Arthur Keith, M.D. | + | ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN. Illustrated | + | | + | Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S. | + | ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONS. Diagrams | + | | + | Arthur Holmes, B.Sc. | + | THE AGE OF THE EARTH. Illustrated | + | | + | T. Eric Peet, M.A. | + | ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND | + | THEIR BUILDERS. Illustrated | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | :: HARPER AND BROTHERS :: | + | 45 Albemarle St: London, W. | + | Franklin Sq. New York | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rough Stone Monuments and Their +Builders, by T. Eric Peet + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND *** + +***** This file should be named 15590-8.txt or 15590-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/5/9/15590/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/15590-8.zip b/15590-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..19d608f --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-8.zip diff --git a/15590-h.zip b/15590-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a5838b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h.zip diff --git a/15590-h/15590-h.htm b/15590-h/15590-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8188765 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/15590-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6884 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> + + + + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Rough Stone Monuments and their Builders, by T. Eric Peet. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + li {list-style-type: none} + + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .6em; text-decoration: none;} + .closing_ad {margin-left: 27%; margin-right: 27%; font-size: 0.9em; border: solid 2px; + padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .7em; padding-right: .7em;} + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + + + .indent_ad {width: 5%} + .index {font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 15%; text-indent: -1.5em; + margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; text-align: left;} + + .toccolwidth {width: 40%} + + div.centered {text-align: center;} + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} + + ins.correction {border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-color: red; border-bottom-width: 1px;} + .return {text-align: center; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 0; text-indent: 0; font-size: 85%} + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: 70%; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */ + + .photo_attribution {text-align: right; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; font-size: 70%} + .photo_left {text-align: left; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; font-size: 70%} + .photo_text {text-align: center; font-size: 100%} + .part_text {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; font-size: 90%} + + .part1_sig {margin-left: 60%; font-variant: small-caps;} + + .sig { /* author signature at end of quote */ + margin-left: 80%; + font-variant: small-caps; + } + + .ad_sig {text-align: right;} + + .address { /* author location at end of Preface */ + margin-left: 2%; + font-variant: small-caps; + } + + + + .cover {width: 541px; height: 800px; + background-repeat: no-repeat; + background-image: url('images/cover.png'); + margin-left: auto; margin-right:auto; + } + + .down1 {position: relative; top: 200px;} + .down2 {position: relative; top: 300px;} + .down3 {position: relative; top: 440px;} + .down4 {position: relative; top: 425px;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders, by T. Eric Peet + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders + +Author: T. Eric Peet + +Release Date: April 8, 2005 [EBook #15590] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="Cover"><tr><td> +<div class="cover"> +<h1 class="down1">ROUGH STONE <br /> MONUMENTS <br /> AND THEIR <br /> BUILDERS </h1> +<h2 class="down2">T. ERIC PEET </h2> +<h2 class="down3">HARPER & <br /> BROTHERS </h2> +<h4 class="down4">LONDON & NEW YORK </h4> +</div> +</td></tr></table> +<br /><br /></div> + + + +<!-- FRONTISPIECE --> + +<div><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="600" height="305" alt="Frontispiece" title="Frontispiece" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Photo"> +<tr><td class="photo_left">Photo</td><td class="photo_attribution">Graphotone Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Stonehenge from the South-east</b></span><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td><i>Frontispiece.</i></td><td></td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + + + +<h1>ROUGH STONE<br /> +MONUMENTS<br /> +AND THEIR<br /> +BUILDERS<br /><br /></h1> + + +<h3>BY<br /><br /></h3> + + +<h2>T. ERIC PEET</h2> + + +<p class="center"><small> +FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD;<br /> +LATELY CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY<br /> +OF OXFORD AND PELHAM STUDENT AT<br /> +THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ROME</small><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="center"> +<big>HARPER & BROTHERS<br /> +LONDON AND NEW YORK</big><br /> +45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W.<br /> +1912<br /><br /><br /> +</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Published October, 1912</i>.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>The aim of this volume is to enable those +who are interested in Stonehenge and +other great stone monuments of England to +learn something of the similar buildings which +exist in different parts of the world, of the men +who constructed them, and of the great archæological +system of which they form a part. It is +hoped that to the archæologist it may be useful +as a complete though brief sketch of our present +knowledge of the megalithic monuments, and as +a short treatment of the problems which arise in +connection with them.</p> + +<p>To British readers it is unnecessary to give any +justification for the comparatively full treatment +accorded to the monuments of Great Britain and +Ireland. Malta and Sardinia may perhaps seem +to occupy more than their due share of space, +but the usurpation is justified by the magnificence +and the intrinsic interest of their megalithic +buildings. Being of singularly complicated types +and remarkably well preserved they naturally +tell us much more of their builders than do the +simpler monuments of other larger and now more +important countries. In these two islands, +moreover, research has in the last few years been +extremely active, and it is felt that the accounts +here given of them will contain some material +new even to the archæologist.</p> + +<p>In order to assist those readers who may wish +to follow out the subject in greater detail a short +bibliography has been added to the book.</p> + +<p>For the figures and photographs with which +this volume is illustrated I have to thank many +archæological societies and individual scholars. +Plate III and part of Plate II I owe to the kindness +of Dr. Zammit, Director of the Museum of +Valletta, while the other part of Plate II is from +a photograph kindly lent to me by Dr. Ashby. +I have to thank the Society of Antiquaries for +Figures 1 and 3, the Reale Accademia dei Lincei +for Figures 17 and 20, and the Société préhistorique +de France, through Dr. Marcel Baudouin, for +Figure 10. I am indebted to the Royal Irish +Academy for Figure 8, to the Committee of the +British School of Rome for Figure 18, and to Dr. +Albert Mayr and the Akademie der Wissenschaften +in Munich for the plan of Mnaidra. Professors +Montelius, Siret and Cartailhac I have +to thank not only for permission to reproduce +illustrations from their works, but also for their +kind interest in my volume. Figure 19 I owe to +my friend Dr. Randall MacIver. The frontispiece +and Plate I are fine photographs by Messrs. The +Graphotone Co., Ltd.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I must not forget to thank +Canon F. F. Grensted for much help with regard +to the astronomical problems connected with +Stonehenge.</p> + +<p class="sig"><big>T. Eric Peet.</big></p> + + +<p><span class="address">Liverpool,</span><br /> +<i> August</i> 10<i>th</i>, 1912.<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div><h2><a name="contents" id="contents"></a>CONTENTS.</h2></div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="8" summary="ToC"> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td align='center'></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>I.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Introduction</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_001">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>II.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Stonehenge and other great stone monuments in England and Wales</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_015">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>III.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Megalithic monuments in Scotland and Ireland</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_034">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>IV.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>The Scandinavian megalithic area</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_052">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>V.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>France, Spain and Portugal</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_059">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>VI.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Italy and its islands</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_076">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>VII.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Africa, Malta, and the smaller Mediterranean islands</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_090">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>VIII.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>The Dolmens of Asia</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>IX.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>The builders of the megalithic monuments, their habits, customs, religion, etc.</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><b>X.</b> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Who were the builders, and whence did they come?</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Bibliography</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Index</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_167">167</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div><h2><a name="illustrations" id="illustrations"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2></div> + +<div><h3>PLATES</h3></div> + + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="ToC"> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'>Stonehenge from the south-east</td><td align='right'><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='center'></td><td align='right'><small>FACING PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I. </td><td align='left'>Stonehenge from the south-west</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_1">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II. </td><td align='left'>Mnaidra, doorway of Room H.</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_2a">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II. </td><td align='left'>The <i>Nuraghe</i> of Madrone in Sardinia</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_2b">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III. </td><td align='left'>Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of chief room</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_3">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><small>Figure</small></td><td align='center'></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>1. </td><td align='left'>Plan of Stonehenge</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_016">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>2. </td><td align='left'>Avebury and Kennet Avenue</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_023">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>3. </td><td align='left'>Plans of English Long Barrows</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_031">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>4. </td><td align='left'>Horned tumulus, Caithness</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_039">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>5. </td><td align='left'>Plans of three dolmen-types</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_040">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>6. </td><td align='left'>Type-plan of simple corridor-tomb</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_042">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>7. </td><td align='left'>Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_044">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>8. </td><td align='left'>Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_047">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>9. </td><td align='left'>Corridor-tomb at Ottagården, Sweden</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_053">53</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>10. </td><td align='left'>Plan of La Pierre aux Fées, Oise, France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_061">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>11. </td><td align='left'>Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_063">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>12. </td><td align='left'>Plan of La Grotte des Fées, Arles, France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_065">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>13. </td><td align='left'>The so-called dolmen-deity, Petit Morin, France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_066">66</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>14. </td><td align='left'>Plan of corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_069">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>15. </td><td align='left'>Section and plan of a <i>talayot</i>, Majorca</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_072">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>16. </td><td align='left'>Section and plan of the <i>nau</i> d'Es Tudons</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_073">73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>17. </td><td align='left'>Elevation, section and plan of a Sardinian <i>nuraghe</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_083">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>18. </td><td align='left'>Plan of Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_087">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>19. </td><td align='left'>Plan of stone circle at the Senâm, Algeria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_094">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>20. </td><td align='left'>Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_097">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>21. </td><td align='left'>Plan of the Sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_099">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>22. </td><td align='left'>Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_115">115</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + + + + + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_001" id="Pg_001" title="Pg_001">[1]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="ROUGH_STONE_MONUMENTS" id="ROUGH_STONE_MONUMENTS"></a>ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS</h2> + + +<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>To the south of Salisbury Plain, about two +miles west of the small country town of +Amesbury, lies the great stone circle of Stonehenge. +For centuries it has been an object of +wonder and admiration, and even to-day it is one +of the sights of our country. Perhaps, however, +few of those who have heard of Stonehenge or +even of those who have visited it are aware that +it is but a unit in a vast crowd of megalithic +monuments which, in space, extends from the +west of Europe to India, and, in time, covers +possibly more than a thousand years.</p> + +<p>What exactly is a megalithic monument? +Strictly speaking, it is a building made of very +large stones. This definition would, of course, +include numbers of buildings of the present day +and of the medieval and classical periods, while +many of the Egyptian pyramids and temples +would at once suggest themselves as excellent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_002" id="Pg_002" title="Pg_002">[2]</a></span>examples of this type of building. The archæologist, +however, uses the term in a much more +limited sense. He confines it to a series of tombs +and buildings constructed in Western Asia, in +North Africa, and in certain parts of Europe, +towards the end of the neolithic period and during +part of the copper and bronze ages which followed +it. The structures are usually, though not quite +invariably, made of large blocks of unworked or +slightly worked stone, and they conform to certain +definite types. The best known of these types +are as follows: Firstly, the menhir, which is a +tall, rough pillar of stone with its base fixed into +the earth. Secondly, the trilithon, which consists +of a pair of tall stones set at a short distance +apart supporting a third stone laid across the top. +Thirdly, the dolmen, which is a single slab of +stone supported by several others arranged in +such a way as to enclose a space or chamber +beneath it. Some English writers apply the term +cromlech to such a structure, quite incorrectly. +Both menhir and dolmen are Breton words, these +two types of megalithic monument being particularly +frequent in Brittany. Menhir is derived +from the Breton <i>men</i>, a stone, and <i>hir</i>, long; +similarly dolmen is from <i>dol</i>, a table, and <i>men</i>, a +stone. Some archæologists also apply the word +dolmen to rectangular chambers roofed with more +than one slab. We have carefully avoided this +practice, always classing such chambers as corridor-tombs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_003" id="Pg_003" title="Pg_003">[3]</a></span>of an elementary type. Fourthly, we have +the corridor-tomb (<i>Ganggrab</i>), which usually +consists of a chamber entered by a gallery or +corridor. In cases where the chamber is no wider +than, and hence indistinguishable from the +corridor, the tomb becomes a long rectangular +gallery, and answers to the French <i>allée couverte</i> +in the strict sense. Fifthly, we come to the +<i>alignement</i>, in which a series of menhirs is arranged +in open lines on some definite system. We shall +find a famous example of this at Morbihan in +Brittany. Sixthly, there is the cromlech (from +<i>crom</i>, curve, and <i>lec'h</i>, a stone), which consists +of a number of menhirs arranged to enclose a +space, circular, elliptical or, in rare cases, rectangular.</p> + +<p>These are the chief types of megalithic monument, +but there are others which, though clearly +belonging to the same class of structure, show +special forms and are more complicated. They +are in many cases developments of one or more +of the simple types, and will be treated specially +in their proper places. Such monuments are the +<i>nuraghi</i> of Sardinia and the 'temples' of Malta +and Gozo.</p> + +<p>Finally, the rock-hewn sepulchre is often classed +with the megalithic monuments, and it is therefore +frequently mentioned in the following pages. +This is justified by the fact that it generally +occurs in connection with megalithic structures. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_004" id="Pg_004" title="Pg_004">[4]</a></span>The exact relation in which it stands to them will +be fully discussed in the last chapter.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>We have now to consider what may be called +the architectural methods of the megalithic +builders, for although in dealing with such primitive +monuments it would perhaps be exaggeration +to speak of a style, yet there were certain principles +which were as carefully and as invariably +observed as were in later days those of the Doric +or the Gothic styles in the countries where they +took root.</p> + +<p>The first and most important principle, that on +which the whole of the megalithic construction +may be said to be based, is the use of the orthostatic +block, i.e. the block set up on its edge. +It is clear that in this way each block or slab is +made to provide the maximum of wall area at +the expense of the thickness of the wall. Naturally, +in districts where the rock is of a slabby nature +blocks of a more or less uniform thickness lay +ready to the builders' hand, and the appearance +of the structure was much more finished than it +would be in places where the rock had a less +regular fracture or where shapeless boulders had +to be relied on. The orthostatic slabs were often +deeply sunk into the ground where this consisted +of earth or soft rock; of the latter case there are +good examples at Stonehenge, where the rock is a +soft chalk. When the ground had an uneven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_005" id="Pg_005" title="Pg_005">[5]</a></span>surface of hard rock, the slabs were set upright on +it and small stones wedged in beneath them to +make them stand firm. Occasionally, as at +Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, a course of horizontal +blocks set at the foot of the uprights served to +keep them more securely in position. With the +upright block technique went hand in hand the +roofing of narrow spaces by means of horizontal +slabs laid across the top of the uprights.</p> + +<p>The second principle of megalithic architecture +was the use of more or less coursed masonry set +without mortar, each block lying on its side and +not on its edge. It is quite possible that this +principle is less ancient in origin than that of the +orthostatic slab, for it usually occurs in structures +of a more advanced type. Thus in simple and +primitive types of building such as the dolmen +it is most rare to find dry masonry, but in the +advanced corridor-tombs of Ireland, the Giants' +Graves and <i>nuraghi</i> of Sardinia, and in the +'temples' of Malta this technique is largely used, +often in combination with the upright slab system. +Indeed, this combination is quite typical of the +best megalithic work: a series of uprights is +first set in position, and over this are laid several +horizontal courses of rather smaller stones. We +must note that the dry masonry which we are +describing is still strictly megalithic, as the blocks +used are never small and often of enormous size.</p> + +<p>Buildings in which this system is used are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_006" id="Pg_006" title="Pg_006">[6]</a></span>occasionally roofed with slabs, but more often +corbelling is employed. At a certain height each +succeeding course in the wall begins to project +inwards over the last, so that the walls, as it were, +lean together and finally meet to form a false +barrel-vault or a false dome, according as the +structure is rectangular or round. Occasionally, +when the building was wide, it was impossible +to corbel the walls sufficiently to make them meet. +In this case they were corbelled as far as possible +and the open space still left was covered with +long flat slabs.</p> + +<p>It has often been commented on as a matter of +wonder that a people living in the stone age, or +at the best possessing a few simple tools of metal, +should have been able to move and place in +position such enormous blocks of stone. With +modern cranes and traction engines all would be +simple, but it might have been thought that in +the stone age such building would be impossible. +Thus, for instance, in the 'temple' of Hagiar Kim +in Malta, there is one block of stone which measures +21 feet by 9, and must weigh many tons. In +reality there is little that is marvellous in the +moving and setting up of these blocks, for the +tools needed are ready to the hand of every +savage; but there is something to wonder at +and to admire in the patience displayed and in +the organization necessary to carry out such vast +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_007" id="Pg_007" title="Pg_007">[7]</a></span>pieces of labour. Great, indeed, must have been +the power of the cult which could combine the +force of hundreds and even thousands of individuals +for long periods of time in the construction +of the great megalithic temples. Perhaps slave +labour played a part in the work, but in any case +it is clear that we are in the presence of strongly +organized governments backed by a powerful +religion which required the building of temples for +the gods and vast tombs for the dead.</p> + +<p>Let us consider for a moment what was the +procedure in building a simple megalithic monument. +It was fourfold, for it involved the finding +and possibly the quarrying of the stones, the +moving of them to the desired spot, the erection +of the uprights in their places, and the placing of +the cover-slab or slabs on top of them.</p> + +<p>With regard to the first step it is probable that +in most cases the place chosen for a tomb or +cemetery was one in which numbers of great +stones lay on the surface ready to hand. By this +means labour was greatly economized. On the +other hand, there are certainly cases where the +stones were brought long distances in order to +be used. Thus, in Charente in France there is at +La Perotte a block weighing nearly 40 tons which +must have travelled over 18 miles. We have no +evidence as to whether stones were ever actually +quarried. If they were, the means used must +have been the stone axe, fire, and water. It was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_008" id="Pg_008" title="Pg_008">[8]</a></span>not usual in the older and simpler dolmens to dress +the stones in any way, though in the later and +more complicated structures well-worked blocks +were often used.</p> + +<p>The required stones having been found it was +now necessary to move them to the spot. This +could be done in two ways. The first and +simpler is that which we see pictured on Egyptian +monuments, such as the tomb of Tahutihotep at +El Bersheh. A rough road of beams is laid in the +required direction, and wooden rollers are placed +under the stone on this road. Large numbers of +men or oxen then drag the stone along by means +of ropes attached to it. Other labourers assist +the work from behind with levers, and replace the +rollers in front of the stone as fast as they pass +out behind. Those who have seen the modern +Arabs in excavation work move huge blocks with +wooden levers and palm-leaf rope will realize that +for the building of the dolmens little was needed +except numbers and time.</p> + +<p>The other method of moving the stones is as +follows: a gentle slope of hard earth covered +with wet clay is built with its higher extremity +close beside the block to be moved. As many men +as there is room for stand on each side of the +block, and with levers resting on beams or stones +as fulcra, raise the stone vertically as far as possible. +Other men then fill up the space beneath it with +earth and stones. The process is next repeated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_009" id="Pg_009" title="Pg_009">[9]</a></span>with higher fulcra, until the stone is level with the +top of the clay slope, on to which it is then slipped. +With a little help it now slides down the inclined +plane to the bottom. Here a fresh slope is built, +and the whole procedure is gone through again. +The method can even be used on a slight uphill +gradient. It requires less dragging and more +vertical raising than the other, and would thus +be more useful where oxen were unobtainable.</p> + +<p>When the stones were once on the spot it is not +hard to imagine how they were set upright with +levers and ropes. The placing of the cover-slab +was, however, a more complicated matter. The +method employed was probably to build a slope +of earth leading up from one side to the already +erected uprights and almost covering them. Up +this the slab could be moved by means of rollers, +ropes, and levers, until it was in position over the +uprights. The slope could then be removed. +If the dolmen was to be partly or wholly covered +with a mound, as some certainly were, it would +not even be necessary to remove the slope.</p> + +<p>Roughly speaking, the extension of megalithic +monuments is from Spain to Japan and from +Sweden to Algeria. These are naturally merely +limits, and it must not be supposed that the +regions which lie between them all contain megalithic +monuments. More exactly, we find them +in Asia, in Japan, Corea, India, Persia, Syria, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_010" id="Pg_010" title="Pg_010">[10]</a></span>Palestine. In Africa we have them along the +whole of the north coast, from Tripoli to Morocco; +inland they are not recorded, except for one +possible example in Egypt and several in the +Soudan. In Europe the distribution of dolmens +and other megalithic monuments is wide. They +occur in the Caucasus and the Crimea, and quite +lately examples have been recorded in Bulgaria. +There are none in Greece, and only a few in Italy, +in the extreme south-east corner. The islands, +however, which lie around and to the south of +Italy afford many examples: Corsica, Sardinia, +Malta, Gozo, Pantelleria, and Lampedusa are +strongholds of the megalithic civilization, and it +is possible that Sicily should be included in the +list. Moving westward we find innumerable +examples in the Spanish Peninsula and in France. +To the north we find them frequent in the British +Isles, Sweden, Denmark, and North Germany; +they are rarer in Holland and Belgium. Two +examples have been reported from Switzerland.</p> + +<p>It is only to be expected that these great +megalithic monuments of a prehistoric age should +excite the wonder and stimulate the imagination +of those who see them. In all countries and at all +times they have been centres of story and legend, +and even at the present day many strange beliefs +concerning them are to be found among the +peasantry who live around them. Salomon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_011" id="Pg_011" title="Pg_011">[11]</a></span>Reinach has written a remarkable essay on this +question, and the following examples are mainly +drawn from the collection he has there made. +The names given to the monuments often show +clearly the ideas with which they are associated in +the minds of the peasants. Thus the Penrith circle +is locally known as "Meg and her Daughters," +a dolmen in Berkshire is called "Wayland the +Smith's Cave," while in one of the Orkney Isles +is a menhir named "Odin's Stone." In France +many are connected with Gargantua, whose name, +the origin of which is doubtful, stands clearly for +a giant. Thus we find a rock called the "Chair of +Gargantua," a menhir called "Gargantua's Little +Finger," and an <i>allée couverte</i> called "Gargantua's +Tomb." Names indicating connections with fairies, +virgins, witches, dwarfs, devils, saints, druids, +and even historical persons are frequent. Dolmens +are often "houses of dwarfs," a name perhaps +suggested or at least helped by the small holes +cut in some of them; they are "huts" or "caves +of fairies," they are "kitchens" or "forges of the +devil," while menhirs are called his arrows, and +cromlechs his cauldrons. In France we have +stones of various saints, while in England many +monuments are connected with King Arthur. +A dolmen in Wales is his quoit; the circle at +Penrith is his round table, and that of Caermarthen +is his park. Both in England and France we +find stones and altars "of the druids"; in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_012" id="Pg_012" title="Pg_012">[12]</a></span>Pyrenees, in Spain, and in Africa there are "graves +of the Gentiles" or "tombs of idolaters"; in +Arles (France) the <i>allées couvertes</i> are called +"prisons" or "shops of the Saracens," and the +dolmens of the Eastern Pyrenees are locally +known as "huts of the Moors." Dolmens in +India are often "stones of the monkeys," and in +France there are "wolves' altars," "wolves' +houses," and "wolves' tables."</p> + +<p>Passing now to more definite beliefs connected +with megalithic monuments, we may notice that +from quite early times they have been—as indeed +they often are still—regarded with fear and +respect, and even worshipped. In certain parts +of France peasants are afraid to shelter under the +dolmens, and never think of approaching them by +night. In early Christian days there must have +been a cult of the menhir, for the councils of +Arles (A.D. 452), of Tours (A.D. 567), and of +Nantes (A.D. 658) all condemn the cult of trees, +springs, and <i>stones</i>. In A.D. 789 Charlemagne +attempted to suppress stone-worship, and to +destroy the stones themselves. In Spain, where, +as in France, megalithic monuments are common, +the councils of Toledo in A.D. 681 and 682 condemned +the "Worshippers of Stones." Moreover +there are many cases in which a monument itself +bears traces of having been the centre of a cult +in early or medieval times. The best example is +perhaps the dolmen of Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_013" id="Pg_013" title="Pg_013">[13]</a></span>which was transformed into a chapel about the +twelfth century. Similar transformations have +been made in Spain. In many cases, too, crosses +have been placed or engraved on menhirs in order +to "Christianize" them.</p> + +<p>Remarkable powers and virtues have been +attributed to many of the monuments. One of +the dolmens of Finistère is said to cure rheumatism +in anyone who rubs against the loftiest of its +stones, and another heals fever patients who sleep +under it. Stones with holes pierced in them are +believed to be peculiarly effective, and it suffices +to pass the diseased limb or, when possible, the +invalid himself through the hole.</p> + +<p>Oaths sworn in or near a megalithic monument +have a peculiar sanctity. In Scotland as late as +the year A.D. 1438 "John off Erwyne and Will +Bernardson swor on the Hirdmane Stein before +oure Lorde ye Erie off Orknay and the gentiless +off the cuntre."</p> + +<p>Many of the monuments are endowed by the +credulous with life. The menhir du Champ Dolent +sinks an inch every hundred years. Others say +that a piece of it is eaten by the moon each night, +and that when it is completely devoured the Last +Judgment will take place. The stones of Carnac +bathe in the sea once a year, and many of those +of the Périgord leap three times each day at noon.</p> + +<p>We have already remarked on the connection +of the monuments with dwarfs, giants, and mythical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_014" id="Pg_014" title="Pg_014">[14]</a></span>personages. There is an excellent example +in our own country in Berkshire. Here when a +horse has cast a shoe the rider must leave it in +front of the dolmen called "The Cave of Wayland +the Smith," placing at the same time a coin on +the cover-stone. He must then retire for a suitable +period, after which he returns to find the horse +shod and the money gone.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_015" id="Pg_015" title="Pg_015">[15]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE<br /> +MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>Stonehenge, the most famous of our +English megalithic monuments, has excited +the attention of the historian and the legend-lover +since early times. According to some of the +medieval historians it was erected by Aurelius +Ambrosius to the memory of a number of British +chiefs whom Hengist and his Saxons treacherously +murdered in A.D. 462. Others add that Ambrosius +himself was buried there. Giraldus Cambrensis, +who wrote in the twelfth century, mingles these +accounts with myth. He says, "There was in +Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy +of admiration called the Giants' Dance, because +giants from the remotest part of Africa brought +them to Ireland, and in the plains of Kildare, not +far from the castle of Naas, miraculously set them +up.... These stones (according to the British +history) Aurelius Ambrosius, King of the Britons, +procured Merlin by supernatural means to bring +from Ireland to Britain."</p> + +<p>From the present ruined state of Stonehenge +it is not possible to state with certainty what was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_016" id="Pg_016" title="Pg_016">[16]</a></span>the original arrangement, but it is probable that +it was approximately as follows (see <a href="#frontispiece">frontispiece</a>):</p> + + +<!-- Figure 1 --> + +<div><a name="figure_1" id="figure_1"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_01.png" width="600" height="624" alt="figure_1" title="Figure 1" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 1.</b> </span><b>Plan of Stonehenge in 1901. (After <i>Archæologia</i>.)</b><br /> <b>The dotted stones are of porphyritic diabase.</b></td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + + +<p>There was an outer circle of about thirty worked +upright stones of square section (Fig. I). On each +pair of these rested a horizontal block, but only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_017" id="Pg_017" title="Pg_017">[17]</a></span>five now remain in position. These 'lintels' probably +formed a continuous architrave (Pl. I). The +diameter of this outer circle is about 97½ feet, +inner measurement. The stones used are sarsens +or blocks of sandstone, such as are to be found +lying about in many parts of the district round +Stonehenge.<br /><br /></p> + + + +<!-- Plate 1 --> + +<div><a name="plate_1" id="plate_1"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/plate_01.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="Plate_1" title="Plate 1" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate"> +<tr><td class="photo_left">Photo</td><td class="photo_attribution">Graphotone Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Stonehenge from the South-west</b></span><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="photo_left"><b>Plate I</b></td><td class="photo_attribution">To face p. 17</td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + + +<p>Well within this circle stood the five huge +trilithons (<i>a-e</i>), arranged in the form of a horseshoe +with its open side to the north-east. Each +trilithon, as the name implies, consists of three +stones, two of which are uprights, the third being +laid horizontally across the top. The height of +the trilithons varies from 16 to 21½ feet, the lowest +being the two that stand at the open end of the +horseshoe, and the highest that which is at the +apex. Here again all the stones are sarsens and +all are carefully worked. On the top end of each +upright of the trilithons is an accurately cut tenon +which dovetails into two mortices cut one at each +end of the lower surface of the horizontal block. +Each upright of the outer circle had a double +tenon, and the lintels, besides being morticed to +take these tenons, were also dovetailed each into +its two neighbours.</p> + +<p>Within the horseshoe and close up to it stand +the famous blue-stones, now twelve in number, +but originally perhaps more. These stones are +not so high as the trilithons, the tallest reaching +only 7½ feet. They are nearly all of porphyritic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_018" id="Pg_018" title="Pg_018">[18]</a></span>diabase. It has often been asserted that these +blue-stones must have been brought to Stonehenge +from a distance, as they do not occur anywhere +in the district. Some have suggested that they +came from Wales or Cornwall, or even by sea from +Ireland. Now, the recent excavations have +shown that the blue-stones were brought to +Stonehenge in a rough state, and that all the +trimming was done on the spot where they were +erected. It seems unlikely that if they had been +brought from a distance the rough trimming +should not have been done on the spot where they +were found, in order to decrease their weight for +transport. It is therefore possible that the stones +were erratic blocks found near Stonehenge.</p> + +<p>Within the horseshoe, and near its apex, lies +the famous "Altar Stone" (A), a block measuring +about 16 feet by 4. Between the horseshoe and +the outer circle another circle of diabase stones is +sometimes said to have existed, but very little +of it now remains.</p> + +<p>The whole building is surrounded by a rampart +of earth several feet high, forming a circle about +300 feet in diameter. An avenue still 1200 feet +in length, bordered by two walls of earth, leads +up to the rampart from the north-east. On the +axis of this avenue and nearly at its extremity +stands the upright stone known as the Friar's Heel.</p> + +<p>In 1901, in the course of repairing the central +trilithon, careful excavations were carried out over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_019" id="Pg_019" title="Pg_019">[19]</a></span>a small area at Stonehenge. More than a hundred +stone implements were found, of which the majority +were flint axes, probably used for dressing the +softer of the sandstone blocks, and also for excavating +the chalk into which the uprights were +set. About thirty hammer-stones suitable for +holding in the hand were found. These were +doubtless used for dressing the surface of the +blocks. Most remarkable of all were the 'mauls,' +large boulders weighing from 36 to 64 pounds, +used for smashing blocks and also for removing +large chips from the surfaces. Several antlers of +deer were found, one of which had been worn +down by use as a pickaxe.</p> + +<p>These excavations made it clear that the blue-stones +had been shaped on the spot, whereas the +sarsens had been roughly prepared at the place +where they were found, and only finished off on +the spot where they were erected.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>What is the date of the erection of Stonehenge? +The finding of so many implements of flint in the +excavations of 1901 shows that the structure +belongs to a period when flint was still largely +used. The occurrence of a stain of oxide of copper +on a worked block of stone at a depth of 7 feet +does not necessarily prove that the stones were +erected in the bronze age, for the stain may have +been caused by the disintegration of malachite +and not of metallic copper. At the same time, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_020" id="Pg_020" title="Pg_020">[20]</a></span>we must not infer from the frequency of the flint +implements that metal was unknown, for flint +continued to be used far on into the early metal +age. Moreover, flint tools when worn out were +simply thrown aside on the spot, while those of +metal were carefully set apart for sharpening or +re-casting, and are thus seldom found in large +numbers in an excavation. We have, therefore, +no means of accurately determining the date of +Stonehenge; all that can be said is that the +occurrence of flint in such large quantities points +either to the neolithic age or to a comparatively +early date in the copper or bronze period. It is +unlikely that stone tools would play such a +considerable rôle in the late bronze or the iron +age.</p> + +<p>At the same time it must not be forgotten that +Sir Arthur Evans has spoken in favour of a date +in the first half of the third century B.C. He +believes that the great circles are religious monuments +which in form developed out of the round +barrows, and that Stonehenge is therefore much +later than some at least of the round barrows +around it. That it is earlier than others is clear +from the occurrence in some of them of chips +from the sarsen stones. He therefore places its +building late in the round barrow period, and sees +confirmation of this in the fact that the round +barrows which surround the monument are not +grouped in regular fashion around it, as they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_021" id="Pg_021" title="Pg_021">[21]</a></span>should have been had they been later in +date.</p> + +<p>Many attempts have been made to date the +monuments by means of astronomy. All these +start from the assumption that it was erected in +connection with the worship of the sun, or at least +in order to take certain observations with regard +to the sun. Sir Norman Lockyer noticed that +the avenue at Stonehenge pointed approximately +to the spot where the sun rises at the midsummer +solstice, and therefore thought that Stonehenge +was erected to observe this midsummer rising. +If he could find the exact direction of the avenue +he would know where the sun rose at midsummer +in the year when the circle was built. From this +he could easily fix the date, for, owing to the +precession of the equinoxes, the point of the midsummer +rising is continually altering, and the +position for any year being known the date of +that year can be found astronomically. But how +was the precise direction of this very irregular +avenue to be fixed? The line from the altar stone +to the Friar's Heel, which is popularly supposed +to point to the midsummer rising, has certainly +never done so in the last ten thousand years, and +therefore could not be used as the direction of the +avenue. Eventually Sir Norman decided to use +a line from the centre of the circle to a modern +benchmark on Sidbury Hill, eight miles north-east +of Stonehenge. On this line the sun rose in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_022" id="Pg_022" title="Pg_022">[22]</a></span>1680 B.C. with a possible error of two hundred +years each way: this Sir Norman takes to be +the date of Stonehenge.</p> + +<p>Sir Norman's reasoning has been severely +handled by his fellow-astronomer Mr. Hinks, who +points out that the direction chosen for the +avenue is purely arbitrary, since Sidbury Hill has +no connection with Stonehenge at all. Moreover, +Sir Norman determines sunrise for Stonehenge as +being the instant when the edge of the sun's disk +first appears, while in his attempts to date the +Egyptian temple of Karnak he defined it as the +moment when the sun's centre reached the horizon. +We cannot say which alternative the builders +would have chosen, and therefore we cannot +determine the date of building.</p> + +<p>Sir Norman Lockyer has since modified his +views. He now argues that the trilithons and +outer circle are later additions to an earlier +temple to which the blue-stones belong. This +earlier temple was made to observe "primarily +but not exclusively the May year," while the later +temple "represented a change of cult, and was +dedicated primarily to the solstitial year." This +view seems to be disproved by the excavations of +1901, which made it clear that the trilithons were +erected before and not after the blue-stones.</p> + +<p>Nothing is more likely than that the builders +of the megaliths had some knowledge of the +movements of the sun in connection with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_023" id="Pg_023" title="Pg_023">[23]</a></span>seasons, and that their priests or wise men determined +for them, by observing the sun, the times +of sowing, reaping, etc., as they do among many +savage tribes at the present day. They may +have been worshippers of the sun, and their +temples may have contained 'observation lines' +for determining certain of his movements. But +the attempt to date the monuments from such +lines involves so many assumptions and is affected +by so many disturbing elements that it can never +have a serious value for the archæologist. The +uncertainty is even greater in the case of temples +supposed to be oriented by some star, for in this +case there is almost always a choice of two or +more bright stars, giving the most divergent results.</p> + + +<!-- Figure 2 --> + +<div><a name="figure_2" id="figure_2"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_02.png" width="600" height="179" alt="figure_2" title="Figure 2" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 2.</b></span> <b>Avebury and the Kennet Avenue. (After Sir R. Colt Hoare.)</b></td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + +<p>Next in importance to Stonehenge comes the +huge but now almost destroyed circle of Avebury +(Fig. 2). Its area is five times as great as that of +St. Peter's in Rome, and a quarter of a million +people could stand within it. It consists in the +first place of a rampart of earth roughly circular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_024" id="Pg_024" title="Pg_024">[24]</a></span>in form and with a diameter of about 1200 feet. +Within this is a ditch, and close on the inner edge +of this was a circle of about a hundred upright +stones. Within this circle were two pairs of concentric +circles with their centres slightly east of the +north-and-south diameter of the great circle. The +diameters of the outer circles of these two pairs are +350 and 325 feet respectively. In the centre of +the northern pair was a cover-slab supported by +three uprights, and in the centre of the southern a +single menhir. All the stones used are sarsens, +such as are strewn everywhere over the district.</p> + +<p>An avenue flanked by two rows of stones ran +in a south-easterly direction from the rampart +towards the village of Kennet for a distance of +about 1430 yards in a straight line.</p> + +<p>At a distance of 1200 yards due south from +Avebury Circle stands the famous artificial mound +called Silbury Hill. It is 552 feet in diameter, +130 in height, and has a flat top 102 feet across. +A pit was driven down into its centre in 1777, +and in 1849 a trench was cut into it from the south +side to the centre, but neither gave any result. +It is quite possible that there are burials in the +mound, whether in megalithic chambers or not.</p> + +<p>South-west of Avebury is Hakpen Hill, where +there once stood two concentric ellipses of stones. +A straight avenue is said to have run from these +in a north-westerly direction. Whether these +three monuments near Avebury have any connection +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_025" id="Pg_025" title="Pg_025">[25]</a></span>with one another and, if so, what this +connection is, is unknown.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>There are many other circles in England, but +we have only space to mention briefly some of the +more important. At Rollright, in Oxfordshire, +there is a circle 100 feet in diameter with a tall +menhir 50 yards to the north-east. Derbyshire +possesses a famous monument, that of Arbor Low, +where a circle is surrounded by a rampart and +ditch, while that of Stanton Drew in Somerset +consists of a great circle A and two smaller circles +B and C. The line joining the centres of B and A +passes through a menhir called Hauptville's +Quoit away to the north-east, while that which +joins the centres of C and A cuts a group of three +menhirs called The Cove, lying to the south-west.</p> + +<p>In Cumberland there are several circles. One +of these, 330 feet in diameter with an outstanding +menhir, is known as "Long Meg and her +Daughters." Another, the Mayborough Circle, +is of much the same size, but consists of a tall +monolith in the centre of a rampart formed entirely +of rather small water-worn stones. A +similar circle not far from this is known as King +Arthur's Round Table; here, however, there is +no monolith. Near Keswick there is a finely +preserved circle, and at Shap there seems to have +existed a large circle with an avenue of stones +running for over a mile to the north.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_026" id="Pg_026" title="Pg_026">[26]</a></span>Cornwall possesses a number of fine monuments. +The most celebrated is the Dance Maen Circle, +which is 76 feet in diameter and has two monoliths +to the north-east, out of sight of the circle, but +stated to be in a straight line with its centre. +Local tradition calls the circle "The Merry +Maidens," and has it that the stones are girls +turned into stones for dancing on Sunday: the +two monoliths are called the Pipers. The three +circles known as the Hurlers lie close together +with their centres nearly in a straight line in the +direction N.N.E. by S.S.W. At Boscawen-un, +near Penzance, is a circle called the Nine Maidens, +and two circles near Tregeseal have the same +name. Another well-known circle in Cornwall is +called the Stripple Stones: the circle stands on a +platform of earth surrounded by a ditch, outside +which is a rampart. In the centre is a menhir +12 feet in height.</p> + +<p>At Merivale, in Somersetshire, there are the +remains of a small circle, to the north of which +lie two almost parallel double lines of menhirs, +running about E.N.E. by W.S.W., the more +southerly of the two lines overlapping the other +at both extremities.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>With what purpose were these great circles +erected? We have already mentioned the curious +belief of Geoffrey of Monmouth with regard to +Stonehenge, and we may pass on to more modern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_027" id="Pg_027" title="Pg_027">[27]</a></span>theories. James I was once taken to see Stonehenge +when on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke +at Wilton. He was so interested that he ordered +his architect Inigo Jones to enquire into its date +and purpose. The architect's conclusion was that +it was a Roman temple "dedicated to the god +Caelus and built after the Tuscan order."</p> + +<p>Many years later Dr. Stukeley started a theory +which has not entirely been abandoned at the +present day. For him Stonehenge and other stone +circles were temples of the druids. This was in +itself by no means a ridiculous theory, but Stukeley +went further than this. Relying on a quaint story +in Pliny wherein the druids of Gaul are said to +use as a charm a certain magic egg manufactured +by snakes, he imagined that the druids were +serpent-worshippers, and essayed to see serpents +even in the forms of their temples. Thus in the +Avebury group the circle on Hakpen Hill was +for him the head of a snake and its avenue part +of the body. The Avebury circles were coils in +the body, which was completed by the addition +of imaginary stones and avenues. He also attempted +with even less success to see the form of +a serpent in other British circle groups.</p> + +<p>The druids, as we gather from the rather scanty +references in Cæsar and other Roman authors, +were priests of the Celts in Gaul. Suetonius +further speaks of druids in Anglesey, and tradition +has it that in Wales and Ireland there were druids +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_028" id="Pg_028" title="Pg_028">[28]</a></span>in pre-Christian times. But that druids ever +existed in England or in a tithe of the places in +which megalithic circles and other monuments +occur is unlikely. At the same time, it is not +impossible that some of the circles of Ireland, +Wales, and France were afterwards used by the +druids as suitable places for meeting and preaching.</p> + +<p>Fergusson in his great work <i>Rude Stone Monuments</i> +held a remarkable view as to the purpose +of the British stone circles. He believed that they +were partly Roman in date, and that some of +them at least marked the scene of battles fought +by King Arthur against the Saxons. Thus, for +example, he says with regard to Avebury, "I +feel it will come eventually to be acknowledged +that those who fell in Arthur's twelfth and greatest +battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and that +those who survived raised these stones and the +mound of Silbury in the vain hope that they +would convey to their latest posterity the memory +of their prowess." It is hardly necessary to take +this view seriously nowadays. Stonehenge, which +Fergusson attributes to the same late era, has +been proved by excavation to be prehistoric in +origin, and with it naturally go the rest of the +megalithic circles of England, except where there +is any certain proof to the contrary.</p> + +<p>The most probable theory is that the circles +are religious monuments of some kind. What the +nature of the worship carried on in them was it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_029" id="Pg_029" title="Pg_029">[29]</a></span>quite impossible to determine. It may be that +some at least were built near the graves of deified +heroes to whose worship they were consecrated. +On the other hand, it is possible that they were +temples dedicated to the sun or to others of the +heavenly bodies. Whether they served for the +taking of astronomical observations or not is a +question which cannot be decided with certainty, +though the frequency with which menhirs occur +in directions roughly north-east of the circles is +considered by some as a sign of connection with +the watching of solar phenomena.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Dolmens of simple type are not common in +England, though they occur with comparative +frequency in Wales, where the best known are +the so-called Arthur's Quoit near Swansea, the +dolmen of Pentre Ifan in Pembrokeshire, and that +of Plas Newydd on the Menai Strait: in Anglesey +they are quite common. In England we have +numerous examples in Cornwall, especially west +of Falmouth, among which are Chun Quoit and +Lanyon Quoit. There are dolmens at Chagford +and Drewsteignton in Devonshire, and there is +one near the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire.</p> + +<p>Many of the so-called cromlechs of England +are not true dolmens, but the remains of tombs +of more complicated types. Thus the famous +Kit's Coty House in Kent was certainly not a +dolmen, though it is now impossible to say what +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_030" id="Pg_030" title="Pg_030">[30]</a></span>its form was. Wayland the Smith's Cave was +probably a three-chambered corridor-tomb covered +with a mound. The famous Men-an-tol in Cornwall +may well be all that is left of a chamber-tomb +of some kind. It is a slab about 3½ feet +square, in which is a hole 1½ feet in diameter. +There are other stones standing or lying around it. +It is known to the peasants as the Crickstone, +for it was said to cure sufferers from rickets or +crick in the back if they passed nine times through +the hole in a direction against the sun. The Isle +of Man possesses a fine sepulchral monument on +Meayll Hill. It consist of six T-shaped chamber-tombs +arranged in a circle with entrances to the +north and south. There is also a corridor-tomb, +known as King Orry's Grave, at Laxey, and +another with a semicircular façade at Maughold.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Among the megalithic monuments of our +islands the chambered barrows hold an important +place. It is well known that in the neolithic +period the dead in certain parts of England were +buried under mounds of not circular but elongated +shape. These graves are commonest in Wiltshire +and the surrounding counties of Dorsetshire, +Somersetshire, and Gloucestershire. A few exist +in other counties. Some contain no chamber, +while others contain a structure of the megalithic +type. It is with these latter that we have here to +deal. Chambered long barrows are most frequent +in Wiltshire, though they do occur in other +counties, as, for example, Buckinghamshire, where +the famous Cave of Wayland the Smith is certainly +the remains of a barrow of this kind. In +Derbyshire and Staffordshire a type of chambered +mound does occur, but it seems uncertain from +the description given whether it is round or +elongated.</p> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_031" id="Pg_031" title="Pg_031">[31]</a></span></div> + +<!-- Figure 3 --> + +<div><a name="figure_3" id="figure_3"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_03.png" width="474" height="700" alt="figure_3" title="Figure 3" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="474" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 3.</b></span> +<b>(<i>a</i>)—Barrow at Stoney Littleton, Somersetshire. +(<i>b</i>)—Barrow at Rodmarton, Gloucestershire. (<i>c</i>)—Chambers +of barrow at Uley, Gloucestershire. (After Thurnam, <i>Archæologia,</i> +XLII.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_032" id="Pg_032" title="Pg_032">[32]</a></span></div> + +<p>Turning first to the Wiltshire and Gloucestershire +group of barrows we find that they are usually +from 120 to 200 feet in length and from 30 to 60 +in breadth. In some cases there is a wall of dry +stone-masonry around the foot of the mound and +outside this a ditch. The megalithic chambers +within the mound are of three types. In the +first there is a central gallery entering the mound +at its thicker end and leading to a chamber or +series of chambers (Fig. 3, <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>). Where this +gallery enters the mound there is a cusp-shaped +break in the outline of the mound as marked by +the dry walling, and the entrance is closed by a +stone block. The chambers are formed of large +slabs set up on edge. Occasionally there are +spaces between successive slabs, and these are +filled up with dry masonry. The roof is made +either by laying large slabs across the tops of the +sides or by corbelling with smaller slabs as at +Stoney Littleton.</p> + +<p>In the second type of chambered barrow there +is no central corridor, but chambers are built in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_033" id="Pg_033" title="Pg_033">[33]</a></span>opposite pairs on the outside edge of the mound +and opening outwards (Fig. 3, <i>b</i>). The two best +known examples of this are the tumuli of Avening +and of Rodmarton.</p> + +<p>In the third type of barrow there is no chamber +connected with the outside, but its place is taken +by several dolmens—so small as to be mere cists—within +the mound.</p> + +<p>The burials in these barrows seem to have been +without exception inhumations. The body was +placed in the crouched position, either sitting up +or reclining. In an untouched chamber at Rodmarton +were found as many as thirteen bodies, +and in the eastern chamber at Charlton's Abbott +there were twelve. With the bodies lay pottery, +vases, and implements of flint and bone.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_034" id="Pg_034" title="Pg_034">[34]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>The stone circles of Scotland have been +divided into three types—the Western +Scottish, consisting of a rather irregular ring or +pair of concentric rings; the Inverness type, in +which a chamber entered by a straight passage +is covered by a round tumulus with a retaining +wall of stone, the whole being surrounded by a +regular stone circle; and the Aberdeen type, +which is similar to the last, but has a 'recumbent' +stone between two of the uprights of its +outer circle.</p> + +<p>The first type occurs in the southern counties, +in the islands of the west and north coasts, and +also extends into Argyll and Perthshire. The +most famous example is the Callernish Circle in +the Isle of Lewis. The circle is formed by +thirteen stones from 12 to 15 feet high, and its +centre is marked by an upright 17 feet high. From +the circle extends a line of four stones to the east +and another to the west. To the south runs a +line of five uprights and several fallen stones, +and to the N.N.E. runs a double line, forming +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_035" id="Pg_035" title="Pg_035">[35]</a></span>as it were an avenue with nine stones on one side +and ten on the other, but having no entrance to +the circle. Inside the circle, between the central +stone and the east side of the ring, is what is +described as a cruciform grave with three cells +under a low tumulus. In this tomb were found +fragments of human bone apparently burnt. +It has been suggested that the tomb is not part +of the original structure, but was added later.</p> + +<p>The native tradition about this circle as repeated +by Martin in 1700 was that it was a druidical +place of worship, and that the chief druid stood +near the central stone to address the assembled +people. This tradition seems to have now disappeared.</p> + +<p>In the island of Arran, between Brodick and +Lamlash, is a damaged circle 21 feet in diameter. +At a distance of 60 feet from its circumference in a +direction 35° east of south is a stone 4 feet +high. In the centre of the circle was found a +cist cut in the underlying rock containing bluish +earth and pieces of bone. Above were an implement +and some fragments of flint.</p> + +<p>On the other side of the island there were still +in 1860 remains of eight circles, five of sandstone +and three of granite, quite close to one another. +The diameter of the largest was 63 feet, and the +highest stone reached 18 feet. One of them was +a double ring. In four of them were found cists +containing pottery, flint arrow-heads, a piece of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_036" id="Pg_036" title="Pg_036">[36]</a></span>a bronze pin, and some fragments of bone. Others +appear to contain no cists.</p> + +<p>In the other islands of the west coast few circles +seem to remain; there are, however, one at +Kirkabrost in Skye, and another at Kingarth in +Bute.</p> + +<p>At Stromness in Orkney is the famous circle +called the Ring of Brogar. It originally consisted +of sixty stones forming a circle 340 feet in +diameter, outside which was a ditch 29 feet wide. +In a direction 60° east of south from the centre, +and at a distance of 63 chains, is a standing stone +called the Watchstone, 18 feet high, and 42 or 43 +chains further on in the same line is a second +stone, the Barnstone, 15 feet high. To the left +of this line are two stones apparently placed at +random, and to the right are the few remaining +blocks of the Ring of Stenness, somewhere to the +north of which was the celebrated pierced block +called the "Stone of Odin," destroyed early in +the last century. At a distance of 42 or 43 chains +to the north-east of the Barnstone lies the tumulus +of Maeshowe. This tumulus conceals a long +gallery leading into a rectangular chamber. The +walls of this latter are built of horizontal courses +of stones, except at the corners, where there are +tall, vertically-placed slabs. The chamber has +three niches or recesses, one on each of its closed +sides. The roof is formed by corbelling the walls +and finishing off with slabs laid across. If one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_037" id="Pg_037" title="Pg_037">[37]</a></span>sits within the chamber and looks in a direct line +along the passage one sees the Barnstone.</p> + +<p>A series of measurements and alignments have +been taken to connect the Maeshowe tumulus +with the Ring of Brogar. Thus we have already +seen that the distance from the Barnstone to the +Watchstone is the same as from the Barnstone +to the tumulus. Moreover, the Watchstone is +equidistant from the ring and from the tumulus. +Again, a line from the Barnstone to the tumulus +passes through the point of the midsummer sunrise +and also, on the other horizon, through the +point of the setting sun ten days before the +winter solstice; the line from the Watchstone to +the Brogar Ring marks the setting of the sun at +the Beltane festival in May and its rising ten days +before the winter solstice, while the line from +Maeshowe to the Watchstone is in the line of the +equinoctial rising and setting. These alignments +are the work of Mr. Magnus Spence; readers +must choose what importance they will assign to +them.</p> + +<p>The Inverness type of circle is entirely different +from that of which we have been speaking. The +finest examples were at Clava, seven miles from +Inverness, where fifty years ago there were eight +still in existence. One of these is still partly +preserved. It consists of a circle 100 feet in +diameter consisting of twelve stones. Within +this is a cairn of stones with a circular retaining +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_038" id="Pg_038" title="Pg_038">[38]</a></span>wall of stone blocks 2 or 3 feet high. The cairn +originally covered a circular stone chamber 12½ +feet in diameter entered by a straight passage +on its south-west side. In other words, the Inverness +monuments are simply chamber-tombs +covered with a cairn and surrounded by a circle.</p> + +<p>Around Aberdeen we find the third type of +circle. It consists of a cist-tomb covered by a +low mound, often with a retaining wall of small +blocks, but there is no entrance passage leading +into the cist. Outside the whole is a circle of +large upright blocks with this peculiarity, that +between the two highest—generally to the south +or slightly east of south—lies a long block on its +side, occupying the whole interval between them. +The uprights nearest this 'recumbent' block are +the tallest in the circle, and the size of the rest +decreases towards the north. Of thirty circles +known near Aberdeen twenty-six still possess the +'recumbent' stone, and in others it may originally +have existed.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Passing now to monuments of more definitely +sepulchral type we find that the dolmen is not +frequent in Scotland, though several are known +in the lowlands and in part of Argyllshire.</p> + +<p>To the long barrows of England answer in part +at least the chambered cairns of Caithness and +the Orkneys. The best known type is a long +rectangular horned cairn (Fig. 4), of which there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_039" id="Pg_039" title="Pg_039">[39]</a></span>are two fine examples near Yarhouse. The largest +is 240 feet in length. The chamber is circular, +and roofed partly by corbelling and partly by +a large slab. In the cairn of Get we have a shorter +and wider example of the horned type. Another +type is circular or elliptical. In a cairn of this +sort at Canister an iron knife was found. On the +Holm of Papa-Westra in the Orkneys there is an +elliptical cairn of this kind containing a long +rectangular chamber running along its major +axis with seven small circular niches opening off +it. The entrance passage lies on the minor axis +of the barrow.</p> + + + +<!-- Figure 4 --> + +<div><a name="figure_4" id="figure_4"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_04.png" width="600" height="435" alt="figure_4" title="Figure 4" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 4.</b></span> +<b>Horned tumulus at Garrywhin, Caithness. (After Montelius.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_040" id="Pg_040" title="Pg_040">[40]</a></span>The megalithic monuments of Ireland are +extremely numerous, and are found in almost +every part of the country. They offer a particular +interest from the fact that though they are of few +different types they display all the stages by +which the more complex were developed from the +more simple. It must be remembered that most +if not all the monuments we shall describe were +originally covered by mounds of earth, though +in most cases these have disappeared.</p> + +<p>The simple dolmen is found in almost all parts +of the country. Its single cover-slab is supported +by a varying number of uprights, sometimes as +few as three, oftener four or more. It is of great +importance to notice the fact that here in Ireland, +as elsewhere in the megalithic area, e.g. Sardinia, +we have the round and rectangular dolmens in +juxtaposition (Fig. 5, <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>).</p> + + +<!-- Figure 5 --> + +<div><a name="figure_5" id="figure_5"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_05.png" width="600" height="256" alt="figure_5" title="Figure 5" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 5.</b></span> +<b>Type-plans of <i>(a)</i> the round dolmen; <i>(b)</i> the +dolmen with portico; <i>(c)</i> the rectangular dolmen.</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>Occasionally one of the end-blocks of the dolmen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_041" id="Pg_041" title="Pg_041">[41]</a></span>instead of just closing up the space between the +two nearest side-blocks is pushed back between +them so as to form with them a small three-sided +portico outside the chamber, but still under the +shelter of the cover-slab (Fig. 5, <i>b</i>). A good +example of this exists at Gaulstown, Waterford, +where a table-stone weighing 6 tons rests on six +uprights, three of which form the little portico +just described. The famous dolmen of Carrickglass, +Sligo, is a still more developed example of +this type. Here the chamber is an accurate rectangle, +and the portico is formed by adding two +side-slabs outside one of the end-slabs, but still +under the cover. This last is a remarkable block +of limestone weighing about 70 tons. This form +of tomb is without doubt a link between the +simple dolmen and the corridor-tomb. The +portico was at first built under the slab by pushing +an end-stone inwards. Then external side-stones +formed the portico, though still under the slab. +The next move was to construct the portico outside +the slab. The portico then needed a roof, and the +addition of a second cover to provide it completed +the transition to the simpler corridor-tomb. In +many cases the Irish simple dolmens were surrounded +by a circle of upright stones. At Carrowmore, +Sligo, there seems to have been a veritable +cemetery of dolmen-tombs, each of which has +one or more circles around it, the outermost being +120 feet in diameter. The tombs in these Carrowmore +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_042" id="Pg_042" title="Pg_042">[42]</a></span>circles were not always simple dolmens, +but often corridor-tombs of more or less complicated +types. Their excavation has not given +very definite results. In many cases human +bones have been found in considerable quantities, +sometimes in a calcined condition; but there is +no real evidence to show that cremation was the +burial rite practised. The calcination of human +bones may well have been caused by the lighting +of fires in the tomb, either at some funeral ceremony, +or in even later days, when the place was +used as a shelter for peasants. A few poor flints +were found and a little pottery, together with +many bones of animals and some pins and borers +of bone. The most important find made, however, +was a small conical button made of bone +with two holes pierced in its flat side and meeting +in the middle. It is a type which occurs in Europe +only at the period of transition from the age of +stone to that of bronze, and usually in connection +with megalithic monuments.</p> + + +<!-- Figure 6 --> + +<div><a name="figure_6" id="figure_6"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_06.png" width="600" height="187" alt="figure_6" title="Figure 6" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 6.</b></span> +<b>Type-plan of the simple rectangular +corridor-tomb or <i>allée couverte</i></b>. +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>We pass on now to consider the simplest form +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_043" id="Pg_043" title="Pg_043">[43]</a></span>of corridor-tomb, that in which there are several +cover-slabs, but no separate chamber (Fig. 6). +These tombs occur in most parts of Ireland. At +Carrick-a-Dhirra, County Waterford, there is a +perfect example of the most simple type. The +tomb is exactly rectangular and lies east and west, +with a length of 19 feet and a breadth of 7½. At +each end is a single upright, and each long side +consists of seven. The chamber thus formed is +roofed by five slabs. The whole was surrounded +by a circle of about twenty-six stones, and no +doubt the chamber was originally covered by a +mound. In a somewhat similar example at +Coolback, Fermanagh, the remains of the elliptical +cairn are still visible.</p> + +<p>But in most cases the plan of the corridor-tomb +is complicated by a kind of outer lining of blocks +which was added to it. Most of the monuments +are so damaged that it is difficult to see what the +exact form of this lining was. Whether it merely +consisted of a line of upright blocks close around +the sides of the chamber or whether these supported +some further structure which covered up +the whole chamber it is difficult to say. In some +cases the roof-slab actually covers the outer line +of blocks, and here it seems certain that this +outer line served simply to reinforce the chamber +walls, the space between being filled with earth +or rubble. However, at Labbamologa, County +Cork, is a tomb called Leaba Callighe, in which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_044" id="Pg_044" title="Pg_044">[44]</a></span>this was certainly not the case. The length of +the whole monument is about 42 feet. The slabs +cover the inner walls of the chamber, but not +the outer lining: this last forms a kind of outer +shell to the whole monument. It is shaped roughly +like a ship, and runs to a point at the east end, +thus representing the bow. The west end is +damaged, but may have been pointed like the +east. The whole reminds one very forcibly of +the <i>naus</i> of the Balearic Isles and the Giants' +Graves of Sardinia. Occasionally the corridor-tomb +has a kind of portico at its west end.<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 7 --> + +<div><a name="figure_7" id="figure_7"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_07.png" width="600" height="266" alt="figure_7" title="Figure 7" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 7.</b></span> +<b>Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb. The roof +slabs are two or more in number.</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>In Munster the corridor-tomb takes a peculiar +form (Fig. 7). It lies roughly east and west, and +its two long sides are placed at a slight angle to one +another in such a way that the west end is broader +than the east. In a good example of this at +Keamcorravooly, County Cork, there are two large +capstones and the walls consist of double rows of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_045" id="Pg_045" title="Pg_045">[45]</a></span>slabs, the outer being still beneath the cover-slabs. +On the upper surface of the covers +are several small cup-shaped hollows, some of +which at least have been produced artificially.</p> + +<p>These wedge-shaped structures are of remarkable +interest, for exactly the same broadening +of the west end is found in Scandinavia, in the +<i>Hünenbetter</i> of Holland, in the corridor-tombs of +Portugal, and in the dolmens of the Deccan in India.</p> + +<p>In some Irish tombs the corridor leads to a well-defined +chamber. In a curious tomb at Carrickard, +Sligo, the chamber was rectangular and lay across +the end of the corridor in such a way as to form +a T. The whole seems to have been covered with +an oval mound. In another at Highwood in the +same county a long corridor joins two small +circular chambers, the total length being 44 feet. +The corridor was once divided into four sections +by cross-slabs. The cairn which covered this +tomb was triangular in form.</p> + +<p>In the county of Meath, in the parish of Lough +Crew, is a remarkable series of stone cairns extending +for three miles along the Slieve-na-Callighe +Hills. These cairns conceal chamber-tombs. +The cairns themselves are roughly +circular, and the largest have a circle of upright +blocks round the base. The chambers are built +of upright slabs and are roofed by corbelling. +Cairn H covered a corridor leading to a chamber +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_046" id="Pg_046" title="Pg_046">[46]</a></span>and opening off on each side into a side-chamber, +the whole group thus being cruciform. In these +chambers were found human remains and objects +of flint, bone, earthenware, amber, glass, bronze, +and iron. Cairn L had a central corridor from +which opened off seven chambers in a very irregular +fashion. Cairn T consisted of a corridor leading +to a fine octagonal chamber with small chambers +off it on three sides.</p> + +<p>The chief interest of these tombs lies in the +remarkable designs engraved on some of the stones +of the passages and chambers. They are fairly +deeply cut with a rather sharp implement, probably +a metal chisel. They are arranged in the +most arbitrary way on the stones and are often +crowded together in masses. There is no attempt +to depict scenes of any kind, nor is there, indeed, +any example of animal life. In fact, the designs +seem to be purely ornamental. The most frequent +elements of design are cup-shaped hollows, concentric +circles or ovals, star-shaped figures, +circles with emanating rays, spirals, chevrons, +reticulated figures, parallel straight or curved +lines. There seems to be no clue as to the meaning +of these designs. They may have been merely +ornamental, though this is hardly likely.</p> + +<p>At New Grange, near Drogheda, there is a +similar series of tumuli, one of which has become +famous (Fig. 8). It consists of a huge mound of +stones 280 feet in diameter surrounded by a circle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_047" id="Pg_047" title="Pg_047">[47]</a></span>of upright blocks. Access to the corridor is gained</p> + + +<!-- Figure 8 --> + +<div><a name="figure_8" id="figure_8"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_08.png" width="600" height="465" alt="figure_8" title="Figure 8" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 8.</b></span> +<b>Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland.<br /> +(Coffey, <i>Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, 1892.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>from the south-east side. This corridor leads to a +chamber with three divisions, so that corridor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_048" id="Pg_048" title="Pg_048">[48]</a></span>and chambers together form a cross with a long +shaft. The walls are formed of rough slabs set +upright. In the passage the roof is of slabs laid +right across, but the roof of the chamber is formed +by corbelling. On the floor of each division of the +chamber was found a stone basin.<br /><br /></p> + + + + + +<p>Around the edge of the mound runs an enclosure +wall of stones lying on the ground edge to edge. +A few of these are sculptured. The finest is a +great stone which lies in front of the entrance +and shows a well-arranged design of spirals and +lozenges. There are also engravings on one of the +stones of the chambers. These designs are in +general more skilful than those of Lough Crew. +They consist mainly of chevrons, lozenges, spirals, +and triangles.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The monuments we have so far described are +all tombs. Ireland also possesses several stone +circles. The largest are situated round Lough +Gur, 10 or 12 miles south of Limerick. There +was at one time a fine circle west of Lough Gur +at Rockbarton, but it is now destroyed. On the +eastern edge of the lough is a double concentric +ring of stones, the diameter of the inner circle +being about 100 feet. The rings are 6 feet apart, +and the space between them is filled up with +earth. In 1869 an excavation was made within +the circle and revealed some human remains, +mostly those of children from six to eight years old.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_049" id="Pg_049" title="Pg_049">[49]</a></span>Further north is a remarkable group of monuments +known as the Carrigalla circles. The first +is a plain circle (L) 33 or 34 feet in diameter, +composed of twenty-eight stones. The space +within them is filled up with earth to form a +raised platform. At a distance of 75 feet are two +concentric circles, diameters 155 and 184 feet +respectively, made of stones 5 or 6 feet high. The +space between the two circles is filled with earth. +Within these is a third concentric circle about +48 feet in diameter made of stones of the same +size. This group of three concentric circles we +will call M. The line joining the centres of L and +M runs in a direction of 29° or 30° west of north +and passes through a stone (N) 8 feet high standing +on the top of a ridge 2500 feet away. There are +two other stones more to the west (O and P) in +such a position that the line joining them (41° +west of north) passes through the centre of M, +from which they are distant 860 and 1450 feet +respectively. Further, a line through the centre +of L and a great standing stone (Q) 2480 feet from +it in a direction 10° east of south passes through +the highest point in the district, 1615 feet away +and 492 feet in height.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lewis compares this group of monuments +with that of Stanton Drew in Somersetshire. In +both a line joining the centre of two circles passes +through a single stone in a northerly direction, +and there is in both a fixed line from the centre +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_050" id="Pg_050" title="Pg_050">[50]</a></span>of the larger circle. Captain Boyle Somerville, +R.N., finds that the line 29° or 30° west of north +would mark the setting of Capella in B.C. 1600, +or Arcturus 500 B.C.; he adds that the direction +41° west of north would suit Capella in 2500 B.C. +or Castor in 2000 B.C.</p> + +<p>On the west side of Lough Gur is another +group of monuments. There is in the first place +a circle 55 feet in diameter. On a line 35° east +of north from this is a stone 10 feet high, and the +same line produced strikes a prominent hill-top. +Somewhere to the south-west of this circle, perhaps +with its centre in the line just described, lay a +second circle between 150 and 170 feet in diameter, +destroyed in 1870. Three other stones +mentioned by early writers as being near the +circles have now disappeared. The direction 35° +east of north is the same as that of the King-stone +with regard to the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire. +This line, allowing a height of 3° for the +horizon, would, according to Sir Norman Lockyer, +have struck the rising points of Capella in 1700 +B.C. and Arcturus in 500 B.C.</p> + +<p>To the south of the destroyed circle is another +about 150 to 155 feet in diameter, with stones of +over 5 feet in height set close together. Earth is +piled up outside them to form a bank 30 feet wide. +There is an entrance 3 feet wide in a direction +59° east of north from the centre of the circle. +There is said to have been at one time a cromlech +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_051" id="Pg_051" title="Pg_051">[51]</a></span>100 feet wide due south of the circle and connected +with it by a paved way. Sir Norman Lockyer +thinks that the position of the doorway is connected +with observation of the sun's rising in May. +Moreover, the tallest stone of the circle, 9 feet +high, is 30° east of north from the centre, a direction +which according to him points to the rising +of Capella in 1950 B.C. and Arcturus in 280 B.C.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_052" id="Pg_052" title="Pg_052">[52]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>In Scandinavia megalithic monuments abound. +They have been studied with unusual care +from quite an early date in the history of archæology, +and classified in the order of their development. +The earliest type appears to be the simple +dolmen with either four or five sides and a very +rough cover-slab. This and the upper part of the +sides remained uncovered by the mound of earth +which was always heaped round the tomb. In +later times the dolmen became more regularly +rectangular in shape, and only its roof-block +appeared above the mound. Contemporary with +this later form of dolmen were several other types +of tomb. One was simply the earlier dolmen with +one side open and in front of it a sort of portico or +elementary corridor formed by two upright slabs +with no roofing (cf. the Irish type, <a href="#Pg_040">Fig. 5, <i>b</i></a>). +This quickly developed into the true corridor-tomb, +which had at first a small round chamber +with one or two cover-slabs, a short corridor, and +a round or rectangular mound. Later types +have an oval chamber (Fig. 9) with from one to +four cover-slabs or a rectangular chamber with a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_053" id="Pg_053" title="Pg_053">[53]</a></span>long corridor and a circular mound. Finally we +reach a type where thin slabs are used in the +construction, and the mound completely covers +the cap-stones: here the corridor leads out from +one of the short ends of the rectangular chamber.</p> + +<p>The earliest of these types in point of view of +development, the true dolmen, is common both in +Denmark and in South Sweden; only one example +exists in Norway. In Sweden it is never +found far from the sea-coast.<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 9 --> + +<div><a name="figure_9" id="figure_9"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_09.png" width="600" height="465" alt="figure_9" title="Figure 9" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 9.</b></span> +<b>Corridor-tomb, Ottagården, Sweden.<br /> +(Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa</i>.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>The corridor-tomb is also frequent in Denmark +and Sweden, though it is unknown in Norway. +In Sweden it is, like all megalithic monuments, +confined to the south of the country. Of the early +transition type with elementary corridor there are +fine examples at Herrestrup in Denmark and +Torebo in Sweden. A tomb at Sjöbol in Sweden +where the corridor, consisting of only two uprights, +is covered in with two roof-slabs instead +of being left open, shows very clearly the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_054" id="Pg_054" title="Pg_054">[54]</a></span>transition to the corridor-tomb proper, in which +the entrance passage consists of at least four +uprights, two on each side. Of this there are +numerous fine examples. A tomb of this type at +Broholm in Denmark has a roughly circular +chamber separated from the corridor by a kind of +threshold-stone. Another at Tyfta in Sweden is +remarkable for its curious construction, the +uprights being set rather apart from one another +and the spaces between filled up with dry masonry +of small stones. Possibly there were not sufficient +large blocks at hand to construct a tomb of the +required size.</p> + +<p>The still later type consisting of a rectangular +chamber with a long corridor leading out of one +of its long sides often attains to very imposing +dimensions. In Westgothland, a province of +Sweden, there are fine examples with walls of +limestone and often roofs of granite visible above +the surface of the mound. The largest of these +tombs is that of Karleby near Falköping. In +another at Axevalla Heath were found nineteen +bodies seated round the wall of the chamber, +each in a separate small cist of stone slabs. The +position of the bodies in the Scandinavian graves +is rather variable, both the outstretched and the +contracted posture being used. It is usual to +find many bodies in the same tomb, often as +many as twenty or thirty: in that of Borreby +on the island of Seeland were found seventy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_055" id="Pg_055" title="Pg_055">[55]</a></span>skeletons, all of children of from two to eighteen +years of age.</p> + +<p>In Denmark these rectangular tombs occasionally +have one or more small round niches. +In 1837 a large tomb was excavated at Lundhöj +on Jütland, which had a circular niche opposite +to the entrance. The niche had a threshold-stone, +and the two uprights of the main chamber which +lay on either side of this had been crudely engraved +with designs, among which were a man, an animal, +and a circle with a pair of diameters marked. +Little was found in the chamber, and only some +bones and a pot in the niche.</p> + +<p>In Denmark often occur mounds which contain +two or more tombs, usually of the same form, +each with its separate entrance passage. At the +entrance of the chamber there is sometimes a +well-worked framework into which fitted a door +of stone or wood.</p> + +<p>The late type in which the corridor leads out +of one of the narrow ends of the chamber is +represented in both Sweden and Denmark. From +this may be derived the rather unusual types in +which the corridor has become indistinguishable +from the chamber or forms a sort of antechamber +to it. An example of the former type at Knyttkärr +in Sweden is wider at one end than at the other, +and has an outer coating of stone slabs. It +resembles very closely the wedge-shaped tombs of +Munster (cf. <a href="#Pg_044">Fig. 7</a>):</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_056" id="Pg_056" title="Pg_056">[56]</a></span>In Germany megalithic monuments are not +infrequent, but they are practically confined to +the northern part of the country. They extend +as far east as Königsberg and as far west as the +borders of Holland. They are very frequent in +Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover. There are +even examples in Prussian Saxony, but in South +Germany they cease entirely. Keller in one edition +of his <i>Lake Dwellings</i> figures two supposed dolmens +north of Lake Pfäffikon in Switzerland, but we +have no details with regard to them.</p> + +<p>The true dolmen is extremely rare in Germany, +and only occurs in small groups in particular +localities. The corridor-tomb with a distinct +chamber is also very exceptional, especially east +of the Elbe. The most usual type of megalithic +tomb is that known as the <i>Hünenbett</i> or <i>Riesenbett</i>. +The latter name means Giants' Bed, and it seems +probable that the former should be similarly +translated, despite the suggested connection with +the Huns, for a word <i>Hünen</i> has been in use in +North Germany for several centuries with the +meaning of giants. A <i>Hünenbett</i> consists of a +rectangular (rarely oval or round) hill of earth +covering a megalithic tomb. This is a simple +elongated rectangle in shape, made of upright +blocks and roofed with two or more cover-slabs. +The great <i>Hünenbett</i> or Grewismühlen in Mecklenburg +has a mound measuring 150 feet by 36 with +a height of 5 feet. On the edge of the mound +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_057" id="Pg_057" title="Pg_057">[57]</a></span>are arranged forty-eight tall upright blocks of +stone.</p> + +<p>The <i>Hünenbetter</i> of the Altmark are among +the best known and explored. Here the corridors +are usually about 20 feet long, though in rare +cases they reach a length of 40 feet. Each is filled +with clean sand up to two-thirds of its height, +and on this lie the bodies and their funeral deposit. +The bodies must have been laid flat, though not +necessarily in an extended position, as there was +not room above the sand for them to have been +seated upright. Various implements of flint have +been found in the tombs together with stone +hammers and vases of pottery. There is no certain +instance of the finding of metal.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>A book printed by John Picardt at Amsterdam +in 1660 contains quaint pictures of giants and +dwarfs engaged in the building of a megalithic +monument which is clearly a <i>Hünenbett</i>. According +to tradition the giants, after employing the labour +of the dwarfs, proceeded to devour them. <i>Hünenbetter</i> +similar to those shown in Picardt's illustrations +are still to be seen in Holland, but only in +the north, where over fifty are known. They are +of elongated rectangular form, built of upright +blocks, and roofed with from two to ten cover-slabs. +They all widen slightly towards the west +end. The most perfect example still remaining +is that of Tinaarloo, and the largest is that of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_058" id="Pg_058" title="Pg_058">[58]</a></span>Borger, which contains forty-five blocks, of which +ten are cap-stones. Several <i>Hünenbetter</i> have been +excavated. In them are found pottery vases, +flint celts, axes and hammers of grey granite, +basalt, and jade.</p> + +<p>Belgium possesses several true dolmens, of +which the best known is that called La Pierre du +Diable on the right bank of the Meuse. Near +Lüttich are two simple corridor-tombs, each with +a round hole in one of the end-slabs and a small +portico outside it.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_059" id="Pg_059" title="Pg_059">[59]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>France contains large numbers of megalithic +monuments. Of dolmens and corridor-tombs +no less than 4458 have been recorded. In +the east and south-east they are rare, but they +abound over a wide strip running from the Breton +coasts of the English Channel to the Mediterranean +shores of Hérault and Card. In 1901 Mortillef +counted 6192 menhirs, including those which +formed parts of <i>alignements</i> and cromlechs. +Several of these attain to a great size. That to +Locmariaquer (Morbihan), now unfortunately +fallen and broken, measured over 60 feet in height, +being thus not much shorter than the Egyptian +obelisk which stands in the Place de la Concorde +in Paris.</p> + +<p>Passing now to combinations of menhirs in +groups, we must first mention the remarkable +<i>alignements</i> of Brittany, of which the most famous +are those of Carnac. They run east and west over +a distance of 3300 yards, but the line is broken +at two points in such a way that the whole forms +three groups. The most westerly, that of Ménec, +consists of eleven lines of menhirs and a cromlech, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_060" id="Pg_060" title="Pg_060">[60]</a></span>the total number of stones standing being 1169, +the tallest of which is 13 feet in height. The +central group, that of Kermario, consists of 982 +stones arranged in ten straight lines, while the +most easterly, that of Kerlescan, is formed by +579 menhirs, 39 of which form a rectangular enclosure.</p> + +<p>There are other <i>alignements</i> in Brittany, of which +the most important is that of Erdeven, comprising +1129 stones arranged in ten lines. Outside +Brittany <i>alignements</i> are unusual, but a fine +example, now ruined, is said to have existed at +Saint Pantaléon north of Autun. In the fields +around it are found large quantities of polished +stone axes with knives, scrapers, and arrow-heads +of flint.</p> + +<p>We have already noticed the cromlechs which +form part of the <i>alignements</i> of Brittany. There +are other examples in France. At Er-Lanic are +two circles touching one another, the lower of +which is covered by the sea even at low tide. +Excavations carried out within the circles brought +to light rough pottery and axes of polished stone. +Two fine circles at Can de Ceyrac (Gard) have +diameters of about 100 yards, and are formed of +stones about 3 feet high. Each has a short +entrance avenue which narrows as it approaches +the circle, and in the centre of each rises a trilithon +of rough stones.</p> + +<p>Of the definitely sepulchral monuments the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_061" id="Pg_061" title="Pg_061">[61]</a></span>dolmen is common in all parts of the French +megalithic area. It will suffice to mention the +magnificent example known as the Table des +Marchands at Locmariaquer. Perhaps the most +typical structure in France is the corridor-tomb +in which the chamber is indistinguishable from +the passage, and the whole forms a long rectangular +area. This is the <i>allée couverte</i> in the +narrower sense. In the department of Oise occurs +a special type of this in which one of the end-slabs +has a hole pierced in its centre and is preceded +by a small portico consisting of two uprights +supporting a roof-slab (Fig 10). A remarkable +example in Brittany known as Les Pierres Plates +turns at a sharp angle in the middle, and is thus +elbow-shaped.<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 10 --> + +<div><a name="figure_10" id="figure_10"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_10.png" width="600" height="465" alt="figure_10" title="Figure 10" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 10.</b></span> +<b><i>Allée couverte</i>, called La Pierre aux Fées, Oise, France.<br /> +(<i>Compte rendu du Congrès Préhistorique de France</i>.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>In the north of France the <i>allée</i> is often merely +cut out in the surface of the ground and has no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_062" id="Pg_062" title="Pg_062">[62]</a></span>roof at all. It is sometimes paved with slabs and +divided into two partitions by an upright with +a hole in its centre. Tombs of this kind often +contain from forty to eighty skeletons, some of +which are in the contracted position. The skulls +are in some cases trepanned, i.e. small round +pieces of the bone have been cut out of them; +such pieces are sometimes found separate in the +graves. No objects of metal occur in these North +French tombs.</p> + +<p>There are many fine examples in Brittany of +the corridor-tomb with distinct chamber. The +best known lies on the island of Gavr'inis (Morbihan). +It is covered by a tumulus nearly 200 +feet in diameter. The circular chamber, 6 feet in +height, is roofed by a huge block measuring 13 +feet by 10. The corridor which leads out to the +edge of the mound is 40 feet in length. Twenty-two +of the upright blocks used in this tomb are +almost entirely covered with engraved designs. +These are massed together with very little order, +the main object having been apparently to cover +the whole surface of the stone with ornament. +The designs consist of spirals, concentric circles +and semicircles, chevrons, rows of strokes, and +triangles, and bear a considerable resemblance to +those of Lough Crew and New Grange in Ireland.</p> + +<p>Another tomb in the same district, that of +Mané-er-Hroeck, was intact when discovered in +1863. It contained within its chamber a hoard +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_063" id="Pg_063" title="Pg_063">[63]</a></span>of 101 axes of fibrolite and jadeite, 50 pebbles +of a kind of turquoise known as <i>callaïs</i>, pieces of +pottery, flints, and a peculiarly fine celt of jadeite +together with a flat ring-shaped club-head of the +same stone. The tomb was concealed by a huge +oval mound more than 100 yards in length. The +famous Mont S. Michel is an artificial mound +containing a central megalithic chamber and +several smaller cists, some of which held cremated bodies.<br /><br /></p> + + + +<!-- Figure 11 --> + +<div><a name="figure_11" id="figure_11"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_11.png" width="600" height="606" alt="figure_11" title="Figure 11" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 11.</b></span> +<b>Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy.<br /> +(After Montelius, <i>Orientund Europa</i>.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_064" id="Pg_064" title="Pg_064">[64]</a></span>A very remarkable mound in Calvados (Fig. 11) +was found to contain no less than twelve circular +corbelled chambers, each with a separate entrance +passage. The megalithic tombs of Brittany all +belong to the late neolithic period, and contain +tools and arrow-heads of flint, small ornaments of +gold, <i>callaïs</i>, and pottery which includes among +its forms the bell-shaped cup.</p> + +<p>In Central and South France the <i>allées couvertes</i> +are mostly of a semi-subterranean type, i.e. they +are cut in the ground and merely roofed with +slabs of stone. The most famous is that of the +Grotte des Fées near Arles (Fig. 12), in which a +passage (<i>a</i>) with a staircase at one end and two +niches (<i>b b</i>) in its sides leads into a narrow rectangular +chamber (<i>c</i>). The total length is nearly +80 feet. Another tomb of the same type, La +Grotte du Castellet, contained over a hundred +skeletons, together with thirty-three flint arrow +or spear-heads, one of which was stuck fast in +a human vertebra, a bell-shaped cup, axes of +polished stone, beads and pendants of various +materials, 114 pieces of <i>callaïs</i>, and a small plaque +of gold.<br /><br /></p> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_065" id="Pg_065" title="Pg_065">[65]</a></span></div> + +<!-- Figure 12 --> + +<div><a name="figure_12" id="figure_12"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_12.png" width="600" height="263" alt="figure_12" title="Figure 12" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 12.</b></span> +<b> Plan and section of La Grotte des Fées, Arles, France<br /> +(<i>Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, 1873).</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>On the plateau of Ger near the town of Dax are +large numbers of mounds, some of which contain +cremated bodies in urns and others megalithic +tombs. Bertrand saw in this a cemetery of two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_066" id="Pg_066" title="Pg_066">[66]</a></span>different peoples living side by side. But it has +since been shown that the cremation mounds +belong to a much later period than those which +contain megalithic graves. In these last the +skeletons were found seated around the walls of +the chamber accompanied by objects of flint +and other stone, beads of <i>callaïs</i>, and small gold +ornaments.<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 13 --> + +<div><a name="figure_13" id="figure_13"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_13.png" width="392" height="528" alt="figure_13" title="Figure 13" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="392" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 13.</b></span> +<b>The so-called dolmen-deity, from the tombs of the Petit Morin. +(After de Baye.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>France has also its rock-hewn tombs, for in +the valley of the Petit-Morin is a series of such +graves. A trench leads down to the entrance, +which is closed by a slab. The chamber itself is +completely underground. In the shallower tombs +were either two rows of bodies with a passage +between or separate layers parted by slabs or +strata of sand. In the deeper were seldom more +than eight bodies, in the extended or contracted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_067" id="Pg_067" title="Pg_067">[67]</a></span>position, with tools and weapons of flint, pots, +and beads of amber and of <i>callaïs</i>. On the walls +were rough sculptures of human figures (Fig. 13), +to which we shall have to return later.</p> + +<p>The Channel Islands possess megalithic monuments +not unlike those of Brittany. They are +corridor-tombs covered with a mound and often +surrounded by a circle of stones. Within the +chamber, which is usually round, lies, under a +layer of shells, a mass of mingled human and +animal bones. The bodies had been buried in +the sitting position, and with them lay objects +of stone and bone, but none of metal.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The Spanish Peninsula abounds in megalithic +monuments. With the exception of a few menhirs, +whose purpose is uncertain, all are sepulchral. +Dolmens and corridor-tombs are numerous in +many parts, especially in the north-east provinces, +in Galicia, in Andalusia, and, above all, in Portugal. +There is a fine dolmen in the Vall Gorguina +in North-East Spain. The cover-slab, measuring +10 feet by 8, is supported by seven rough uprights +with considerable spaces between them. In the +same region is a ruined dolmen surrounded by +a circle nearly 90 feet in circumference, consisting +of seven large stones, some of which appear to +be partly worked. Circles are also found round +dolmens in Andalusia. Portugal abounds in fine +dolmens both of the round and rectangular types. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_068" id="Pg_068" title="Pg_068">[68]</a></span>At Fonte Coberta on the Douro stands a +magnificent dolmen known locally as the Moors' +House. In the name of the field, Fonte Coberta, +there is doubtless an allusion to the belief that the +dolmens conceal springs of water, a belief also +held in parts of Ireland.</p> + +<p>At Eguilaz in the Basque provinces is a fine +corridor-tomb, in which a passage 20 feet long, +roofed with flat slabs, leads to a rectangular +chamber 13 feet by 15 with an immense cover-slab +nearly 20 feet in length: the whole was +covered with a mound of earth. The chamber +contained human bones and "lanceheads of stone +and bronze." A famous tomb of a similar type +exists at Marcella in Algarve. The chamber is a +fine circle of upright slabs. It is paved with +stones, and part of its area is divided into two +or perhaps three rectangular compartments. A +couple of orthostatic slabs form a sort of neck +joining the circle to the passage, which narrows +as it leads away from the circle, and was probably +divided into two sections by a doorway whose side-posts +still remain.</p> + +<p>In South-East Spain the brothers Siret have +found corridor-tombs in which the chamber is +cut in the rock surface and roofed with slabs; +the entrance passage becomes a slope or a staircase. +Here we have a parallel to the Giants' +Graves of Sardinia, which are built usually of +stone blocks on the surface, but occasionally are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_069" id="Pg_069" title="Pg_069">[69]</a></span>cut in the solid rock. Other tombs in the same +district show the common megalithic construction +consisting of a base course of upright slabs surmounted +by several courses of horizontal masonry +(Fig. 14). The chamber is usually round, and +may have two or more niches in its circumference. +It is roofed by the successive overlapping or +corbelling of the upper courses. The vault thus +formed is further supported by a pillar of wood</p> + + +<!-- Figure 14 --> + +<div><a name="figure_14" id="figure_14"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_14.png" width="558" height="700" alt="figure_14" title="Figure 14" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="558" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 14.</b></span> +<b>Corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain. (After Siret.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_070" id="Pg_070" title="Pg_070">[70]</a></span>or stone set in the centre of the chamber. On +the walls of some of the chambers there are traces +of rough painting in red. The whole tomb is +covered with a circular mound. In the best known +example at Los Millares there are remains of a +semicircular façade in front of the entrance, as +in many other megalithic monuments.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>The finest, however, of all the Spanish monuments +is the corridor-tomb of Antequera in Andalusia. +It consists of a short passage leading into +a long rectangular chamber roofed with four +slabs. Within it on its axial line are three stone +pillars placed directly under the three meeting-points +of the four slabs, but quite unnecessary +for their support. The whole tomb is covered +with a low mound of earth. In the great upright +slab which forms the inner end of the chamber is +a circular hole rather above the centre.</p> + +<p>It is not the plan of this tomb, but the size, that +compels the admiration of the beholder. He +stands, as it were, within a vast cave lighted only +from its narrow end, the roof far above his head. +The rough surface of the blocks lends colour to +the feeling that this is the work of Nature and +not of man. Here, even if not in Stonehenge, he +will pause to marvel at the patient energy of the +men of old who put together such colossal masses +of stone.</p> + +<p>Among the corridor-tombs of Spain must be +mentioned a wedge-shaped type which bears a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_071" id="Pg_071" title="Pg_071">[71]</a></span>close resemblance to those of Munster in Ireland +(cf. <a href="#Pg_044">Fig. 7</a>). In Alemtejo, south of Cape de Sines, +are several of these, usually about 6 feet in length, +with a slight portico at one end.</p> + +<p>A further point of similarity with the Irish +monuments is seen in the corridor-tombs of Monte +Abrahaõ in Portugal, where the chamber walls +seem to have been reinforced by an outer lining +of slabs. Remains of eighty human bodies were +found in this tomb, together with objects of stone +and bone, including a small conical button similar +to that of Carrowmore in Ireland.</p> + +<p>The Spanish Peninsula also possesses rock-hewn +tombs. At Palmella, near Lisbon, is a +circular example about 12 feet in diameter preceded +by a bell-shaped passage which slopes +slightly downwards. Another circular chamber +in the same group has a much longer passage, +which bulges out into two small rounded antechambers. +These tombs have been excavated +and yielded some pottery vases, together with +objects of copper and beads of a peculiar precious +stone called <i>callaïs</i>. All the finds made in the +megalithic remains of Spain and Portugal point +to the period of transition from the age of stone +to that of metal.</p> + +<p>The Balearic Islands contain remarkable megalithic +monuments. Those known as the <i>talayots</i> +are towers having a circular or rarely a square +base and sloping slightly inwards as they rise. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_072" id="Pg_072" title="Pg_072">[72]</a></span>The largest is 50 feet in diameter. The stones, +which are rather large and occasionally trimmed,</p> + + +<!-- Figure 15 --> + +<div><a name="figure_15" id="figure_15"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_15.png" width="446" height="700" alt="figure_15" title="Figure 15" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="446" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 15.</b></span> +<b>Section and plan of the Talayot of Sa Aquila, Majorca.<br /> +(After Cartailhac.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_073" id="Pg_073" title="Pg_073">[73]</a></span>are laid flat, not on edge. A doorway just large +enough to be entered with comfort leads through +the thickness of the wall into a round chamber +roofed by corbelling, with the assistance sometimes +of one or more pillars. From analogy with +the <i>nuraghi</i> of Sardinia, which they resemble +rather closely, it seems probable that the <i>talayots</i> +are fortified dwellings, perhaps only used in time +of danger (Fig. 15).<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 16 --> + +<div><a name="figure_16" id="figure_16"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_16.png" width="600" height="405" alt="figure_16" title="Figure 16" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 16.</b></span> +<b>Nau d'Es Tudons, plan and section.<br /> +(After Cartailhac.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>The <i>naus</i> or <i>navetas</i> are so named from their +resemblance to ships. The construction is similar +to that of the <i>talayots</i>. The outer wall has a +considerable batter. The famous Nau d'Es Tudons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_074" id="Pg_074" title="Pg_074">[74]</a></span>is about 36 feet in length. The façade is slightly +concave. A low door (<i>a</i>) gives access through a +narrow slab-roofed passage (<i>b</i>) to a long rectangular +chamber (<i>c</i>), the method of whose roofing +is uncertain. All the <i>naus</i> are built with their +façades to the south or south-east, with the exception +of that of Benigaus Nou, the inner end of +which is cut in the rock, while the outer part is +built up of blocks as usual. The abnormal orientation +was here clearly determined by the desire to +make use of the face of rock in the construction. +The <i>naus</i> seem to have been tombs, as human +remains have been found in them.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Rock-tombs also occur in the islands. The +most remarkable are those of S. Vincent in +Majorca. One of these has a kind of open antechamber +cut in the rock, and is exactly similar +in plan to the Grotte des Fées in France (cf. <a href="#Pg_065">Fig. 12</a>).</p> + +<p>Prehistoric villages surrounded by great stone +walls can still be traced in the Balearic Isles. +The houses were of two types, built either above +ground or below. The first are square or rectangular +with rounded corners, the base course +occasionally consisting of orthostatic slabs. The +subterranean dwellings are faced with stone and +roofed with flat slabs supported by columns. +In each village was one building of a different type. +It stood above ground and was semicircular in +plan. In its centre stood a horizontal slab laid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_075" id="Pg_075" title="Pg_075">[75]</a></span>across the top of an upright, forming a T-shaped +structure which helped to support the roof-slabs, +but which may also have had some religious +significance. The stones which composed it were +always carefully worked, and the lower was let +into a socket on the under side of the upper.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_076" id="Pg_076" title="Pg_076">[76]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>Italy cannot be called a country of megalithic +monuments. In the centre and north +they do not occur, the supposed examples mentioned +by Dennis in his <i>Cities and Cemeteries of +Etruria</i> having been proved non-existent by the +Italian Ministry of Education. It is only in the +extreme south-west that megalithic structures +appear. They are dolmens of ordinary type, +except that in some cases the walls are formed +not of upright slabs, but of stones roughly superposed +one upon another. On the farm of the +Grassi, near Lecce, are what appear to be two +small dolmens at a distance of only 4 feet apart; +they are perhaps parts of a single corridor-tomb. +In the neighbourhood of Tarentum there is a +dolmen-tomb approached by a short passage, and +at Bisceglie, near Ruvo, there is an even finer +example, the discovery of which is one of the most +important events which have occurred in Italian +prehistoric archæology during the last few years. +The tomb is a simple rectangular corridor 36 feet +in length, lying east and west. Only one cover-slab, +that at the west end, remains, and the exact +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_077" id="Pg_077" title="Pg_077">[77]</a></span>disposition of the rest of the tomb is uncertain. +In one of the side uprights which supports this +slab is a circular hole, which, however, seems to +be the work of Nature, though its presence may +have led to the choice of the stone. The tomb +was carefully excavated, and the remains of +several skeletons were found, one of which lay +in the contracted position on the right side. +Three of the skulls were observed by an expert +to be dolichocephalic, but their fragile condition +prevented the taking of actual measurements. +Burnt bones of animals, fragments of pottery, a +terra-cotta bead, and a stone pendant were also +found, together with flint knives and a fragment +of obsidian.</p> + +<p>These discoveries show that the heel of Italy +fell under the influence which caused the spread +of the megalithic monuments, whatever that +influence may have been. The same influence +may also have been responsible for the bronze +age rock-hewn tombs of Matera in the Basilicata, +each of which is surrounded by a circle of fairly +large stones.</p> + +<p>Geographical considerations would lead one to +suppose that the same conditions existed in +Sicily, and it is possible that this was the case. +Yet it is an affirmation which must be made with +great reserve. Megalithic monuments in the +ordinary sense of the term are unknown in Sicily. +There are, however, four tombs in the south-east +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_078" id="Pg_078" title="Pg_078">[78]</a></span>of the island which show some affinity to megalithic +work. Two of these were found by Orsi at +Monteracello. They were rectangular chambers +built of squared slabs of limestone set on edge. At +one end of the finer of the two was a small opening +or window cut in the upright slab. This same +grave contained a skeleton lying on the right side +with the legs slightly contracted. These two +tombs can hardly be described as dolmens; they +seem to have had no cover-slabs, and the blocks, +which were small, were let into the earth, scarcely +appearing above the surface. Taken by themselves +the Monteracello tombs would hardly prove the +presence of the megalithic civilization in Sicily. +However, in the valley called Cava Lazzaro there +is a rock-hewn tomb where the vertical face of +the rock in which the tomb is cut has been shaped +into a curved façade, a very usual feature of +megalithic architecture. This is ornamented on +each side of the entrance of the tomb with four +pilasters cut in relief in the solid rock, each pair +being connected by a semicircular arch also in +relief. On the pilasters is incised a pattern of +circles and V-shaped signs. A somewhat similar +arrangement of pilasters is seen in two rock-tombs +at Cava Lavinaro in the same district. This work +forcibly recalls the work of the megalithic builders +in the hypogeum of Halsaflieni in Malta (see +Chap. VII), and on the façades of the Giants' +Tombs in Sardinia (see below). It affords, at any +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_079" id="Pg_079" title="Pg_079">[79]</a></span>rate, a presumption that in all three islands we +have to deal with the same civilization if not the +same people.</p> + +<p>Such a presumption is not weakened by the +fact that in Sicily the usual form of tomb was the +rock-hewn sepulchre, which, as will be seen later, +is very often a concomitant of the megalithic +monument, and in many cases is proved to be +the work of the same people. In the early neolithic +period in Sicily, called by Orsi the Sicanian +Period, rock-hewn tombs seem not to have been +used. It is only at the beginning of the metal age +that they begin to appear. In this period, the +so-called First Siculan, the tomb-chamber was +almost always circular or elliptical, entered by +a small door or window in the face of the rock. +The dead were often seated round the wall of the +chamber, evidently engaged in a funerary feast, +as is clear from the great vase set in their midst +with small cups for ladling out the liquid. A +single tomb often contained many bodies, especially +in cases where the banquet arrangement was +not observed; one chamber held more than a hundred +skeletons, and it has been suggested that the +bodies were only laid in the tomb after the flesh +had been removed from the bones, either artificially +or as the result of a temporary burial +elsewhere. Such a custom is not unknown in +other parts of the megalithic area. With these +bodies were found large quantities of painted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_080" id="Pg_080" title="Pg_080">[80]</a></span>pottery, a few implements of copper and many of +flint. Among the ornaments which the dead +carried—for they seem to have been buried in +complete costume—were several axe-shaped pendants +of polished stone, precisely similar to those +of Sardinia, Malta, and France. The most important +cemeteries of this period are those of +Castelluccio, Melilli, and Monteracello. Near +this last site was also found a round hut based +on a course of orthostatic slabs of typically +megalithic appearance.</p> + +<p>In the full bronze age, called the Second Siculan +Period, burial in rock-tombs still remained the +rule. The tomb-form had developed considerably. +The circular type was still usual, though beside +it a rectangular form was fast coming into favour. +The main chamber often had side-niches, and was +usually preceded by a corridor which sometimes +passed through an antechamber. Occasionally +we find an elaborate open-air court outside the +façade of the tomb, built very much after the +megalithic style. Large vertical surfaces of rock +were carefully sought after for tombs, and the +almost inaccessible cliffs of Pantalica and Cassibile +are literally honeycombed with them. Where +such surfaces of rock were unobtainable a vertical +shaft was sunk in the level rock and a chamber +was opened off the bottom of it. The tradition +of the banquet of the dead is still kept up, but the +number of the skeletons in each tomb steadily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_081" id="Pg_081" title="Pg_081">[81]</a></span>decreases. The sitting posture is still frequent, +though occasionally the body lies flat on one side +with the legs slightly contracted. Flint is now +rare, but objects of bronze are plentiful. The +local painted pottery has almost entirely given +place to simpler yet better wares with occasional +Mycenean importations.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to decide whether this Sicilian +civilization ought to be included under the term +megalithic. If, as seems probable, the idea of +megalithic building was brought to Europe by +the immigration of a new race it is possible that +a branch of this race entered Sicily. In that case +I should prefer to think that they came not at +the beginning of the First Siculan Period as we +know it, but rather earlier. Certain vases found +with neolithic burials in a cave at Villafrati and +elsewhere in Sicily resemble the pottery usually +found in megalithic tombs; one of them is in fact +a bell-shaped cup, a form typical of megalithic +pottery. It is thus possible that an immigration +of megalithic people into Sicily took place during +the stone age, definitely later than the period of +the earliest neolithic remains on the island, but +earlier than that of such sites as the Castelluccio +cemetery. This, however, is and will perhaps +remain a mere conjecture, though it is quite +possible that there are in the interior of Sicily +dolmens which have not yet come to the notice +of the archæologist; in this connection it is worth +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_082" id="Pg_082" title="Pg_082">[82]</a></span>while to remember that up to five years ago the +existence of dolmens in both Sardinia and Malta +passed unnoticed.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>If the inclusion of Sicily in the megalithic area +is doubtful there is fortunately no question about +the island of Sardinia. Here we have one of the +chief strongholds of the megalithic civilization, +where the architecture displays its greatest +variety and flexibility. The simplest manifestation +of megalithic building, the dolmen, was up +till lately thought to be absent from Sardinia, +but the researches of the last few years have +brought to light several examples, of which the +best known are those of Birori, where the chamber +is approximately circular in plan.</p> + +<p>The monuments, however, for which Sardinia +is most famous are the <i>nuraghi.</i> A <i>nuraghe</i> is a +tower-like structure of truncated conical form, +built of large stones laid in comparatively regular +courses (Pl. II, Fig. 2). The stones are often +artificially squared, and set with a clay mortar. +The plan and arrangement of a simple <i>nuraghe</i> +are usually as follows (Fig. 17): The diameter +of the building is generally under 30 feet. A door +of barely comfortable height even for an average +man and surmounted by a single lintel-block +gives access to a narrow passage cut through the +thickness of the wall. In this passage are, to the +right, a small niche (<i>c</i>) just large enough to hold</p> + + +<!-- Plate 2a --> + +<div><a name="plate_2a" id="plate_2a"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/plate_02a.jpg" width="600" height="656" alt="Plate_2a" title="Plate 2a" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate II, Fig. 1.</b></span> +<b>Mnaidra, Doorway of Room H</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + +<!-- Plate 2b --> + +<div><a name="plate_2b" id="plate_2b"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/plate_02b.jpg" width="600" height="600" alt="Plate_2b" title="Plate 2b" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate"> +<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate II, Fig. 2. The Nuraghe of Madrone in Sardinia</b></span><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="photo_left"></td><td class="photo_attribution">To face p. 82</td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_083" id="Pg_083" title="Pg_083">[83]</a></span></div> + +<!-- Figure 17 --> + +<div><a name="figure_17" id="figure_17"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_17.png" width="266" height="700" alt="figure_17" title="Figure 17" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="266" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 17.</b></span> +<b>Elevation, section and plan of a <i>nuraghe</i>.<br /> +(Pinza, <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_084" id="Pg_084" title="Pg_084">[84]</a></span>a man, and, on the left, a winding staircase in +the wall (<i>d</i>) leading to an upper storey. The +passage itself leads into the chamber (<i>a</i>), which is +circular, often with two or three side-niches (<i>b b</i>), +and roofed by corbelling, i.e. by making each of +the upper courses of stones in its wall project +inwards over the last. The upper chamber, +which is rarely preserved, is similar in form to the lower.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>Considerable speculation has been indulged +in concerning the purpose of the <i>nuraghi</i>. For +many years they were regarded as tombs, a view +which was first combated by Nissardi at the +International Congress in Rome in 1903. Further +exploration since that time has placed it beyond +all doubt that the <i>nuraghi</i> were fortified dwellings. +The form of the building itself is almost conclusive. +The lowness of the door would at once put an +enemy at a disadvantage in attempting to enter; +it is significant that in the <i>nuraghe</i> of Su Cadalanu, +where the doorway was over 6 feet in height, its +breadth was so much reduced that it was necessary +to enter sideways. Arrangements were made +for the closing of the entrance from inside by a +heavy slab of stone, often fitted into grooves. +The niche on the right of the passage clearly +served to hold a man, who would command the +passage itself and the staircase to the upper floor; +he would, moreover, be able to attack the undefended +flank of an enemy entering with his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_085" id="Pg_085" title="Pg_085">[85]</a></span>shield on his left arm. To the same effort at +impregnability we may safely ascribe the fact +that the staircase leading to the upper room did +not begin on the floor-level of the passage, but +was reached through a hole high up in the wall. +Many of the <i>nuraghi</i> are surrounded by elaborate +fortifications consisting of walls, towers, and +bastions, sometimes built at the same time as the +dwelling itself, sometimes added later. Those of +Aiga, Losa, and s'Aspru are among the most +famous of this type. All the <i>nuraghi</i> stand in +commanding situations overlooking large tracts +of country, and the more important a position is +from the strategical point of view the stronger +will be the <i>nuraghe</i> which defends it. All are +situated close to streams and springs of good +water, and some, as for instance that of Abbameiga, +are actually built over a natural spring. At +Nossiu is a building which can only be described +as a fortress. It consists of a rhomboidal enclosure +with <i>nuraghe</i>-like towers at its corners +and four narrow gateways in its walls. It is +surrounded by the ruins of a village of stone huts. +There cannot be the least doubt that in time of +danger the inhabitants drove their cattle into the +fortified enclosure, entered it themselves, and +then closed the gates.</p> + +<p>Each <i>nuraghe</i> formed the centre of a group of +stone huts. Mackenzie has described such a +village at Serucci, where the circular plan of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_086" id="Pg_086" title="Pg_086">[86]</a></span>huts was still visible. The walls in one case stood +high enough to show, from the corbelling of their +upper courses, that the huts were roofed in the +same fashion as the <i>nuraghi</i> themselves. Another +village, that which surrounds the <i>nuraghe</i> of Su +Chiai, was protected by a wall of huge stones.</p> + +<p>It is thus clear that the <i>nuraghi</i> were the +fortified centres of the various villages of Sardinia. +Probably each formed the residence of the local +chieftain; that they were actually inhabited is +clear from the remains of everyday life found in +them, and from the polish which continual use +has set on the side-walls of some of the staircases. +In general appearance and design the <i>nuraghi</i> +recall the modern <i>truddhi</i>, hundreds of which dot +the surface of Apulia and help to beguile the +tedium of the railway journey from Brindisi to +Foggia. The <i>truddhi</i>, however, are built in steps +or terraces and have no upper chamber.</p> + +<p>Who were the foes against whom such elaborate +preparations for defence were made? Two +alternatives are possible. Either Sardinia was a +continual prey to some piratical Mediterranean +people, or she was divided against herself through +the rivalry of the local chieftains.</p> + +<p>The second explanation is perhaps the more +probable. Mackenzie seems to adopt it, and fancies +that in the growth of the largest <i>nuraghi</i> we may +trace the rise to power of some of these local +dynasts at the expense of their neighbours. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_087" id="Pg_087" title="Pg_087">[87]</a></span>suggests that the existence of the fortified enclosure +of Nossiu, where there is no sign of a true +<i>nuraghe</i>, may mean that there were certain +communities which succeeded in maintaining +their independence in the face of these powerful +rulers. But here, as he himself is the first to +admit, we are in the realm of pure conjecture.<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 18 --> + +<div><a name="figure_18" id="figure_18"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_18.png" width="600" height="547" alt="figure_18" title="Figure 18" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 18.</b></span> +<b>Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia.<br /> +(Mackenzie, <i>Papers of the British School of Rome</i>, V.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>It is now established that in the Giants' Tombs +of Sardinia we are to see the graves of the inhabitants +of the <i>nuraghe</i> villages. Every Giant's +Tomb lies close to such a village, and almost every +village has its Giants' Tombs, one or more in +number according to its size. A Giant's Tomb +consists of a long rectangular chamber of upright +slabs roofed by corbelled masonry (Fig. 18). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_088" id="Pg_088" title="Pg_088">[88]</a></span>The slab which closes one end of the tomb is of +great size, and consists of a lower rectangular +half with a small hole at the base and an upper +part shaped like a rounded gable. There is a +raised border to the whole slab, and a similar +band in relief marks out the two halves. This +front slab forms the centre-piece in a curved +façade of upright slabs. The chamber is covered +with a coating of ashlar masonry, which is shaped +into an apsidal form at the end opposite to the +façade. Occasionally more than 50 feet in length, +the Giants' Tombs served as graves for whole +families, or even for whole villages. Mackenzie +has shown that the form is derived from the +simple dolmen, and has pointed out several of +the intermediate stages.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of Sardinia in the megalithic +period also buried their dead in rock-hewn sepulchres, +of which there are numerous examples at +Anghelu Ruju. The contents of these graves +make it clear that they are the work of the same +people as the Giants' Graves. Were further proof +needed it could be afforded by a grave at Molafà, +where a Giant's Grave with its façade and gabled +slab has been faithfully imitated in the solid rock. +There is a similar tomb at St. George. Two +natural caves in Cape Sant' Elia on the south of +the island contain burials of this same period.</p> + +<p>The neighbouring island of Corsica also contains +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_089" id="Pg_089" title="Pg_089">[89]</a></span>important megalithic remains. They consist of +thirteen dolmens, forty-one menhirs, two <i>alignements</i>, +and a cromlech. They fall geographically +into two groups, one in the extreme north and the +other in the extreme south of the island.</p> + +<p>The stones used are chiefly granite and gneiss. +The dolmens, which are of carefully chosen flat +blocks showing no trace of work, are all rectangular +in plan, and usually consist of four side-walls and +a cover-slab. The finest of all, however, the dolmen +of Fontanaccia, has seven blocks supporting +the cover, one at each short end, three in one of the +long sides, and two in the other. None of the +dolmens are covered by mounds.</p> + +<p>Of the <i>alignements</i>, that of Caouria seems to +consist, in part at least, of two parallel lines of +menhirs, the rest of the plan being uncertain. +There are still thirty-two blocks, of which six +have fallen. The other <i>alignement</i>, that of Rinaiou, +consists of seven menhirs set in a straight line. +The cromlech is circular and stands on Cape Corse.</p> + +<p>On the small island of Pianosa, near Elba, are +several rock-hewn tombs of the æneolithic period +which ought perhaps to be classed with the +megalithic monuments of Sardinia and Corsica.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_090" id="Pg_090" title="Pg_090">[90]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER<br />MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>North Africa is a great stronghold of the +megalithic civilization, indeed it is thought +by some that it is the area in which megalithic +building originated. Morocco, Tunis, Algeria, and +Tripoli all abound in dolmens and other monuments. +Even in the Nile Valley they occur, for +what looks like a dolmen surrounded by a circle +was discovered by de Morgan in the desert near +Edfu, and Wilson and Felkin describe a number +of simple dolmens which exist near Ladò in the +Sudan. Tripoli remains as yet comparatively +unexplored. The traveller Barth speaks of stone +circles near Mourzouk and near the town of +Tripoli. The great trilithons (<i>senams</i>) with holes +pierced in their uprights and 'altar tables' at +their base, which Barth, followed by Cooper in +his <i>Hill of the Graces</i>, described as megalithic +monuments, have been shown to be nothing +more than olive-presses, the 'altar tables' being +the slabs over which the oil ran off as it descended. +True dolmens do, however, occur in Tripoli, and +Cooper figures a fine monument at Messa in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_091" id="Pg_091" title="Pg_091">[91]</a></span>Cyrenaica, which appears to consist of a single +straight line of tall uprights with a continuous +entablature of blocks similar to that of the outer +circle at Stonehenge.</p> + +<p>Algeria has been far more completely explored, +and possesses a remarkable number of megalithic +monuments. Many of the finest are situated near +the town of Constantine. Thus at Bou Nouara +there is a hill about a mile in length which is a +regular necropolis of dolmen-tombs. Each grave +consists of a dolmen within a circle of stones. +The blocks are all natural and completely unworked. +The circle consists of a wall of stone +blocks so built as to neutralize the slope of the +hill and to form a level platform for the dolmen. +Thus on the lower side there are three courses of +carefully laid stones rising to about five feet, +while on the upper side there is only one course. +The diameter of the circles varies from 22 to 33 +feet. In the centre of the circle lies the dolmen +with its single long cover-slab. This usually +rests on two entire side-slabs, the ends being filled +up either with entire slabs or with masonry of +small stones. In rare cases the side-slabs are +replaced by masonry walls. The average size of +the cover-slab is 6½ by 5 feet. The dolmen itself +is, of course, built directly on to the platform, +and the space between it and the circle is filled +up with rough stones. The orientation of the +dolmens varied considerably, but the cover-slab +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_092" id="Pg_092" title="Pg_092">[92]</a></span>was never placed in such a way that its length ran +up the hill-slope, probably because in moving the +slab into place this would have been an awkward position.</p> + +<p>Another equally fine site is that of Bou Merzoug, +near Oulad Rahmoun, about an hour's railway +journey from Constantine. The place is naturally +adapted for a settlement as there is a spring of +water there. This spring was later utilized by the +Romans to provide water for the city of Cirta. +The dolmen-graves lie in great numbers on the +hill at the foot of which the spring rises, and +extend down into the valley. Each dolmen lies +in the centre of a stone circle. This last is in +some cases formed by very large slabs set on edge, +but more often by two or three courses of rough +oblong blocks. Many of the graves are badly +damaged. One of the finest had an outer circle +about 27 feet in diameter, and an inner circle +14 feet in diameter. Between these two a third +circle, much more irregular and of small stones, +could just be distinguished. But in most cases +it was impossible to make out clearly more than +the one outer circle and the dolmen within it. +The dolmen itself consisted of a large slab resting +on walls formed of several large blocks, the spaces +between which were filled up with smaller stones. +None of the stones used were worked. The dolmens +were not oriented according to any fixed +system. M. Féraud states that the separate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_093" id="Pg_093" title="Pg_093">[93]</a></span>graves were united together by open corridors +formed by double or triple rows of large stones, +but no traces of such a system could be found by +the later visitors to the site, Messrs. MacIver and +Wilkin.</p> + +<p>Fortunately we have some record of what +these graves contained, for thirteen were opened +by Mr. Christy and M. Féraud. One contained a +human skeleton in good condition, buried in the +contracted position with the knees to chin and +arms crossed. With this were two whole vases, +fragments of others, and pieces of cedar wood. +At the feet of the skeleton were two human heads, +and as the graves would not have accommodated +more than one whole body M. Féraud suggests +that these belong to decapitated victims. Another +grave contained, in addition to human bones, +those of a horse, together with three objects of +copper, viz. a ring, an earring, and a buckle. In +another were found the teeth and bones of a +horse and an iron bit.</p> + +<p>An entirely different type of monument is +found near Msila, south-west of Algiers. Here +is a long low hill called the Senâm, covered with +large numbers of stone circles. These consist of +large slabs of natural limestone set up on edge +and not very closely fitted. The height of the +slabs varies from 2 to 3 feet, and the diameters +of the three still perfect circles are 23½, 26¾, and +34⅓ feet respectively. At a point roughly south-east +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_094" id="Pg_094" title="Pg_094">[94]</a></span>there is a break in the circumference, filled +by a rectangular niche (Fig. 19) consisting of +three large slabs, and varying in width from 2 ft. +6 in. to 6 feet. There is a possibility that the +niches were originally roofed, but the evidence +on this point is far from conclusive. The interior +of the circle is filled with blocks of stone, apparently +heaped up without any definite plan. +There seems to be no clue as to the meaning of +these circles, as none have as yet been explored. +MacIver and Wilkin are probably right in classing +them as graves.</p> + + +<!-- Figure 19 --> + +<div><a name="figure_19" id="figure_19"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_19.png" width="600" height="614" alt="figure_19" title="Figure 19" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 19.</b></span> +<b>Stone circle at the Senâm, Algeria.<br /> +(After MacIver and Wilkin).</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>The most famous, however, of the Algerian +sites is unquestionably that of Roknia. Here the +tombs lie on the side of a steep hill. They consist +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_095" id="Pg_095" title="Pg_095">[95]</a></span>of dolmens often surrounded by stone circles +from 25 to 33 feet in diameter. The cover-slabs +of the dolmens usually rest on single uprights, +and never on built walls. Several of the graves +excavated contained more than one body, one +yielding as many as seven. It is remarkable that +three of the skulls showed wounds, the dead having +been apparently killed in battle. Several vases +have been found and a few pieces of bronze.</p> + +<p>We have seen that in some of the tombs of Bou +Merzoug objects of iron were found. This makes +it clear that some at least of the Algerian tombs +belong to the iron age, i.e. that they are probably +later than 1000 B.C., but beyond this we cannot go. +The medal of Faustina sometimes quoted as +evidence for a very late date proves nothing, as +it is not stated to have been found in a tomb. +There is no evidence to show how far back the +graves go. It may be that, as MacIver and Wilkin +suggest, the parts of the cemeteries excavated +chance to be the latest. At Bou Merzoug the +excavators worked chiefly among the graves on +the plain and at the bottom of the hill. The more +closely crowded graves which lie on the hill itself +may well be older than these. In fact, all that +may be said of the Algerian graves is that some +are of the iron age, while others may be and +probably are earlier.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>In Tunis the dolmen is not uncommon, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_096" id="Pg_096" title="Pg_096">[96]</a></span>several groups or cemeteries have been reported. +Near Ellez occurs a type of corridor-tomb in which +three dolmen-like chambers lie on either side of a +central passage, and a seventh at the end opposite +to the entrance. The whole is constructed of +upright slabs of stone, and is surrounded by a +circle formed in the same way.</p> + +<p>Morocco, too, has its dolmens, especially in the +district of Kabylia, while near Tangier there is a +stone circle.</p> + +<p>Off the north coast of Africa, and thus on the +highway which leads from Africa to Europe, lie +the Italian islands of Lampedusa and Linosa. The +latter is volcanic in origin, and its surface presents +no opportunity for the building of megalithic monuments. +Lampedusa, on the other hand, consists +of limestone, which lies about in great blocks on +its surface. On the slopes of the south coast there +are several remains of megalithic construction, +but they are too damaged to show much of their +original form. However, on the north side of the +island there are megalithic huts in a very fair +state of preservation. They are oval in form and +have in many cases a base course of orthostatic slabs.</p> + +<p>Some miles to the north of Linosa lies the much +larger volcanic island of Pantelleria, also a possession +of Italy. Here megalithic remains both of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_097" id="Pg_097" title="Pg_097">[97]</a></span>dwellings and of tombs have been found. On the +plateau of the Mursia are the remains of rectangular +huts made of rough blocks of stone. +These huts seemed to have formed a village, +which was surrounded by a wall for purposes of +defence. In the huts were found implements of +obsidian and flat stones used for grinding.<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 20 --> + +<div><a name="figure_20" id="figure_20"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_20.png" width="600" height="527" alt="figure_20" title="Figure 20" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 20.</b></span> +<b> Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria.<br /> +(Orsi, <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, IX.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>The tombs of the people who inhabited this +village are, unlike the houses, circular or elliptical +in form. They are locally known as <i>sesi.</i> The +smaller are of truncated conical shape, the circular +chamber being entered by a low door and having +a corbelled roof. In one of the <i>sesi</i> a skeleton was +found buried in the contracted position. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_098" id="Pg_098" title="Pg_098">[98]</a></span>finest of the tombs, known as the Sese Grande, +elliptical in form (Fig. 20), has a major diameter +of more than 60 feet, and rises in ridges, being +domed at the top. It contains not one chamber, +but twelve, each of which has a separate entrance +from the outside of the <i>sese.</i> To judge by the +remains found in the <i>sesi</i> they belong entirely to +the neolithic period.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The island of Malta as seen to-day is an almost +treeless, though not unfertile, stretch of rock, +with a harbour on the north coast which must +always make the place a necessary possession to +the first sea power of Europe. Much of its soil +is of comparatively modern creation, and four +thousand years ago the island may well have had a +forbidding aspect. This is perhaps the reason +why the first great inroads of neolithic man into +the Mediterranean left it quite untouched, although +it lay directly in the path of tribes immigrating +into Europe from Africa. The earliest +neolithic remains of Italy, Crete, and the Ægean +seem to have no parallel in Malta, and the first +inhabitants of whom we find traces in the island +were builders of megalithic monuments. Small +as Malta is it contains some of the grandest and +most important structures of this kind ever erected. +The two greatest of these, the so-called "Phoenician +temples" of Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra, were +constructed on opposite sides of one of the southern</p> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_099" id="Pg_099" title="Pg_099">[99]</a></span></div> + +<!-- Figure 21 --> + +<div><a name="figure_21" id="figure_21"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_21.png" width="600" height="395" alt="figure_21" title="Figure 21" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 21.</b></span> +<b>Plan of the megalithic sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta.<br /> +(After Albert Mayr's plan.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_100" id="Pg_100" title="Pg_100">[100]</a></span>valleys, each within sight of the other and of the +little rocky island of Filfla.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>The temple of Mnaidra is the simpler of the +two in plan (Fig. 21). It consists of two halves, +the more northerly of which was almost certainly +built later than the other. Each half consists of +two elliptical chambers set one behind the other. +The south half is the better preserved. It has a +concave façade of large orthostatic slabs with +horizontal blocks set in front of them to keep +them in position. In the centre of this opens a +short paved passage formed of fine upright slabs +of stone, one of which is 13 feet in height. The +first elliptical chamber (<i>E</i>) into which this passage +leads us has a length of 45 feet. Its walls (Pl. III) +consist of roughly squared orthostatic slabs over +6 feet in height, above which are several courses +of horizontal blocks which carry the walls in +places up to a height of nearly 14 feet. This +combination of vertical and horizontal masonry +is typical of all the Maltese temples. To the left +of the entrance is a rectangular niche in the wall +containing one of the remarkable trilithons (<i>a</i>) +which form so striking a feature of Mnaidra and +Hagiar Kim. It consists of a horizontal slab of +stone nearly 10 feet in length, supported at its +ends by two vertical slabs about 5 feet high. To +the right of the entrance is a window-like opening +(<i>b</i>, behind the seated figure in Pl. III) in one of +the slabs of the wall, preceded by two steps and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_101" id="Pg_101" title="Pg_101">[101]</a></span>giving access to an irregular triangular space (<i>F</i>). +In the north-west angle of this triangle is fixed +a trilithon table (<i>c</i>) of the usual type, 32 inches +high; at a like height above the table is fixed +another horizontal slab which serves as a roof to +the corner. The south corner of the triangle is +shut off by a vertical slab, in which is cut a window +29 inches by 17. Through this is seen a shrine (?) +consisting of a box (<i>d</i>) made of five well-cut slabs +of stone, the front being open. The aperture by +which <i>F</i> is entered was evidently intended to be +closed with a slab of stone from the inside of <i>F</i>, +for it was rebated on that side, and there are holes +to be used in securing the slab. When the entrance +was thus blocked <i>F</i> still communicated with <i>E</i> +by means of a small rectangular window 16 inches +by 12 in one of the adjacent slabs (visible in Pl. III).<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Plate 3 --> + +<div><a name="plate_3" id="plate_3"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/plate_03.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="Plate_3" title="Plate 3" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate"> +<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of Chief Room</b></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="photo_left"><b>Plate III</b></td><td class="photo_attribution">To face p. 100</td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + +<p>Returning to the area <i>E</i> we find in the south-west +wall an elaborate doorway (Pl. II, Fig. I, +p. 82) leading to a rectangular room <i>H</i>. The +doorway consists of two tall pillars with a great +lintel laid across the top. The space between +the pillars is closed by a fixed vertical slab in +which is a window-like aperture similar to that +which gives access to Room <i>F</i>. All the stones +in this doorway are ornamented with pit-marks. +The rectangular room <i>H</i> has niches in its walls +to the north, south, and west. Each niche is +formed by a pair of uprights with a block laid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_102" id="Pg_102" title="Pg_102">[102]</a></span>across the top. The west niche is occupied by a +horizontal table or slab (<i>e</i>) supported at its centre +by a stone pillar 39 inches in height, of circular +section narrowing in the centre (visible through +the doorway in Pl. II, Fig. I). The southern +niche contains an ordinary trilithon table (<i>f</i>): +the northern niche is damaged, but apparently +held a table like that of the western.</p> + +<p>The area <i>I</i> consists of only half an ellipse, the +southern half being replaced by the area <i>H</i>, which +we have already described. It has a rectangular +niche to the west containing a fine trilithon with +a cover-slab nearly 10 feet long.</p> + +<p>The whole of the southern half of the Mnaidra +temple is surrounded by a wall of huge rough +blocks of stone, presenting a great contrast to +the dressed slabs of which the inner walls are +formed. They are placed alternately with their +broad faces and their narrow edges outwards. +The roughness of this enclosure wall gives the +structure a remarkably wild and craggy appearance +from a distance. The northern half of Mnaidra +is clearly a later addition.</p> + +<p>There is no doubt as to the way in which the +areas were roofed. In the apse-like ends of the +elliptical rooms the horizontal courses are corbelled, +i.e. each course projects slightly forward +over the last. Thus the space narrows as the +walls rise, until the aperture is small enough to +be roofed by great slabs laid across. The corbelling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_103" id="Pg_103" title="Pg_103">[103]</a></span>of the apse is just perceptible in Pl. III. +Whether the roofing of the Mnaidra temple was +ever complete it is impossible to say: in any case +the system we have described could only be applied +to the apsidal portions of the areas, and their +centres must either have been open to the sky +or roofed quite simply with slabs.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>In the still more famous temple of Hagiar Kim +we have a complicated building, in which the +original plan has been much altered and enlarged. +The main portion doubtless consisted originally +of a curved façade and a pair of elliptical areas, +the inner of which has been fitted with a second +entrance to the north-west and completely remodelled +at its south-west end. Four elliptical +chambers, one of which is at a much higher level +than the rest of the building, have been added. +Here, too, as at Mnaidra, we find niches containing +trilithon tables. In the first elliptical area, in which +the apsidal ends are divided from the central space +by means of walls of vertical slabs, a remarkable +group of objects was found. In front of a well-cut +vertical block stood what must be an altar, cut +in one piece of stone. It is square in section +except for the top, which is circular. On the four +vertical edges are pilasters in relief, and in the +front between these is cut in relief what looks +like a plant growing out of a pot or box. To the +left of the altar and the vertical slab behind were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_104" id="Pg_104" title="Pg_104">[104]</a></span>an upright stone with two hanging spirals cut on +it in relief, and at its foot a horizontal slab. Both +the altar and the carved stone are covered with +small pit-marks.</p> + +<p>In the outside wall of the building, quite unconnected +with the interior, is a niche partly +restored on old foundations, in which stands a +rough stone pillar 6½ feet high. In front of this +pillar is a vertical slab nearly 3 feet high, narrowing +towards the base, and covered with pit-markings. +This pillar can hardly be anything but a baetyl, +or sacred stone.</p> + +<p>The temple called the Gigantia, on the island +of Gozo, is no less remarkable than the two which +we have already described; in one place its wall +is preserved up to a height of over 20 feet. The +plan is similar to that of Mnaidra, though here +the two halves seem to have been built at one and +the same time. Several of the blocks show a +design of spirals in relief, while on others there are +the usual pit-markings. Another bears a figure +of a fish or serpent. At the foot of one of the +trilithons was found a baetyl 51 inches in height, +now in the museum at Valletta.</p> + +<p>That these three buildings were sanctuaries of +some kind seems almost certain from their form +and arrangement. We do not, however, know +what was the exact nature of the worship carried +on in them, though there can be no doubt that +the stone tables supported by single pillars and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_105" id="Pg_105" title="Pg_105">[105]</a></span>the trilithons found in the niches played an +important part in the ritual. Sir Arthur Evans +in his famous article <i>Mycenæan Tree and Pillar +Cult</i> has suggested that in Malta we have a cult +similar to that seen in the Mycenæan world. +This latter was an aneiconic worship developed +out of the cult of the dead; in it the deity or hero +was represented by a baetyl, i.e. a tree or pillar +sometimes standing free, sometimes placed in a +'dolmen-like' cell or shrine, in which latter case +the pillar often served to support the roof of the +shrine. In Malta Sir Arthur Evans sees signs of +a baetyl-worship very similar to this. Thus at +Hagiar Kim we have a pillar still standing free +in a niche, and another pillar, which, to judge +from its shape, must have stood free, was found +in the Gigantia. On the other hand, at Mnaidra +we have pillars which support slabs in a cell or +shrine, and at Cordin several small pillars were +found which must originally have served a similar +purpose.</p> + +<p>There can hardly be any doubt that Sir Arthur +Evans is right in seeing in the Maltese temples +signs of a baetylic worship. But is he right in his +further assertion that the cult was a cult of the +dead? Albert Mayr assumes that he is, and +endeavours to show that the 'dolmen-like' cells +in the niches are not altars, but stereotyped +representations of the dolmen-tombs of the +heroes worshipped. He thinks that the slabs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_106" id="Pg_106" title="Pg_106">[106]</a></span>which cover them are too large for altar-tables, +and that the niches in which they stand are too +narrow and inaccessible to have been the scene +of sacrificial rites. Neither of these arguments +has much force, nor is it easy to see how the cells +are derived from dolmens. The fact is that the +word 'dolmen-like,' which has become current +coin in archæological phraseology, is a question-begging +epithet. The Maltese cells are not like +dolmens at all, they are either trilithons or tables +resting on a pillar. They are always open to the +front, and instead of the rough unhewn block +which should cover a dolmen they are roofed with +a well-squared slab. If the pillar which supports +the slab is, like the free-standing pillars, a baetyl, +the slab is probably a mere roof to cover and +protect it; if not, the slab is almost certainly a table.</p> + +<p>At the same time, although we may not accept +the hypothesis that the cell is derived from a +dolmen, Sir Arthur Evans may still be right in +supposing the worship to have originated in a +cult of the dead. But he was almost certainly +wrong, as recent excavation has shown, in supposing +that the cells were the actual burial place +of the deified heroes.</p> + +<p>A number of statuettes were found at Hagiar +Kim, two of which are of pottery and the rest of +limestone. One figure represents a woman +standing, but in the rest she is seated on a rather +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_107" id="Pg_107" title="Pg_107">[107]</a></span>low stool with her feet tucked under her. There +is no sign of clothing, except on one figure which +shows a long shirt and a plain bodice with very +low neck. All these statuettes are characterized +by what is known as steatopygy, that is, the over-development +of the fat which lies on and behind the hips and thighs.</p> + +<p>Steatopygous figures have been found in many +places, viz. France, Malta, Crete, the Cyclades, +Greece, Thessaly, Servia, Transylvania, Poland, +Egypt, and the Italian colony of Eritrea on the +Red Sea. The French examples are from caves +of the palæolithic period; the rest mainly belong +to the neolithic and bronze ages. Various reasons +have been given for the abnormal appearance of +these figures. In the first place it has been suggested +that they represent women of a steatopygous +type, like the modern Bushwomen, and that this +race was in early days widely diffused in the +Mediterranean and in South Europe. Another +hypothesis is that they represent not a truly +steatopygous type of women, but only an abnormally +fat type. A third suggestion is that they +portray the generative aspect of nature in the +form of a pregnant goddess.</p> + +<p>Naturally there are considerable local differences +in the shapes of the figures from the various +countries we have enumerated, and it may +be that no single hypothesis will explain them all.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_108" id="Pg_108" title="Pg_108">[108]</a></span>There are other megalithic buildings in Malta +besides the three which we have discussed, but +none of them call for more than passing mention. +On the heights of Cordin or Corradino, overlooking +the Grand Harbour of Valletta, there are no less +than three groups, all of which have been lately +excavated. In all three we see signs of the typical +arrangement of elliptical areas one behind another, +and in the finest of the three the curved façade +and the paved court which lies before it are still +preserved.</p> + +<p>It was for a long time believed that there were +no dolmens in Malta. Professor Tagliaferro has +been able to upset this belief by discovering two, +one near Musta and the other near Siggewi. It +is hardly credible that these are the only two +dolmens which ever existed in Malta. More will +no doubt yet be found, especially in the wild +north-west corner of the isle.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The megalithic builders of Malta did not confine +their achievements to structures above ground, +they could also work with equal facility below. +In the village of Casal Paula, which lies about a +mile from the head of the Grand Harbour of +Valletta, is a wonderful complex of subterranean +chambers known as the Hypogeum of Halsaflieni, +which may justly be considered as one of the +wonders of the world.</p> + +<p>The chambers, which seem to follow no definite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_109" id="Pg_109" title="Pg_109">[109]</a></span>plan, are excavated in the soft limestone and +arranged in two storeys connected by a staircase, +part of which still remains in place. The finest +rooms are in the upper storey. The largest is +circular, and contains in its walls a series of false +doors and windows. It is in this room that the +remarkable nature of the work in the hypogeum is +most apparent. On entering it one sees at once +that the intention of the original excavator was +to produce in solid rock underground a copy of a +megalithic structure above ground. Thus the +walls curve slightly inwards towards the top as +do those of the apses of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, +and the ceiling is cut to represent a roof of great +blocks laid across from wall to wall with a space +left open in the centre where the width would be +too great for the length of the stones. The treatment +of the doors and windows recalls at once that +of the temples above ground. The mason was +not content, when he needed a door, to cut a +rectangular opening in the rock; he must represent +in high relief the monolithic side-posts and +lintel which were the great features of the megalithic +'temples' of Malta. Nor has he failed in +his intention, for, as one moves from room to +room in the hypogeum, one certainly has the +feeling of being in a building constructed of +separate blocks and not merely cut in the solid +rock. No description can do justice to the grace +of the curves and the flow of the line in the circular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_110" id="Pg_110" title="Pg_110">[110]</a></span>chamber and in the passage beyond it, and we +have here the work of an architect who felt the +æsthetic effect of every line he traced.</p> + +<p>Behind the circular chamber and across the +passage just referred to lies a small room which, +rightly or wrongly, has been called the 'Holy of +Holies,' the idea being that it formed a kind of +inner sanctuary to the chamber. It contains a +rough shelf cut in the wall, and in the centre of +this a shallow circular pit. It has been suggested +that this pit was made to hold the base of the +cult-object, whether it was a baetyl or an idol. +This, however, is a mere conjecture. In the +passage just outside the door of this room are +two small circular pits about 6 inches in diameter +and the same distance apart. They connect with +one another below, and are closed with tightly +fitting limestone plugs. In one of them was found +a cow's horn. Their purpose is unknown, but +similar pairs of pits occur elsewhere at Halsaflieni.</p> + +<p>In two of the largest chambers in the hypogeum +the roof and walls are still decorated with designs +in red paint. The patterns consist of graceful +combinations of curved lines and spirals. Many +other rooms, including the circular chamber, +were originally painted with designs in red, which +have now almost wholly disappeared.</p> + +<p>Many of the chambers are extremely small, +too small for an adult even to stand upright +in them, and their entrances are merely windows, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_111" id="Pg_111" title="Pg_111">[111]</a></span>perhaps a foot square and well above the ground.</p> + +<p>What then was the purpose of this wonderful +complex of rooms? Before attempting to answer +this question we must consider what has been +found in them. When the museum authorities +first took over the hypogeum practically all the +chambers were filled to within a short distance of +their roofs with a mass of reddish soil, which proved +to contain the remains of thousands of human +skeletons. In other words, Halsaflieni was used as +a burial place, though this may not have been its +original purpose. The bones lay for the most part +in disorder, and so thickly that in a space of about +4 cubic yards lay the remains of no less than 120 +individuals. One skeleton, however, was found +intact, lying on the right side in the crouched +position, i.e. with arms and knees bent up.</p> + +<p>With the bones were found enormous quantities +of pottery and other objects, buried with the dead +as provision for the next world. The pottery is +rough in comparison with the fine painted wares +of Crete, but it is extremely varied in its decoration. +One particularly fine bowl shows a series +of animals which have been identified by Professor +Tagliaferro as the long-horned buffalo, an +animal which once existed on the northern coasts +of Africa. Ornaments of all kinds were common, +and include beads, pendants, and conical buttons +of stone and shell. The most remarkable of all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_112" id="Pg_112" title="Pg_112">[112]</a></span>are a large number of model celts made of jadeite +and other hard stones. These are of the same +shape as the stone axes used by neolithic man, +but they are far too small ever to have been used, +and they must therefore have been models hung +round the neck as amulets. Each is provided +with a small hole for this purpose. The popularity +of the axe-amulet makes it probable that the axe +had some religious significance.</p> + +<p>Finally Halsaflieni has yielded several steatopygous +figurines. Some of these resemble those of +Hagiar Kim, but two are of rather different type. +Each of these represents a female lying on a rather +low couch. In the better preserved of the two +she lies on her right side, her head on a small +uncomfortable-looking pillow. The upper part +of her body is naked, but from the waist downwards +she is clad in a flounced skirt which reaches +to the ankles. The other figurine is very similar, +but the woman here is face downwards on the couch.</p> + +<p>The bodies themselves were so damaged with +damp that only ten skulls could be saved whole. +These, however, afford very valuable anthropological +evidence. They have been carefully +measured by Dr. Zammit, and they prove to +belong to a long-headed (dolichocephalic) type +usual among the neolithic races of the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>We have still to discuss the purpose of this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_113" id="Pg_113" title="Pg_113">[113]</a></span>great complex of underground chambers and +passages. It is quite clear that its eventual fate +was to be used as a burial place for thousands of +individuals, but it is far from certain that this +was the purpose for which it was built. The +existence of the central chamber, with its careful +work and laborious imitation of an open-air +'temple,' is against this interpretation. It has +therefore been suggested that the hypogeum was +meant for a burial place, and that the central +chamber was the chapel or sanctuary in which +the funeral rites were performed, after which the +body was buried in one of the smaller rooms. +This, however, does not explain the presence of +burials in the chapel itself, and it is far more likely +that it was only after Halsaflieni had ceased to be +used for its original purpose that it was seized +upon as a convenient place for burial.</p> + +<p>The question of the date of the Maltese megalithic +buildings is a difficult one. It is true that +no metal has been found in them, and that we +can therefore speak of them as belonging to the +neolithic age. But the neolithic age of Malta need +not be parallel in date with that of Crete for +example. It is extremely probable that Malta +lay outside the main currents of civilization, and +that flint continued to be used there long after +copper had been adopted by her more fortunate +neighbours.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_114" id="Pg_114" title="Pg_114">[114]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>THE DOLMENS OF ASIA<br /><br /></h3> + +<p>In the south-east of Europe lie three groups +of dolmens which are no doubt in origin +more closely connected with those of Asia than +with those of the rest of Europe. The first group +lies in Bulgaria, where no less than sixty dolmens +have been found north of Adrianople. The +second consists of a few dolmens which still +remain in the Crimea, and the third lies in the +Caucasus in two divisions, one to the south-east +and the other to the south-west of the town of +Ekaterinodar. These last are made of slabby +rock, and thus have a finished appearance. A +dolmen near Tzarskaya has a small semicircular +hole at the bottom of one of its end-slabs, while +another in the valley of Pehada has sides consisting +of single blocks, placed so as to slant inwards +considerably, and a circular hole in the +centre of the slab which closes one of its ends.</p> + +<p>In Asia megalithic monuments are not infrequent. +We first find them in Syria, they have +been reported from Persia, and in Central and +South India they exist in large numbers. Corridor-tombs +occur in Japan, but they are late in date, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_115" id="Pg_115" title="Pg_115">[115]</a></span>and there is no evidence to show whether they are +connected with those of India or not.<br /><br /></p> + + +<!-- Figure 22 --> + +<div><a name="figure_22" id="figure_22"></a></div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_22.png" width="600" height="400" alt="figure_22" title="Figure 22" /> +</div> + +<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure"> +<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 22.</b></span> +<b>Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat.<br /> +(After de Luynes.)</b> +</td></tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + + +<p>Syria is comparatively rich in megalithic +monuments, but it is remarkable that almost all +of them lie to the east of the Jordan. Thus while +there are hundreds of dolmens in the country of +Pera and in Ammon and Moab, very few have been +found in Galilee, and only one in Judæa, despite +careful search. There is, however, a circle of +stones west of Tiberias, and an enclosure of +menhirs between Tyre and Sidon. According to +Perrot and Chipiez some of the Moabite monuments +are very similar in type to the Giants' +Tombs of Sardinia. Others are simple dolmens. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_116" id="Pg_116" title="Pg_116">[116]</a></span>In a good example at Ala Safat (Fig. 22) the floor +of the tomb is formed by a single flat slab of +stone. The great cover-slab rests on two long +blocks, one on either side, placed on edge. The +narrow ends are closed up with smaller slabs, +one of which, that which faces north, has a small +hole pierced in it. A similar closure slab with a +hole is also found in certain rock-tombs quite +close to this dolmen. Apparently none of these +dolmens have been systematically excavated, and +nothing is known of their date.</p> + +<p>Menhirs, too, are not wanting in Syria. Perrot +and Chipiez figure an example from Gebel-Mousa +in Moab which is quite unworked, except for a +shallow furrow across the centre of the face. In +many cases the menhir is surrounded by one or +more rows of stones. Thus at Der Ghuzaleh a +menhir about 3 feet in height is set in the centre +of what when complete must have been a rectangle. +In other cases the enclosure was elliptical +or circular in form. In an example at Minieh the +menhir stands in the centre of a double (in part +triple) circle of stones, on which abuts an elliptical +enclosure. In some cases the circle has no proper +entrance, in others it has a door consisting of a +large slab resting on two others. The largest of +the circles attains a diameter of 600 feet, and has +a double line of stones.</p> + +<p>Within these circles and near them are found +large numbers of monuments consisting each of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_117" id="Pg_117" title="Pg_117">[117]</a></span>large flat slab resting on two others. On the upper +surface of the top slab are often seen a number of +basin-shaped holes, sometimes connected by furrows. +Many of the slabs are slightly slanting, +and it has been suggested that the series of holes +and furrows was intended for the pouring a +libation of some kind. In a monument of this +type at Ammân the cover-slab slopes considerably; +the upper part of its surface is a network of small +channels converging on a hole 11 inches deep +about the centre of the slab. Here, again, no +excavations have been carried out, and we do +not even know what was the purpose of these +structures. It is, however, probable that these +trilithons were not, like the dolmens, tombs, but +served some religious purpose, possibly connected +with the worship of the menhirs.</p> + +<p>In the Jaulân, where the rock consists of a +slabby type of basalt, there are many dolmens +of fine appearance. They often lie east and west, +and are often broader at the west end. Many are +surrounded by a double circle of stones. In one +of them two copper rings were found. At Ain +Dakkar more than 160 dolmen-tombs are visible +from a single spot. They are built on circular +terraces of earth and stones about 3 feet high. +The Arabs call them Graves of the Children of +Israel. Most of them lie east and west, and are +broader at the west. In the eastern slab there is +often a hole about 2 feet in diameter. Near Tsîl +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_118" id="Pg_118" title="Pg_118">[118]</a></span>are several corridor-tombs of simple type. Each +consists of a long rectangular chamber with only +one cover-slab, that being at the west end. In +a well-known example of this type at Kosseir +there is a hole in one of the two uprights which +support the cover.</p> + +<p>These examples will serve to show the importance +and variety of the Syrian monuments. They +present analogies with those of many parts of the +megalithic area, and we therefore await anxiously +the publication of Mackenzie's promised article on +his own explorations in this district.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The central and southern parts of India afford +numerous examples of dolmens. They are to be +found in almost all parts of Lower India from the +Nerbudda River to Cape Comorin. In the Nilgiri +hills there are stone circles and dolmens, and +numbers of dolmens are said to exist in the +Neermul jungle in Central India. In the collectorate +of Bellary dolmens and other monuments +to the number of 2129 have been recorded. +Others occur in the principality of Sorapoor and +near Vellore in the Madras presidency. These +latter appear to be of two types, either with three +supports only or with four supports, one of which +is pierced with a circular hole. Of the 2200 +dolmens known in the Deccan, half are of this +pierced type. They are known to the natives +as "dwarfs' houses." One only had a pair of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_119" id="Pg_119" title="Pg_119">[119]</a></span>uprights outside the pierced stone, thus forming +a sort of portico to the dolmen. Near Chittore in +North Arcot there is said to be a square mile of +ground covered with these monuments. In them +were found human remains in sarcophagi, and +fragments of black pottery. Several of the Indian +dolmens are said to have contained objects of +iron. Occasionally the dolmen is surrounded by +a double circle of stones or covered with a cairn. +The Deccan, in addition to its numerous dolmens, +possesses also megalithic monuments of another +type. They consist each of two rows, each of +thirteen unworked stones set as close together as +possible, in front of which is a row of three stones, +each about 4 feet high, not let into the ground. +The planted stones were whitewashed, and each +was marked with a large spot of red paint with +black in the centre. These stones seem to have +been in use in modern times. Colonel Forbes +Leslie thinks that a cock had been sacrificed on +one of the three stones which lie in front of the +double row, but there seems to be no certain +evidence for this. It is, however, very probable +that these <i>alignements</i> had some religious signification, +and the same is no doubt true of certain +small circles of small stones, also found in the Deccan.</p> + +<p>The modern inhabitants of the Khasi Hills in +India still make use of megalithic monuments. +They set up a group of an odd number of menhirs, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_120" id="Pg_120" title="Pg_120">[120]</a></span>3, 5, 7, 9, or 11, and in front of these two structures +of dolmen form. These are raised in honour of +some important member of the tribe who has +died, and whose spirit is thought to have done +some good to the tribe. If the benefits continue +it is usual to increase the number of menhirs.</p> + +<p>The earliest burials in Japan are marked by +simple mounds of earth. It was not until the +beginning of the iron age that megalithic tombs +came into use. The true dolmen is not found in +Japan, and all the known graves are corridor-tombs +covered with a mound. They are of four +types. First, we have a simple corridor with no +separate chamber; secondly, a corridor broadening +out at one side near the end; thirdly, a true +chamber with a corridor of access; and fourthly, a +type in which the corridor is preceded by an antechamber. +All four types occur in rough unworked +stone, roofed with huge slabs, but a few examples +of the third type are made of well-cut and dressed +blocks. The mounds are usually conical, though +some are of a complex form shortly to be described. +Some of these contain stone sarcophagi. The +bodies were never cremated, but the bones are so +damaged that it is impossible to say what the +most usual position was. Objects of bronze and +iron together with pottery and ornaments were +found in the tombs.</p> + +<p>The more important tombs are of a more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_121" id="Pg_121" title="Pg_121">[121]</a></span>complicated type. They seem to have contained +the remains of emperors and their families. They +consist each of a circular mound, to which is added +on one side another mound of trapezoidal form. +The megalithic tomb-chamber or the sarcophagus +which sometimes replaces it lies in the circular +part of the mound. The total axial length of the +basis of the whole mound is in a typical case—that +of Nara (Yamato)—674 feet, the diameter of +the round end being 420 feet. The mounds have +in most cases terraced sides, and are surrounded +by a moat. In early times it seems to have +been the custom to slay or bury alive the servants +of the emperor on his mound, but this was +given up about the beginning of the Christian era.</p> + +<p>These imperial double mounds seem to begin +about two centuries before the Christian era, and +to continue for five or six centuries after it. Many +of them can be definitely assigned to their owners, +and others are attributed by tradition. Thus a +rather small mound at the foot of Mount Unebi +(Yamato) is considered to be the burial place of +the Emperor Jimmu, the founder of the Imperial +dynasty, and annual ceremonies are performed +before it.</p> + +<p>The Japanese Emperors are still buried in +terraced mounds, and in the group of huge stone +blocks which have been placed on the mound of +the Emperor Komei, who died in 1866, we may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_122" id="Pg_122" title="Pg_122">[122]</a></span>tempted to see a survival of the ancient megalithic chamber.</p> + +<p>These early corridor-tombs are evidently not +the work of the Ainu, the aborigines of Japan, +but of the Japanese invaders who conquered +them. These latter do not seem to have brought +the idea of megalithic building with them, as +their earlier tombs are simple mounds. As no +dolmen has yet been found in Japan we cannot at +present derive the corridor-tomb there from it. +It is, however, worthy of mention that true dolmens +occur as near as Corea, though none have +been reported from China.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_123" id="Pg_123" title="Pg_123">[123]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS,<br /> +THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ETC.<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>With regard to the date of the megalithic +monuments it only remains to sum up +the evidence given in the previous chapters. It +may be said that in Europe they never belong to +the beginning of the neolithic age, but either to +its end or to the period which followed it, i.e. to +the age of copper and bronze. The majority date +from the dawn of this latter period, though some +of the chambered cairns of Ireland seem to belong +to the iron age. Outside Europe there are certainly +megalithic tombs which are late. In North +Africa, for example, we know that the erection +of dolmens continued into the early iron age; +many of the Indian tombs are clearly late, and +the corridor-tombs of Japan can be safely attributed +in part at least to the Christian era.</p> + +<p>With what purpose were the megalithic monuments +erected? The most simple example, the +menhir or upright stone, may have served many +purposes. In discussing the temples of Malta +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_124" id="Pg_124" title="Pg_124">[124]</a></span>we saw reason for believing that the megalithic +peoples were in the habit of worshipping great +stones as such. Other stones, not actually worshipped, +may mark the scene of some great event. +Jacob commemorated a dream by setting up the +stone which had served him as a pillow, and +Samuel, victorious over the Philistines, set up +twelve stones, and called the place "Stones of +Deliverance." Others again perhaps stood in +a spot devoted to some particular national or +religious ceremony. Thus the Angami of the +present day in Assam set up stones in commemoration +of their village feasts. It seems clear +from the excavations that the menhirs do not +mark the place of burials, though they may in +some cases have been raised in honour of the dead.</p> + +<p>The question of the purpose of stone circles +has already been dealt with in connection with +those of Great Britain. <i>Alignements</i> are more +difficult to explain, for, from their form, they +cannot have served as temples in the sense of +meeting-places for worship. Yet they must +surely have been connected with religion in some +way or other. Possibly they were not constructed +once and for all, but the stones were added gradually, +each marking some event or the performance +of some periodic ceremony, or even the death of +some great chief. The so-called "Canaanite High +Place" recently found at Gezer consists of a line +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_125" id="Pg_125" title="Pg_125">[125]</a></span>of ten menhirs running north and south, together +with a large block in which was a socket for an +idol or other object of worship. Several bodies +of children found near it have suggested that the +monument was a place of sacrifice.</p> + +<p>Other megalithic structures can be definitely +classed as dwellings or tombs, as we have seen +in our separate treatment of them. It is not +improbable that, if we are right in considering +the dolmen as the most primitive form of megalithic +monument, megalithic architecture was +funerary in origin. Yet, as we find it in its great +diffusion, it provides homes for the living as well +as for the dead. In their original home, perhaps in +Africa, the megalithic race may have lived in huts +of wattle or skins, but after their migration the +need of protection in a hostile country and the +exigencies of a colder climate may have forced +them to employ stone for their dwellings. In any +case, in megalithic architecture as seen in Europe +the tomb and the dwelling types are considerably +intermixed, and may have reacted on one another. +This, however, does not justify the assertion so +often made that the megalithic tomb was a +conscious imitation of the hut. It is true that +some peoples make the home of their dead to +resemble that of the living. Among certain +tribes of Greenland it is usual to leave the dead +man seated in his hut by way of burial. But such +a conception does not exist among all peoples, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_126" id="Pg_126" title="Pg_126">[126]</a></span>and to say that the dolmen is an imitation in +stone of a hut is the purest conjecture. Still +more improbable is Montelius's idea that the +corridor-tomb imitates a dwelling. It is true +that the Eskimos have a type of hut which is +entered by a low passage often 30 feet in length, +but for one who believes as Montelius does that +the corridor-tomb is southern or eastern in origin +such a derivation is impossible, for this type of +house is essentially northern, its aim being to +exclude the icy winds. In the south it would be +intolerably close, and its low passage besides +serving no purpose would be inconvenient.</p> + +<p>There is really no reason to derive either the +dolmen or the corridor-tomb from dwellings at +all. Granted the use of huge stones, both are +purely natural forms, and the presence of the +corridor in the latter is dictated by necessity. +The problem was how to cover a large tomb-chamber +with a mound and to leave it still accessible +for later interments, and the obvious solution +was to add a covered passage leading out to the +edge of the mound.</p> + +<p>A remarkable feature of the megalithic tombs +is the occurrence in many of them of a small round +or rectangular hole in one of the walls, usually an +end-wall, more rarely a partition-wall between +two chambers. Occasionally the hole was formed +by placing side by side two upright blocks each +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_127" id="Pg_127" title="Pg_127">[127]</a></span>with a semicircular notch in its edge. Tombs +with a holed block or blocks occur in England, +instances being the barrows of Avening and +Rodmarton, King Orry's Grave in the Isle of Man, +Lanyon Quoit in Cornwall, and Plas Newydd in +Wales, which has two holes. There are also +examples in Ireland, France, Belgium, Central +Germany, and Scandinavia, where they are +common. Passing further afield we find holes +in the Giants' Graves of Sardinia, and in Syria, +the Caucasus, and India, where half the dolmens +in the Deccan are of this type. The holes are +usually too small to allow of the passage of a +human body. It has been suggested that they +served as an outlet for the soul of the deceased, +or in some cases as a means of passing in food to him.</p> + +<p>Attention has been frequently drawn to curious +round pits so often found on the stones of dolmens +and usually known as cup-markings. They vary +in diameter from about two to four inches, and +are occasionally connected by a series of narrow +grooves in the stone. They vary considerably in +number, sometimes there are few, sometimes +many. They occur nearly always on the upper +surface of the cover-slab, very rarely on its under +surface or on the side-walls.</p> + +<p>Some have attempted to show that these pits +are purely natural and not artificial. It has been +suggested, for instance, that they are simply the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_128" id="Pg_128" title="Pg_128">[128]</a></span>casts of a species of fossil sea-urchin which has +weathered out from the surface of the stone. This +explanation may be true in some cases, but it +will not serve in all, for the 'cups' are sometimes +arranged in such regular order that their artificial +origin is palpable. These markings are found on +dolmens and corridor-tombs in Palestine, North +Africa, Corsica, France, Germany, Scandinavia, +and Great Britain. In Wales there is a fine example +of a dolmen with pits at Clynnog Fawr, +while in Cornwall we may instance the monument +called "The Three Brothers of Grugith" near Meneage.</p> + +<p>There is no clue to the purpose of these pits. +Some have thought that they were made to hold +the blood of sacrifice which was poured over the +slab, and from some such idea may have arisen +some of the legends of human victims which still +cling round the dolmens. Others have opposed +to this the fact that the pits sometimes occur on +vertical walls or under the cover-slabs, and have +preferred to see in them some totemistic signification +or some expression of star-worship. It is +possible that we have to deal with a complex and +not a simple phenomenon, and that the pits were +not all made to serve a single purpose. Those +which cover some of the finest stones at Mnaidra +and Hagiar Kim are certainly meant to be ornamental, +though there may be in them a reminiscence +of some religious tradition. In any case, it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_129" id="Pg_129" title="Pg_129">[129]</a></span>worth while to remember that cup-markings also +occur on natural rocks and boulders in Switzerland, +Scandinavia, Great Britain (where there is a good +example near Ilkley in Yorkshire), near Como in +Italy, and in Germany, Russia, and India.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Of the builders of the megalithic monuments +themselves we cannot expect to know very much, +especially while their origin remains veiled in +obscurity. Yet there are a few facts which stand +out clearly. We even know something about their +appearance, for the skulls found in the megalithic +tombs have in many cases been subjected to +careful examination and measurement. Into +the detail of these measurements we cannot enter +here; suffice it to say that the most important of +them are the maximum length of the skull from +front to back and its maximum breadth, both +measures, of course, being taken in a straight +line with a pair of callipers, and not round the +contour of the skull. If we now divide the maximum +breadth by the maximum length and multiply +the result by 100 we get what is known as the +cephalic index of the skull. Thus if a skull has +a length of 180 millimetres and a breadth of 135, +its cephalic index is 135/180 X 100, i.e. 75. It is clear +that in a roundish type of head the breadth will +be greater in proportion to the length than in a +narrow elliptical type. Thus in a broad head the +cephalic index is high, while in a narrow head it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_130" id="Pg_130" title="Pg_130">[130]</a></span>is low. The former is called brachycephalic +(short-headed), and the latter dolichocephalic +(long-headed).</p> + +<p>This index is now accepted by most anthropologists +as a useful criterion of race, though, of course, +there are other characteristics which must often +be taken into account, such as the height and +breadth of the face, the cubic capacity of the +skull and its general contour. At any rate, if we +can show that the skulls of the megalithic tombs +conform to a single type in respect of their index +we shall have a presumption, though not a certainty, +that they belong to a single race.</p> + +<p>For Africa the evidence consists in a group of +twenty skulls from dolmen-tombs giving cephalic +indices which range from 70.5 to 84.4. The +average index is 75.27, and the majority of the +indices lay within a few units of that number. +Ten skulls from Halsaflieni in Malta have cephalic +indices running from 66 to 75.1, the average being +71.84. Of a series of 44 skulls from the rock-tombs +of the Petit Morin in France, 12 had an +index of over 80, 22 were between 75 and 80, and +10 were below 75. But in the dolmens of Lozère +distinctly broad skulls were frequent. A series +of British neolithic skulls, mostly from barrows, +ran from 67 to 77.</p> + +<p>The builders of the megalithic monuments +thus belonged in the main to a fairly dolichocephalic +race or races, for the large majority of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_131" id="Pg_131" title="Pg_131">[131]</a></span>the skulls measured are of a long-headed type. +There are, however, in various localities, especially +in France, occasional anomalous types of skull +which are distinctly brachycephalic, and show +that contamination of some kind was taking or +had taken place.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Of the state of civilization to which the builders +of the megalithic monuments had attained, and +of the social condition in which they lived, there +is something to be gathered. It is clear in the +first place from the evidence of the Maltese +buildings that they were a pastoral people who +domesticated the ox, the sheep, the pig, and the +goat, upon whose flesh they partly lived. Shellfish +also formed a part of their diet, and the shells +when emptied of their contents were occasionally +pierced to be used as pendants or to form necklaces +or bracelets.</p> + +<p>Whether these people were agricultural is a +question more difficult to answer. It is true that +flat stones have been found, on which some kind +of cereal was ground up with the aid of round +pebbles, but the grain for which these primitive +mills were used may have been wild and not +cultivated. No grain of any kind has been found +in the Maltese settlements.</p> + +<p>The megalithic race do not seem to have been +great traders. This is remarkably exemplified in +Malta, where there is not a trace of connection +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_132" id="Pg_132" title="Pg_132">[132]</a></span>with the wonderful civilization which must have +been flourishing so near at hand in Crete and the +Ægean at the time when the megalithic temples +were built. The island seems to have been entirely +self-sufficing, except for the importation of +obsidian, probably from the neighbouring island +of Linosa. Of copper, which wide trade would +have introduced, there is no sign.</p> + +<p>Some writers, however, have argued the existence +of extensive trade-relations from the occurrence +of a peculiar kind of turquoise called <i>callaïs</i> +in some of the megalithic monuments of France +and Portugal. The rarity of this stone has inclined +some archæologists to attribute it to a single +source, while some have gone so far as to consider +it eastern in origin. For the last theory there is no +evidence whatsoever. No natural deposit of +<i>callaïs</i> is known, but it is highly probable that the +sources of the megalithic examples lay in France +or Portugal.</p> + +<p>It would of course be foolish to suppose that +the megalithic people received none of the products +of other countries, especially at a time when +the discovery of copper was giving a great impetus +to trade. No doubt they enjoyed the benefits of +that kind of slow filtering trade which a primitive +tribe, even if it had wished, could hardly have +avoided, but they were not a great trading nation +as were the Cretans of the Middle and Late +Minoan Periods, or the Egyptians of the XIIth +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_133" id="Pg_133" title="Pg_133">[133]</a></span>and XVIIIth Dynasties. We know nothing of +their political conditions, of the groups into which +they were divided, or the centres from which they +were governed. That there were strong centres +of government is, however, clear from the very +existence of such huge monuments, many of which +must have required the combined and organized +labour of large armies of workers, in the gathering +of which the state was doubtless strongly backed +by religion.</p> + +<p>We have seen that the megalithic peoples +frequently dwelt in huts of great stones. Yet in +the majority of cases their huts must have been, +like those of most primitive races, of perishable +material, such as wood, wattle, skins, turf, and +clay. As for their form there was probably a +continual conflict between the round and the +rectangular plan, just as there was in the stone +examples. Which form prevailed in any particular +district was probably determined almost by +accident. Thus in Sardinia the round type was +mostly kept for the huts and <i>nuraghi</i>, while the +rectangular was reserved for the dolmens and +Giants' Graves. Even here the confusion between +the two types is shown by the fact that near +Birori there are two dolmens with a round plan. +Again, in Pantelleria the huts of the Mursia are +rectangular, while the <i>sesi</i>, which are tombs, are +roughly circular. It is therefore probable that +the round and rectangular types of building were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_134" id="Pg_134" title="Pg_134">[134]</a></span>both in use among the megalithic people before +they spread over Europe.</p> + +<p>Within their huts these people led a life of the +simplest description. Their weapons and tools, +though occasionally of copper, were for the most +part of stone. Flint was the most usual material. +In Scandinavia it was often polished, but elsewhere +it was merely flaked. The implements +made from it were of simple types, knives, borers, +scrapers, lanceheads, and more rarely arrowheads. +Many of these were quite roughly made, no more +flaking being done than was absolutely necessary +to produce the essential form, and the work being, +when possible, confined to one face of the flint.</p> + +<p>In the Mediterranean obsidian, a volcanic rock, +occasionally took the place of flint, especially in +Sardinia and Pantelleria. Axes or celts were often +made of flint in Scandinavia and North Germany, +but elsewhere other stones, such as jade, jadeite, +and diorite were commonly used.</p> + +<p>We can only guess at the way in which the +megalithic people were clothed. No doubt the +skins of the animals they domesticated and of +those they hunted provided them with some form +of covering, at any rate in countries where it was +needed. Possibly they spun wool or flax into a +thread, for at Halsaflieni two objects were found +which look like spindle-whorls, and others occur +on sites which are almost certainly to be attributed +to the megalithic people. There is, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_135" id="Pg_135" title="Pg_135">[135]</a></span>nothing to show that they wove the thread into +stuffs.</p> + +<p>The love of personal decoration was highly +developed among them, and all branches of nature +were called upon to minister to their desire for +ornament. Shells, pierced and strung separately +or in masses, were perhaps their favourite adornment, +but close on these follow beads and pendants +of almost every conceivable substance, bone, horn, +stone, clay, nuts, beans, copper, and occasionally +gold.</p> + +<p>One small object assumes a great importance +on account of its wide distribution. This is the +conical button with two converging holes in its +base to pass the thread through. This little object, +which may have served exactly the purpose of +the modern button, occurs in several parts of the +megalithic area. There are examples in Malta +made of stone and shell. Elsewhere it is most +usually of bone. It occurs in Sardinia, in France, +in the rock-tombs of Gard, and in the corridor and +rock-tombs of Lozère and Ardèche, in Portugal +in the <i>allée couverte</i> of Monte Abrahaõ, in Bohuslän +(Sweden), and at Carrowmore in Ireland. Outside +the megalithic area it has been found in two of the +Swiss lake-dwellings and in Italy.</p> + +<p>The pottery of the megalithic people was of a +simple type. It was all made by hand, the potter's +wheel being still unknown to the makers. Pottery +with painted designs does not occur outside Sicily, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_136" id="Pg_136" title="Pg_136">[136]</a></span>except for a few poor and late examples in Malta. +The best vases were of fairly purified clay, moderately +well fired, and having a polished surface, +usually of a darkish colour. On this surface were +often incised ornamental designs, varying both +in type and in the skill with which they were +engraved. As a rule the schemes were rectilinear, +more rarely they were carried out in curves. +Sardinia furnishes some fine examples of rectilinear +work, while the best of the curved designs are +found in Malta, where elaborate conventional +and even naturalistic patterns are traced out with +wonderful freedom and steadiness of hand.</p> + +<p>The pottery of the megalithic area is not all alike; +it would be surprising if it were. Even supposing +that the invaders brought with them a single +definite style of pottery-making this would +rapidly become modified by local conditions and +by the already existing pottery industry of the +country, often, no doubt, superior to that of the +new-comers. Nevertheless, there are a few points +of similarity between the pottery of various parts +of the megalithic area. The most remarkable +example is the bell-shaped cup, which occurs in +Denmark, England, France, Spain, Sardinia, and +possibly Malta (the specimen is too broken for +certainty). Outside the area it is found in Bohemia, +Hungary, and North Italy. Here, as in the case +of the conical button, we cannot argue that the +form was actually introduced by the megalithic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_137" id="Pg_137" title="Pg_137">[137]</a></span>race, though there is a certain possibility in favour +of such a hypothesis.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>That the megalithic people possessed a religion +of some kind will hardly be doubted. Their +careful observance of the rites due to the dead, +and their construction of buildings which can +hardly have been anything but places of worship, +is a strong testimony to this. We have seen that +in the Maltese temples the worship of baetyls or +pillars of stone seems to have been carried on. +Several stone objects which can scarcely have +been anything but baetyls were found in the +megalithic structures of Los Millares in Spain, +but none are known elsewhere in the megalithic area.</p> + +<p>There is some reason for thinking that among +the megalithic race there existed a cult of the axe. +In France, for instance, the sculptured rock-tombs +of the valley of the Petit Morin show, some +a human figure, some an axe, and some a combination +of the two. This same juxtaposition of +the two also occurs on a slab which closed the +top of a corbelled chamber at Collorgues in Gard. +A simple <i>allée couverte</i> at Göhlitzsch in Saxony +has on one of its blocks an axe and handle engraved +and coloured red. There are further examples +in the <i>allée couverte</i> of Gavr'inis and the +dolmen called La Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_138" id="Pg_138" title="Pg_138">[138]</a></span>These sculptured axes call to mind at once the +numerous axe-shaped pendants of fine polished +stone (jade, jadeite, etc.) found in Malta, Sicily, +Sardinia, and France, and apparently used as +amulets. The excavation of Crete has brought +to light a remarkable worship of the double axe, +and it has been argued with great probability +that one of the early boat signs figured on the pre-dynastic +painted vases of Egypt is a double axe, +and that this was a cult object. It seems very +probable that in the megalithic area, or at least +in part of it, there was a somewhat similar worship, +the object of cult, however, being not a double +but a single axe, usually represented as fitted with +a handle. It need not be assumed that the axe +itself was worshipped, though this is not impossible; +it is more likely that it was an attribute +of some god or goddess.</p> + +<p>Among the rock-hewn tombs of the valley of +the Petit Morin in the department of Marne, +France, were seven which contained engravings +on one of the walls. Several of these represent +human figures (Fig. 13). The eyes are not marked, +but the hair and nose are clear. In some the breasts +are shown, in others they are omitted. On each +figure is represented what appears to be a collar +or necklace. Similar figures occur on the slabs +of some of the <i>allées couvertes</i> of Seine et Oise, and +on certain blocks found in and near megalithic +burials in the South of France. Moreover, in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_139" id="Pg_139" title="Pg_139">[139]</a></span>departments of Aveyron, Tarn, and Hérault have +been found what are known as menhir-statues, +upright pillars of stone roughly shaped into human +semblance at the top; they are of two types, the +one clearly female and the other with no breasts, +but always with a collar or baldric.</p> + +<p>It has been argued that these figures represent +a deity or deities of the megalithic people. +Déchelette, comparing what are apparently tattoo +marks on a menhir-statue at Saint Sermin (Aveyron) +with similar marks on a figure cut on a +schist plaque at Idanha a Nova (Portugal) and +on a marble idol from the island of Seriphos in the +Ægean, seems inclined to argue that in France +and Portugal we have the same deity as in the +Ægean. This seems rather a hazardous conjecture, +for we know that many primitive peoples +practised tattooing, and, moreover, it is not +certain that the French figures represent deities +at all. It is quite as likely, if not more so, that +they represent the deceased, and take the place +of a grave-stone: this would account for the +occurrence of both male and female types. This +was almost certainly the purpose of six stones +that remain of a line that ran parallel to a now +destroyed tomb at Tamuli (Sardinia). Three have +breasts as if to distinguish the sex of three of those +buried in the tomb. We must not therefore +assume that any of the French figures represents +a 'dolmen-deity.'</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_140" id="Pg_140" title="Pg_140">[140]</a></span>The method of burial observed in the megalithic +tombs is almost universally inhumation. Cremation +seems to occur only in France, but there it is +beyond all doubt. The known examples are found +in the departments of Finistère, Marne, and +Aisne, and in the neighbourhood of Paris. In Finistère +out of 92 megalithic burials examined 61 +were cremations, 26 were inhumations, and 5 +were uncertain. It is extremely curious that this +small portion of France should be the only part +of the megalithic area where cremation was practised. +It is generally held that cremation was +brought into Europe by the broad-headed 'Alpine' +people, who seem to have invaded the centre of +the continent at some period in the neolithic age. +It is possible that in parts of France a mixture +took place between the megalithic builders and +the Alpine race. Intermarriage would no doubt +lead to confusion in many cases between the two rites.</p> + +<p>In all other cases the builders of the megalithic +monuments buried their dead unburned. Often +the body was lying stretched out on its back, or +was set in a sitting position against the side of the +tomb; but most frequently it was placed in what +is known as the contracted position, laid on one +side, generally the left, with the knees bent and +drawn up towards the chin, the arms bent at the +elbow, and the hands placed close to the face. +Many explanations of this position have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_141" id="Pg_141" title="Pg_141">[141]</a></span>suggested. Some see in it a natural posture of +repose, some an attempt to crowd the body into +as small a space as possible. Some have suggested +that the corpse was tightly bound up with cords +in order that the spirit might not escape and do +harm to the living. Perhaps the most widely +approved theory is that which considers this +position to be embryonic, i.e. the position of the +embryo previous to birth. None of these explanations +is entirely convincing, but no better one has +been put forward up to the present.</p> + +<p>This custom, it must be noted, was not limited +to the megalithic peoples. It was the invariable +practice of the pre-dynastic Egyptians and has +been found further east in Persia. It occurs in the +neolithic period in Crete and the Ægean, in Italy, +Switzerland, Germany, and other parts of Europe, +and it is one of the facts which go to show that the +builders of the megaliths were ethnologically connected, +however remotely, with their predecessors in Europe.</p> + +<p>At Halsaflieni, in Malta, we have perhaps examples +of the curious custom of secondary interment; +the body is buried temporarily in some +suitable place, and after the flesh has left the bones +the latter are collected and thrown together into +a common ossuary. That the bones at Halsaflieni +were placed there when free from flesh is probable +from the closeness with which they were packed +together (see p. 111). There are also possible examples +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_142" id="Pg_142" title="Pg_142">[142]</a></span>in Sicily (see p. 79). The custom was not +unknown in neolithic days, especially in Crete. It +is still occasionally practised on the island and on +the Greek mainland, where, after the dead have +lain a few years in hallowed soil, their bones are +dug up, roughly cleaned, and deposited in caves.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_143" id="Pg_143" title="Pg_143">[143]</a></span></div> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>WHO WERE THE BUILDERS,<br /> +AND WHENCE DID THEY COME?<br /><br /></h3> + + +<p>Modern discussion of the origin of the +megalithic monuments may be said to +date from Bertrand's publication of the French +examples in 1864. In this work Bertrand upheld +the thesis that "the dolmens and <i>allées couvertes</i> +are sepulchres; and their origin seems up to the +present to be northern." In 1865 appeared Bonstetten's +famous <i>Essai sur les dolmens</i>, in which he +maintained that the dolmens were constructed by +one and the same people spreading over Europe +from north to south. At this time the dolmens of +North Africa were still unstudied. In 1867 followed +an important paper by Bertrand. In 1872 two +events of importance to the subject occurred, the +publication of Fergusson's <i>Rude Stone Monuments +in All Countries</i>, and the discussion raised at the +Brussels Congress by General Faidherbe's paper +on the dolmens of Algeria. Faidherbe maintained +the thesis that dolmens, whether in Europe or +Africa, were the work of a single people moving +southward from the Baltic Sea.</p> + +<p>The question thus raised has been keenly debated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_144" id="Pg_144" title="Pg_144">[144]</a></span>since. At the Stockholm Congress in 1874 +de Mortillet advanced the theory that megalithic +monuments in different districts were due to +different peoples, and that what spread was the +custom of building such structures and not the +builders themselves. This theory has been accepted +by most archæologists, including Montelius, +Salomon Reinach, Sophus Müller, Hoernes, and +Déchelette. But while the rest believe the influences +which produced the megalithic monuments +to have spread from east to west, i.e. from Asia to +Europe, Salomon Reinach holds the contrary view, +which he has supported in a remarkable paper +called <i>Le Mirage Oriental</i>, published in 1893.</p> + +<p>The questions we have to discuss are, therefore, +as follows: Are all the megalithic monuments +due to a single race or to several? If to a single +race, whence did that race come and in what +direction did it move? If to several, did the idea +of building megalithic structures arise among the +several races independently, or did it spread from +one to another?</p> + +<p>We shall consider first the theory that the idea +of megalithic building was evolved among several +races independently, i.e. that it was a phase of +culture through which they separately passed.</p> + +<p>On the whole, this idea has not found favour +among archæologists. The use of stone for building +might have arisen in many places independently. +But megalithic architecture is something +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_145" id="Pg_145" title="Pg_145">[145]</a></span>much more than this. It is the use of great stones +in certain definite and particular ways. We have +already examined what may be called the style of +megalithic architecture and found that the same +features are noticeable in all countries where these +buildings occur. In each case we see a type of +construction based on the use of large orthostatic +slabs, sometimes surmounted by courses of horizontal +masonry, with either a roof of horizontal +slabs or a corbelled vault. Associated with this +we frequently find the hewing of underground +chambers in the rock. In almost all countries +where megalithic structures occur certain fixed +types prevail; the dolmen is the most general of +these, and it is clear that many of the other forms +are simply developments of this. The occurrence +of structures with a hole in one of the walls and +of blocks with 'cup-markings' is usual over the +whole of the megalithic area. There are even more +remarkable resemblances in detail between structures +in widely separated countries. Thus the +Giants' Tombs of Sardinia all have a concave +façade which forms a kind of semicircular court +in front of the entrance to the tomb. This feature +is seen also in the temples of Malta, in the tomb +of Los Millares in Spain, in the <i>naus</i> of the Balearic +Isles (where, however, the curve is slight), in +the Giant's Grave of Annaclochmullin and the +chambered cairn of Newbliss in Ireland, in the +tomb of Cashtal-yn-Ard in the Isle of Man, in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_146" id="Pg_146" title="Pg_146">[146]</a></span>barrow of West Tump in Gloucestershire, and in +the horned cairns of the north of Scotland. These +parallels are due to something more than coincidence; +in fact, it is clear that megalithic +building is a widespread and homogeneous system, +which, despite local differences, always preserves +certain common features pointing to a single +origin. It is thus difficult to accept the suggestion +that it is merely a phase through which many races +have passed. The phases which occur in many +races alike are always those which are natural +and necessary in the development of a people, +such as the phase of using copper. But there is +nothing either natural or necessary in the use of +huge unwieldy blocks of stone where much smaller +ones would have sufficed.</p> + +<p>There are further objections to this theory in +the distribution of the megalithic buildings both +in space and time. In space they occupy a very +remarkable position along a vast sea-board which +includes the Mediterranean coast of Africa and +the Atlantic coast of Europe. In other words, +they lie entirely along a natural sea route. It is +more than accident that the many places in +which, according to this theory, the megalithic +phase independently arose all lie in most natural +sea connection with each other, while not one is +in the interior of Europe.</p> + +<p>In time the vast majority of the megalithic +monuments of Europe seem to begin near the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_147" id="Pg_147" title="Pg_147">[147]</a></span>end of the neolithic period and cover the copper +age, the later forms continuing occasionally into +that of bronze. Here again it is curious that +megalithic building, if merely an independent +phase in many countries, should arise in so many +at about the same time, and with no apparent +reason. Had it been the use of <i>worked</i> stones that +arose, and had this followed the appearance of +copper tools, the advocates of this theory would +have had a stronger case, but there seems to be +no reason why huge unworked stones should +<i>simultaneously</i> begin to be employed for tombs +in many different countries unless this use spread +from a single source.</p> + +<p>For these reasons it is impossible to consider +megalithic building as a mere phase through +which many nations passed, and it must therefore +have been a system originating with one race, +and spreading far and wide, owing either to trade +influence or migration. But can we determine which?</p> + +<p>Great movements of races by sea were not by +any means unusual in primitive days, in fact, the +sea has always been less of an obstacle to early +man than the land with its deserts, mountains, +and unfordable rivers. There is nothing inherently +impossible or even improbable in the suggestion +that a great immigration brought the megalithic +monuments from Sweden to India or vice versa. +History is full of instances of such migrations. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_148" id="Pg_148" title="Pg_148">[148]</a></span>According to the most widely accepted modern +theory the whole or at least the greater part of +the neolithic population of Europe moved in from +some part of Africa at the opening of the neolithic +age. In medieval history we have the example +of the Arabs, who in their movement covered a +considerable portion of the very megalithic area +which we are discussing.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, many find it preferable to +suppose that over this same distance there extended +a vast trade route or a series of trade +routes, along which travelled the influences which +account for the presence of precisely similar +dolmens in Denmark, Spain, and the Caucasus. +Yet although much has been written about +neolithic trade routes little has been proved, and +the fact that early man occasionally crossed large +tracts of land and sea in the great movements +of migration does not show that he also did so by +way of trade, nor does it prove the existence of +such steady and extensive commercial relations +as such a theory of the megalithic monuments +would seem to require. Immigration is often +forced on a race. Change of climate or the diverting +of the course of a great river may make their +country unfit for habitation, or they may be +expelled by a stronger race. In either case they +must migrate, and we know from history that +they often covered long distances in their attempt +to follow the line of least resistance. Thus there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_149" id="Pg_149" title="Pg_149">[149]</a></span>is nothing a priori improbable in the idea that the +megalithic monuments were built by a single invading race.</p> + +<p>There are other considerations which support +such a theory. It will be readily admitted that +the commonest and most widely distributed form +of the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both +this and its obvious derivatives, the Giant's Grave, +the <i>allée couverte</i>, and others, are known to have +been tombs, while other types of structure, such +as the Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech, +almost certainly had a religious purpose. +It is difficult to believe that these types of building, +so closely connected with religion and burial, were +introduced into all these regions simply by the +influence of trade relations. Religious customs +and the burial rites connected with them are +perhaps the most precious possession of a primitive +people, and they are those in which they most +oppose and resent change of any kind, even when +it only involves detail and not principle. Thus +it is almost incredible that the people, for instance, +of Spain, because they were told by traders that +the people of North Africa buried in dolmens, +gave up, even in isolated instances, their habit +of interment in trench graves in favour of burial +in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe +that this unnatural event happened in one country +after another. It is true that the use of metal +was spread by means of commerce, but here there +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_150" id="Pg_150" title="Pg_150">[150]</a></span>was something to be gained by adopting the new +discovery, and there was no sacrifice of religious +custom or principle. An exchange of products +between one country and another is not unnatural, +but a traffic in burial customs is unthinkable.</p> + +<p>Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the +dolmen which was brought by commerce, but +simply the art of architecture in general, and this +was adapted to burial purposes. To this there are +serious objections. In the first place it does not +explain why exactly the same types of building +(e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities +of peculiar detail, occur in countries so far apart; +and in the second place, if what was carried by +trade was the art of building alone, why should +the learners go out of their way to use huge stones +when smaller ones would have suited their purpose +equally well? That the megalithic builders knew +how to employ smaller stones we know from their +work; that they preferred to use large ones for +certain purposes was not due to ignorance or +chance, it was because the large stone as such had +some particular meaning and association for them. +We cannot definitely say that large stones were +themselves actually worshipped, but there can +be no possible doubt that for some reason or other +they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used +in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead. +It is impossible that the men who possessed the +skill to lay the horizontal upper courses of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_151" id="Pg_151" title="Pg_151">[151]</a></span>Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble +to haul to the spot and use vast blocks over 20 +feet in length where far smaller ones would have +been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated +prejudice in favour of great stones.</p> + +<p>Such are the main difficulties involved by the +influence theory. On the other hand, objections +have been urged against the idea that the monuments +were all built by one and the same race. +Thus Dr. Montelius in his excellent <i>Orient und +Europa</i> says, "In Europe at this time dwelt +Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be +Aryans," the inference being, of course, that the +European dolmens were built by a different race +from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan. +Unfortunately, however, the major premise is +not completely true, for though it is true that +Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were +also people in Europe who were not Aryans, and +it is precisely among them that megalithic buildings +occur.</p> + +<p>The French archæologist Déchelette also condemns +the idea of a single race. "Anthropological +observations," he says, "have long since +ruined this adventurous hypothesis." He does +not tell us what these observations are, but we +presume that he refers to the occurrence of varying +skull types among the people buried in the megalithic +tombs. Nothing is more natural than that +some variation should occur. We are dealing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_152" id="Pg_152" title="Pg_152">[152]</a></span>with a race which made enormous journeys, and +thus became contaminated by the various other +races with which it came in contact. It may even +have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even +if we found skulls of very different types in the +dolmens this would not in the least disprove the +idea that dolmen building was introduced into +various countries by one and the same race. It +would be simply a case of the common anthropological +fact that a race immigrating into an already +inhabited country becomes to some extent modified +by intermarriage with the earlier inhabitants. +The measurements given in the last chapter would +seem to show that despite local variation there +is an underlying homogeneity in the skulls of the +megalithic people.</p> + +<p>It thus seems that the most probable theory +of the origin of the megalithic monuments is that +this style of building was brought to the various +countries in which we find it by a single race in an +immense migration or series of migrations. It is +significant that this theory has been accepted by +Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first +authority on the megalithic structures of the +Mediterranean basin.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>One question still remains to be discussed. From +what direction did megalithic architecture come, +and what was its original home? This is clearly +a point which is not altogether dependent on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_153" id="Pg_153" title="Pg_153">[153]</a></span>means by which this architecture was diffused. +Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic origin. +He considers that caves, and tombs accessible +from above, i.e. simple pits dug in the earth, were +native in Europe, while tombs reached from the +side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were +introduced into Europe from the east. Salomon +Reinach, arguing mainly from the early appearance +of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia +and the rarity of the simpler types of monument, +such as the dolmen, in Germany and South +Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first +appeared in North Europe and spread southwards. +Mackenzie is more inclined to believe in an African +origin. If he is right it may be that some climatic +change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what +is now the Sahara desert, caused a migration +from Africa to Europe very similar to that which +many believe to have given to Europe its early +neolithic population. The megalithic people may +even have been a branch of the same vast race +as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that +both inhumed their dead in the contracted position.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the problem will never be +solved. The only way to attempt a solution +would be to show that in some part of the megalithic +area the structures were definitely earlier +than in any other, and that as we move away from +that part in any direction they become later and +later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_154" id="Pg_154" title="Pg_154">[154]</a></span>for the earliest form of structure, the dolmen, +occurs in all parts of the area, and if we attempt +to date by objects we are met by the difficulty +that a dolmen in one place which contained copper +might be earlier than one in another place which +contained none, copper having been known in +the former place earlier than in the latter.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>It still remains to consider the question of the +origin of the rock-hewn sepulchre and its relation +to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb +occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus, +Crete, South Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa, +the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and +France. In all these places there are examples +which are certainly early, i.e. belong to the +neolithic or early metal age, with the exception of +Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two +types are common, the chamber cut in the vertical +face of rock and thus entered from the side, +sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the +chamber cut underground and entered from a +vertical or sloping shaft placed not directly over +the chamber, but immediately to one side of it. +It is unlikely that these two types have a separate +origin, for they are clearly determined by geological +reasons. A piece of country where vertical +cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the +first type, while the other alone was possible when +the ground consisted of a flat horizontal surface +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_155" id="Pg_155" title="Pg_155">[155]</a></span>of rock. We frequently find the two side by side +and containing identically the same type of remains. +In South-East Sicily we have the horizontal +entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge +of Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule +in the tombs of the Plemmirio, only a few miles distant.</p> + +<p>Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to +the distribution of the rock-hewn tombs. In the +first place they are all in the vicinity of the Mediterranean, +and in the second some occur in the +megalithic area, while others do not. The examples +of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that this type +of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean. +Was it from here that the type was introduced +into the megalithic area, or did the megalithic +people bring with them a tradition of building +rock-tombs totally distinct from that which is +represented by the tombs of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete?</p> + +<p>The question is difficult to answer. One thing +alone is clear, that in certain places, such as Malta +and Sardinia, the megalithic people were not +averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms +which they more usually erected with large stones +above ground. The finest instance of this is the +Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid +rock is hewn out with infinite care to imitate the +form and even the details of surface building.</p> + +<p>Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_156" id="Pg_156" title="Pg_156">[156]</a></span>and in France the same forms of tomb were +rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost +indifferently.</p> + +<p>There can therefore be no doubt that the +hewing out of rock was practised by the megalithic +people, and that they were no mean exponents +of the art. We have no proof that they brought +this art along with them from their original +centre of dispersion, though if they did it is +curious that they did not carry it into other +countries where they penetrated besides those of +the Mediterranean. It may be that early rock-tombs +will yet be found in North Africa, but it +seems improbable that, had they existed in the +British Isles, in North Germany, or in Scandinavia, +not a single example should have been found.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, if the megalithic people +did not bring the idea of the rock-tomb with +them we must suppose either that it evolved +among them after their migration, or that they +adopted it from the Eastern Mediterranean. The +last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it +would involve the modification of a burial custom +by foreign influence.</p> + +<p>We have, in fact, no evidence on which to +judge the question. Perhaps it is least unreasonable +to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb +was brought into the megalithic area by the same +people who introduced the megalithic monuments, +and did not result from contact with the Eastern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_157" id="Pg_157" title="Pg_157">[157]</a></span>Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to +disclaim any direct connection between the corridor-tombs +of the megalithic area and the great +<i>tholoi</i> of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first +sight there is a considerable similarity between +them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ with +its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular +corridor seems very little removed, except in size +and finish, from the tombs of Gavr' Inis and Lough +Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference. +The two last are tombs built partly with upright +slabs on the surface of the ground, entered by +horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds. +The Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated +rock-tomb cut underground with a sloping shaft; +as the ground consisted only of loose soil a coating +of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance +to a megalithic monument.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_158" id="Pg_158" title="Pg_158">[158]</a></span><br /></div> + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_159" id="Pg_159" title="Pg_159">[159]</a></span></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> + +<h3>OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS<br /><br /></h3> + + +<h4>GENERAL</h4> + +<p> +Fergusson, <i>Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries</i> (London 1872).<br /> +Bonstetten, <i>Essai sur les dolmens</i> (Geneva 1865).<br /> +Mortillet, <i>Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie préhistorique</i>, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff.<br /> +Reinach, <i>Le mirage oriental</i>, in <i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1893, pp. 557 ff.<br /> +Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa</i>.<br /> +Borlase, <i>The Dolmens of Ireland</i>, Vols. II and III.<br /> +Reinach, <i>Terminologie des monuments mégalithiques in Revue archéologique</i>, 3^{e} sér., XXII, 1893.<br /> +Westropp, <i>Prehistoric Phases</i> (London 1872). +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>ENGLAND AND WALES</h4> + +<p> +Fergusson, <i>op. cit.</i> <i>Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Archæologia</i>, LVIII, pp. 37 ff.<br /> +Flinders Petrie, <i>Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and Theories</i> (London 1880).<br /> +Windle, <i>Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England.</i><br /> +James, Sir Henry, <i>Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan in the Island of Lewis</i> (Southampton 1867).<br /> +Evans, Sir A., <i>Archæological Review</i>, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff.<br /> +Lockyer, Sir N., <i>Nature</i>, November 21st, 1901. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_160" id="Pg_160" title="Pg_160">[160]</a></span><br /> +Hinks, <i>XIXth Century</i>, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff.<br /> +Lockyer, Sir N., <i>Nature</i>, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff., 345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff.<br /> +Lewis, A. A., <i>Stone Circles in Britain, Archæological Journal</i>, XLIX, pp. 136 ff.<br /> +Thurnam, <i>Ancient British Barrows, Archæologia</i>, XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff.<br /> +Lewis, A. A., <i>Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the Anthrop. Inst.,</i> XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905.<br /> +Kermode and Herdman, <i>Illustrated Notes on Manks Antiquities</i> (Liverpool 1904). +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>SCOTLAND</h4> + +<p> +Wilson, <i>The Archæological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.</i><br /> +Forbes Leslie, <i>Early Races of Scotland.</i><br /> +Spence, Magnus, <i>Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness.</i> +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>IRELAND</h4> + +<p> +Borlase, <i>Dolmens of Ireland.</i><br /> +Lewis, A. A., <i>Some Stone Circles in Ireland</i>, in <i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.,</i> XXXIX, pp. 517 ff.<br /> +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>SWEDEN</h4> + +<p> +Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa.</i><br /> +Montelius, <i>Kulturgeschichte Schwedens.</i><br /> +Montelius, <i>Dolmens en France et en Suède</i> (Le Mans 1907).<br /> +Montelius, Graf från stenåldern, upptäckt vid Öringe i Ekeby socken, 1907.<br /> +Nilsson, <i>Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des Scandinavischen Nordens</i> (Hamburg 1865). +<br /><br /></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_161" id="Pg_161" title="Pg_161">[161]</a></span></div> + + + +<h4>DENMARK</h4> + +<p> +Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa.</i><br /> +Sophus Müller, <i>L'Europe préhistorique.</i><br /> +Sophus Müller, <i>Nordische Alterthumskunde.</i> +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>HOLLAND</h4> + +<p> +<i>Archæological Journal</i>, 1870, pp. 53 ff.<br /> +<i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, VI, 1876, p. 158.<br /> +<i>Compte rendu du congrès d'arch. préhist.</i>, Stockholm, 1874. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>BELGIUM</h4> + +<p> +Engelhardt, <i>Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse</i>, in <i>Aarböger f. nord. Oldkynd.</i>, 1870, pp. 177 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>GERMANY</h4> + +<p> +Krause und Schoetensack in <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, 1893 (Altmark only).<br /> +Morlot, <i>L'archéologie du Meclenbourg</i> (Zurich 1868).<br /> +von Estorff, <i>Heidnische Altertümer der Gegend von Aelzen</i> (Hanover 1846). +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>SWITZERLAND</h4> + +<p> +Keller, <i>Pfahlbauten</i>, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101; Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>FRANCE</h4> + +<p> +Cartailhac, <i>La France préhistorique.</i><br /> +Bertrand in <i>Revue archéologique</i>, 1864 (List of monuments).<br /> +Bertrand, <i>Archéologie celtique et gauloise</i>, 2nd edit., 1889.<br /> +Déchelette, <i>Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique celtique et gallo-romaine</i>, Vol. I.<br /> +Lewis, <i>Alignements at Autun</i> in <i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_162" id="Pg_162" title="Pg_162">[162]</a></span><br /> +Lewis, <i>On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit.</i>, XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff.<br /> +de Baye, <i>L'archéologie préhistorique</i> (Petit-Morin tombs).<br /> +Reinach, S., <i>La Sculpture en Europe</i> (Angers 1896. Figures of the 'dolmen deity'). +<br /><br /></p> + + +<h4>SPAIN</h4> + +<p> +Cartailhac, <i>Âges préhistorique de l'Espagne</i>.<br /> +Cartailhac, <i>Monuments primitifs des îles baléares</i>.<br /> +Bezzenberger in <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i>, XXXIX, 1907, pp. 567 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>ITALY</h4> + +<p> +<i>Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana</i>, XXV, pp. 178 ff.<br /> +Nicolucci, <i>Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di Terra d'Otranto</i>, 1893.<br /> +<i>Bull. Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXXVII, pp. 6 ff.<br /> +Mosso and Samarelli, <i>Il dolmen di Bisceglie</i>, in <i>Bull. Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>SICILY</h4> + +<p> +Orsi in <i>Bull. Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello).<br /> +Orsi in <i>Ausonia</i>, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro).<br /> +Orsi in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro). +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>SARDINIA</h4> + +<p> +La Marmora, <i>Voyage en Sardaigne</i>.<br /> +Pinza in <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, Vol. VIII.<br /> +Nissardi in <i>Atti del Congresso Internazionale</i>, Roma, 1903, sezione preistorica.<br /> +Nissardi and Taramelli in <i>Mon. Ant.</i>, Vol. XVII. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_163" id="Pg_163" title="Pg_163">[163]</a></span><br /> +Taramelli in <i>Memnon</i>, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35.<br /> +Préchac in <i>Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire</i>, XXVIII.<br /> +Mackenzie in <i>Ausonia</i>, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff.<br /> +Mackenzie in <i>Memnon</i>, Vol. II, fasc. 3.<br /> +Mackenzie in <i>Papers of the British School of Rome</i>, V, pp. 89 ff.<br /> +Taramelli, <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju).<br /> +Colini in <i>Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana</i>, XXIV, pp. 252 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>CORSICA</h4> + +<p> +<i>Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques</i>, Vol. III, 1892, pp. 49 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>PIANOSA</h4> + +<p> +<i>Bullettino di Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXIV, pp. 281 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>MALTA</h4> + +<p> +Mayr, A., <i>Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmäler von Malta</i>.<br /> +Mayr, A., <i>Die Insel Malta</i>.<br /> +Zammit, <i>First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum</i>.<br /> +Tagliaferro, <i>The Prehistoric Pottery found in the Hypogeum at Halsaflieni</i>, in <i>Annals of Archæology and Anthropology</i>, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff.<br /> +Zammit and Peet, <i>Report on the small objects found at Halsaflieni</i> (Valletta, in the Press).<br /> +Magri, <i>Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo</i>.<br /> +Ashby, T., and others, <i>Report on Excavations at Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim</i>, appearing in Vol. VI of <i>Papers of the British School of Rome</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_164" id="Pg_164" title="Pg_164">[164]</a></span><br /> +Peet, <i>Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of Rome</i>, V, pp. 141 ff.<br /> +Tagliaferro, <i>Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez</i>, in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>NORTH AFRICA</h4> + +<p> +Faidherbe in <i>Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie préhistorique</i>, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff.<br /> +Flower in <i>Transactions of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology</i>, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff.<br /> +MacIver and Wilkin, <i>Libyan Notes</i>. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>MOROCCO</h4> + +<p> +<i>Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, V, p. 342; VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>TUNIS</h4> + +<p> +Cartailhac in <i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1903, pp. 620 ff.<br /> +Carton in <i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1891, pp. 1 ff.<br /> +<i>Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, XXI, Pl. VI; XXII, pp. 373 and 416. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>EGYPT AND THE SUDAN</h4> + +<p> +Wilson and Felkin, <i>Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan</i>, Vol. II, p. 123.<br /> +de Morgan, <i>Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte</i>, p. 239, Fig. 398. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>PANTELLERIA</h4> + +<p> +Orsi in <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, IX, pp. 449 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>LAMPEDUSA</h4> + +<p> +Ashby in <i>Annals of Archæology and Anthropology</i>, Vol. IV. +<br /><br /></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_165" id="Pg_165" title="Pg_165">[165]</a></span></div> + + + +<h4>BULGARIA</h4> + +<p> +<i>Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, 1888, pp. 285 ff.<br /> +<i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1890, p. 110. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>CRIMEA</h4> + +<p> +Borlase, <i>Dolmens of Ireland</i>, III, p. 722. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA</h4> + +<p> +Chantre, <i>Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase</i>, Vol. I, pp. 50 ff.<br /> +Chantre in <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</i>, 1882, p. 344.<br /> +<i>Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, 1885, pp. 545 ff.<br /> +Borlase, <i>Dolmens of Ireland</i>, III, p. 722. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>SYRIA AND PALESTINE</h4> + +<p> +<i>Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports</i> for 1882; <i>Annual</i>, 1911, pp. 1 ff.<br /> +Conder, <i>Heth and Moab</i>, pp. 190, 293.<br /> +Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9. +<br /><br /></p> + + +<h4>PERSIA</h4> + +<p> +de Morgan in <i>Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie de Paris</i>, 1902, p. 187.<br /> +de Morgan, <i>La délégation en Perse</i>, 1902.<br /> +de Morgan, <i>L'histoire d'Elam</i>, Paris, 1902. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>INDIA</h4> + +<p> +<i>Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, XXIV, 1865.<br /> +Westropp, <i>Prehistoric Phases</i>. +<br /><br /></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_166" id="Pg_166" title="Pg_166">[166]</a></span></div> + + + +<h4>COREA</h4> + +<p> +<i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, XXIV, p. 330. +<br /><br /></p> + + + +<h4>JAPAN</h4> + +<p> +Gowland in <i>Archæologia</i>, LV, pp. 439 ff.<br /> +Gowland in <i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1907, pp. 10 ff. +<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_167" id="Pg_167" title="Pg_167">[167]</a></span></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<ul> +<li>Abbameiga, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li> +<li>Aberdeen, circles near, <a href="#Pg_038">38</a></li> +<li>Adrianople, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li> +<li>Africa, <a href="#Pg_090">90-6</a></li> +<li>Aiga, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li> +<li>Ain Dakkar, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li> +<li>Ainu, the, <a href="#Pg_122">122</a></li> +<li>Ala Safat, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li> +<li>Alemtejo, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a></li> +<li>Algeria, <a href="#Pg_091">91-5</a></li> +<li><i>Alignements</i>, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_059">59-60,</a> <a href="#Pg_089">89</a>, <a href="#Pg_119">119-20,</a> <a href="#Pg_124">124</a>, <a href="#Pg_154">154-7</a></li> +<li><i>Allées couvertes</i>, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_061">61</a>, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li> +<li>Altar Stone at Stonehenge, <a href="#Pg_018">18</a></li> +<li>Altmark, <a href="#Pg_057">57</a></li> +<li>Ammân, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li> +<li>Ammon, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +<li>Anghelu Ruju, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li> +<li>Anglesey, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Annaclochmullin, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li> +<li>Antequera, <a href="#Pg_070">70</a></li> +<li>Arbor Low, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Arcturus, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a>, <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li> +<li>Arles, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li> +<li>Arles, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li> +<li>Arran, circles on, <a href="#Pg_035">35-6</a></li> +<li>Arthur, King, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Arthur's Quoit, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Asia, <a href="#Pg_114">114-22</a></li> +<li>Atreus, Treasury of, <a href="#Pg_157">157</a></li> +<li>Aurelius Ambrosius, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li> +<li>Avebury, <a href="#Pg_023">23-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_027">27-8</a></li> +<li>Avening, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li> +<li>Axe, cult of, <a href="#Pg_137">137-8</a></li> +<li>Axe-shaped pendants, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li> +<li>Axevalla Heath, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li> +</ul> + + + + +<ul> +<li>Baetyls, <a href="#Pg_104">104</a>, <a href="#Pg_105">105-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li> +<li>Balearic Isles, <a href="#Pg_071">71-5</a></li> +<li>Barnstone, the, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li> +<li>Barrows, long, <a href="#Pg_030">30-3</a></li> +<li>Barth, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li> +<li>Belgium, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a></li> +<li>Bellary, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li> +<li>Bell-shaped cup, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a>, <a href="#Pg_136">136</a></li> +<li>Beltane festival, <a href="#Pg_037">37</a></li> +<li>Benigaus Nou, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a></li> +<li>Bertrand, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li> +<li>Birori, <a href="#Pg_082">82</a>, <a href="#Pg_133">133</a></li> +<li>Bisceglie, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li> +<li>Bonstetten, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li> +<li>Borreby, <a href="#Pg_054">54-5</a></li> +<li>Boscawen-un, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Bou Merzoug, <a href="#Pg_092">92</a></li> +<li>Bou Nouara, <a href="#Pg_091">91</a></li> +<li>Boyle Somerville, Captain, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a></li> +<li>Brittany, <a href="#Pg_059">59-60</a></li> +<li>Brogar, Ring of, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li> +<li>Broholm, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li> +<li>Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li> +<li>Button, conical, <a href="#Pg_042">42</a>, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a>, <a href="#Pg_111">111</a>, <a href="#Pg_135">135</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Cæsar, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li> +<li>Cairns, horned, <a href="#Pg_038">38-9</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_168" id="Pg_168" title="Pg_168">[168]</a></span></li> +<li>Caithness, cairns of, <a href="#Pg_038">38-9</a></li> +<li><i>Callaïs</i>, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a>, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_066">66</a>, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a>, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a>, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a></li> +<li>Callernish Circle, <a href="#Pg_034">34</a></li> +<li>Calvados, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li> +<li>Camster, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li> +<li>Can de Ceyrac, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li> +<li>Caouria, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li> +<li>Capella, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a>, <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li> +<li>Carnac, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a>, <a href="#Pg_059">59-60</a></li> +<li>Carrick-a-Dhirra, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li> +<li>Carrickard, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a></li> +<li>Carrickglass, <a href="#Pg_041">41</a></li> +<li>Carrigalla, <a href="#Pg_049">49</a></li> +<li>Carrowmore, <a href="#Pg_041">41-2</a></li> +<li>Cashtal-yn-Ard, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li> +<li>Cassibile, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a></li> +<li>Castelluccio, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a></li> +<li>Castor, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a></li> +<li>Caucasus, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li> +<li>Cava Lavinaro, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a></li> +<li>Cava Lazzaro, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a></li> +<li>Cave burial, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a>, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li> +<li>Chagford, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Champ Dolent, menhir of, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li> +<li>Channel Isles, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a></li> +<li>Charlemagne, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li> +<li>Charlton's Abbott, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a></li> +<li>China, <a href="#Pg_122">122</a></li> +<li>Chittore, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li> +<li>Chun Quoit, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Circles, stone, <a href="#Pg_015">15-28,</a> <a href="#Pg_034">34-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_048">48-51,</a> <a href="#Pg_060">60</a>, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +<li>Cirta, <a href="#Pg_092">92</a></li> +<li>Clava, <a href="#Pg_037">37</a></li> +<li>Clynnog Fawr, <a href="#Pg_128">128</a></li> +<li>Collorgues, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li> +<li>Constantine, <a href="#Pg_091">91</a></li> +<li>Contracted burials, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a>, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a>, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a>, <a href="#Pg_093">93</a>, <a href="#Pg_097">97</a>, <a href="#Pg_111">111</a>, <a href="#Pg_140">140-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_153">153</a></li> +<li>Coolback, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li> +<li>Corbelled roofs, <a href="#Pg_006">6</a>, <a href="#Pg_032">32</a>, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a>, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a>, <a href="#Pg_069">69</a>, <a href="#Pg_073">73</a>, <a href="#Pg_084">84</a>, <a href="#Pg_086">86</a>, <a href="#Pg_087">87</a>, <a href="#Pg_102">102-3</a></li> +<li>Cordin, <a href="#Pg_105">105</a>, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li> +<li>Corea, <a href="#Pg_122">122</a></li> +<li>Cornwall, dolmens in, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li> monuments of, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Corridor-tombs, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_043">43-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_052">52-5,</a> <a href="#Pg_056">56-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_062">62-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_067">67-71,</a> <a href="#Pg_076">76-7,</a> <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a>, <a href="#Pg_120">120-2</a></li> +<li>Corse, Cape, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li> +<li>Corsica, <a href="#Pg_088">88-9</a></li> +<li>Coursed masonry, use of, <a href="#Pg_005">5</a>, <a href="#Pg_073">73</a>, <a href="#Pg_082">82</a></li> +<li>Cove, the, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Cremation, <a href="#Pg_035">35</a>, <a href="#Pg_042">42</a>, <a href="#Pg_066">66</a>, <a href="#Pg_140">140</a></li> +<li>Crete, <a href="#Pg_113">113</a>, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a>, <a href="#Pg_142">142</a>, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a>, <a href="#Pg_157">157</a></li> +<li>Crickstone, the, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li> +<li>Crimea, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li> +<li>Cromlechs, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a></li> +<li>Cumberland, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Cup-markings, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127-8</a></li> +<li>Cyprus, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li> +<li>Cyrenaica, <a href="#Pg_091">91</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Dance Maen Circle, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Date of megaliths, <a href="#Pg_123">123</a></li> +<li>Dax, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li> +<li>Deccan, <a href="#Pg_118">118-9</a></li> +<li>Déchelette, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a>, <a href="#Pg_151">151</a></li> +<li>de Morgan, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li> +<li>Denmark, <a href="#Pg_053">53-5</a></li> +<li>Dennis, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li> +<li>Der Ghuzaleh, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li> +<li>Dolmens, <a href="#Pg_002">2</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_040">40-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_052">52-3,</a> <a href="#Pg_056">56</a>, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a>, <a href="#Pg_061">61</a>, <a href="#Pg_067">67-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_082">82</a>, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a>, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a>, <a href="#Pg_091">91-6,</a>, <a href="#Pg_114">114-9</a></li> +<li>Drawings on stones, <a href="#Pg_046">46</a>, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a>, <a href="#Pg_055">55</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a>, <a href="#Pg_110">110</a></li> +<li>Drewsteignton, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Druids, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_027">27-8</a></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul> +<li>Edfu, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_169" id="Pg_169" title="Pg_169">[169]</a></span></li> +<li>Eguilaz, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li> +<li>Egypt, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li> +<li>Ellez, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li> +<li>England, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_015">15-33</a></li> +<li>Erdeven, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li> +<li>Er-Lanic, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li> +<li>Eskimos, <a href="#Pg_126">126</a></li> +<li>Es Tudons, <i>nau</i> of, <a href="#Pg_073">73-4</a></li> +<li>Evans, Sir Arthur, <a href="#Pg_020">20</a>, <a href="#Pg_105">105</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Façades, curved, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a>, <a href="#Pg_145">145-6</a></li> +<li>Faidherbe, General, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li> +<li>Faustina, medal of, <a href="#Pg_095">95</a></li> +<li>Féraud, M., <a href="#Pg_092">92-3</a></li> +<li>Fergusson, <a href="#Pg_028">28</a>, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li> +<li>Fibrolite, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a></li> +<li>Finistère, dolmens of, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li> +<li>Fontanaccia, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li> +<li>Fonte Coberta, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li> +<li>Forbes Leslie, Colonel, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li> +<li>France, <a href="#Pg_059">59-67</a></li> +<li>Friar's Heel, <a href="#Pg_018">18</a>, <a href="#Pg_021">21</a></li></ul> + + + +<ul> +<li>Galilee, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +<li>Gargantua, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a></li> +<li>Gaulstown, <a href="#Pg_041">41</a></li> +<li>Gavr'inis, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a>, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li> +<li>Gebel Mousa, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li> +<li>Geoffrey of Monmouth, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Ger, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li> +<li>Germany, <a href="#Pg_056">56-7</a></li> +<li>Get, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li> +<li>Gezer, <a href="#Pg_124">124</a></li> +<li>Giant's Bed, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li> +<li>Giant's Tombs, <a href="#Pg_087">87-8</a></li> +<li>Gigantia, <a href="#Pg_104">104</a></li> +<li>Giraldus Cambrensis, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li> +<li>Göhlitzsch, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li> +<li>Gozo, Is., <a href="#Pg_104">104</a></li> +<li>Greenland, <a href="#Pg_125">125</a></li> +<li>Grewismühlen, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li> +<li>Grotte des Fées, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a></li> +<li>Grotte du Castellet, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul> +<li>Hagiar Kim, <a href="#Pg_006">6</a>, <a href="#Pg_103">103-4</a></li> +<li>Hakpen Hill, <a href="#Pg_024">24</a>, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li> +<li>Halsaflieni, <a href="#Pg_108">108-13,</a> <a href="#Pg_130">130</a></li> +<li>Hauptville's Quoit, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Hengist, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li> +<li>Herrestrup, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li> +<li>Highwood, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a></li> +<li>Hinks, Mr., <a href="#Pg_022">22</a></li> +<li>Hirdmane Stone, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li> +<li>Holed tombs, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a>, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a>, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a>, <a href="#Pg_126">126-7</a></li> +<li>Holland, <a href="#Pg_057">57-8</a></li> +<li>Horned cairns, <a href="#Pg_146">146</a></li> +<li><i>Hünenbetter</i>, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a>, <a href="#Pg_056">56-8</a></li> +<li>Hurlers, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul> +<li>Idanha a Nova, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li> +<li>India, <a href="#Pg_118">118-20</a></li> +<li>Inigo Jones, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li> +<li>Inverness, circles in, <a href="#Pg_037">37-8</a></li> +<li>Ireland, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_040">40-51</a></li> +<li>Iron, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a>, <a href="#Pg_046">46</a>, <a href="#Pg_093">93</a>, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li> +<li>Italy, <a href="#Pg_076">76-7</a></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul> +<li>Jadeite, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a></li> +<li>James I, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li> +<li>Japan, <a href="#Pg_120">120-2</a></li> +<li>Jaulân, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li> +<li>Jimmu, <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li> +<li>Judæa, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Karleby, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li> +<li>Karnak (Egypt), <a href="#Pg_022">22</a></li> +<li>Keamcorravooly, <a href="#Pg_044">44</a></li> +<li>Keller, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li> +<li>Kennet Avenue, <a href="#Pg_024">24</a></li> +<li>Kerlescan, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li> +<li>Kermario, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li> +<li>Keswick Circle, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Khasi Hills, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_170" id="Pg_170" title="Pg_170">[170]</a></span></li> +<li>Kingarth, circle at, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li> +<li>Kirkabrost, circle at, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li> +<li>Kit's Coty House, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Knyttkärr, <a href="#Pg_055">55</a></li> +<li>Komei, <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li> +<li>Kosseir, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Labbamologa, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li> +<li>Ladò, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li> +<li>Lampedusa, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li> +<li>Lanyon Quoit, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li> +<li>La Perotte, <a href="#Pg_007">7</a></li> +<li>Leaba Callighe, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li> +<li>Lecce, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li> +<li>Lewis, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_034">34</a></li> +<li>Linosa, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a></li> +<li>Lockyer, Sir Norman, <a href="#Pg_021">21-2,</a> <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li> +<li>Long Meg and her daughters, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Losa, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li> +<li>Los Millares, <a href="#Pg_070">70</a>, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a>, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li> +<li>Lough Crew, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a>, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a></li> +<li>Lough Gur, <a href="#Pg_048">48-51</a></li> +<li>Lozère, <a href="#Pg_130">130</a></li> +<li>Lundhöj, <a href="#Pg_055">55</a></li> +<li>Lüttich, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>MacIver, D.R., <a href="#Pg_093">93-4</a></li> +<li>Mackenzie, Duncan, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a>, <a href="#Pg_152">152</a>, <a href="#Pg_153">153</a></li> +<li>Maeshowe, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li> +<li>Malta, <a href="#Pg_098">98-113</a></li> +<li>Man, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li> +<li>Mané-er-Hroeck, <a href="#Pg_062">62-3</a></li> +<li>Marcella, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li> +<li>Matera, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a></li> +<li>Maughold, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li> +<li>Mayborough Circle, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li> +<li>Mayr, Albert, <a href="#Pg_105">105</a></li> +<li>Meayll Hill, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li> +<li>Melilli, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a></li> +<li>Men-an-tol, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li> +<li>Ménec, <a href="#Pg_059">59</a></li> +<li>Menhirs, <a href="#Pg_002">2</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_059">59</a>, <a href="#Pg_115">115-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_123">123-4</a></li> +<li> cult of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a>, <a href="#Pg_123">123-4</a></li> +<li>Merivale, circle at, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Merlin, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li> +<li>Merry Maidens, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Messa, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li> +<li>Minieh, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li> +<li>Mnaidra, <a href="#Pg_100">100-3</a></li> +<li>Moab, <a href="#Pg_115">115-7</a></li> +<li>Molafà, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li> +<li>Monte Abrahaõ, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a></li> +<li>Montelius, O., <a href="#Pg_126">126</a>, <a href="#Pg_151">151</a>, <a href="#Pg_153">153</a></li> +<li>Monteracello, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a></li> +<li>Morocco, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li> +<li>Mortillet, de, <a href="#Pg_059">59</a>, <a href="#Pg_144">144</a></li> +<li>Mourzouk, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li> +<li>Msila, <a href="#Pg_093">93</a></li> +<li>Munster, tombs of, <a href="#Pg_044">44</a></li> +<li>Mursia, <a href="#Pg_097">97</a></li> +<li>Musta, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li> +<li>Mycenean vases, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Naas, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li> +<li>Nantes, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li> +<li>Nara, <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li> +<li><i>Naus</i>, <a href="#Pg_073">73-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li> +<li><i>Navetas</i>, see <i>Naus</i></li> +<li>Neermul jungle, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li> +<li>Newbliss, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li> +<li>New Grange, <a href="#Pg_046">46</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a></li> +<li>Nile valley, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li> +<li>Nilgiri Hills, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li> +<li>Nine Maidens, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Nissardi, <a href="#Pg_084">84</a></li> +<li>Norway, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li> +<li>Nossiu, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a>, <a href="#Pg_087">87</a></li> +<li><i>Nuraghi</i>, <a href="#Pg_082">82-7</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Obsidian, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_134">134</a></li> +<li>Odin's Stone, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_171" id="Pg_171" title="Pg_171">[171]</a></span></li> +<li>Orkney Isles, cairns of, <a href="#Pg_038">38-9</a></li> +<li>Orry's Grave, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li> +<li>Orsi, Paolo, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a>, <a href="#Pg_079">79</a></li> +<li>Orthostatic slabs, use of, <a href="#Pg_004">4</a>, <a href="#Pg_069">69</a>, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a>, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_100">100</a></li> +</ul> + + + +<ul> +<li>Palmella, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a></li> +<li>Pantalica, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li> +<li>Pantelleria, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_096">96-8</a></li> +<li>Papa-Westra, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li> +<li>Pehada, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li> +<li>Penrith Circle, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a></li> +<li>Pentre Ifan, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Pera, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +<li>Périgord, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li> +<li>Persia, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li> +<li>Petit Morin, <a href="#Pg_066">66-7,</a> <a href="#Pg_130">130</a></li> +<li>Pfäffikon, Lake, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li> +<li>Phoenicia, <a href="#Pg_154">154</a></li> +<li>Pianosa, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li> +<li>Picardt, John, <a href="#Pg_057">57</a></li> +<li>Pierre du Diable, La, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a></li> +<li>Pierres Plates, Les, <a href="#Pg_061">61</a></li> +<li>Piper, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Plas Newydd, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li> +<li>Plemmirio, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li> +<li>Pliny, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li> +<li>Portico-dolmens, <a href="#Pg_040">40-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_052">52</a>, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li> +<li>Portugal, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a></li> +<li>Pottery, <a href="#Pg_135">135-6</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Reinach, Salomon, <a href="#Pg_144">144</a></li> +<li>Religion, megalithic, <a href="#Pg_105">105-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_137">137-9</a></li> +<li>Rhodes, <a href="#Pg_154">154</a></li> +<li>Rinaiou, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li> +<li>Rock-tombs, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_066">66-7,</a> <a href="#Pg_071">71</a>, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a>, <a href="#Pg_079">79-81,</a> <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li> +<li>Rockbarton, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a></li> +<li>Rodmarton, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li> +<li>Roknia, <a href="#Pg_094">94</a></li> +<li>Rollright Circle, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Saint George, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li> +<li>Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li> +<li>Saint Michel, Mont, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a></li> +<li>Saint Pantaléon, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li> +<li>Saint Sermin, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li> +<li>Saint Vincent, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a></li> +<li>Sant' Elia, Cape, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li> +<li>Sardinia, <a href="#Pg_082">82-8</a></li> +<li>S'Aspru, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li> +<li>Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg_052">52-5</a></li> +<li>Scotland, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_034">34-9</a></li> +<li>Sculptures, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a>, <a href="#Pg_138">138</a></li> +<li>Secondary burial, <a href="#Pg_079">79</a>, <a href="#Pg_141">141-2</a></li> +<li>Senâm, the, <a href="#Pg_093">93-4</a></li> +<li>Seriphos, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li> +<li>Serucci, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li> +<li><i>Sesi</i>, the, <a href="#Pg_097">97-8</a></li> +<li>Shap, circle at, <a href="#Pg_023">23</a></li> +<li>Sicily, <a href="#Pg_077">77-82</a></li> +<li>Sidbury Hill, <a href="#Pg_021">21</a></li> +<li>Sidon, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +<li>Siggewi, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li> +<li>Silbury Hill, <a href="#Pg_024">24</a>, <a href="#Pg_028">28</a></li> +<li>Siret, Messieurs, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li> +<li>Sjöbol, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li> +<li>Skulls, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a>, <a href="#Pg_129">129-31</a></li> +<li>Sorapoor, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li> +<li>Spain, <a href="#Pg_067">67-71</a></li> +<li>Spence, Magnus, <a href="#Pg_037">37</a></li> +<li>Stanton Drew, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a>, <a href="#Pg_049">49</a></li> +<li>Star-worship, <a href="#Pg_023">23</a>, <a href="#Pg_050">50-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_128">128</a></li> +<li>Steatopygous figures, <a href="#Pg_107">107</a>, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li> +<li>Stenness, Ring of, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li> +<li>Stonehenge, <a href="#Pg_015">15-23</a></li> +<li>Stoney-Littleton, <a href="#Pg_032">32</a></li> +<li>Stripple Stones, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Stromness, circle at, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li> +<li>Stukeley, Dr., <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li> +<li>Su Cadalanu, <a href="#Pg_084">84</a></li> +<li>Sudan, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li> +</ul> + + +<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_172" id="Pg_172" title="Pg_172">[172]</a></span></div> + + +<ul> +<li>Suetonius, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li> +<li>Sun-worship, <a href="#Pg_021">21-3,</a> <a href="#Pg_028">28-9,</a> <a href="#Pg_037">37</a>, <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li> +<li>Sweden, <a href="#Pg_052">52-5</a></li> +<li>Switzerland, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li> +<li>Syria, <a href="#Pg_115">115-8</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Table des Marchands, La, <a href="#Pg_016">16</a>, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li> +<li>Tagliaferro, Professor, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a>, <a href="#Pg_111">111</a></li> +<li>Tahutihotep, tomb of, <a href="#Pg_008">8</a></li> +<li><i>Talayots</i>, <a href="#Pg_071">71-3</a></li> +<li>Tamuli, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li> +<li>Tangier, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li> +<li>Tarentum, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li> +<li>Tattooing, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li> +<li>"Three Brothers of Grugith," the, <a href="#Pg_128">128</a></li> +<li>Tiberias, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +<li>Tinaarloo, <a href="#Pg_057">57</a></li> +<li>Toledo, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li> +<li>Torebo, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li> +<li>Tours, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li> +<li>Trade relations, <a href="#Pg_131">131-3</a></li> +<li>Tregeseal, circles near, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li> +<li>Trepanned skulls, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a></li> +<li>Trilithons, <a href="#Pg_002">2</a>, <a href="#Pg_017">17</a>, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a>, <a href="#Pg_100">100-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_103">103-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li> +<li>Tripoli, <a href="#Pg_090">90-1</a></li> +<li><i>Truddhi</i>, <a href="#Pg_086">86</a></li> +<li>Tsîl, <a href="#Pg_117">117-8</a></li> +<li>Tunis, <a href="#Pg_095">95-6</a></li> +<li>Tyfta, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li> +<li>Tyre, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li> +<li>Tzarskaya, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Unebi, Mt., <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li> +</ul> + + +<ul> +<li>Vail Gorguina, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a></li> +<li>Vellore, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li> +<li>Villafrati, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a></li> +<li>Villages, megalithic, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a>, <a href="#Pg_085">85-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_097">97</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Wales, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li> +<li>Watchstone, the, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li> +<li>Wayland the Smith's Cave, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_014">14</a>, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a>, <a href="#Pg_032">32</a></li> +<li>Wedge-shaped tomb, <a href="#Pg_044">44-5,</a> <a href="#Pg_055">55</a>, <a href="#Pg_070">70-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li> +<li>Westgothland, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li> +<li>West Tump, <a href="#Pg_146">146</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Yarhouse, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Zammit, Dr. T., <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li> +</ul> + +<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="center"><small>WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.</small><br /> +<small>PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH</small> +<br /><br /></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + + +<!-- Closing ads --> + + +<!-- Ad Number 1 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h2>HARPER'S LIBRARY OF<br /> +LIVING THOUGHT</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Foolscap 8vo, gilt tops, decorative covers, richly gilt backs<br /> +Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather 3s. 6d. net.</i></p> + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<p class="center"><big>By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D.</big><br /> +<small>(Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons)</small></p> + +<h2>ANCIENT TYPES<br /> +OF MAN</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Illustrated</i><br /><br /></p> + +<p> +From discoveries of ancient human remains +made within the last half-century, anthropologists +are now able to place in order changes +that have taken place in the posture, gait, +height, and to some extent the habits of man +during a period of at least a half-million years. +Prof. Keith, who is one of the foremost investigators +in this field, tells the story of the various +forms which the body of the man has assumed, +in a lucid and attractive way. +</p> + +<p> + "The kind of book that only a master of his +subject could write. It must interest every thinking +person."—<i>British Medical Journal.</i> +</p> +</div> + + +<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + +<!-- Ad Number 2 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<p class="center"><big>By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE</big><br /><br /></p> + +<h2>PERSONAL<br /> +RELIGION IN EGYPT<br /> +BEFORE CHRISTIANITY</h2> + +<p> +"The author gauges what ideas were already +part of the religious thought in the first century, +and what were the terms and ideas in Christianity +which were new to mankind. The current +literature of the time was as naturally taken for +granted by Christians as were the books of the +Old Testament which were familiar to them. +The separation of the new ideas in the teaching +of Christ and of the Apostles from the general +terms of religion at the time, is the only road +to understanding what Christianity meant to +those who actually heard the teaching." +</p> + +<p class="ad_sig"><i>Notts Guardian.</i></p> + + +<p>"A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a real +contribution to the study of comparative religion."</p> + +<p class="ad_sig"><i>Methodist Recorder.</i></p> +</div> + + +<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + +<!-- Ad Number 3 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<p class="center"><big>By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER</big></p> + +<h2>RELIGION AND ART IN<br /> +ANCIENT GREECE</h2> + +<p> +"Anything from such an authority on +Greek art is welcome. This subject in +the hands of Professor Gardner becomes +a profoundly interesting study in the +philosophy of religion. He has dealt with +the religion of Greece as it affected the +art of sculpture, and with the reaction of +that art upon the ideals and aspirations +of the people and its influence upon the +popular and the educated conceptions +of the gods. It is well worth the trouble +to study the religious art of such a people, +and this is an epitome of the subject +such as readers can get nowhere else." +</p> + +<p class="ad_sig"><i>Scotsman.</i></p> +</div> + + +<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + +<!-- Ad Number 4 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<p class="center"><big>By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE</big></p> + + + +<h2>THE REVOLUTIONS OF<br /> +CIVILISATION</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Illustrated</i><br /><br /></p> + +<p> +In the light of history—so enormously +extended in recent years—the author surveys +the waxing and waning of civilisation +as evidenced in sculpture, painting, literature, +mechanics, and wealth. In tracing +the various forces at work in this fluctuation +he arrives at most significant conclusions, +notably in connection with race mixture +and forms of government. +</p> + +<p> +"We know nothing that exhibits in so brief +a compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of +human progress and retrogression since the +dawn of history."—<i>Birmingham Post.</i> +</p> +</div> + + +<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + + +<!-- Ad Number 5 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<p class="center"><big>By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and<br /> +HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D.</big></p> + + + +<h2>CRETE, THE FORERUNNER<br /> +OF GREECE</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Map, Plans, etc.</i><br /><br /></p> + + + +<p> +"The wondrous story of a great civilisation +which flourished before Abraham +was born, and left behind a memory of +itself in the Arts of Ancient Greece and +in the traditions of a golden age and a +'Lost Atlantis.'"—<i>Evening Standard.</i> +</p> + +<p> +"We have now the material for forming +a very fair conception of the fruitful contribution +made by Crete to Grecian and +European civilisation. What was long +accounted fable—statements of Herodotus +and Thucydides—have been turned +into established fact. The book supplies +material for forming judgments on some +of the most interesting and still highly +debated problems of early Greek history." +</p> + +<p class="ad_sig"><i>Glasgow Herald.</i></p> +</div> + +<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + +<!-- Ad Number 6 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + +<p class="center"><big>By Prof. G. ELLIOT SMITH</big></p> + + +<h2>THE<br /> +ANCIENT EGYPTIANS</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>Illustrated</i><br /><br /></p> + +<p> +An account of the Egyptians of the +unrecorded past as revealed by the investigations +of the anthropologist. The author +traces to their source the various streams +of alien immigrants which made their way +into the Nile valley, and correlates his facts +with the great racial movements in the +neighbouring continents. He shows how +the Egyptians inaugurated a higher civilisation—particularly +in bringing the Stone +Age to a close and introducing the use of +metals. +</p> + +<p> +"This is a brilliant little book, illuminating +the whole subject of the history of +the human race since man assumed his +proper shape."—<i>Manchester Guardian.</i> +</p> +</div> + +<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + + +<!-- Ad Number 7 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + +<p><big>Algernon Charles Swinburne</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Leo Tolstoy</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE TEACHING OF JESUS</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE CHRISTIANITY</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ETHER OF SPACE. Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. William Wrede (University of Breslau)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. C.H. Becker (Colonial Institute, Hamburg)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Svante Arrhenius</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(Nobel Institute, Stockholm)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE. 2 vols. Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>JESUS OR PAUL?</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. D.A. Bertholet (University of Basle)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Reinhold Seeberg (University of Berlin)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>REVELATION AND INSPIRATION</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Johannes Weiss (University of Heidelberg)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>PAUL AND JESUS</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Rudolph Eucken (University of Jena)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ROMAN LAW IN MEDIÆVAL EUROPE</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., LL.D.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>DIAMONDS. Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>PLEASE WRITE FOR PROSPECTUS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS</i></p> +</div> + + + +<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div> + + + + +<!-- Ad Number 8 --> + + +<div class="closing_ad"> +<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + +<p><big>C.H. Hawes, M.A., and Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CRETE THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE. Maps, etc.</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Sir William A. Tilden, F.R.S.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ELEMENTS: Speculations as to their Nature and Origin.</small></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Ernest A. Gardner (University of London)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. F.W. Mott, F.R.S., M.D.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND SONG.</small></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. G. Elliott Smith (University of Manchester)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, and their</small></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Influence upon the Civilisation of Europe. Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Frederick Czapek (University of Prague)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CHEMICAL PHENOMENA IN LIFE</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION. Copiously Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>The Very Rev. the Hon. W.H. Fremantle, D.D. (Dean of Ripon)</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>NATURAL CHRISTIANITY</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. A.W. Bickerton</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE BIRTH OF WORLDS AND SYSTEMS. Illustrated.</small></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Preface by Prof. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S.</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Prof. Arthur Keith, M.D.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN. Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONS. Diagrams</small></span></p> + +<p><big>Arthur Holmes, B.Sc.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE AGE OF THE EARTH. Illustrated</small></span></p> + +<p><big>T. Eric Peet, M.A.</big><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS</small></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>AND THEIR BUILDERS. Illustrated</small></span></p> + + +<h2>:: HARPER AND BROTHERS ::</h2> +<p class="center">45 Albemarle St: London, W. Franklin Sq. New York</p> +</div> + + +<div><br /><br /></div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rough Stone Monuments and Their +Builders, by T. Eric Peet + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND *** + +***** This file should be named 15590-h.htm or 15590-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/5/9/15590/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/15590-h/images/cover.png b/15590-h/images/cover.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b3f274f --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/cover.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_01.png b/15590-h/images/fig_01.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b3e18f2 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_01.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_02.png b/15590-h/images/fig_02.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9295e3f --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_02.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_03.png b/15590-h/images/fig_03.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd48c4e --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_03.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_04.png b/15590-h/images/fig_04.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..75b5aaf --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_04.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_05.png b/15590-h/images/fig_05.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f641047 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_05.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_06.png b/15590-h/images/fig_06.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d438ae --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_06.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_07.png b/15590-h/images/fig_07.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..24f65b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_07.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_08.png b/15590-h/images/fig_08.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..70566fd --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_08.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_09.png b/15590-h/images/fig_09.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5829f80 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_09.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_10.png b/15590-h/images/fig_10.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7472253 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_10.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_11.png b/15590-h/images/fig_11.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..de8beb7 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_11.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_12.png b/15590-h/images/fig_12.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0445b25 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_12.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_13.png b/15590-h/images/fig_13.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1507a38 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_13.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_14.png b/15590-h/images/fig_14.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..84493bf --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_14.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_15.png b/15590-h/images/fig_15.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8dc618c --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_15.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_16.png b/15590-h/images/fig_16.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b1961a --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_16.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_17.png b/15590-h/images/fig_17.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1dd18ae --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_17.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_18.png b/15590-h/images/fig_18.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a4918a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_18.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_19.png b/15590-h/images/fig_19.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e0433fe --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_19.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_20.png b/15590-h/images/fig_20.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b80a0c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_20.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_21.png b/15590-h/images/fig_21.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..70ff0f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_21.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/fig_22.png b/15590-h/images/fig_22.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3313678 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/fig_22.png diff --git a/15590-h/images/frontispiece.jpg b/15590-h/images/frontispiece.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef9dd9f --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/frontispiece.jpg diff --git a/15590-h/images/plate_01.jpg b/15590-h/images/plate_01.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..70ff881 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/plate_01.jpg diff --git a/15590-h/images/plate_02a.jpg b/15590-h/images/plate_02a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..072e098 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/plate_02a.jpg diff --git a/15590-h/images/plate_02b.jpg b/15590-h/images/plate_02b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2c014be --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/plate_02b.jpg diff --git a/15590-h/images/plate_03.jpg b/15590-h/images/plate_03.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d95961c --- /dev/null +++ b/15590-h/images/plate_03.jpg diff --git a/15590.txt b/15590.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..58a58bb --- /dev/null +++ b/15590.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4915 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders, by T. Eric Peet + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders + +Author: T. Eric Peet + +Release Date: April 8, 2005 [EBook #15590] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +[Illustration: STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST] + + + + + ROUGH STONE + MONUMENTS + AND THEIR + BUILDERS + + + BY + + T. ERIC PEET + + FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD; + LATELY CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY + OF OXFORD AND PELHAM STUDENT AT + THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ROME + + + + + HARPER & BROTHERS + LONDON AND NEW YORK + 45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. + 1912 + + + + _Published October, 1912_. + + + + + PREFACE + +The aim of this volume is to enable those who are interested in +Stonehenge and other great stone monuments of England to learn something +of the similar buildings which exist in different parts of the world, of +the men who constructed them, and of the great archaeological system of +which they form a part. It is hoped that to the archaeologist it may be +useful as a complete though brief sketch of our present knowledge of the +megalithic monuments, and as a short treatment of the problems which +arise in connection with them. + +To British readers it is unnecessary to give any justification for the +comparatively full treatment accorded to the monuments of Great Britain +and Ireland. Malta and Sardinia may perhaps seem to occupy more than +their due share of space, but the usurpation is justified by the +magnificence and the intrinsic interest of their megalithic buildings. +Being of singularly complicated types and remarkably well preserved they +naturally tell us much more of their builders than do the simpler +monuments of other larger and now more important countries. In these two +islands, moreover, research has in the last few years been extremely +active, and it is felt that the accounts here given of them will contain +some material new even to the archaeologist. + +In order to assist those readers who may wish to follow out the subject +in greater detail a short bibliography has been added to the book. + +For the figures and photographs with which this volume is illustrated I +have to thank many archaeological societies and individual scholars. +Plate III and part of Plate II I owe to the kindness of Dr. Zammit, +Director of the Museum of Valletta, while the other part of Plate II is +from a photograph kindly lent to me by Dr. Ashby. I have to thank the +Society of Antiquaries for Figures 1 and 3, the Reale Accademia dei +Lincei for Figures 17 and 20, and the Societe prehistorique de France, +through Dr. Marcel Baudouin, for Figure 10. I am indebted to the Royal +Irish Academy for Figure 8, to the Committee of the British School of +Rome for Figure 18, and to Dr. Albert Mayr and the Akademie der +Wissenschaften in Munich for the plan of Mnaidra. Professors Montelius, +Siret and Cartailhac I have to thank not only for permission to +reproduce illustrations from their works, but also for their kind +interest in my volume. Figure 19 I owe to my friend Dr. Randall MacIver. +The frontispiece and Plate I are fine photographs by Messrs. The +Graphotone Co., Ltd. + +In conclusion, I must not forget to thank Canon F.F. Grensted for much +help with regard to the astronomical problems connected with Stonehenge. + + T. ERIC PEET. + +LIVERPOOL, + _August 10th,_ 1912. + + + + + CONTENTS + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. INTRODUCTION 1 + + II. STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE + MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES 15 + + III. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND + AND IRELAND 34 + + IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA 52 + + V. FRANCE, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 59 + + VI. ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS 76 + + VII. AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER. + MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS 90 + + VIII. THE DOLMENS OF ASIA 114 + + IX. THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC + MONUMENTS, THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, + RELIGION, ETC 123 + + X. WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE + DID THEY COME? 143 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 + + INDEX 167 + + + + + LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + PLATES + + Stonehenge from the south-east _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + I. Stonehenge from the south-west 17 + II. Mnaidra, doorway of Room H. The _Nuraghe_ of + Madrone in Sardinia 82 +III. Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of chief room 100 + +FIGURE PAGE + 1. Plan of Stonehenge 16 + 2. Avebury and Kennet Avenue 23 + 3. Plans of English Long Barrows 31 + 4. Horned tumulus, Caithness 39 + 5. Plans of three dolmen-types 40 + 6. Type-plan of simple corridor-tomb 42 + 7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb 44 + 8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland 47 + 9. Corridor-tomb at Ottagarden, Sweden 53 + 10. Plan of La Pierre aux Fees, Oise, France 61 + 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy 63 + 12. Plan of La Grotte des Fees, Arles, France 65 + 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, Petit Morin, France 66 + 14. Plan of corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain 69 + 15. Section and plan of a _talayot_, Majorca 72 + 16. Section and plan of the _nau_ d'Es Tudons 73 + 17. Elevation, section and plan of a Sardinian _nuraghe_ 83 + 18. Plan of Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia 87 + 19. Plan of stone circle at the Senam, Algeria 94 + 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria 97 + 21. Plan of the Sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta 99 + 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat 115 + + + + + + ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS + + CHAPTER I + + INTRODUCTION + + +To the south of Salisbury Plain, about two miles west of the small +country town of Amesbury, lies the great stone circle of Stonehenge. For +centuries it has been an object of wonder and admiration, and even +to-day it is one of the sights of our country. Perhaps, however, few of +those who have heard of Stonehenge or even of those who have visited it +are aware that it is but a unit in a vast crowd of megalithic monuments +which, in space, extends from the west of Europe to India, and, in time, +covers possibly more than a thousand years. + +What exactly is a megalithic monument? Strictly speaking, it is a +building made of very large stones. This definition would, of course, +include numbers of buildings of the present day and of the medieval and +classical periods, while many of the Egyptian pyramids and temples would +at once suggest themselves as excellent examples of this type of +building. The archaeologist, however, uses the term in a much more +limited sense. He confines it to a series of tombs and buildings +constructed in Western Asia, in North Africa, and in certain parts of +Europe, towards the end of the neolithic period and during part of the +copper and bronze ages which followed it. The structures are usually, +though not quite invariably, made of large blocks of unworked or +slightly worked stone, and they conform to certain definite types. The +best known of these types are as follows: Firstly, the menhir, which is +a tall, rough pillar of stone with its base fixed into the earth. +Secondly, the trilithon, which consists of a pair of tall stones set at +a short distance apart supporting a third stone laid across the top. +Thirdly, the dolmen, which is a single slab of stone supported by +several others arranged in such a way as to enclose a space or chamber +beneath it. Some English writers apply the term cromlech to such a +structure, quite incorrectly. Both menhir and dolmen are Breton words, +these two types of megalithic monument being particularly frequent in +Brittany. Menhir is derived from the Breton _men_, a stone, and _hir_, +long; similarly dolmen is from _dol_, a table, and _men_, a stone. Some +archaeologists also apply the word dolmen to rectangular chambers roofed +with more than one slab. We have carefully avoided this practice, always +classing such chambers as corridor-tombs of an elementary type. +Fourthly, we have the corridor-tomb (_Ganggrab_), which usually consists +of a chamber entered by a gallery or corridor. In cases where the +chamber is no wider than, and hence indistinguishable from the corridor, +the tomb becomes a long rectangular gallery, and answers to the French +_allee couverte_ in the strict sense. Fifthly, we come to the +_alignement_, in which a series of menhirs is arranged in open lines on +some definite system. We shall find a famous example of this at Morbihan +in Brittany. Sixthly, there is the cromlech (from _crom_, curve, and +_lec'h_, a stone), which consists of a number of menhirs arranged to +enclose a space, circular, elliptical or, in rare cases, rectangular. + +These are the chief types of megalithic monument, but there are others +which, though clearly belonging to the same class of structure, show +special forms and are more complicated. They are in many cases +developments of one or more of the simple types, and will be treated +specially in their proper places. Such monuments are the _nuraghi_ of +Sardinia and the 'temples' of Malta and Gozo. + +Finally, the rock-hewn sepulchre is often classed with the megalithic +monuments, and it is therefore frequently mentioned in the following +pages. This is justified by the fact that it generally occurs in +connection with megalithic structures. The exact relation in which it +stands to them will be fully discussed in the last chapter. + + +We have now to consider what may be called the architectural methods of +the megalithic builders, for although in dealing with such primitive +monuments it would perhaps be exaggeration to speak of a style, yet +there were certain principles which were as carefully and as invariably +observed as were in later days those of the Doric or the Gothic styles +in the countries where they took root. + +The first and most important principle, that on which the whole of the +megalithic construction may be said to be based, is the use of the +orthostatic block, i.e. the block set up on its edge. It is clear that +in this way each block or slab is made to provide the maximum of wall +area at the expense of the thickness of the wall. Naturally, in +districts where the rock is of a slabby nature blocks of a more or less +uniform thickness lay ready to the builders' hand, and the appearance of +the structure was much more finished than it would be in places where +the rock had a less regular fracture or where shapeless boulders had to +be relied on. The orthostatic slabs were often deeply sunk into the +ground where this consisted of earth or soft rock; of the latter case +there are good examples at Stonehenge, where the rock is a soft chalk. +When the ground had an uneven surface of hard rock, the slabs were set +upright on it and small stones wedged in beneath them to make them stand +firm. Occasionally, as at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, a course of horizontal +blocks set at the foot of the uprights served to keep them more securely +in position. With the upright block technique went hand in hand the +roofing of narrow spaces by means of horizontal slabs laid across the +top of the uprights. + +The second principle of megalithic architecture was the use of more or +less coursed masonry set without mortar, each block lying on its side +and not on its edge. It is quite possible that this principle is less +ancient in origin than that of the orthostatic slab, for it usually +occurs in structures of a more advanced type. Thus in simple and +primitive types of building such as the dolmen it is most rare to find +dry masonry, but in the advanced corridor-tombs of Ireland, the Giants' +Graves and _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, and in the 'temples' of Malta this +technique is largely used, often in combination with the upright slab +system. Indeed, this combination is quite typical of the best megalithic +work: a series of uprights is first set in position, and over this are +laid several horizontal courses of rather smaller stones. We must note +that the dry masonry which we are describing is still strictly +megalithic, as the blocks used are never small and often of enormous +size. + +Buildings in which this system is used are occasionally roofed with +slabs, but more often corbelling is employed. At a certain height each +succeeding course in the wall begins to project inwards over the last, +so that the walls, as it were, lean together and finally meet to form a +false barrel-vault or a false dome, according as the structure is +rectangular or round. Occasionally, when the building was wide, it was +impossible to corbel the walls sufficiently to make them meet. In this +case they were corbelled as far as possible and the open space still +left was covered with long flat slabs. + +It has often been commented on as a matter of wonder that a people +living in the stone age, or at the best possessing a few simple tools of +metal, should have been able to move and place in position such enormous +blocks of stone. With modern cranes and traction engines all would be +simple, but it might have been thought that in the stone age such +building would be impossible. Thus, for instance, in the 'temple' of +Hagiar Kim in Malta, there is one block of stone which measures 21 feet +by 9, and must weigh many tons. In reality there is little that is +marvellous in the moving and setting up of these blocks, for the tools +needed are ready to the hand of every savage; but there is something to +wonder at and to admire in the patience displayed and in the +organization necessary to carry out such vast pieces of labour. Great, +indeed, must have been the power of the cult which could combine the +force of hundreds and even thousands of individuals for long periods of +time in the construction of the great megalithic temples. Perhaps slave +labour played a part in the work, but in any case it is clear that we +are in the presence of strongly organized governments backed by a +powerful religion which required the building of temples for the gods +and vast tombs for the dead. + +Let us consider for a moment what was the procedure in building a simple +megalithic monument. It was fourfold, for it involved the finding and +possibly the quarrying of the stones, the moving of them to the desired +spot, the erection of the uprights in their places, and the placing of +the cover-slab or slabs on top of them. + +With regard to the first step it is probable that in most cases the +place chosen for a tomb or cemetery was one in which numbers of great +stones lay on the surface ready to hand. By this means labour was +greatly economized. On the other hand, there are certainly cases where +the stones were brought long distances in order to be used. Thus, in +Charente in France there is at La Perotte a block weighing nearly 40 +tons which must have travelled over 18 miles. We have no evidence as to +whether stones were ever actually quarried. If they were, the means used +must have been the stone axe, fire, and water. It was not usual in the +older and simpler dolmens to dress the stones in any way, though in the +later and more complicated structures well-worked blocks were often +used. + +The required stones having been found it was now necessary to move them +to the spot. This could be done in two ways. The first and simpler is +that which we see pictured on Egyptian monuments, such as the tomb of +Tahutihotep at El Bersheh. A rough road of beams is laid in the required +direction, and wooden rollers are placed under the stone on this road. +Large numbers of men or oxen then drag the stone along by means of ropes +attached to it. Other labourers assist the work from behind with levers, +and replace the rollers in front of the stone as fast as they pass out +behind. Those who have seen the modern Arabs in excavation work move +huge blocks with wooden levers and palm-leaf rope will realize that for +the building of the dolmens little was needed except numbers and time. + +The other method of moving the stones is as follows: a gentle slope of +hard earth covered with wet clay is built with its higher extremity +close beside the block to be moved. As many men as there is room for +stand on each side of the block, and with levers resting on beams or +stones as fulcra, raise the stone vertically as far as possible. Other +men then fill up the space beneath it with earth and stones. The process +is next repeated with higher fulcra, until the stone is level with the +top of the clay slope, on to which it is then slipped. With a little +help it now slides down the inclined plane to the bottom. Here a fresh +slope is built, and the whole procedure is gone through again. The +method can even be used on a slight uphill gradient. It requires less +dragging and more vertical raising than the other, and would thus be +more useful where oxen were unobtainable. + +When the stones were once on the spot it is not hard to imagine how they +were set upright with levers and ropes. The placing of the cover-slab +was, however, a more complicated matter. The method employed was +probably to build a slope of earth leading up from one side to the +already erected uprights and almost covering them. Up this the slab +could be moved by means of rollers, ropes, and levers, until it was in +position over the uprights. The slope could then be removed. If the +dolmen was to be partly or wholly covered with a mound, as some +certainly were, it would not even be necessary to remove the slope. + +Roughly speaking, the extension of megalithic monuments is from Spain to +Japan and from Sweden to Algeria. These are naturally merely limits, and +it must not be supposed that the regions which lie between them all +contain megalithic monuments. More exactly, we find them in Asia, in +Japan, Corea, India, Persia, Syria, and Palestine. In Africa we have +them along the whole of the north coast, from Tripoli to Morocco; inland +they are not recorded, except for one possible example in Egypt and +several in the Soudan. In Europe the distribution of dolmens and other +megalithic monuments is wide. They occur in the Caucasus and the Crimea, +and quite lately examples have been recorded in Bulgaria. There are none +in Greece, and only a few in Italy, in the extreme south-east corner. +The islands, however, which lie around and to the south of Italy afford +many examples: Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Gozo, Pantelleria, and +Lampedusa are strongholds of the megalithic civilization, and it is +possible that Sicily should be included in the list. Moving westward we +find innumerable examples in the Spanish Peninsula and in France. To the +north we find them frequent in the British Isles, Sweden, Denmark, and +North Germany; they are rarer in Holland and Belgium. Two examples have +been reported from Switzerland. + +It is only to be expected that these great megalithic monuments of a +prehistoric age should excite the wonder and stimulate the imagination +of those who see them. In all countries and at all times they have been +centres of story and legend, and even at the present day many strange +beliefs concerning them are to be found among the peasantry who live +around them. Salomon Reinach has written a remarkable essay on this +question, and the following examples are mainly drawn from the +collection he has there made. The names given to the monuments often +show clearly the ideas with which they are associated in the minds of +the peasants. Thus the Penrith circle is locally known as "Meg and her +Daughters," a dolmen in Berkshire is called "Wayland the Smith's Cave," +while in one of the Orkney Isles is a menhir named "Odin's Stone." In +France many are connected with Gargantua, whose name, the origin of +which is doubtful, stands clearly for a giant. Thus we find a rock +called the "Chair of Gargantua," a menhir called "Gargantua's Little +Finger," and an _allee couverte_ called "Gargantua's Tomb." Names +indicating connections with fairies, virgins, witches, dwarfs, devils, +saints, druids, and even historical persons are frequent. Dolmens are +often "houses of dwarfs," a name perhaps suggested or at least helped by +the small holes cut in some of them; they are "huts" or "caves of +fairies," they are "kitchens" or "forges of the devil," while menhirs +are called his arrows, and cromlechs his cauldrons. In France we have +stones of various saints, while in England many monuments are connected +with King Arthur. A dolmen in Wales is his quoit; the circle at Penrith +is his round table, and that of Caermarthen is his park. Both in England +and France we find stones and altars "of the druids"; in the Pyrenees, +in Spain, and in Africa there are "graves of the Gentiles" or "tombs of +idolaters"; in Arles (France) the _allees couvertes_ are called +"prisons" or "shops of the Saracens," and the dolmens of the Eastern +Pyrenees are locally known as "huts of the Moors." Dolmens in India are +often "stones of the monkeys," and in France there are "wolves' altars," +"wolves' houses," and "wolves' tables." + +Passing now to more definite beliefs connected with megalithic +monuments, we may notice that from quite early times they have been--as +indeed they often are still--regarded with fear and respect, and even +worshipped. In certain parts of France peasants are afraid to shelter +under the dolmens, and never think of approaching them by night. In +early Christian days there must have been a cult of the menhir, for the +councils of Arles (A.D. 452), of Tours (A.D. 567), and of Nantes (A.D. +658) all condemn the cult of trees, springs, and _stones_. In A.D. 789 +Charlemagne attempted to suppress stone-worship, and to destroy the +stones themselves. In Spain, where, as in France, megalithic monuments +are common, the councils of Toledo in A.D. 681 and 682 condemned the +"Worshippers of Stones." Moreover there are many cases in which a +monument itself bears traces of having been the centre of a cult in +early or medieval times. The best example is perhaps the dolmen of +Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, which was transformed into a chapel about the +twelfth century. Similar transformations have been made in Spain. In +many cases, too, crosses have been placed or engraved on menhirs in +order to "Christianize" them. + +Remarkable powers and virtues have been attributed to many of the +monuments. One of the dolmens of Finistere is said to cure rheumatism in +anyone who rubs against the loftiest of its stones, and another heals +fever patients who sleep under it. Stones with holes pierced in them are +believed to be peculiarly effective, and it suffices to pass the +diseased limb or, when possible, the invalid himself through the hole. + +Oaths sworn in or near a megalithic monument have a peculiar sanctity. +In Scotland as late as the year A.D. 1438 "John off Erwyne and Will +Bernardson swor on the Hirdmane Stein before oure Lorde ye Erie off +Orknay and the gentiless off the cuntre." + +Many of the monuments are endowed by the credulous with life. The menhir +du Champ Dolent sinks an inch every hundred years. Others say that a +piece of it is eaten by the moon each night, and that when it is +completely devoured the Last Judgment will take place. The stones of +Carnac bathe in the sea once a year, and many of those of the Perigord +leap three times each day at noon. + +We have already remarked on the connection of the monuments with dwarfs, +giants, and mythical personages. There is an excellent example in our +own country in Berkshire. Here when a horse has cast a shoe the rider +must leave it in front of the dolmen called "The Cave of Wayland the +Smith," placing at the same time a coin on the cover-stone. He must then +retire for a suitable period, after which he returns to find the horse +shod and the money gone. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE + MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES + + +Stonehenge, the most famous of our English megalithic monuments, has +excited the attention of the historian and the legend-lover since early +times. According to some of the medieval historians it was erected by +Aurelius Ambrosius to the memory of a number of British chiefs whom +Hengist and his Saxons treacherously murdered in A.D. 462. Others add +that Ambrosius himself was buried there. Giraldus Cambrensis, who wrote +in the twelfth century, mingles these accounts with myth. He says, +"There was in Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy of +admiration called the Giants' Dance, because giants from the remotest +part of Africa brought them to Ireland, and in the plains of Kildare, +not far from the castle of Naas, miraculously set them up.... These +stones (according to the British history) Aurelius Ambrosius, King of +the Britons, procured Merlin by supernatural means to bring from Ireland +to Britain." + +From the present ruined state of Stonehenge it is not possible to state +with certainty what was the original arrangement, but it is probable +that it was approximately as follows (see frontispiece): + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. Plan of Stonehenge in 1901. (After +_Archaeologia_.) The dotted stones are of porphyritic diabase.] + +There was an outer circle of about thirty worked upright stones of +square section (Fig. I). On each pair of these rested a horizontal +block, but only five now remain in position. These 'lintels' probably +formed a continuous architrave (Pl. I). The diameter of this outer +circle is about 97-1/2 feet, inner measurement. The stones used are +sarsens or blocks of sandstone, such as are to be found lying about in +many parts of the district round Stonehenge. + +[Illustration: Plate I. STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-WEST + Photo Graphotone Co. To face p. 17] + +Well within this circle stood the five huge trilithons (_a-e_), arranged +in the form of a horseshoe with its open side to the north-east. Each +trilithon, as the name implies, consists of three stones, two of which +are uprights, the third being laid horizontally across the top. The +height of the trilithons varies from 16 to 21-1/2 feet, the lowest being +the two that stand at the open end of the horseshoe, and the highest +that which is at the apex. Here again all the stones are sarsens and all +are carefully worked. On the top end of each upright of the trilithons +is an accurately cut tenon which dovetails into two mortices cut one at +each end of the lower surface of the horizontal block. Each upright of +the outer circle had a double tenon, and the lintels, besides being +morticed to take these tenons, were also dovetailed each into its two +neighbours. + +Within the horseshoe and close up to it stand the famous blue-stones, +now twelve in number, but originally perhaps more. These stones are not +so high as the trilithons, the tallest reaching only 7-1/2 feet. They +are nearly all of porphyritic diabase. It has often been asserted that +these blue-stones must have been brought to Stonehenge from a distance, +as they do not occur anywhere in the district. Some have suggested that +they came from Wales or Cornwall, or even by sea from Ireland. Now, the +recent excavations have shown that the blue-stones were brought to +Stonehenge in a rough state, and that all the trimming was done on the +spot where they were erected. It seems unlikely that if they had been +brought from a distance the rough trimming should not have been done on +the spot where they were found, in order to decrease their weight for +transport. It is therefore possible that the stones were erratic blocks +found near Stonehenge. + +Within the horseshoe, and near its apex, lies the famous "Altar Stone" +(A), a block measuring about 16 feet by 4. Between the horseshoe and the +outer circle another circle of diabase stones is sometimes said to have +existed, but very little of it now remains. + +The whole building is surrounded by a rampart of earth several feet +high, forming a circle about 300 feet in diameter. An avenue still 1200 +feet in length, bordered by two walls of earth, leads up to the rampart +from the north-east. On the axis of this avenue and nearly at its +extremity stands the upright stone known as the Friar's Heel. + +In 1901, in the course of repairing the central trilithon, careful +excavations were carried out over a small area at Stonehenge. More than +a hundred stone implements were found, of which the majority were flint +axes, probably used for dressing the softer of the sandstone blocks, and +also for excavating the chalk into which the uprights were set. About +thirty hammer-stones suitable for holding in the hand were found. These +were doubtless used for dressing the surface of the blocks. Most +remarkable of all were the 'mauls,' large boulders weighing from 36 to +64 pounds, used for smashing blocks and also for removing large chips +from the surfaces. Several antlers of deer were found, one of which had +been worn down by use as a pickaxe. + +These excavations made it clear that the blue-stones had been shaped on +the spot, whereas the sarsens had been roughly prepared at the place +where they were found, and only finished off on the spot where they were +erected. + + +What is the date of the erection of Stonehenge? The finding of so many +implements of flint in the excavations of 1901 shows that the structure +belongs to a period when flint was still largely used. The occurrence of +a stain of oxide of copper on a worked block of stone at a depth of 7 +feet does not necessarily prove that the stones were erected in the +bronze age, for the stain may have been caused by the disintegration of +malachite and not of metallic copper. At the same time, we must not +infer from the frequency of the flint implements that metal was unknown, +for flint continued to be used far on into the early metal age. +Moreover, flint tools when worn out were simply thrown aside on the +spot, while those of metal were carefully set apart for sharpening or +re-casting, and are thus seldom found in large numbers in an excavation. +We have, therefore, no means of accurately determining the date of +Stonehenge; all that can be said is that the occurrence of flint in such +large quantities points either to the neolithic age or to a +comparatively early date in the copper or bronze period. It is unlikely +that stone tools would play such a considerable role in the late bronze +or the iron age. + +At the same time it must not be forgotten that Sir Arthur Evans has +spoken in favour of a date in the first half of the third century B.C. +He believes that the great circles are religious monuments which in form +developed out of the round barrows, and that Stonehenge is therefore +much later than some at least of the round barrows around it. That it is +earlier than others is clear from the occurrence in some of them of +chips from the sarsen stones. He therefore places its building late in +the round barrow period, and sees confirmation of this in the fact that +the round barrows which surround the monument are not grouped in regular +fashion around it, as they should have been had they been later in +date. + +Many attempts have been made to date the monuments by means of +astronomy. All these start from the assumption that it was erected in +connection with the worship of the sun, or at least in order to take +certain observations with regard to the sun. Sir Norman Lockyer noticed +that the avenue at Stonehenge pointed approximately to the spot where +the sun rises at the midsummer solstice, and therefore thought that +Stonehenge was erected to observe this midsummer rising. If he could +find the exact direction of the avenue he would know where the sun rose +at midsummer in the year when the circle was built. From this he could +easily fix the date, for, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the +point of the midsummer rising is continually altering, and the position +for any year being known the date of that year can be found +astronomically. But how was the precise direction of this very irregular +avenue to be fixed? The line from the altar stone to the Friar's Heel, +which is popularly supposed to point to the midsummer rising, has +certainly never done so in the last ten thousand years, and therefore +could not be used as the direction of the avenue. Eventually Sir Norman +decided to use a line from the centre of the circle to a modern +benchmark on Sidbury Hill, eight miles north-east of Stonehenge. On this +line the sun rose in 1680 B.C. with a possible error of two hundred +years each way: this Sir Norman takes to be the date of Stonehenge. + +Sir Norman's reasoning has been severely handled by his +fellow-astronomer Mr. Hinks, who points out that the direction chosen +for the avenue is purely arbitrary, since Sidbury Hill has no connection +with Stonehenge at all. Moreover, Sir Norman determines sunrise for +Stonehenge as being the instant when the edge of the sun's disk first +appears, while in his attempts to date the Egyptian temple of Karnak he +defined it as the moment when the sun's centre reached the horizon. We +cannot say which alternative the builders would have chosen, and +therefore we cannot determine the date of building. + +Sir Norman Lockyer has since modified his views. He now argues that the +trilithons and outer circle are later additions to an earlier temple to +which the blue-stones belong. This earlier temple was made to observe +"primarily but not exclusively the May year," while the later temple +"represented a change of cult, and was dedicated primarily to the +solstitial year." This view seems to be disproved by the excavations of +1901, which made it clear that the trilithons were erected before and +not after the blue-stones. + +Nothing is more likely than that the builders of the megaliths had some +knowledge of the movements of the sun in connection with the seasons, +and that their priests or wise men determined for them, by observing the +sun, the times of sowing, reaping, etc., as they do among many savage +tribes at the present day. They may have been worshippers of the sun, +and their temples may have contained 'observation lines' for determining +certain of his movements. But the attempt to date the monuments from +such lines involves so many assumptions and is affected by so many +disturbing elements that it can never have a serious value for the +archaeologist. The uncertainty is even greater in the case of temples +supposed to be oriented by some star, for in this case there is almost +always a choice of two or more bright stars, giving the most divergent +results. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. Avebury and the Kennet Avenue. + (After Sir R. Colt Hoare.)] + +Next in importance to Stonehenge comes the huge but now almost destroyed +circle of Avebury (Fig. 2). Its area is five times as great as that of +St. Peter's in Rome, and a quarter of a million people could stand +within it. It consists in the first place of a rampart of earth roughly +circular in form and with a diameter of about 1200 feet. Within this is +a ditch, and close on the inner edge of this was a circle of about a +hundred upright stones. Within this circle were two pairs of concentric +circles with their centres slightly east of the north-and-south diameter +of the great circle. The diameters of the outer circles of these two +pairs are 350 and 325 feet respectively. In the centre of the northern +pair was a cover-slab supported by three uprights, and in the centre of +the southern a single menhir. All the stones used are sarsens, such as +are strewn everywhere over the district. + +An avenue flanked by two rows of stones ran in a south-easterly +direction from the rampart towards the village of Kennet for a distance +of about 1430 yards in a straight line. + +At a distance of 1200 yards due south from Avebury Circle stands the +famous artificial mound called Silbury Hill. It is 552 feet in diameter, +130 in height, and has a flat top 102 feet across. A pit was driven down +into its centre in 1777, and in 1849 a trench was cut into it from the +south side to the centre, but neither gave any result. It is quite +possible that there are burials in the mound, whether in megalithic +chambers or not. + +South-west of Avebury is Hakpen Hill, where there once stood two +concentric ellipses of stones. A straight avenue is said to have run +from these in a north-westerly direction. Whether these three monuments +near Avebury have any connection with one another and, if so, what this +connection is, is unknown. + + +There are many other circles in England, but we have only space to +mention briefly some of the more important. At Rollright, in +Oxfordshire, there is a circle 100 feet in diameter with a tall menhir +50 yards to the north-east. Derbyshire possesses a famous monument, that +of Arbor Low, where a circle is surrounded by a rampart and ditch, while +that of Stanton Drew in Somerset consists of a great circle A and two +smaller circles B and C. The line joining the centres of B and A passes +through a menhir called Hauptville's Quoit away to the north-east, while +that which joins the centres of C and A cuts a group of three menhirs +called The Cove, lying to the south-west. + +In Cumberland there are several circles. One of these, 330 feet in +diameter with an outstanding menhir, is known as "Long Meg and her +Daughters." Another, the Mayborough Circle, is of much the same size, +but consists of a tall monolith in the centre of a rampart formed +entirely of rather small water-worn stones. A similar circle not far +from this is known as King Arthur's Round Table; here, however, there is +no monolith. Near Keswick there is a finely preserved circle, and at +Shap there seems to have existed a large circle with an avenue of stones +running for over a mile to the north. + +Cornwall possesses a number of fine monuments. The most celebrated is +the Dance Maen Circle, which is 76 feet in diameter and has two +monoliths to the north-east, out of sight of the circle, but stated to +be in a straight line with its centre. Local tradition calls the circle +"The Merry Maidens," and has it that the stones are girls turned into +stones for dancing on Sunday: the two monoliths are called the Pipers. +The three circles known as the Hurlers lie close together with their +centres nearly in a straight line in the direction N.N.E. by S.S.W. At +Boscawen-un, near Penzance, is a circle called the Nine Maidens, and two +circles near Tregeseal have the same name. Another well-known circle in +Cornwall is called the Stripple Stones: the circle stands on a platform +of earth surrounded by a ditch, outside which is a rampart. In the +centre is a menhir 12 feet in height. + +At Merivale, in Somersetshire, there are the remains of a small circle, +to the north of which lie two almost parallel double lines of menhirs, +running about E.N.E. by W.S.W., the more southerly of the two lines +overlapping the other at both extremities. + + +With what purpose were these great circles erected? We have already +mentioned the curious belief of Geoffrey of Monmouth with regard to +Stonehenge, and we may pass on to more modern theories. James I was +once taken to see Stonehenge when on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke at +Wilton. He was so interested that he ordered his architect Inigo Jones +to enquire into its date and purpose. The architect's conclusion was +that it was a Roman temple "dedicated to the god Caelus and built after +the Tuscan order." + +Many years later Dr. Stukeley started a theory which has not entirely +been abandoned at the present day. For him Stonehenge and other stone +circles were temples of the druids. This was in itself by no means a +ridiculous theory, but Stukeley went further than this. Relying on a +quaint story in Pliny wherein the druids of Gaul are said to use as a +charm a certain magic egg manufactured by snakes, he imagined that the +druids were serpent-worshippers, and essayed to see serpents even in the +forms of their temples. Thus in the Avebury group the circle on Hakpen +Hill was for him the head of a snake and its avenue part of the body. +The Avebury circles were coils in the body, which was completed by the +addition of imaginary stones and avenues. He also attempted with even +less success to see the form of a serpent in other British circle +groups. + +The druids, as we gather from the rather scanty references in Caesar and +other Roman authors, were priests of the Celts in Gaul. Suetonius +further speaks of druids in Anglesey, and tradition has it that in Wales +and Ireland there were druids in pre-Christian times. But that druids +ever existed in England or in a tithe of the places in which megalithic +circles and other monuments occur is unlikely. At the same time, it is +not impossible that some of the circles of Ireland, Wales, and France +were afterwards used by the druids as suitable places for meeting and +preaching. + +Fergusson in his great work _Rude Stone Monuments_ held a remarkable +view as to the purpose of the British stone circles. He believed that +they were partly Roman in date, and that some of them at least marked +the scene of battles fought by King Arthur against the Saxons. Thus, for +example, he says with regard to Avebury, "I feel it will come eventually +to be acknowledged that those who fell in Arthur's twelfth and greatest +battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and that those who survived +raised these stones and the mound of Silbury in the vain hope that they +would convey to their latest posterity the memory of their prowess." It +is hardly necessary to take this view seriously nowadays. Stonehenge, +which Fergusson attributes to the same late era, has been proved by +excavation to be prehistoric in origin, and with it naturally go the +rest of the megalithic circles of England, except where there is any +certain proof to the contrary. + +The most probable theory is that the circles are religious monuments of +some kind. What the nature of the worship carried on in them was it is +quite impossible to determine. It may be that some at least were built +near the graves of deified heroes to whose worship they were +consecrated. On the other hand, it is possible that they were temples +dedicated to the sun or to others of the heavenly bodies. Whether they +served for the taking of astronomical observations or not is a question +which cannot be decided with certainty, though the frequency with which +menhirs occur in directions roughly north-east of the circles is +considered by some as a sign of connection with the watching of solar +phenomena. + + +Dolmens of simple type are not common in England, though they occur with +comparative frequency in Wales, where the best known are the so-called +Arthur's Quoit near Swansea, the dolmen of Pentre Ifan in Pembrokeshire, +and that of Plas Newydd on the Menai Strait: in Anglesey they are quite +common. In England we have numerous examples in Cornwall, especially +west of Falmouth, among which are Chun Quoit and Lanyon Quoit. There are +dolmens at Chagford and Drewsteignton in Devonshire, and there is one +near the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire. + +Many of the so-called cromlechs of England are not true dolmens, but the +remains of tombs of more complicated types. Thus the famous Kit's Coty +House in Kent was certainly not a dolmen, though it is now impossible to +say what its form was. Wayland the Smith's Cave was probably a +three-chambered corridor-tomb covered with a mound. The famous +Men-an-tol in Cornwall may well be all that is left of a chamber-tomb of +some kind. It is a slab about 3-1/2 feet square, in which is a hole +1-1/2 feet in diameter. There are other stones standing or lying around +it. It is known to the peasants as the Crickstone, for it was said to +cure sufferers from rickets or crick in the back if they passed nine +times through the hole in a direction against the sun. The Isle of Man +possesses a fine sepulchral monument on Meayll Hill. It consist of six +T-shaped chamber-tombs arranged in a circle with entrances to the north +and south. There is also a corridor-tomb, known as King Orry's Grave, at +Laxey, and another with a semicircular facade at Maughold. + + +Among the megalithic monuments of our islands the chambered barrows hold +an important place. It is well known that in the neolithic period the +dead in certain parts of England were buried under mounds of not +circular but elongated shape. These graves are commonest in Wiltshire +and the surrounding counties of Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and +Gloucestershire. A few exist in other counties. Some contain no chamber, +while others contain a structure of the megalithic type. It is with +these latter that we have here to deal. Chambered long barrows are most +frequent in Wiltshire, though they do occur in other counties, as, for +example, Buckinghamshire, where the famous Cave of Wayland the Smith is +certainly the remains of a barrow of this kind. In Derbyshire and +Staffordshire a type of chambered mound does occur, but it seems +uncertain from the description given whether it is round or elongated. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. (_a_)--Barrow at Stoney Littleton, Somersetshire. + (_b_)--Barrow at Rodmarton, Gloucestershire. + (_c_)--Chambers of barrow at Uley, Gloucestershire. + (After Thurnam, _Archaeologia,_ XLII.)] + +Turning first to the Wiltshire and Gloucestershire group of barrows we +find that they are usually from 120 to 200 feet in length and from 30 to +60 in breadth. In some cases there is a wall of dry stone-masonry around +the foot of the mound and outside this a ditch. The megalithic chambers +within the mound are of three types. In the first there is a central +gallery entering the mound at its thicker end and leading to a chamber +or series of chambers (Fig. 3, _a_ and _c_). Where this gallery enters +the mound there is a cusp-shaped break in the outline of the mound as +marked by the dry walling, and the entrance is closed by a stone block. +The chambers are formed of large slabs set up on edge. Occasionally +there are spaces between successive slabs, and these are filled up with +dry masonry. The roof is made either by laying large slabs across the +tops of the sides or by corbelling with smaller slabs as at Stoney +Littleton. + +In the second type of chambered barrow there is no central corridor, but +chambers are built in opposite pairs on the outside edge of the mound +and opening outwards (Fig. 3, _b_). The two best known examples of this +are the tumuli of Avening and of Rodmarton. + +In the third type of barrow there is no chamber connected with the +outside, but its place is taken by several dolmens--so small as to be +mere cists--within the mound. + +The burials in these barrows seem to have been without exception +inhumations. The body was placed in the crouched position, either +sitting up or reclining. In an untouched chamber at Rodmarton were found +as many as thirteen bodies, and in the eastern chamber at Charlton's +Abbott there were twelve. With the bodies lay pottery, vases, and +implements of flint and bone. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND + + +The stone circles of Scotland have been divided into three types--the +Western Scottish, consisting of a rather irregular ring or pair of +concentric rings; the Inverness type, in which a chamber entered by a +straight passage is covered by a round tumulus with a retaining wall of +stone, the whole being surrounded by a regular stone circle; and the +Aberdeen type, which is similar to the last, but has a 'recumbent' stone +between two of the uprights of its outer circle. + +The first type occurs in the southern counties, in the islands of the +west and north coasts, and also extends into Argyll and Perthshire. The +most famous example is the Callernish Circle in the Isle of Lewis. The +circle is formed by thirteen stones from 12 to 15 feet high, and its +centre is marked by an upright 17 feet high. From the circle extends a +line of four stones to the east and another to the west. To the south +runs a line of five uprights and several fallen stones, and to the +N.N.E. runs a double line, forming as it were an avenue with nine +stones on one side and ten on the other, but having no entrance to the +circle. Inside the circle, between the central stone and the east side +of the ring, is what is described as a cruciform grave with three cells +under a low tumulus. In this tomb were found fragments of human bone +apparently burnt. It has been suggested that the tomb is not part of the +original structure, but was added later. + +The native tradition about this circle as repeated by Martin in 1700 was +that it was a druidical place of worship, and that the chief druid stood +near the central stone to address the assembled people. This tradition +seems to have now disappeared. + +In the island of Arran, between Brodick and Lamlash, is a damaged circle +21 feet in diameter. At a distance of 60 feet from its circumference in +a direction 35 deg. east of south is a stone 4 feet high. In the centre of +the circle was found a cist cut in the underlying rock containing bluish +earth and pieces of bone. Above were an implement and some fragments of +flint. + +On the other side of the island there were still in 1860 remains of +eight circles, five of sandstone and three of granite, quite close to +one another. The diameter of the largest was 63 feet, and the highest +stone reached 18 feet. One of them was a double ring. In four of them +were found cists containing pottery, flint arrow-heads, a piece of a +bronze pin, and some fragments of bone. Others appear to contain no +cists. + +In the other islands of the west coast few circles seem to remain; there +are, however, one at Kirkabrost in Skye, and another at Kingarth in +Bute. + +At Stromness in Orkney is the famous circle called the Ring of Brogar. +It originally consisted of sixty stones forming a circle 340 feet in +diameter, outside which was a ditch 29 feet wide. In a direction 60 deg. +east of south from the centre, and at a distance of 63 chains, is a +standing stone called the Watchstone, 18 feet high, and 42 or 43 chains +further on in the same line is a second stone, the Barnstone, 15 feet +high. To the left of this line are two stones apparently placed at +random, and to the right are the few remaining blocks of the Ring of +Stenness, somewhere to the north of which was the celebrated pierced +block called the "Stone of Odin," destroyed early in the last century. +At a distance of 42 or 43 chains to the north-east of the Barnstone lies +the tumulus of Maeshowe. This tumulus conceals a long gallery leading +into a rectangular chamber. The walls of this latter are built of +horizontal courses of stones, except at the corners, where there are +tall, vertically-placed slabs. The chamber has three niches or recesses, +one on each of its closed sides. The roof is formed by corbelling the +walls and finishing off with slabs laid across. If one sits within the +chamber and looks in a direct line along the passage one sees the +Barnstone. + +A series of measurements and alignments have been taken to connect the +Maeshowe tumulus with the Ring of Brogar. Thus we have already seen that +the distance from the Barnstone to the Watchstone is the same as from +the Barnstone to the tumulus. Moreover, the Watchstone is equidistant +from the ring and from the tumulus. Again, a line from the Barnstone to +the tumulus passes through the point of the midsummer sunrise and also, +on the other horizon, through the point of the setting sun ten days +before the winter solstice; the line from the Watchstone to the Brogar +Ring marks the setting of the sun at the Beltane festival in May and its +rising ten days before the winter solstice, while the line from Maeshowe +to the Watchstone is in the line of the equinoctial rising and setting. +These alignments are the work of Mr. Magnus Spence; readers must choose +what importance they will assign to them. + +The Inverness type of circle is entirely different from that of which we +have been speaking. The finest examples were at Clava, seven miles from +Inverness, where fifty years ago there were eight still in existence. +One of these is still partly preserved. It consists of a circle 100 feet +in diameter consisting of twelve stones. Within this is a cairn of +stones with a circular retaining wall of stone blocks 2 or 3 feet high. +The cairn originally covered a circular stone chamber 12-1/2 feet in +diameter entered by a straight passage on its south-west side. In other +words, the Inverness monuments are simply chamber-tombs covered with a +cairn and surrounded by a circle. + +Around Aberdeen we find the third type of circle. It consists of a +cist-tomb covered by a low mound, often with a retaining wall of small +blocks, but there is no entrance passage leading into the cist. Outside +the whole is a circle of large upright blocks with this peculiarity, +that between the two highest--generally to the south or slightly east of +south--lies a long block on its side, occupying the whole interval +between them. The uprights nearest this 'recumbent' block are the +tallest in the circle, and the size of the rest decreases towards the +north. Of thirty circles known near Aberdeen twenty-six still possess +the 'recumbent' stone, and in others it may originally have existed. + + +Passing now to monuments of more definitely sepulchral type we find that +the dolmen is not frequent in Scotland, though several are known in the +lowlands and in part of Argyllshire. + +To the long barrows of England answer in part at least the chambered +cairns of Caithness and the Orkneys. The best known type is a long +rectangular horned cairn (Fig. 4), of which there are two fine examples +near Yarhouse. The largest is 240 feet in length. The chamber is +circular, and roofed partly by corbelling and partly by a large slab. In +the cairn of Get we have a shorter and wider example of the horned type. +Another type is circular or elliptical. In a cairn of this sort at +Canister an iron knife was found. On the Holm of Papa-Westra in the +Orkneys there is an elliptical cairn of this kind containing a long +rectangular chamber running along its major axis with seven small +circular niches opening off it. The entrance passage lies on the minor +axis of the barrow. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. Horned tumulus at Garrywhin, Caithness. + (After Montelius.)] + +The megalithic monuments of Ireland are extremely numerous, and are +found in almost every part of the country. They offer a particular +interest from the fact that though they are of few different types they +display all the stages by which the more complex were developed from the +more simple. It must be remembered that most if not all the monuments we +shall describe were originally covered by mounds of earth, though in +most cases these have disappeared. + +The simple dolmen is found in almost all parts of the country. Its +single cover-slab is supported by a varying number of uprights, +sometimes as few as three, oftener four or more. It is of great +importance to notice the fact that here in Ireland, as elsewhere in the +megalithic area, e.g. Sardinia, we have the round and rectangular +dolmens in juxtaposition (Fig. 5, _a_ and _c_). + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. Type-plans of _(a)_ the round dolmen; + _(b)_ the dolmen with portico; + _(c)_ the rectangular dolmen.] + +Occasionally one of the end-blocks of the dolmen instead of just +closing up the space between the two nearest side-blocks is pushed back +between them so as to form with them a small three-sided portico outside +the chamber, but still under the shelter of the cover-slab (Fig. 5, +_b_). A good example of this exists at Gaulstown, Waterford, where a +table-stone weighing 6 tons rests on six uprights, three of which form +the little portico just described. The famous dolmen of Carrickglass, +Sligo, is a still more developed example of this type. Here the chamber +is an accurate rectangle, and the portico is formed by adding two +side-slabs outside one of the end-slabs, but still under the cover. This +last is a remarkable block of limestone weighing about 70 tons. This +form of tomb is without doubt a link between the simple dolmen and the +corridor-tomb. The portico was at first built under the slab by pushing +an end-stone inwards. Then external side-stones formed the portico, +though still under the slab. The next move was to construct the portico +outside the slab. The portico then needed a roof, and the addition of a +second cover to provide it completed the transition to the simpler +corridor-tomb. In many cases the Irish simple dolmens were surrounded by +a circle of upright stones. At Carrowmore, Sligo, there seems to have +been a veritable cemetery of dolmen-tombs, each of which has one or more +circles around it, the outermost being 120 feet in diameter. The tombs +in these Carrowmore circles were not always simple dolmens, but often +corridor-tombs of more or less complicated types. Their excavation has +not given very definite results. In many cases human bones have been +found in considerable quantities, sometimes in a calcined condition; but +there is no real evidence to show that cremation was the burial rite +practised. The calcination of human bones may well have been caused by +the lighting of fires in the tomb, either at some funeral ceremony, or +in even later days, when the place was used as a shelter for peasants. A +few poor flints were found and a little pottery, together with many +bones of animals and some pins and borers of bone. The most important +find made, however, was a small conical button made of bone with two +holes pierced in its flat side and meeting in the middle. It is a type +which occurs in Europe only at the period of transition from the age of +stone to that of bronze, and usually in connection with megalithic +monuments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6. Type-plan of the simple rectangular corridor-tomb + or _allee couverte_.] + +We pass on now to consider the simplest form of corridor-tomb, that in +which there are several cover-slabs, but no separate chamber (Fig. 6). +These tombs occur in most parts of Ireland. At Carrick-a-Dhirra, County +Waterford, there is a perfect example of the most simple type. The tomb +is exactly rectangular and lies east and west, with a length of 19 feet +and a breadth of 7-1/2. At each end is a single upright, and each long +side consists of seven. The chamber thus formed is roofed by five slabs. +The whole was surrounded by a circle of about twenty-six stones, and no +doubt the chamber was originally covered by a mound. In a somewhat +similar example at Coolback, Fermanagh, the remains of the elliptical +cairn are still visible. + +But in most cases the plan of the corridor-tomb is complicated by a kind +of outer lining of blocks which was added to it. Most of the monuments +are so damaged that it is difficult to see what the exact form of this +lining was. Whether it merely consisted of a line of upright blocks +close around the sides of the chamber or whether these supported some +further structure which covered up the whole chamber it is difficult to +say. In some cases the roof-slab actually covers the outer line of +blocks, and here it seems certain that this outer line served simply to +reinforce the chamber walls, the space between being filled with earth +or rubble. However, at Labbamologa, County Cork, is a tomb called Leaba +Callighe, in which this was certainly not the case. The length of the +whole monument is about 42 feet. The slabs cover the inner walls of the +chamber, but not the outer lining: this last forms a kind of outer shell +to the whole monument. It is shaped roughly like a ship, and runs to a +point at the east end, thus representing the bow. The west end is +damaged, but may have been pointed like the east. The whole reminds one +very forcibly of the _naus_ of the Balearic Isles and the Giants' Graves +of Sardinia. Occasionally the corridor-tomb has a kind of portico at its +west end. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb. The roof slabs + are two or more in number.] + +In Munster the corridor-tomb takes a peculiar form (Fig. 7). It lies +roughly east and west, and its two long sides are placed at a slight +angle to one another in such a way that the west end is broader than the +east. In a good example of this at Keamcorravooly, County Cork, there +are two large capstones and the walls consist of double rows of slabs, +the outer being still beneath the cover-slabs. On the upper surface of +the covers are several small cup-shaped hollows, some of which at least +have been produced artificially. + +These wedge-shaped structures are of remarkable interest, for exactly +the same broadening of the west end is found in Scandinavia, in the +_Huenenbetter_ of Holland, in the corridor-tombs of Portugal, and in the +dolmens of the Deccan in India. + +In some Irish tombs the corridor leads to a well-defined chamber. In a +curious tomb at Carrickard, Sligo, the chamber was rectangular and lay +across the end of the corridor in such a way as to form a T. The whole +seems to have been covered with an oval mound. In another at Highwood in +the same county a long corridor joins two small circular chambers, the +total length being 44 feet. The corridor was once divided into four +sections by cross-slabs. The cairn which covered this tomb was +triangular in form. + +In the county of Meath, in the parish of Lough Crew, is a remarkable +series of stone cairns extending for three miles along the +Slieve-na-Callighe Hills. These cairns conceal chamber-tombs. The cairns +themselves are roughly circular, and the largest have a circle of +upright blocks round the base. The chambers are built of upright slabs +and are roofed by corbelling. Cairn H covered a corridor leading to a +chamber and opening off on each side into a side-chamber, the whole +group thus being cruciform. In these chambers were found human remains +and objects of flint, bone, earthenware, amber, glass, bronze, and iron. +Cairn L had a central corridor from which opened off seven chambers in a +very irregular fashion. Cairn T consisted of a corridor leading to a +fine octagonal chamber with small chambers off it on three sides. + +The chief interest of these tombs lies in the remarkable designs +engraved on some of the stones of the passages and chambers. They are +fairly deeply cut with a rather sharp implement, probably a metal +chisel. They are arranged in the most arbitrary way on the stones and +are often crowded together in masses. There is no attempt to depict +scenes of any kind, nor is there, indeed, any example of animal life. In +fact, the designs seem to be purely ornamental. The most frequent +elements of design are cup-shaped hollows, concentric circles or ovals, +star-shaped figures, circles with emanating rays, spirals, chevrons, +reticulated figures, parallel straight or curved lines. There seems to +be no clue as to the meaning of these designs. They may have been merely +ornamental, though this is hardly likely. + +At New Grange, near Drogheda, there is a similar series of tumuli, one +of which has become famous (Fig. 8). It consists of a huge mound of +stones 280 feet in diameter surrounded by a circle of upright blocks. +Access to the corridor is gained from the south-east side. This corridor +leads to a chamber with three divisions, so that corridor and chambers +together form a cross with a long shaft. The walls are formed of rough +slabs set upright. In the passage the roof is of slabs laid right +across, but the roof of the chamber is formed by corbelling. On the +floor of each division of the chamber was found a stone basin. + +[Illustration: Figure 8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland (Coffey, + _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, 1892.)] + +Around the edge of the mound runs an enclosure wall of stones lying on +the ground edge to edge. A few of these are sculptured. The finest is a +great stone which lies in front of the entrance and shows a +well-arranged design of spirals and lozenges. There are also engravings +on one of the stones of the chambers. These designs are in general more +skilful than those of Lough Crew. They consist mainly of chevrons, +lozenges, spirals, and triangles. + + +The monuments we have so far described are all tombs. Ireland also +possesses several stone circles. The largest are situated round Lough +Gur, 10 or 12 miles south of Limerick. There was at one time a fine +circle west of Lough Gur at Rockbarton, but it is now destroyed. On the +eastern edge of the lough is a double concentric ring of stones, the +diameter of the inner circle being about 100 feet. The rings are 6 feet +apart, and the space between them is filled up with earth. In 1869 an +excavation was made within the circle and revealed some human remains, +mostly those of children from six to eight years old. + +Further north is a remarkable group of monuments known as the +Carrigalla circles. The first is a plain circle (L) 33 or 34 feet in +diameter, composed of twenty-eight stones. The space within them is +filled up with earth to form a raised platform. At a distance of 75 feet +are two concentric circles, diameters 155 and 184 feet respectively, +made of stones 5 or 6 feet high. The space between the two circles is +filled with earth. Within these is a third concentric circle about 48 +feet in diameter made of stones of the same size. This group of three +concentric circles we will call M. The line joining the centres of L and +M runs in a direction of 29 deg. or 30 deg. west of north and passes through a +stone (N) 8 feet high standing on the top of a ridge 2500 feet away. +There are two other stones more to the west (O and P) in such a position +that the line joining them (41 deg. west of north) passes through the centre +of M, from which they are distant 860 and 1450 feet respectively. +Further, a line through the centre of L and a great standing stone (Q) +2480 feet from it in a direction 10 deg. east of south passes through the +highest point in the district, 1615 feet away and 492 feet in height. + +Mr. Lewis compares this group of monuments with that of Stanton Drew in +Somersetshire. In both a line joining the centre of two circles passes +through a single stone in a northerly direction, and there is in both a +fixed line from the centre of the larger circle. Captain Boyle +Somerville, R.N., finds that the line 29 deg. or 30 deg. west of north would +mark the setting of Capella in B.C. 1600, or Arcturus 500 B.C.; he adds +that the direction 41 deg. west of north would suit Capella in 2500 B.C. or +Castor in 2000 B.C. + +On the west side of Lough Gur is another group of monuments. There is in +the first place a circle 55 feet in diameter. On a line 35 deg. east of +north from this is a stone 10 feet high, and the same line produced +strikes a prominent hill-top. Somewhere to the south-west of this +circle, perhaps with its centre in the line just described, lay a second +circle between 150 and 170 feet in diameter, destroyed in 1870. Three +other stones mentioned by early writers as being near the circles have +now disappeared. The direction 35 deg. east of north is the same as that of +the King-stone with regard to the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire. This +line, allowing a height of 3 deg. for the horizon, would, according to Sir +Norman Lockyer, have struck the rising points of Capella in 1700 B.C. +and Arcturus in 500 B.C. + +To the south of the destroyed circle is another about 150 to 155 feet in +diameter, with stones of over 5 feet in height set close together. Earth +is piled up outside them to form a bank 30 feet wide. There is an +entrance 3 feet wide in a direction 59 deg. east of north from the centre of +the circle. There is said to have been at one time a cromlech 100 feet +wide due south of the circle and connected with it by a paved way. Sir +Norman Lockyer thinks that the position of the doorway is connected with +observation of the sun's rising in May. Moreover, the tallest stone of +the circle, 9 feet high, is 30 deg. east of north from the centre, a +direction which according to him points to the rising of Capella in 1950 +B.C. and Arcturus in 280 B.C. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA + + +In Scandinavia megalithic monuments abound. They have been studied with +unusual care from quite an early date in the history of archaeology, and +classified in the order of their development. The earliest type appears +to be the simple dolmen with either four or five sides and a very rough +cover-slab. This and the upper part of the sides remained uncovered by +the mound of earth which was always heaped round the tomb. In later +times the dolmen became more regularly rectangular in shape, and only +its roof-block appeared above the mound. Contemporary with this later +form of dolmen were several other types of tomb. One was simply the +earlier dolmen with one side open and in front of it a sort of portico +or elementary corridor formed by two upright slabs with no roofing (cf. +the Irish type, Fig. 5, _b_). This quickly developed into the true +corridor-tomb, which had at first a small round chamber with one or two +cover-slabs, a short corridor, and a round or rectangular mound. Later +types have an oval chamber (Fig. 9) with from one to four cover-slabs or +a rectangular chamber with a long corridor and a circular mound. +Finally we reach a type where thin slabs are used in the construction, +and the mound completely covers the cap-stones: here the corridor leads +out from one of the short ends of the rectangular chamber. + +The earliest of these types in point of view of development, the true +dolmen, is common both in Denmark and in South Sweden; only one example +exists in Norway. In Sweden it is never found far from the sea-coast. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. Corridor-tomb, Ottagarden, Sweden. + (Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)] + +The corridor-tomb is also frequent in Denmark and Sweden, though it is +unknown in Norway. In Sweden it is, like all megalithic monuments, +confined to the south of the country. Of the early transition type with +elementary corridor there are fine examples at Herrestrup in Denmark and +Torebo in Sweden. A tomb at Sjoebol in Sweden where the corridor, +consisting of only two uprights, is covered in with two roof-slabs +instead of being left open, shows very clearly the transition to the +corridor-tomb proper, in which the entrance passage consists of at least +four uprights, two on each side. Of this there are numerous fine +examples. A tomb of this type at Broholm in Denmark has a roughly +circular chamber separated from the corridor by a kind of +threshold-stone. Another at Tyfta in Sweden is remarkable for its +curious construction, the uprights being set rather apart from one +another and the spaces between filled up with dry masonry of small +stones. Possibly there were not sufficient large blocks at hand to +construct a tomb of the required size. + +The still later type consisting of a rectangular chamber with a long +corridor leading out of one of its long sides often attains to very +imposing dimensions. In Westgothland, a province of Sweden, there are +fine examples with walls of limestone and often roofs of granite visible +above the surface of the mound. The largest of these tombs is that of +Karleby near Falkoeping. In another at Axevalla Heath were found nineteen +bodies seated round the wall of the chamber, each in a separate small +cist of stone slabs. The position of the bodies in the Scandinavian +graves is rather variable, both the outstretched and the contracted +posture being used. It is usual to find many bodies in the same tomb, +often as many as twenty or thirty: in that of Borreby on the island of +Seeland were found seventy skeletons, all of children of from two to +eighteen years of age. + +In Denmark these rectangular tombs occasionally have one or more small +round niches. In 1837 a large tomb was excavated at Lundhoej on Juetland, +which had a circular niche opposite to the entrance. The niche had a +threshold-stone, and the two uprights of the main chamber which lay on +either side of this had been crudely engraved with designs, among which +were a man, an animal, and a circle with a pair of diameters marked. +Little was found in the chamber, and only some bones and a pot in the +niche. + +In Denmark often occur mounds which contain two or more tombs, usually +of the same form, each with its separate entrance passage. At the +entrance of the chamber there is sometimes a well-worked framework into +which fitted a door of stone or wood. + +The late type in which the corridor leads out of one of the narrow ends +of the chamber is represented in both Sweden and Denmark. From this may +be derived the rather unusual types in which the corridor has become +indistinguishable from the chamber or forms a sort of antechamber to it. +An example of the former type at Knyttkaerr in Sweden is wider at one end +than at the other, and has an outer coating of stone slabs. It resembles +very closely the wedge-shaped tombs of Munster (cf. Fig. 7): + +In Germany megalithic monuments are not infrequent, but they are +practically confined to the northern part of the country. They extend as +far east as Koenigsberg and as far west as the borders of Holland. They +are very frequent in Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover. There are even +examples in Prussian Saxony, but in South Germany they cease entirely. +Keller in one edition of his _Lake Dwellings_ figures two supposed +dolmens north of Lake Pfaeffikon in Switzerland, but we have no details +with regard to them. + +The true dolmen is extremely rare in Germany, and only occurs in small +groups in particular localities. The corridor-tomb with a distinct +chamber is also very exceptional, especially east of the Elbe. The most +usual type of megalithic tomb is that known as the _Huenenbett_ or +_Riesenbett_. The latter name means Giants' Bed, and it seems probable +that the former should be similarly translated, despite the suggested +connection with the Huns, for a word _Huenen_ has been in use in North +Germany for several centuries with the meaning of giants. A _Huenenbett_ +consists of a rectangular (rarely oval or round) hill of earth covering +a megalithic tomb. This is a simple elongated rectangle in shape, made +of upright blocks and roofed with two or more cover-slabs. The great +_Huenenbett_ or Grewismuehlen in Mecklenburg has a mound measuring 150 +feet by 36 with a height of 5 feet. On the edge of the mound are +arranged forty-eight tall upright blocks of stone. + +The _Huenenbetter_ of the Altmark are among the best known and explored. +Here the corridors are usually about 20 feet long, though in rare cases +they reach a length of 40 feet. Each is filled with clean sand up to +two-thirds of its height, and on this lie the bodies and their funeral +deposit. The bodies must have been laid flat, though not necessarily in +an extended position, as there was not room above the sand for them to +have been seated upright. Various implements of flint have been found in +the tombs together with stone hammers and vases of pottery. There is no +certain instance of the finding of metal. + + +A book printed by John Picardt at Amsterdam in 1660 contains quaint +pictures of giants and dwarfs engaged in the building of a megalithic +monument which is clearly a _Huenenbett_. According to tradition the +giants, after employing the labour of the dwarfs, proceeded to devour +them. _Huenenbetter_ similar to those shown in Picardt's illustrations +are still to be seen in Holland, but only in the north, where over fifty +are known. They are of elongated rectangular form, built of upright +blocks, and roofed with from two to ten cover-slabs. They all widen +slightly towards the west end. The most perfect example still remaining +is that of Tinaarloo, and the largest is that of Borger, which contains +forty-five blocks, of which ten are cap-stones. Several _Huenenbetter_ +have been excavated. In them are found pottery vases, flint celts, axes +and hammers of grey granite, basalt, and jade. + +Belgium possesses several true dolmens, of which the best known is that +called La Pierre du Diable on the right bank of the Meuse. Near Luettich +are two simple corridor-tombs, each with a round hole in one of the +end-slabs and a small portico outside it. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL + + +France contains large numbers of megalithic monuments. Of dolmens and +corridor-tombs no less than 4458 have been recorded. In the east and +south-east they are rare, but they abound over a wide strip running from +the Breton coasts of the English Channel to the Mediterranean shores of +Herault and Card. In 1901 Mortillef counted 6192 menhirs, including +those which formed parts of _alignements_ and cromlechs. Several of +these attain to a great size. That to Locmariaquer (Morbihan), now +unfortunately fallen and broken, measured over 60 feet in height, being +thus not much shorter than the Egyptian obelisk which stands in the +Place de la Concorde in Paris. + +Passing now to combinations of menhirs in groups, we must first mention +the remarkable _alignements_ of Brittany, of which the most famous are +those of Carnac. They run east and west over a distance of 3300 yards, +but the line is broken at two points in such a way that the whole forms +three groups. The most westerly, that of Menec, consists of eleven lines +of menhirs and a cromlech, the total number of stones standing being +1169, the tallest of which is 13 feet in height. The central group, that +of Kermario, consists of 982 stones arranged in ten straight lines, +while the most easterly, that of Kerlescan, is formed by 579 menhirs, 39 +of which form a rectangular enclosure. + +There are other _alignements_ in Brittany, of which the most important +is that of Erdeven, comprising 1129 stones arranged in ten lines. +Outside Brittany _alignements_ are unusual, but a fine example, now +ruined, is said to have existed at Saint Pantaleon north of Autun. In +the fields around it are found large quantities of polished stone axes +with knives, scrapers, and arrow-heads of flint. + +We have already noticed the cromlechs which form part of the +_alignements_ of Brittany. There are other examples in France. At +Er-Lanic are two circles touching one another, the lower of which is +covered by the sea even at low tide. Excavations carried out within the +circles brought to light rough pottery and axes of polished stone. Two +fine circles at Can de Ceyrac (Gard) have diameters of about 100 yards, +and are formed of stones about 3 feet high. Each has a short entrance +avenue which narrows as it approaches the circle, and in the centre of +each rises a trilithon of rough stones. + +Of the definitely sepulchral monuments the dolmen is common in all +parts of the French megalithic area. It will suffice to mention the +magnificent example known as the Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer. +Perhaps the most typical structure in France is the corridor-tomb in +which the chamber is indistinguishable from the passage, and the whole +forms a long rectangular area. This is the _allee couverte_ in the +narrower sense. In the department of Oise occurs a special type of this +in which one of the end-slabs has a hole pierced in its centre and is +preceded by a small portico consisting of two uprights supporting a +roof-slab (Fig 10). A remarkable example in Brittany known as Les +Pierres Plates turns at a sharp angle in the middle, and is thus +elbow-shaped. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10. _Allee couverte_, called La Pierre aux Fees, + Oise, France. (_Compte rendu du Congres Prehistorique + de France_.)] + +In the north of France the _allee_ is often merely cut out in the +surface of the ground and has no roof at all. It is sometimes paved +with slabs and divided into two partitions by an upright with a hole in +its centre. Tombs of this kind often contain from forty to eighty +skeletons, some of which are in the contracted position. The skulls are +in some cases trepanned, i.e. small round pieces of the bone have been +cut out of them; such pieces are sometimes found separate in the graves. +No objects of metal occur in these North French tombs. + +There are many fine examples in Brittany of the corridor-tomb with +distinct chamber. The best known lies on the island of Gavr'inis +(Morbihan). It is covered by a tumulus nearly 200 feet in diameter. The +circular chamber, 6 feet in height, is roofed by a huge block measuring +13 feet by 10. The corridor which leads out to the edge of the mound is +40 feet in length. Twenty-two of the upright blocks used in this tomb +are almost entirely covered with engraved designs. These are massed +together with very little order, the main object having been apparently +to cover the whole surface of the stone with ornament. The designs +consist of spirals, concentric circles and semicircles, chevrons, rows +of strokes, and triangles, and bear a considerable resemblance to those +of Lough Crew and New Grange in Ireland. + +Another tomb in the same district, that of Mane-er-Hroeck, was intact +when discovered in 1863. It contained within its chamber a hoard of 101 +axes of fibrolite and jadeite, 50 pebbles of a kind of turquoise known +as _callais_, pieces of pottery, flints, and a peculiarly fine celt of +jadeite together with a flat ring-shaped club-head of the same stone. +The tomb was concealed by a huge oval mound more than 100 yards in +length. The famous Mont S. Michel is an artificial mound containing a +central megalithic chamber and several smaller cists, some of which held +cremated bodies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, + Normandy. (After Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)] + +A very remarkable mound in Calvados (Fig. 11) was found to contain no +less than twelve circular corbelled chambers, each with a separate +entrance passage. The megalithic tombs of Brittany all belong to the +late neolithic period, and contain tools and arrow-heads of flint, small +ornaments of gold, _callais_, and pottery which includes among its forms +the bell-shaped cup. + +In Central and South France the _allees couvertes_ are mostly of a +semi-subterranean type, i.e. they are cut in the ground and merely +roofed with slabs of stone. The most famous is that of the Grotte des +Fees near Arles (Fig. 12), in which a passage (_a_) with a staircase at +one end and two niches (_b b_) in its sides leads into a narrow +rectangular chamber (_c_). The total length is nearly 80 feet. Another +tomb of the same type, La Grotte du Castellet, contained over a hundred +skeletons, together with thirty-three flint arrow or spear-heads, one of +which was stuck fast in a human vertebra, a bell-shaped cup, axes of +polished stone, beads and pendants of various materials, 114 pieces of +_callais_, and a small plaque of gold. + +On the plateau of Ger near the town of Dax are large numbers of mounds, +some of which contain cremated bodies in urns and others megalithic +tombs. Bertrand saw in this a cemetery of two different peoples living +side by side. But it has since been shown that the cremation mounds +belong to a much later period than those which contain megalithic +graves. In these last the skeletons were found seated around the walls +of the chamber accompanied by objects of flint and other stone, beads of +_callais_, and small gold ornaments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12. Plan and section of La Grotte des Fees, Arles, + France (_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1873).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, from the tombs of + the Petit Morin. (After de Baye.)] + +France has also its rock-hewn tombs, for in the valley of the +Petit-Morin is a series of such graves. A trench leads down to the +entrance, which is closed by a slab. The chamber itself is completely +underground. In the shallower tombs were either two rows of bodies with +a passage between or separate layers parted by slabs or strata of sand. +In the deeper were seldom more than eight bodies, in the extended or +contracted position, with tools and weapons of flint, pots, and beads +of amber and of _callais_. On the walls were rough sculptures of human +figures (Fig. 13), to which we shall have to return later. + +The Channel Islands possess megalithic monuments not unlike those of +Brittany. They are corridor-tombs covered with a mound and often +surrounded by a circle of stones. Within the chamber, which is usually +round, lies, under a layer of shells, a mass of mingled human and animal +bones. The bodies had been buried in the sitting position, and with them +lay objects of stone and bone, but none of metal. + + +The Spanish Peninsula abounds in megalithic monuments. With the +exception of a few menhirs, whose purpose is uncertain, all are +sepulchral. Dolmens and corridor-tombs are numerous in many parts, +especially in the north-east provinces, in Galicia, in Andalusia, and, +above all, in Portugal. There is a fine dolmen in the Vall Gorguina in +North-East Spain. The cover-slab, measuring 10 feet by 8, is supported +by seven rough uprights with considerable spaces between them. In the +same region is a ruined dolmen surrounded by a circle nearly 90 feet in +circumference, consisting of seven large stones, some of which appear to +be partly worked. Circles are also found round dolmens in Andalusia. +Portugal abounds in fine dolmens both of the round and rectangular +types. At Fonte Coberta on the Douro stands a magnificent dolmen known +locally as the Moors' House. In the name of the field, Fonte Coberta, +there is doubtless an allusion to the belief that the dolmens conceal +springs of water, a belief also held in parts of Ireland. + +At Eguilaz in the Basque provinces is a fine corridor-tomb, in which a +passage 20 feet long, roofed with flat slabs, leads to a rectangular +chamber 13 feet by 15 with an immense cover-slab nearly 20 feet in +length: the whole was covered with a mound of earth. The chamber +contained human bones and "lanceheads of stone and bronze." A famous +tomb of a similar type exists at Marcella in Algarve. The chamber is a +fine circle of upright slabs. It is paved with stones, and part of its +area is divided into two or perhaps three rectangular compartments. A +couple of orthostatic slabs form a sort of neck joining the circle to +the passage, which narrows as it leads away from the circle, and was +probably divided into two sections by a doorway whose side-posts still +remain. + +In South-East Spain the brothers Siret have found corridor-tombs in +which the chamber is cut in the rock surface and roofed with slabs; the +entrance passage becomes a slope or a staircase. Here we have a parallel +to the Giants' Graves of Sardinia, which are built usually of stone +blocks on the surface, but occasionally are cut in the solid rock. +Other tombs in the same district show the common megalithic construction +consisting of a base course of upright slabs surmounted by several +courses of horizontal masonry (Fig. 14). The chamber is usually round, +and may have two or more niches in its circumference. It is roofed by +the successive overlapping or corbelling of the upper courses. The vault +thus formed is further supported by a pillar of wood or stone set in +the centre of the chamber. On the walls of some of the chambers there +are traces of rough painting in red. The whole tomb is covered with a +circular mound. In the best known example at Los Millares there are +remains of a semicircular facade in front of the entrance, as in many +other megalithic monuments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14. Corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain. + (After Siret.)] + +The finest, however, of all the Spanish monuments is the corridor-tomb +of Antequera in Andalusia. It consists of a short passage leading into a +long rectangular chamber roofed with four slabs. Within it on its axial +line are three stone pillars placed directly under the three +meeting-points of the four slabs, but quite unnecessary for their +support. The whole tomb is covered with a low mound of earth. In the +great upright slab which forms the inner end of the chamber is a +circular hole rather above the centre. + +It is not the plan of this tomb, but the size, that compels the +admiration of the beholder. He stands, as it were, within a vast cave +lighted only from its narrow end, the roof far above his head. The rough +surface of the blocks lends colour to the feeling that this is the work +of Nature and not of man. Here, even if not in Stonehenge, he will pause +to marvel at the patient energy of the men of old who put together such +colossal masses of stone. + +Among the corridor-tombs of Spain must be mentioned a wedge-shaped type +which bears a close resemblance to those of Munster in Ireland (cf. +Fig. 7). In Alemtejo, south of Cape de Sines, are several of these, +usually about 6 feet in length, with a slight portico at one end. + +A further point of similarity with the Irish monuments is seen in the +corridor-tombs of Monte Abrahao in Portugal, where the chamber walls +seem to have been reinforced by an outer lining of slabs. Remains of +eighty human bodies were found in this tomb, together with objects of +stone and bone, including a small conical button similar to that of +Carrowmore in Ireland. + +The Spanish Peninsula also possesses rock-hewn tombs. At Palmella, near +Lisbon, is a circular example about 12 feet in diameter preceded by a +bell-shaped passage which slopes slightly downwards. Another circular +chamber in the same group has a much longer passage, which bulges out +into two small rounded antechambers. These tombs have been excavated and +yielded some pottery vases, together with objects of copper and beads of +a peculiar precious stone called _callais_. All the finds made in the +megalithic remains of Spain and Portugal point to the period of +transition from the age of stone to that of metal. + +The Balearic Islands contain remarkable megalithic monuments. Those +known as the _talayots_ are towers having a circular or rarely a square +base and sloping slightly inwards as they rise. The largest is 50 feet +in diameter. The stones, which are rather large and occasionally +trimmed, are laid flat, not on edge. A doorway just large enough to be +entered with comfort leads through the thickness of the wall into a +round chamber roofed by corbelling, with the assistance sometimes of one +or more pillars. From analogy with the _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, which they +resemble rather closely, it seems probable that the _talayots_ are +fortified dwellings, perhaps only used in time of danger (Fig. 15). + +[Illustration: Fig. 15. Section and plan of the Talayot of Sa Aquila, + Majorca. (After Cartailhac.)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 16. Nau d'Es Tudons, plan and section. + (After Cartailhac.)] + +The _naus_ or _navetas_ are so named from their resemblance to ships. +The construction is similar to that of the _talayots_. The outer wall +has a considerable batter. The famous Nau d'Es Tudons is about 36 feet +in length. The facade is slightly concave. A low door (_a_) gives access +through a narrow slab-roofed passage (_b_) to a long rectangular chamber +(_c_), the method of whose roofing is uncertain. All the _naus_ are +built with their facades to the south or south-east, with the exception +of that of Benigaus Nou, the inner end of which is cut in the rock, +while the outer part is built up of blocks as usual. The abnormal +orientation was here clearly determined by the desire to make use of the +face of rock in the construction. The _naus_ seem to have been tombs, as +human remains have been found in them. + +Rock-tombs also occur in the islands. The most remarkable are those of +S. Vincent in Majorca. One of these has a kind of open antechamber cut +in the rock, and is exactly similar in plan to the Grotte des Fees in +France (cf. Fig. 12). + +Prehistoric villages surrounded by great stone walls can still be traced +in the Balearic Isles. The houses were of two types, built either above +ground or below. The first are square or rectangular with rounded +corners, the base course occasionally consisting of orthostatic slabs. +The subterranean dwellings are faced with stone and roofed with flat +slabs supported by columns. In each village was one building of a +different type. It stood above ground and was semicircular in plan. In +its centre stood a horizontal slab laid across the top of an upright, +forming a T-shaped structure which helped to support the roof-slabs, but +which may also have had some religious significance. The stones which +composed it were always carefully worked, and the lower was let into a +socket on the under side of the upper. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS + + +Italy cannot be called a country of megalithic monuments. In the centre +and north they do not occur, the supposed examples mentioned by Dennis +in his _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ having been proved +non-existent by the Italian Ministry of Education. It is only in the +extreme south-west that megalithic structures appear. They are dolmens +of ordinary type, except that in some cases the walls are formed not of +upright slabs, but of stones roughly superposed one upon another. On the +farm of the Grassi, near Lecce, are what appear to be two small dolmens +at a distance of only 4 feet apart; they are perhaps parts of a single +corridor-tomb. In the neighbourhood of Tarentum there is a dolmen-tomb +approached by a short passage, and at Bisceglie, near Ruvo, there is an +even finer example, the discovery of which is one of the most important +events which have occurred in Italian prehistoric archaeology during the +last few years. The tomb is a simple rectangular corridor 36 feet in +length, lying east and west. Only one cover-slab, that at the west end, +remains, and the exact disposition of the rest of the tomb is +uncertain. In one of the side uprights which supports this slab is a +circular hole, which, however, seems to be the work of Nature, though +its presence may have led to the choice of the stone. The tomb was +carefully excavated, and the remains of several skeletons were found, +one of which lay in the contracted position on the right side. Three of +the skulls were observed by an expert to be dolichocephalic, but their +fragile condition prevented the taking of actual measurements. Burnt +bones of animals, fragments of pottery, a terra-cotta bead, and a stone +pendant were also found, together with flint knives and a fragment of +obsidian. + +These discoveries show that the heel of Italy fell under the influence +which caused the spread of the megalithic monuments, whatever that +influence may have been. The same influence may also have been +responsible for the bronze age rock-hewn tombs of Matera in the +Basilicata, each of which is surrounded by a circle of fairly large +stones. + +Geographical considerations would lead one to suppose that the same +conditions existed in Sicily, and it is possible that this was the case. +Yet it is an affirmation which must be made with great reserve. +Megalithic monuments in the ordinary sense of the term are unknown in +Sicily. There are, however, four tombs in the south-east of the island +which show some affinity to megalithic work. Two of these were found by +Orsi at Monteracello. They were rectangular chambers built of squared +slabs of limestone set on edge. At one end of the finer of the two was a +small opening or window cut in the upright slab. This same grave +contained a skeleton lying on the right side with the legs slightly +contracted. These two tombs can hardly be described as dolmens; they +seem to have had no cover-slabs, and the blocks, which were small, were +let into the earth, scarcely appearing above the surface. Taken by +themselves the Monteracello tombs would hardly prove the presence of the +megalithic civilization in Sicily. However, in the valley called Cava +Lazzaro there is a rock-hewn tomb where the vertical face of the rock in +which the tomb is cut has been shaped into a curved facade, a very usual +feature of megalithic architecture. This is ornamented on each side of +the entrance of the tomb with four pilasters cut in relief in the solid +rock, each pair being connected by a semicircular arch also in relief. +On the pilasters is incised a pattern of circles and V-shaped signs. A +somewhat similar arrangement of pilasters is seen in two rock-tombs at +Cava Lavinaro in the same district. This work forcibly recalls the work +of the megalithic builders in the hypogeum of Halsaflieni in Malta (see +Chap. VII), and on the facades of the Giants' Tombs in Sardinia (see +below). It affords, at any rate, a presumption that in all three +islands we have to deal with the same civilization if not the same +people. + +Such a presumption is not weakened by the fact that in Sicily the usual +form of tomb was the rock-hewn sepulchre, which, as will be seen later, +is very often a concomitant of the megalithic monument, and in many +cases is proved to be the work of the same people. In the early +neolithic period in Sicily, called by Orsi the Sicanian Period, +rock-hewn tombs seem not to have been used. It is only at the beginning +of the metal age that they begin to appear. In this period, the +so-called First Siculan, the tomb-chamber was almost always circular or +elliptical, entered by a small door or window in the face of the rock. +The dead were often seated round the wall of the chamber, evidently +engaged in a funerary feast, as is clear from the great vase set in +their midst with small cups for ladling out the liquid. A single tomb +often contained many bodies, especially in cases where the banquet +arrangement was not observed; one chamber held more than a hundred +skeletons, and it has been suggested that the bodies were only laid in +the tomb after the flesh had been removed from the bones, either +artificially or as the result of a temporary burial elsewhere. Such a +custom is not unknown in other parts of the megalithic area. With these +bodies were found large quantities of painted pottery, a few implements +of copper and many of flint. Among the ornaments which the dead +carried--for they seem to have been buried in complete costume--were +several axe-shaped pendants of polished stone, precisely similar to +those of Sardinia, Malta, and France. The most important cemeteries of +this period are those of Castelluccio, Melilli, and Monteracello. Near +this last site was also found a round hut based on a course of +orthostatic slabs of typically megalithic appearance. + +In the full bronze age, called the Second Siculan Period, burial in +rock-tombs still remained the rule. The tomb-form had developed +considerably. The circular type was still usual, though beside it a +rectangular form was fast coming into favour. The main chamber often had +side-niches, and was usually preceded by a corridor which sometimes +passed through an antechamber. Occasionally we find an elaborate +open-air court outside the facade of the tomb, built very much after the +megalithic style. Large vertical surfaces of rock were carefully sought +after for tombs, and the almost inaccessible cliffs of Pantalica and +Cassibile are literally honeycombed with them. Where such surfaces of +rock were unobtainable a vertical shaft was sunk in the level rock and a +chamber was opened off the bottom of it. The tradition of the banquet of +the dead is still kept up, but the number of the skeletons in each tomb +steadily decreases. The sitting posture is still frequent, though +occasionally the body lies flat on one side with the legs slightly +contracted. Flint is now rare, but objects of bronze are plentiful. The +local painted pottery has almost entirely given place to simpler yet +better wares with occasional Mycenean importations. + +It is impossible to decide whether this Sicilian civilization ought to +be included under the term megalithic. If, as seems probable, the idea +of megalithic building was brought to Europe by the immigration of a new +race it is possible that a branch of this race entered Sicily. In that +case I should prefer to think that they came not at the beginning of the +First Siculan Period as we know it, but rather earlier. Certain vases +found with neolithic burials in a cave at Villafrati and elsewhere in +Sicily resemble the pottery usually found in megalithic tombs; one of +them is in fact a bell-shaped cup, a form typical of megalithic pottery. +It is thus possible that an immigration of megalithic people into Sicily +took place during the stone age, definitely later than the period of the +earliest neolithic remains on the island, but earlier than that of such +sites as the Castelluccio cemetery. This, however, is and will perhaps +remain a mere conjecture, though it is quite possible that there are in +the interior of Sicily dolmens which have not yet come to the notice of +the archaeologist; in this connection it is worth while to remember that +up to five years ago the existence of dolmens in both Sardinia and Malta +passed unnoticed. + + +If the inclusion of Sicily in the megalithic area is doubtful there is +fortunately no question about the island of Sardinia. Here we have one +of the chief strongholds of the megalithic civilization, where the +architecture displays its greatest variety and flexibility. The simplest +manifestation of megalithic building, the dolmen, was up till lately +thought to be absent from Sardinia, but the researches of the last few +years have brought to light several examples, of which the best known +are those of Birori, where the chamber is approximately circular in +plan. + +The monuments, however, for which Sardinia is most famous are the +_nuraghi._ A _nuraghe_ is a tower-like structure of truncated conical +form, built of large stones laid in comparatively regular courses (Pl. +II, Fig. 2). The stones are often artificially squared, and set with a +clay mortar. The plan and arrangement of a simple _nuraghe_ are usually +as follows (Fig. 17): The diameter of the building is generally under 30 +feet. A door of barely comfortable height even for an average man and +surmounted by a single lintel-block gives access to a narrow passage cut +through the thickness of the wall. In this passage are, to the right, a +small niche (_c_) just large enough to hold a man, and, on the left, +a winding staircase in the wall (_d_) leading to an upper storey. The +passage itself leads into the chamber (_a_), which is circular, often +with two or three side-niches (_b b_), and roofed by corbelling, i.e. by +making each of the upper courses of stones in its wall project inwards +over the last. The upper chamber, which is rarely preserved, is similar +in form to the lower. + +[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 1. MNAIDRA, DOORWAY OF ROOM H] + +[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 2. THE NURAGHE OF MADRONE IN SARDINIA + To face p. 82] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17. Elevation, section and plan of a _nuraghe_. + (Pinza, _Monumenti Antichi_.)] + +Considerable speculation has been indulged in concerning the purpose of +the _nuraghi_. For many years they were regarded as tombs, a view which +was first combated by Nissardi at the International Congress in Rome in +1903. Further exploration since that time has placed it beyond all doubt +that the _nuraghi_ were fortified dwellings. The form of the building +itself is almost conclusive. The lowness of the door would at once put +an enemy at a disadvantage in attempting to enter; it is significant +that in the _nuraghe_ of Su Cadalanu, where the doorway was over 6 feet +in height, its breadth was so much reduced that it was necessary to +enter sideways. Arrangements were made for the closing of the entrance +from inside by a heavy slab of stone, often fitted into grooves. The +niche on the right of the passage clearly served to hold a man, who +would command the passage itself and the staircase to the upper floor; +he would, moreover, be able to attack the undefended flank of an enemy +entering with his shield on his left arm. To the same effort at +impregnability we may safely ascribe the fact that the staircase leading +to the upper room did not begin on the floor-level of the passage, but +was reached through a hole high up in the wall. Many of the _nuraghi_ +are surrounded by elaborate fortifications consisting of walls, towers, +and bastions, sometimes built at the same time as the dwelling itself, +sometimes added later. Those of Aiga, Losa, and s'Aspru are among the +most famous of this type. All the _nuraghi_ stand in commanding +situations overlooking large tracts of country, and the more important a +position is from the strategical point of view the stronger will be the +_nuraghe_ which defends it. All are situated close to streams and +springs of good water, and some, as for instance that of Abbameiga, are +actually built over a natural spring. At Nossiu is a building which can +only be described as a fortress. It consists of a rhomboidal enclosure +with _nuraghe_-like towers at its corners and four narrow gateways in +its walls. It is surrounded by the ruins of a village of stone huts. +There cannot be the least doubt that in time of danger the inhabitants +drove their cattle into the fortified enclosure, entered it themselves, +and then closed the gates. + +Each _nuraghe_ formed the centre of a group of stone huts. Mackenzie has +described such a village at Serucci, where the circular plan of the +huts was still visible. The walls in one case stood high enough to +show, from the corbelling of their upper courses, that the huts were +roofed in the same fashion as the _nuraghi_ themselves. Another village, +that which surrounds the _nuraghe_ of Su Chiai, was protected by a wall +of huge stones. + +It is thus clear that the _nuraghi_ were the fortified centres of the +various villages of Sardinia. Probably each formed the residence of the +local chieftain; that they were actually inhabited is clear from the +remains of everyday life found in them, and from the polish which +continual use has set on the side-walls of some of the staircases. In +general appearance and design the _nuraghi_ recall the modern _truddhi_, +hundreds of which dot the surface of Apulia and help to beguile the +tedium of the railway journey from Brindisi to Foggia. The _truddhi_, +however, are built in steps or terraces and have no upper chamber. + +Who were the foes against whom such elaborate preparations for defence +were made? Two alternatives are possible. Either Sardinia was a +continual prey to some piratical Mediterranean people, or she was +divided against herself through the rivalry of the local chieftains. + +The second explanation is perhaps the more probable. Mackenzie seems to +adopt it, and fancies that in the growth of the largest _nuraghi_ we may +trace the rise to power of some of these local dynasts at the expense of +their neighbours. He suggests that the existence of the fortified +enclosure of Nossiu, where there is no sign of a true _nuraghe_, may +mean that there were certain communities which succeeded in maintaining +their independence in the face of these powerful rulers. But here, as he +himself is the first to admit, we are in the realm of pure conjecture. + +[Illustration: Fig. 18. Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia. (Mackenzie, +_Papers of the British School of Rome_, V.)] + +It is now established that in the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia we are to +see the graves of the inhabitants of the _nuraghe_ villages. Every +Giant's Tomb lies close to such a village, and almost every village has +its Giants' Tombs, one or more in number according to its size. A +Giant's Tomb consists of a long rectangular chamber of upright slabs +roofed by corbelled masonry (Fig. 18). The slab which closes one end of +the tomb is of great size, and consists of a lower rectangular half with +a small hole at the base and an upper part shaped like a rounded gable. +There is a raised border to the whole slab, and a similar band in relief +marks out the two halves. This front slab forms the centre-piece in a +curved facade of upright slabs. The chamber is covered with a coating of +ashlar masonry, which is shaped into an apsidal form at the end opposite +to the facade. Occasionally more than 50 feet in length, the Giants' +Tombs served as graves for whole families, or even for whole villages. +Mackenzie has shown that the form is derived from the simple dolmen, and +has pointed out several of the intermediate stages. + +The inhabitants of Sardinia in the megalithic period also buried their +dead in rock-hewn sepulchres, of which there are numerous examples at +Anghelu Ruju. The contents of these graves make it clear that they are +the work of the same people as the Giants' Graves. Were further proof +needed it could be afforded by a grave at Molafa, where a Giant's Grave +with its facade and gabled slab has been faithfully imitated in the +solid rock. There is a similar tomb at St. George. Two natural caves in +Cape Sant' Elia on the south of the island contain burials of this same +period. + +The neighbouring island of Corsica also contains important megalithic +remains. They consist of thirteen dolmens, forty-one menhirs, two +_alignements_, and a cromlech. They fall geographically into two groups, +one in the extreme north and the other in the extreme south of the +island. + +The stones used are chiefly granite and gneiss. The dolmens, which are +of carefully chosen flat blocks showing no trace of work, are all +rectangular in plan, and usually consist of four side-walls and a +cover-slab. The finest of all, however, the dolmen of Fontanaccia, has +seven blocks supporting the cover, one at each short end, three in one +of the long sides, and two in the other. None of the dolmens are covered +by mounds. + +Of the _alignements_, that of Caouria seems to consist, in part at +least, of two parallel lines of menhirs, the rest of the plan being +uncertain. There are still thirty-two blocks, of which six have fallen. +The other _alignement_, that of Rinaiou, consists of seven menhirs set +in a straight line. The cromlech is circular and stands on Cape Corse. + +On the small island of Pianosa, near Elba, are several rock-hewn tombs +of the aeneolithic period which ought perhaps to be classed with the +megalithic monuments of Sardinia and Corsica. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER + MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS + + +North Africa is a great stronghold of the megalithic civilization, +indeed it is thought by some that it is the area in which megalithic +building originated. Morocco, Tunis, Algeria, and Tripoli all abound in +dolmens and other monuments. Even in the Nile Valley they occur, for +what looks like a dolmen surrounded by a circle was discovered by de +Morgan in the desert near Edfu, and Wilson and Felkin describe a number +of simple dolmens which exist near Lado in the Sudan. Tripoli remains as +yet comparatively unexplored. The traveller Barth speaks of stone +circles near Mourzouk and near the town of Tripoli. The great trilithons +(_senams_) with holes pierced in their uprights and 'altar tables' at +their base, which Barth, followed by Cooper in his _Hill of the Graces_, +described as megalithic monuments, have been shown to be nothing more +than olive-presses, the 'altar tables' being the slabs over which the +oil ran off as it descended. True dolmens do, however, occur in Tripoli, +and Cooper figures a fine monument at Messa in the Cyrenaica, which +appears to consist of a single straight line of tall uprights with a +continuous entablature of blocks similar to that of the outer circle at +Stonehenge. + +Algeria has been far more completely explored, and possesses a +remarkable number of megalithic monuments. Many of the finest are +situated near the town of Constantine. Thus at Bou Nouara there is a +hill about a mile in length which is a regular necropolis of +dolmen-tombs. Each grave consists of a dolmen within a circle of stones. +The blocks are all natural and completely unworked. The circle consists +of a wall of stone blocks so built as to neutralize the slope of the +hill and to form a level platform for the dolmen. Thus on the lower side +there are three courses of carefully laid stones rising to about five +feet, while on the upper side there is only one course. The diameter of +the circles varies from 22 to 33 feet. In the centre of the circle lies +the dolmen with its single long cover-slab. This usually rests on two +entire side-slabs, the ends being filled up either with entire slabs or +with masonry of small stones. In rare cases the side-slabs are replaced +by masonry walls. The average size of the cover-slab is 6-1/2 by 5 feet. +The dolmen itself is, of course, built directly on to the platform, and +the space between it and the circle is filled up with rough stones. The +orientation of the dolmens varied considerably, but the cover-slab was +never placed in such a way that its length ran up the hill-slope, +probably because in moving the slab into place this would have been an +awkward position. + +Another equally fine site is that of Bou Merzoug, near Oulad Rahmoun, +about an hour's railway journey from Constantine. The place is naturally +adapted for a settlement as there is a spring of water there. This +spring was later utilized by the Romans to provide water for the city of +Cirta. The dolmen-graves lie in great numbers on the hill at the foot of +which the spring rises, and extend down into the valley. Each dolmen +lies in the centre of a stone circle. This last is in some cases formed +by very large slabs set on edge, but more often by two or three courses +of rough oblong blocks. Many of the graves are badly damaged. One of the +finest had an outer circle about 27 feet in diameter, and an inner +circle 14 feet in diameter. Between these two a third circle, much more +irregular and of small stones, could just be distinguished. But in most +cases it was impossible to make out clearly more than the one outer +circle and the dolmen within it. The dolmen itself consisted of a large +slab resting on walls formed of several large blocks, the spaces between +which were filled up with smaller stones. None of the stones used were +worked. The dolmens were not oriented according to any fixed system. M. +Feraud states that the separate graves were united together by open +corridors formed by double or triple rows of large stones, but no traces +of such a system could be found by the later visitors to the site, +Messrs. MacIver and Wilkin. + +Fortunately we have some record of what these graves contained, for +thirteen were opened by Mr. Christy and M. Feraud. One contained a human +skeleton in good condition, buried in the contracted position with the +knees to chin and arms crossed. With this were two whole vases, +fragments of others, and pieces of cedar wood. At the feet of the +skeleton were two human heads, and as the graves would not have +accommodated more than one whole body M. Feraud suggests that these +belong to decapitated victims. Another grave contained, in addition to +human bones, those of a horse, together with three objects of copper, +viz. a ring, an earring, and a buckle. In another were found the teeth +and bones of a horse and an iron bit. + +An entirely different type of monument is found near Msila, south-west +of Algiers. Here is a long low hill called the Senam, covered with large +numbers of stone circles. These consist of large slabs of natural +limestone set up on edge and not very closely fitted. The height of the +slabs varies from 2 to 3 feet, and the diameters of the three still +perfect circles are 23-1/2, 26-3/4, and 34-1/3 feet respectively. At a +point roughly south-east there is a break in the circumference, filled +by a rectangular niche (Fig. 19) consisting of three large slabs, and +varying in width from 2 ft. 6 in. to 6 feet. There is a possibility that +the niches were originally roofed, but the evidence on this point is far +from conclusive. The interior of the circle is filled with blocks of +stone, apparently heaped up without any definite plan. There seems to be +no clue as to the meaning of these circles, as none have as yet been +explored. MacIver and Wilkin are probably right in classing them as +graves. + +[Illustration: FIG 19. Stone circle at the Senam, Algeria. + (After MacIver and Wilkin).] + +The most famous, however, of the Algerian sites is unquestionably that +of Roknia. Here the tombs lie on the side of a steep hill. They consist +of dolmens often surrounded by stone circles from 25 to 33 feet in +diameter. The cover-slabs of the dolmens usually rest on single +uprights, and never on built walls. Several of the graves excavated +contained more than one body, one yielding as many as seven. It is +remarkable that three of the skulls showed wounds, the dead having been +apparently killed in battle. Several vases have been found and a few +pieces of bronze. + +We have seen that in some of the tombs of Bou Merzoug objects of iron +were found. This makes it clear that some at least of the Algerian tombs +belong to the iron age, i.e. that they are probably later than 1000 +B.C., but beyond this we cannot go. The medal of Faustina sometimes +quoted as evidence for a very late date proves nothing, as it is not +stated to have been found in a tomb. There is no evidence to show how +far back the graves go. It may be that, as MacIver and Wilkin suggest, +the parts of the cemeteries excavated chance to be the latest. At Bou +Merzoug the excavators worked chiefly among the graves on the plain and +at the bottom of the hill. The more closely crowded graves which lie on +the hill itself may well be older than these. In fact, all that may be +said of the Algerian graves is that some are of the iron age, while +others may be and probably are earlier. + + +In Tunis the dolmen is not uncommon, and several groups or cemeteries +have been reported. Near Ellez occurs a type of corridor-tomb in which +three dolmen-like chambers lie on either side of a central passage, and +a seventh at the end opposite to the entrance. The whole is constructed +of upright slabs of stone, and is surrounded by a circle formed in the +same way. + +Morocco, too, has its dolmens, especially in the district of Kabylia, +while near Tangier there is a stone circle. + +Off the north coast of Africa, and thus on the highway which leads from +Africa to Europe, lie the Italian islands of Lampedusa and Linosa. The +latter is volcanic in origin, and its surface presents no opportunity +for the building of megalithic monuments. Lampedusa, on the other hand, +consists of limestone, which lies about in great blocks on its surface. +On the slopes of the south coast there are several remains of megalithic +construction, but they are too damaged to show much of their original +form. However, on the north side of the island there are megalithic huts +in a very fair state of preservation. They are oval in form and have in +many cases a base course of orthostatic slabs. + +Some miles to the north of Linosa lies the much larger volcanic island +of Pantelleria, also a possession of Italy. Here megalithic remains both +of dwellings and of tombs have been found. On the plateau of the Mursia +are the remains of rectangular huts made of rough blocks of stone. These +huts seemed to have formed a village, which was surrounded by a wall for +purposes of defence. In the huts were found implements of obsidian and +flat stones used for grinding. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria. + (Orsi, _Monumenti Antichi_, IX.)] + +The tombs of the people who inhabited this village are, unlike the +houses, circular or elliptical in form. They are locally known as +_sesi._ The smaller are of truncated conical shape, the circular chamber +being entered by a low door and having a corbelled roof. In one of the +_sesi_ a skeleton was found buried in the contracted position. The +finest of the tombs, known as the Sese Grande, elliptical in form (Fig. +20), has a major diameter of more than 60 feet, and rises in ridges, +being domed at the top. It contains not one chamber, but twelve, each of +which has a separate entrance from the outside of the _sese._ To judge +by the remains found in the _sesi_ they belong entirely to the neolithic +period. + + +The island of Malta as seen to-day is an almost treeless, though not +unfertile, stretch of rock, with a harbour on the north coast which must +always make the place a necessary possession to the first sea power of +Europe. Much of its soil is of comparatively modern creation, and four +thousand years ago the island may well have had a forbidding aspect. +This is perhaps the reason why the first great inroads of neolithic man +into the Mediterranean left it quite untouched, although it lay directly +in the path of tribes immigrating into Europe from Africa. The earliest +neolithic remains of Italy, Crete, and the AEgean seem to have no +parallel in Malta, and the first inhabitants of whom we find traces in +the island were builders of megalithic monuments. Small as Malta is it +contains some of the grandest and most important structures of this kind +ever erected. The two greatest of these, the so-called "Phoenician +temples" of Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra, were constructed on opposite sides +of one of the southern valleys, each within sight of the other and of +the little rocky island of Filfla. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21. Plan of the megalithic sanctuary of Mnaidra, + Malta. (After Albert Mayr's plan.)] + +The temple of Mnaidra is the simpler of the two in plan (Fig. 21). It +consists of two halves, the more northerly of which was almost certainly +built later than the other. Each half consists of two elliptical +chambers set one behind the other. The south half is the better +preserved. It has a concave facade of large orthostatic slabs with +horizontal blocks set in front of them to keep them in position. In the +centre of this opens a short paved passage formed of fine upright slabs +of stone, one of which is 13 feet in height. The first elliptical +chamber (_E_) into which this passage leads us has a length of 45 feet. +Its walls (Pl. III) consist of roughly squared orthostatic slabs over 6 +feet in height, above which are several courses of horizontal blocks +which carry the walls in places up to a height of nearly 14 feet. This +combination of vertical and horizontal masonry is typical of all the +Maltese temples. To the left of the entrance is a rectangular niche in +the wall containing one of the remarkable trilithons (_a_) which form so +striking a feature of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim. It consists of a +horizontal slab of stone nearly 10 feet in length, supported at its ends +by two vertical slabs about 5 feet high. To the right of the entrance is +a window-like opening (_b_, behind the seated figure in Pl. III) in one +of the slabs of the wall, preceded by two steps and giving access to +an irregular triangular space (_F_). In the north-west angle of this +triangle is fixed a trilithon table (_c_) of the usual type, 32 inches +high; at a like height above the table is fixed another horizontal slab +which serves as a roof to the corner. The south corner of the triangle +is shut off by a vertical slab, in which is cut a window 29 inches by +17. Through this is seen a shrine (?) consisting of a box (_d_) made of +five well-cut slabs of stone, the front being open. The aperture by +which _F_ is entered was evidently intended to be closed with a slab of +stone from the inside of _F_, for it was rebated on that side, and there +are holes to be used in securing the slab. When the entrance was thus +blocked _F_ still communicated with _E_ by means of a small rectangular +window 16 inches by 12 in one of the adjacent slabs (visible in Pl. +III). + +[Illustration: PLATE III TEMPLE OF MNAIDRA, MALTA. APSE OF CHIEF ROOM + To face p. 100] + +Returning to the area _E_ we find in the south-west wall an elaborate +doorway (Pl. II, Fig. I, p. 82) leading to a rectangular room _H_. The +doorway consists of two tall pillars with a great lintel laid across the +top. The space between the pillars is closed by a fixed vertical slab in +which is a window-like aperture similar to that which gives access to +Room _F_. All the stones in this doorway are ornamented with pit-marks. +The rectangular room _H_ has niches in its walls to the north, south, +and west. Each niche is formed by a pair of uprights with a block laid +across the top. The west niche is occupied by a horizontal table or +slab (_e_) supported at its centre by a stone pillar 39 inches in +height, of circular section narrowing in the centre (visible through the +doorway in Pl. II, Fig. I). The southern niche contains an ordinary +trilithon table (_f_): the northern niche is damaged, but apparently +held a table like that of the western. + +The area _I_ consists of only half an ellipse, the southern half being +replaced by the area _H_, which we have already described. It has a +rectangular niche to the west containing a fine trilithon with a +cover-slab nearly 10 feet long. + +The whole of the southern half of the Mnaidra temple is surrounded by a +wall of huge rough blocks of stone, presenting a great contrast to the +dressed slabs of which the inner walls are formed. They are placed +alternately with their broad faces and their narrow edges outwards. The +roughness of this enclosure wall gives the structure a remarkably wild +and craggy appearance from a distance. The northern half of Mnaidra is +clearly a later addition. + +There is no doubt as to the way in which the areas were roofed. In the +apse-like ends of the elliptical rooms the horizontal courses are +corbelled, i.e. each course projects slightly forward over the last. +Thus the space narrows as the walls rise, until the aperture is small +enough to be roofed by great slabs laid across. The corbelling of the +apse is just perceptible in Pl. III. Whether the roofing of the Mnaidra +temple was ever complete it is impossible to say: in any case the system +we have described could only be applied to the apsidal portions of the +areas, and their centres must either have been open to the sky or roofed +quite simply with slabs. + + +In the still more famous temple of Hagiar Kim we have a complicated +building, in which the original plan has been much altered and enlarged. +The main portion doubtless consisted originally of a curved facade and a +pair of elliptical areas, the inner of which has been fitted with a +second entrance to the north-west and completely remodelled at its +south-west end. Four elliptical chambers, one of which is at a much +higher level than the rest of the building, have been added. Here, too, +as at Mnaidra, we find niches containing trilithon tables. In the first +elliptical area, in which the apsidal ends are divided from the central +space by means of walls of vertical slabs, a remarkable group of objects +was found. In front of a well-cut vertical block stood what must be an +altar, cut in one piece of stone. It is square in section except for the +top, which is circular. On the four vertical edges are pilasters in +relief, and in the front between these is cut in relief what looks like +a plant growing out of a pot or box. To the left of the altar and the +vertical slab behind were an upright stone with two hanging spirals cut +on it in relief, and at its foot a horizontal slab. Both the altar and +the carved stone are covered with small pit-marks. + +In the outside wall of the building, quite unconnected with the +interior, is a niche partly restored on old foundations, in which stands +a rough stone pillar 6-1/2 feet high. In front of this pillar is a +vertical slab nearly 3 feet high, narrowing towards the base, and +covered with pit-markings. This pillar can hardly be anything but a +baetyl, or sacred stone. + +The temple called the Gigantia, on the island of Gozo, is no less +remarkable than the two which we have already described; in one place +its wall is preserved up to a height of over 20 feet. The plan is +similar to that of Mnaidra, though here the two halves seem to have been +built at one and the same time. Several of the blocks show a design of +spirals in relief, while on others there are the usual pit-markings. +Another bears a figure of a fish or serpent. At the foot of one of the +trilithons was found a baetyl 51 inches in height, now in the museum at +Valletta. + +That these three buildings were sanctuaries of some kind seems almost +certain from their form and arrangement. We do not, however, know what +was the exact nature of the worship carried on in them, though there can +be no doubt that the stone tables supported by single pillars and the +trilithons found in the niches played an important part in the ritual. +Sir Arthur Evans in his famous article _Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult_ +has suggested that in Malta we have a cult similar to that seen in the +Mycenaean world. This latter was an aneiconic worship developed out of +the cult of the dead; in it the deity or hero was represented by a +baetyl, i.e. a tree or pillar sometimes standing free, sometimes placed +in a 'dolmen-like' cell or shrine, in which latter case the pillar often +served to support the roof of the shrine. In Malta Sir Arthur Evans sees +signs of a baetyl-worship very similar to this. Thus at Hagiar Kim we +have a pillar still standing free in a niche, and another pillar, which, +to judge from its shape, must have stood free, was found in the +Gigantia. On the other hand, at Mnaidra we have pillars which support +slabs in a cell or shrine, and at Cordin several small pillars were +found which must originally have served a similar purpose. + +There can hardly be any doubt that Sir Arthur Evans is right in seeing +in the Maltese temples signs of a baetylic worship. But is he right in +his further assertion that the cult was a cult of the dead? Albert Mayr +assumes that he is, and endeavours to show that the 'dolmen-like' cells +in the niches are not altars, but stereotyped representations of the +dolmen-tombs of the heroes worshipped. He thinks that the slabs which +cover them are too large for altar-tables, and that the niches in which +they stand are too narrow and inaccessible to have been the scene of +sacrificial rites. Neither of these arguments has much force, nor is it +easy to see how the cells are derived from dolmens. The fact is that the +word 'dolmen-like,' which has become current coin in archaeological +phraseology, is a question-begging epithet. The Maltese cells are not +like dolmens at all, they are either trilithons or tables resting on a +pillar. They are always open to the front, and instead of the rough +unhewn block which should cover a dolmen they are roofed with a +well-squared slab. If the pillar which supports the slab is, like the +free-standing pillars, a baetyl, the slab is probably a mere roof to +cover and protect it; if not, the slab is almost certainly a table. + +At the same time, although we may not accept the hypothesis that the +cell is derived from a dolmen, Sir Arthur Evans may still be right in +supposing the worship to have originated in a cult of the dead. But he +was almost certainly wrong, as recent excavation has shown, in supposing +that the cells were the actual burial place of the deified heroes. + +A number of statuettes were found at Hagiar Kim, two of which are of +pottery and the rest of limestone. One figure represents a woman +standing, but in the rest she is seated on a rather low stool with her +feet tucked under her. There is no sign of clothing, except on one +figure which shows a long shirt and a plain bodice with very low neck. +All these statuettes are characterized by what is known as steatopygy, +that is, the over-development of the fat which lies on and behind the +hips and thighs. + +Steatopygous figures have been found in many places, viz. France, Malta, +Crete, the Cyclades, Greece, Thessaly, Servia, Transylvania, Poland, +Egypt, and the Italian colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea. The French +examples are from caves of the palaeolithic period; the rest mainly +belong to the neolithic and bronze ages. Various reasons have been given +for the abnormal appearance of these figures. In the first place it has +been suggested that they represent women of a steatopygous type, like +the modern Bushwomen, and that this race was in early days widely +diffused in the Mediterranean and in South Europe. Another hypothesis is +that they represent not a truly steatopygous type of women, but only an +abnormally fat type. A third suggestion is that they portray the +generative aspect of nature in the form of a pregnant goddess. + +Naturally there are considerable local differences in the shapes of the +figures from the various countries we have enumerated, and it may be +that no single hypothesis will explain them all. + +There are other megalithic buildings in Malta besides the three which +we have discussed, but none of them call for more than passing mention. +On the heights of Cordin or Corradino, overlooking the Grand Harbour of +Valletta, there are no less than three groups, all of which have been +lately excavated. In all three we see signs of the typical arrangement +of elliptical areas one behind another, and in the finest of the three +the curved facade and the paved court which lies before it are still +preserved. + +It was for a long time believed that there were no dolmens in Malta. +Professor Tagliaferro has been able to upset this belief by discovering +two, one near Musta and the other near Siggewi. It is hardly credible +that these are the only two dolmens which ever existed in Malta. More +will no doubt yet be found, especially in the wild north-west corner of +the isle. + + +The megalithic builders of Malta did not confine their achievements to +structures above ground, they could also work with equal facility below. +In the village of Casal Paula, which lies about a mile from the head of +the Grand Harbour of Valletta, is a wonderful complex of subterranean +chambers known as the Hypogeum of Halsaflieni, which may justly be +considered as one of the wonders of the world. + +The chambers, which seem to follow no definite plan, are excavated in +the soft limestone and arranged in two storeys connected by a staircase, +part of which still remains in place. The finest rooms are in the upper +storey. The largest is circular, and contains in its walls a series of +false doors and windows. It is in this room that the remarkable nature +of the work in the hypogeum is most apparent. On entering it one sees at +once that the intention of the original excavator was to produce in +solid rock underground a copy of a megalithic structure above ground. +Thus the walls curve slightly inwards towards the top as do those of the +apses of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, and the ceiling is cut to represent a +roof of great blocks laid across from wall to wall with a space left +open in the centre where the width would be too great for the length of +the stones. The treatment of the doors and windows recalls at once that +of the temples above ground. The mason was not content, when he needed a +door, to cut a rectangular opening in the rock; he must represent in +high relief the monolithic side-posts and lintel which were the great +features of the megalithic 'temples' of Malta. Nor has he failed in his +intention, for, as one moves from room to room in the hypogeum, one +certainly has the feeling of being in a building constructed of separate +blocks and not merely cut in the solid rock. No description can do +justice to the grace of the curves and the flow of the line in the +circular chamber and in the passage beyond it, and we have here the +work of an architect who felt the aesthetic effect of every line he +traced. + +Behind the circular chamber and across the passage just referred to lies +a small room which, rightly or wrongly, has been called the 'Holy of +Holies,' the idea being that it formed a kind of inner sanctuary to the +chamber. It contains a rough shelf cut in the wall, and in the centre of +this a shallow circular pit. It has been suggested that this pit was +made to hold the base of the cult-object, whether it was a baetyl or an +idol. This, however, is a mere conjecture. In the passage just outside +the door of this room are two small circular pits about 6 inches in +diameter and the same distance apart. They connect with one another +below, and are closed with tightly fitting limestone plugs. In one of +them was found a cow's horn. Their purpose is unknown, but similar pairs +of pits occur elsewhere at Halsaflieni. + +In two of the largest chambers in the hypogeum the roof and walls are +still decorated with designs in red paint. The patterns consist of +graceful combinations of curved lines and spirals. Many other rooms, +including the circular chamber, were originally painted with designs in +red, which have now almost wholly disappeared. + +Many of the chambers are extremely small, too small for an adult even to +stand upright in them, and their entrances are merely windows, perhaps +a foot square and well above the ground. + +What then was the purpose of this wonderful complex of rooms? Before +attempting to answer this question we must consider what has been found +in them. When the museum authorities first took over the hypogeum +practically all the chambers were filled to within a short distance of +their roofs with a mass of reddish soil, which proved to contain the +remains of thousands of human skeletons. In other words, Halsaflieni was +used as a burial place, though this may not have been its original +purpose. The bones lay for the most part in disorder, and so thickly +that in a space of about 4 cubic yards lay the remains of no less than +120 individuals. One skeleton, however, was found intact, lying on the +right side in the crouched position, i.e. with arms and knees bent up. + +With the bones were found enormous quantities of pottery and other +objects, buried with the dead as provision for the next world. The +pottery is rough in comparison with the fine painted wares of Crete, but +it is extremely varied in its decoration. One particularly fine bowl +shows a series of animals which have been identified by Professor +Tagliaferro as the long-horned buffalo, an animal which once existed on +the northern coasts of Africa. Ornaments of all kinds were common, and +include beads, pendants, and conical buttons of stone and shell. The +most remarkable of all are a large number of model celts made of +jadeite and other hard stones. These are of the same shape as the stone +axes used by neolithic man, but they are far too small ever to have been +used, and they must therefore have been models hung round the neck as +amulets. Each is provided with a small hole for this purpose. The +popularity of the axe-amulet makes it probable that the axe had some +religious significance. + +Finally Halsaflieni has yielded several steatopygous figurines. Some of +these resemble those of Hagiar Kim, but two are of rather different +type. Each of these represents a female lying on a rather low couch. In +the better preserved of the two she lies on her right side, her head on +a small uncomfortable-looking pillow. The upper part of her body is +naked, but from the waist downwards she is clad in a flounced skirt +which reaches to the ankles. The other figurine is very similar, but the +woman here is face downwards on the couch. + +The bodies themselves were so damaged with damp that only ten skulls +could be saved whole. These, however, afford very valuable +anthropological evidence. They have been carefully measured by Dr. +Zammit, and they prove to belong to a long-headed (dolichocephalic) type +usual among the neolithic races of the Mediterranean. + +We have still to discuss the purpose of this great complex of +underground chambers and passages. It is quite clear that its eventual +fate was to be used as a burial place for thousands of individuals, but +it is far from certain that this was the purpose for which it was built. +The existence of the central chamber, with its careful work and +laborious imitation of an open-air 'temple,' is against this +interpretation. It has therefore been suggested that the hypogeum was +meant for a burial place, and that the central chamber was the chapel or +sanctuary in which the funeral rites were performed, after which the +body was buried in one of the smaller rooms. This, however, does not +explain the presence of burials in the chapel itself, and it is far more +likely that it was only after Halsaflieni had ceased to be used for its +original purpose that it was seized upon as a convenient place for +burial. + +The question of the date of the Maltese megalithic buildings is a +difficult one. It is true that no metal has been found in them, and that +we can therefore speak of them as belonging to the neolithic age. But +the neolithic age of Malta need not be parallel in date with that of +Crete for example. It is extremely probable that Malta lay outside the +main currents of civilization, and that flint continued to be used there +long after copper had been adopted by her more fortunate neighbours. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE DOLMENS OF ASIA + + +In the south-east of Europe lie three groups of dolmens which are no +doubt in origin more closely connected with those of Asia than with +those of the rest of Europe. The first group lies in Bulgaria, where no +less than sixty dolmens have been found north of Adrianople. The second +consists of a few dolmens which still remain in the Crimea, and the +third lies in the Caucasus in two divisions, one to the south-east and +the other to the south-west of the town of Ekaterinodar. These last are +made of slabby rock, and thus have a finished appearance. A dolmen near +Tzarskaya has a small semicircular hole at the bottom of one of its +end-slabs, while another in the valley of Pehada has sides consisting of +single blocks, placed so as to slant inwards considerably, and a +circular hole in the centre of the slab which closes one of its ends. + +In Asia megalithic monuments are not infrequent. We first find them in +Syria, they have been reported from Persia, and in Central and South +India they exist in large numbers. Corridor-tombs occur in Japan, but +they are late in date, and there is no evidence to show whether they +are connected with those of India or not. + +Syria is comparatively rich in megalithic monuments, but it is +remarkable that almost all of them lie to the east of the Jordan. Thus +while there are hundreds of dolmens in the country of Pera and in Ammon +and Moab, very few have been found in Galilee, and only one in Judaea, +despite careful search. There is, however, a circle of stones west of +Tiberias, and an enclosure of menhirs between Tyre and Sidon. According +to Perrot and Chipiez some of the Moabite monuments are very similar in +type to the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia. Others are simple dolmens. In a +good example at Ala Safat (Fig. 22) the floor of the tomb is formed by a +single flat slab of stone. The great cover-slab rests on two long +blocks, one on either side, placed on edge. The narrow ends are closed +up with smaller slabs, one of which, that which faces north, has a small +hole pierced in it. A similar closure slab with a hole is also found in +certain rock-tombs quite close to this dolmen. Apparently none of these +dolmens have been systematically excavated, and nothing is known of +their date. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat. (After de +Luynes.)] + +Menhirs, too, are not wanting in Syria. Perrot and Chipiez figure an +example from Gebel-Mousa in Moab which is quite unworked, except for a +shallow furrow across the centre of the face. In many cases the menhir +is surrounded by one or more rows of stones. Thus at Der Ghuzaleh a +menhir about 3 feet in height is set in the centre of what when complete +must have been a rectangle. In other cases the enclosure was elliptical +or circular in form. In an example at Minieh the menhir stands in the +centre of a double (in part triple) circle of stones, on which abuts an +elliptical enclosure. In some cases the circle has no proper entrance, +in others it has a door consisting of a large slab resting on two +others. The largest of the circles attains a diameter of 600 feet, and +has a double line of stones. + +Within these circles and near them are found large numbers of monuments +consisting each of a large flat slab resting on two others. On the +upper surface of the top slab are often seen a number of basin-shaped +holes, sometimes connected by furrows. Many of the slabs are slightly +slanting, and it has been suggested that the series of holes and furrows +was intended for the pouring a libation of some kind. In a monument of +this type at Amman the cover-slab slopes considerably; the upper part of +its surface is a network of small channels converging on a hole 11 +inches deep about the centre of the slab. Here, again, no excavations +have been carried out, and we do not even know what was the purpose of +these structures. It is, however, probable that these trilithons were +not, like the dolmens, tombs, but served some religious purpose, +possibly connected with the worship of the menhirs. + +In the Jaulan, where the rock consists of a slabby type of basalt, there +are many dolmens of fine appearance. They often lie east and west, and +are often broader at the west end. Many are surrounded by a double +circle of stones. In one of them two copper rings were found. At Ain +Dakkar more than 160 dolmen-tombs are visible from a single spot. They +are built on circular terraces of earth and stones about 3 feet high. +The Arabs call them Graves of the Children of Israel. Most of them lie +east and west, and are broader at the west. In the eastern slab there is +often a hole about 2 feet in diameter. Near Tsil are several +corridor-tombs of simple type. Each consists of a long rectangular +chamber with only one cover-slab, that being at the west end. In a +well-known example of this type at Kosseir there is a hole in one of the +two uprights which support the cover. + +These examples will serve to show the importance and variety of the +Syrian monuments. They present analogies with those of many parts of the +megalithic area, and we therefore await anxiously the publication of +Mackenzie's promised article on his own explorations in this district. + + +The central and southern parts of India afford numerous examples of +dolmens. They are to be found in almost all parts of Lower India from +the Nerbudda River to Cape Comorin. In the Nilgiri hills there are stone +circles and dolmens, and numbers of dolmens are said to exist in the +Neermul jungle in Central India. In the collectorate of Bellary dolmens +and other monuments to the number of 2129 have been recorded. Others +occur in the principality of Sorapoor and near Vellore in the Madras +presidency. These latter appear to be of two types, either with three +supports only or with four supports, one of which is pierced with a +circular hole. Of the 2200 dolmens known in the Deccan, half are of this +pierced type. They are known to the natives as "dwarfs' houses." One +only had a pair of uprights outside the pierced stone, thus forming a +sort of portico to the dolmen. Near Chittore in North Arcot there is +said to be a square mile of ground covered with these monuments. In them +were found human remains in sarcophagi, and fragments of black pottery. +Several of the Indian dolmens are said to have contained objects of +iron. Occasionally the dolmen is surrounded by a double circle of stones +or covered with a cairn. The Deccan, in addition to its numerous +dolmens, possesses also megalithic monuments of another type. They +consist each of two rows, each of thirteen unworked stones set as close +together as possible, in front of which is a row of three stones, each +about 4 feet high, not let into the ground. The planted stones were +whitewashed, and each was marked with a large spot of red paint with +black in the centre. These stones seem to have been in use in modern +times. Colonel Forbes Leslie thinks that a cock had been sacrificed on +one of the three stones which lie in front of the double row, but there +seems to be no certain evidence for this. It is, however, very probable +that these _alignements_ had some religious signification, and the same +is no doubt true of certain small circles of small stones, also found in +the Deccan. + +The modern inhabitants of the Khasi Hills in India still make use of +megalithic monuments. They set up a group of an odd number of menhirs, +3, 5, 7, 9, or 11, and in front of these two structures of dolmen form. +These are raised in honour of some important member of the tribe who has +died, and whose spirit is thought to have done some good to the tribe. +If the benefits continue it is usual to increase the number of menhirs. + +The earliest burials in Japan are marked by simple mounds of earth. It +was not until the beginning of the iron age that megalithic tombs came +into use. The true dolmen is not found in Japan, and all the known +graves are corridor-tombs covered with a mound. They are of four types. +First, we have a simple corridor with no separate chamber; secondly, a +corridor broadening out at one side near the end; thirdly, a true +chamber with a corridor of access; and fourthly, a type in which the +corridor is preceded by an antechamber. All four types occur in rough +unworked stone, roofed with huge slabs, but a few examples of the third +type are made of well-cut and dressed blocks. The mounds are usually +conical, though some are of a complex form shortly to be described. Some +of these contain stone sarcophagi. The bodies were never cremated, but +the bones are so damaged that it is impossible to say what the most +usual position was. Objects of bronze and iron together with pottery and +ornaments were found in the tombs. + +The more important tombs are of a more complicated type. They seem to +have contained the remains of emperors and their families. They consist +each of a circular mound, to which is added on one side another mound of +trapezoidal form. The megalithic tomb-chamber or the sarcophagus which +sometimes replaces it lies in the circular part of the mound. The total +axial length of the basis of the whole mound is in a typical case--that +of Nara (Yamato)--674 feet, the diameter of the round end being 420 +feet. The mounds have in most cases terraced sides, and are surrounded +by a moat. In early times it seems to have been the custom to slay or +bury alive the servants of the emperor on his mound, but this was given +up about the beginning of the Christian era. + +These imperial double mounds seem to begin about two centuries before +the Christian era, and to continue for five or six centuries after it. +Many of them can be definitely assigned to their owners, and others are +attributed by tradition. Thus a rather small mound at the foot of Mount +Unebi (Yamato) is considered to be the burial place of the Emperor +Jimmu, the founder of the Imperial dynasty, and annual ceremonies are +performed before it. + +The Japanese Emperors are still buried in terraced mounds, and in the +group of huge stone blocks which have been placed on the mound of the +Emperor Komei, who died in 1866, we may be tempted to see a survival of +the ancient megalithic chamber. + +These early corridor-tombs are evidently not the work of the Ainu, the +aborigines of Japan, but of the Japanese invaders who conquered them. +These latter do not seem to have brought the idea of megalithic building +with them, as their earlier tombs are simple mounds. As no dolmen has +yet been found in Japan we cannot at present derive the corridor-tomb +there from it. It is, however, worthy of mention that true dolmens occur +as near as Corea, though none have been reported from China. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS, + THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ETC. + + +With regard to the date of the megalithic monuments it only remains to +sum up the evidence given in the previous chapters. It may be said that +in Europe they never belong to the beginning of the neolithic age, but +either to its end or to the period which followed it, i.e. to the age of +copper and bronze. The majority date from the dawn of this latter +period, though some of the chambered cairns of Ireland seem to belong to +the iron age. Outside Europe there are certainly megalithic tombs which +are late. In North Africa, for example, we know that the erection of +dolmens continued into the early iron age; many of the Indian tombs are +clearly late, and the corridor-tombs of Japan can be safely attributed +in part at least to the Christian era. + +With what purpose were the megalithic monuments erected? The most simple +example, the menhir or upright stone, may have served many purposes. In +discussing the temples of Malta we saw reason for believing that the +megalithic peoples were in the habit of worshipping great stones as +such. Other stones, not actually worshipped, may mark the scene of some +great event. Jacob commemorated a dream by setting up the stone which +had served him as a pillow, and Samuel, victorious over the Philistines, +set up twelve stones, and called the place "Stones of Deliverance." +Others again perhaps stood in a spot devoted to some particular national +or religious ceremony. Thus the Angami of the present day in Assam set +up stones in commemoration of their village feasts. It seems clear from +the excavations that the menhirs do not mark the place of burials, +though they may in some cases have been raised in honour of the dead. + +The question of the purpose of stone circles has already been dealt with +in connection with those of Great Britain. _Alignements_ are more +difficult to explain, for, from their form, they cannot have served as +temples in the sense of meeting-places for worship. Yet they must surely +have been connected with religion in some way or other. Possibly they +were not constructed once and for all, but the stones were added +gradually, each marking some event or the performance of some periodic +ceremony, or even the death of some great chief. The so-called +"Canaanite High Place" recently found at Gezer consists of a line of +ten menhirs running north and south, together with a large block in +which was a socket for an idol or other object of worship. Several +bodies of children found near it have suggested that the monument was a +place of sacrifice. + +Other megalithic structures can be definitely classed as dwellings or +tombs, as we have seen in our separate treatment of them. It is not +improbable that, if we are right in considering the dolmen as the most +primitive form of megalithic monument, megalithic architecture was +funerary in origin. Yet, as we find it in its great diffusion, it +provides homes for the living as well as for the dead. In their original +home, perhaps in Africa, the megalithic race may have lived in huts of +wattle or skins, but after their migration the need of protection in a +hostile country and the exigencies of a colder climate may have forced +them to employ stone for their dwellings. In any case, in megalithic +architecture as seen in Europe the tomb and the dwelling types are +considerably intermixed, and may have reacted on one another. This, +however, does not justify the assertion so often made that the +megalithic tomb was a conscious imitation of the hut. It is true that +some peoples make the home of their dead to resemble that of the living. +Among certain tribes of Greenland it is usual to leave the dead man +seated in his hut by way of burial. But such a conception does not exist +among all peoples, and to say that the dolmen is an imitation in stone +of a hut is the purest conjecture. Still more improbable is Montelius's +idea that the corridor-tomb imitates a dwelling. It is true that the +Eskimos have a type of hut which is entered by a low passage often 30 +feet in length, but for one who believes as Montelius does that the +corridor-tomb is southern or eastern in origin such a derivation is +impossible, for this type of house is essentially northern, its aim +being to exclude the icy winds. In the south it would be intolerably +close, and its low passage besides serving no purpose would be +inconvenient. + +There is really no reason to derive either the dolmen or the +corridor-tomb from dwellings at all. Granted the use of huge stones, +both are purely natural forms, and the presence of the corridor in the +latter is dictated by necessity. The problem was how to cover a large +tomb-chamber with a mound and to leave it still accessible for later +interments, and the obvious solution was to add a covered passage +leading out to the edge of the mound. + +A remarkable feature of the megalithic tombs is the occurrence in many +of them of a small round or rectangular hole in one of the walls, +usually an end-wall, more rarely a partition-wall between two chambers. +Occasionally the hole was formed by placing side by side two upright +blocks each with a semicircular notch in its edge. Tombs with a holed +block or blocks occur in England, instances being the barrows of Avening +and Rodmarton, King Orry's Grave in the Isle of Man, Lanyon Quoit in +Cornwall, and Plas Newydd in Wales, which has two holes. There are also +examples in Ireland, France, Belgium, Central Germany, and Scandinavia, +where they are common. Passing further afield we find holes in the +Giants' Graves of Sardinia, and in Syria, the Caucasus, and India, where +half the dolmens in the Deccan are of this type. The holes are usually +too small to allow of the passage of a human body. It has been suggested +that they served as an outlet for the soul of the deceased, or in some +cases as a means of passing in food to him. + +Attention has been frequently drawn to curious round pits so often found +on the stones of dolmens and usually known as cup-markings. They vary in +diameter from about two to four inches, and are occasionally connected +by a series of narrow grooves in the stone. They vary considerably in +number, sometimes there are few, sometimes many. They occur nearly +always on the upper surface of the cover-slab, very rarely on its under +surface or on the side-walls. + +Some have attempted to show that these pits are purely natural and not +artificial. It has been suggested, for instance, that they are simply +the casts of a species of fossil sea-urchin which has weathered out +from the surface of the stone. This explanation may be true in some +cases, but it will not serve in all, for the 'cups' are sometimes +arranged in such regular order that their artificial origin is palpable. +These markings are found on dolmens and corridor-tombs in Palestine, +North Africa, Corsica, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Great Britain. +In Wales there is a fine example of a dolmen with pits at Clynnog Fawr, +while in Cornwall we may instance the monument called "The Three +Brothers of Grugith" near Meneage. + +There is no clue to the purpose of these pits. Some have thought that +they were made to hold the blood of sacrifice which was poured over the +slab, and from some such idea may have arisen some of the legends of +human victims which still cling round the dolmens. Others have opposed +to this the fact that the pits sometimes occur on vertical walls or +under the cover-slabs, and have preferred to see in them some totemistic +signification or some expression of star-worship. It is possible that we +have to deal with a complex and not a simple phenomenon, and that the +pits were not all made to serve a single purpose. Those which cover some +of the finest stones at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim are certainly meant to be +ornamental, though there may be in them a reminiscence of some religious +tradition. In any case, it is worth while to remember that cup-markings +also occur on natural rocks and boulders in Switzerland, Scandinavia, +Great Britain (where there is a good example near Ilkley in Yorkshire), +near Como in Italy, and in Germany, Russia, and India. + + +Of the builders of the megalithic monuments themselves we cannot expect +to know very much, especially while their origin remains veiled in +obscurity. Yet there are a few facts which stand out clearly. We even +know something about their appearance, for the skulls found in the +megalithic tombs have in many cases been subjected to careful +examination and measurement. Into the detail of these measurements we +cannot enter here; suffice it to say that the most important of them are +the maximum length of the skull from front to back and its maximum +breadth, both measures, of course, being taken in a straight line with a +pair of callipers, and not round the contour of the skull. If we now +divide the maximum breadth by the maximum length and multiply the result +by 100 we get what is known as the cephalic index of the skull. Thus if +a skull has a length of 180 millimetres and a breadth of 135, its +cephalic index is 135/180 X 100, i.e. 75. It is clear that in a roundish +type of head the breadth will be greater in proportion to the length +than in a narrow elliptical type. Thus in a broad head the cephalic +index is high, while in a narrow head it is low. The former is called +brachycephalic (short-headed), and the latter dolichocephalic +(long-headed). + +This index is now accepted by most anthropologists as a useful criterion +of race, though, of course, there are other characteristics which must +often be taken into account, such as the height and breadth of the face, +the cubic capacity of the skull and its general contour. At any rate, if +we can show that the skulls of the megalithic tombs conform to a single +type in respect of their index we shall have a presumption, though not a +certainty, that they belong to a single race. + +For Africa the evidence consists in a group of twenty skulls from +dolmen-tombs giving cephalic indices which range from 70.5 to 84.4. The +average index is 75.27, and the majority of the indices lay within a few +units of that number. Ten skulls from Halsaflieni in Malta have cephalic +indices running from 66 to 75.1, the average being 71.84. Of a series of +44 skulls from the rock-tombs of the Petit Morin in France, 12 had an +index of over 80, 22 were between 75 and 80, and 10 were below 75. But +in the dolmens of Lozere distinctly broad skulls were frequent. A series +of British neolithic skulls, mostly from barrows, ran from 67 to 77. + +The builders of the megalithic monuments thus belonged in the main to a +fairly dolichocephalic race or races, for the large majority of the +skulls measured are of a long-headed type. There are, however, in +various localities, especially in France, occasional anomalous types of +skull which are distinctly brachycephalic, and show that contamination +of some kind was taking or had taken place. + + +Of the state of civilization to which the builders of the megalithic +monuments had attained, and of the social condition in which they lived, +there is something to be gathered. It is clear in the first place from +the evidence of the Maltese buildings that they were a pastoral people +who domesticated the ox, the sheep, the pig, and the goat, upon whose +flesh they partly lived. Shellfish also formed a part of their diet, and +the shells when emptied of their contents were occasionally pierced to +be used as pendants or to form necklaces or bracelets. + +Whether these people were agricultural is a question more difficult to +answer. It is true that flat stones have been found, on which some kind +of cereal was ground up with the aid of round pebbles, but the grain for +which these primitive mills were used may have been wild and not +cultivated. No grain of any kind has been found in the Maltese +settlements. + +The megalithic race do not seem to have been great traders. This is +remarkably exemplified in Malta, where there is not a trace of +connection with the wonderful civilization which must have been +flourishing so near at hand in Crete and the AEgean at the time when the +megalithic temples were built. The island seems to have been entirely +self-sufficing, except for the importation of obsidian, probably from +the neighbouring island of Linosa. Of copper, which wide trade would +have introduced, there is no sign. + +Some writers, however, have argued the existence of extensive +trade-relations from the occurrence of a peculiar kind of turquoise +called _callais_ in some of the megalithic monuments of France and +Portugal. The rarity of this stone has inclined some archaeologists to +attribute it to a single source, while some have gone so far as to +consider it eastern in origin. For the last theory there is no evidence +whatsoever. No natural deposit of _callais_ is known, but it is highly +probable that the sources of the megalithic examples lay in France or +Portugal. + +It would of course be foolish to suppose that the megalithic people +received none of the products of other countries, especially at a time +when the discovery of copper was giving a great impetus to trade. No +doubt they enjoyed the benefits of that kind of slow filtering trade +which a primitive tribe, even if it had wished, could hardly have +avoided, but they were not a great trading nation as were the Cretans of +the Middle and Late Minoan Periods, or the Egyptians of the XIIth and +XVIIIth Dynasties. We know nothing of their political conditions, of the +groups into which they were divided, or the centres from which they were +governed. That there were strong centres of government is, however, +clear from the very existence of such huge monuments, many of which must +have required the combined and organized labour of large armies of +workers, in the gathering of which the state was doubtless strongly +backed by religion. + +We have seen that the megalithic peoples frequently dwelt in huts of +great stones. Yet in the majority of cases their huts must have been, +like those of most primitive races, of perishable material, such as +wood, wattle, skins, turf, and clay. As for their form there was +probably a continual conflict between the round and the rectangular +plan, just as there was in the stone examples. Which form prevailed in +any particular district was probably determined almost by accident. Thus +in Sardinia the round type was mostly kept for the huts and _nuraghi_, +while the rectangular was reserved for the dolmens and Giants' Graves. +Even here the confusion between the two types is shown by the fact that +near Birori there are two dolmens with a round plan. Again, in +Pantelleria the huts of the Mursia are rectangular, while the _sesi_, +which are tombs, are roughly circular. It is therefore probable that the +round and rectangular types of building were both in use among the +megalithic people before they spread over Europe. + +Within their huts these people led a life of the simplest description. +Their weapons and tools, though occasionally of copper, were for the +most part of stone. Flint was the most usual material. In Scandinavia it +was often polished, but elsewhere it was merely flaked. The implements +made from it were of simple types, knives, borers, scrapers, lanceheads, +and more rarely arrowheads. Many of these were quite roughly made, no +more flaking being done than was absolutely necessary to produce the +essential form, and the work being, when possible, confined to one face +of the flint. + +In the Mediterranean obsidian, a volcanic rock, occasionally took the +place of flint, especially in Sardinia and Pantelleria. Axes or celts +were often made of flint in Scandinavia and North Germany, but elsewhere +other stones, such as jade, jadeite, and diorite were commonly used. + +We can only guess at the way in which the megalithic people were +clothed. No doubt the skins of the animals they domesticated and of +those they hunted provided them with some form of covering, at any rate +in countries where it was needed. Possibly they spun wool or flax into a +thread, for at Halsaflieni two objects were found which look like +spindle-whorls, and others occur on sites which are almost certainly to +be attributed to the megalithic people. There is, however, nothing to +show that they wove the thread into stuffs. + +The love of personal decoration was highly developed among them, and all +branches of nature were called upon to minister to their desire for +ornament. Shells, pierced and strung separately or in masses, were +perhaps their favourite adornment, but close on these follow beads and +pendants of almost every conceivable substance, bone, horn, stone, clay, +nuts, beans, copper, and occasionally gold. + +One small object assumes a great importance on account of its wide +distribution. This is the conical button with two converging holes in +its base to pass the thread through. This little object, which may have +served exactly the purpose of the modern button, occurs in several parts +of the megalithic area. There are examples in Malta made of stone and +shell. Elsewhere it is most usually of bone. It occurs in Sardinia, in +France, in the rock-tombs of Gard, and in the corridor and rock-tombs of +Lozere and Ardeche, in Portugal in the _allee couverte_ of Monte +Abrahao, in Bohuslaen (Sweden), and at Carrowmore in Ireland. Outside the +megalithic area it has been found in two of the Swiss lake-dwellings and +in Italy. + +The pottery of the megalithic people was of a simple type. It was all +made by hand, the potter's wheel being still unknown to the makers. +Pottery with painted designs does not occur outside Sicily, except for +a few poor and late examples in Malta. The best vases were of fairly +purified clay, moderately well fired, and having a polished surface, +usually of a darkish colour. On this surface were often incised +ornamental designs, varying both in type and in the skill with which +they were engraved. As a rule the schemes were rectilinear, more rarely +they were carried out in curves. Sardinia furnishes some fine examples +of rectilinear work, while the best of the curved designs are found in +Malta, where elaborate conventional and even naturalistic patterns are +traced out with wonderful freedom and steadiness of hand. + +The pottery of the megalithic area is not all alike; it would be +surprising if it were. Even supposing that the invaders brought with +them a single definite style of pottery-making this would rapidly become +modified by local conditions and by the already existing pottery +industry of the country, often, no doubt, superior to that of the +new-comers. Nevertheless, there are a few points of similarity between +the pottery of various parts of the megalithic area. The most remarkable +example is the bell-shaped cup, which occurs in Denmark, England, +France, Spain, Sardinia, and possibly Malta (the specimen is too broken +for certainty). Outside the area it is found in Bohemia, Hungary, and +North Italy. Here, as in the case of the conical button, we cannot argue +that the form was actually introduced by the megalithic race, though +there is a certain possibility in favour of such a hypothesis. + + +That the megalithic people possessed a religion of some kind will hardly +be doubted. Their careful observance of the rites due to the dead, and +their construction of buildings which can hardly have been anything but +places of worship, is a strong testimony to this. We have seen that in +the Maltese temples the worship of baetyls or pillars of stone seems to +have been carried on. Several stone objects which can scarcely have been +anything but baetyls were found in the megalithic structures of Los +Millares in Spain, but none are known elsewhere in the megalithic area. + +There is some reason for thinking that among the megalithic race there +existed a cult of the axe. In France, for instance, the sculptured +rock-tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin show, some a human figure, +some an axe, and some a combination of the two. This same juxtaposition +of the two also occurs on a slab which closed the top of a corbelled +chamber at Collorgues in Gard. A simple _allee couverte_ at Goehlitzsch +in Saxony has on one of its blocks an axe and handle engraved and +coloured red. There are further examples in the _allee couverte_ of +Gavr'inis and the dolmen called La Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer. + +These sculptured axes call to mind at once the numerous axe-shaped +pendants of fine polished stone (jade, jadeite, etc.) found in Malta, +Sicily, Sardinia, and France, and apparently used as amulets. The +excavation of Crete has brought to light a remarkable worship of the +double axe, and it has been argued with great probability that one of +the early boat signs figured on the pre-dynastic painted vases of Egypt +is a double axe, and that this was a cult object. It seems very probable +that in the megalithic area, or at least in part of it, there was a +somewhat similar worship, the object of cult, however, being not a +double but a single axe, usually represented as fitted with a handle. It +need not be assumed that the axe itself was worshipped, though this is +not impossible; it is more likely that it was an attribute of some god +or goddess. + +Among the rock-hewn tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin in the +department of Marne, France, were seven which contained engravings on +one of the walls. Several of these represent human figures (Fig. 13). +The eyes are not marked, but the hair and nose are clear. In some the +breasts are shown, in others they are omitted. On each figure is +represented what appears to be a collar or necklace. Similar figures +occur on the slabs of some of the _allees couvertes_ of Seine et Oise, +and on certain blocks found in and near megalithic burials in the South +of France. Moreover, in the departments of Aveyron, Tarn, and Herault +have been found what are known as menhir-statues, upright pillars of +stone roughly shaped into human semblance at the top; they are of two +types, the one clearly female and the other with no breasts, but always +with a collar or baldric. + +It has been argued that these figures represent a deity or deities of +the megalithic people. Dechelette, comparing what are apparently tattoo +marks on a menhir-statue at Saint Sermin (Aveyron) with similar marks on +a figure cut on a schist plaque at Idanha a Nova (Portugal) and on a +marble idol from the island of Seriphos in the AEgean, seems inclined to +argue that in France and Portugal we have the same deity as in the +AEgean. This seems rather a hazardous conjecture, for we know that many +primitive peoples practised tattooing, and, moreover, it is not certain +that the French figures represent deities at all. It is quite as likely, +if not more so, that they represent the deceased, and take the place of +a grave-stone: this would account for the occurrence of both male and +female types. This was almost certainly the purpose of six stones that +remain of a line that ran parallel to a now destroyed tomb at Tamuli +(Sardinia). Three have breasts as if to distinguish the sex of three of +those buried in the tomb. We must not therefore assume that any of the +French figures represents a 'dolmen-deity.' + +The method of burial observed in the megalithic tombs is almost +universally inhumation. Cremation seems to occur only in France, but +there it is beyond all doubt. The known examples are found in the +departments of Finistere, Marne, and Aisne, and in the neighbourhood of +Paris. In Finistere out of 92 megalithic burials examined 61 were +cremations, 26 were inhumations, and 5 were uncertain. It is extremely +curious that this small portion of France should be the only part of the +megalithic area where cremation was practised. It is generally held that +cremation was brought into Europe by the broad-headed 'Alpine' people, +who seem to have invaded the centre of the continent at some period in +the neolithic age. It is possible that in parts of France a mixture took +place between the megalithic builders and the Alpine race. Intermarriage +would no doubt lead to confusion in many cases between the two rites. + +In all other cases the builders of the megalithic monuments buried their +dead unburned. Often the body was lying stretched out on its back, or +was set in a sitting position against the side of the tomb; but most +frequently it was placed in what is known as the contracted position, +laid on one side, generally the left, with the knees bent and drawn up +towards the chin, the arms bent at the elbow, and the hands placed close +to the face. Many explanations of this position have been suggested. +Some see in it a natural posture of repose, some an attempt to crowd the +body into as small a space as possible. Some have suggested that the +corpse was tightly bound up with cords in order that the spirit might +not escape and do harm to the living. Perhaps the most widely approved +theory is that which considers this position to be embryonic, i.e. the +position of the embryo previous to birth. None of these explanations is +entirely convincing, but no better one has been put forward up to the +present. + +This custom, it must be noted, was not limited to the megalithic +peoples. It was the invariable practice of the pre-dynastic Egyptians +and has been found further east in Persia. It occurs in the neolithic +period in Crete and the AEgean, in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and other +parts of Europe, and it is one of the facts which go to show that the +builders of the megaliths were ethnologically connected, however +remotely, with their predecessors in Europe. + +At Halsaflieni, in Malta, we have perhaps examples of the curious custom +of secondary interment; the body is buried temporarily in some suitable +place, and after the flesh has left the bones the latter are collected +and thrown together into a common ossuary. That the bones at Halsaflieni +were placed there when free from flesh is probable from the closeness +with which they were packed together (see p. 111). There are also +possible examples in Sicily (see p. 79). The custom was not unknown in +neolithic days, especially in Crete. It is still occasionally practised +on the island and on the Greek mainland, where, after the dead have lain +a few years in hallowed soil, their bones are dug up, roughly cleaned, +and deposited in caves. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE DID THEY COME? + + +Modern discussion of the origin of the megalithic monuments may be said +to date from Bertrand's publication of the French examples in 1864. In +this work Bertrand upheld the thesis that "the dolmens and _allees +couvertes_ are sepulchres; and their origin seems up to the present to +be northern." In 1865 appeared Bonstetten's famous _Essai sur les +dolmens_, in which he maintained that the dolmens were constructed by +one and the same people spreading over Europe from north to south. At +this time the dolmens of North Africa were still unstudied. In 1867 +followed an important paper by Bertrand. In 1872 two events of +importance to the subject occurred, the publication of Fergusson's _Rude +Stone Monuments in All Countries_, and the discussion raised at the +Brussels Congress by General Faidherbe's paper on the dolmens of +Algeria. Faidherbe maintained the thesis that dolmens, whether in Europe +or Africa, were the work of a single people moving southward from the +Baltic Sea. + +The question thus raised has been keenly debated since. At the +Stockholm Congress in 1874 de Mortillet advanced the theory that +megalithic monuments in different districts were due to different +peoples, and that what spread was the custom of building such structures +and not the builders themselves. This theory has been accepted by most +archaeologists, including Montelius, Salomon Reinach, Sophus Mueller, +Hoernes, and Dechelette. But while the rest believe the influences which +produced the megalithic monuments to have spread from east to west, i.e. +from Asia to Europe, Salomon Reinach holds the contrary view, which he +has supported in a remarkable paper called _Le Mirage Oriental_, +published in 1893. + +The questions we have to discuss are, therefore, as follows: Are all the +megalithic monuments due to a single race or to several? If to a single +race, whence did that race come and in what direction did it move? If to +several, did the idea of building megalithic structures arise among the +several races independently, or did it spread from one to another? + +We shall consider first the theory that the idea of megalithic building +was evolved among several races independently, i.e. that it was a phase +of culture through which they separately passed. + +On the whole, this idea has not found favour among archaeologists. The +use of stone for building might have arisen in many places +independently. But megalithic architecture is something much more than +this. It is the use of great stones in certain definite and particular +ways. We have already examined what may be called the style of +megalithic architecture and found that the same features are noticeable +in all countries where these buildings occur. In each case we see a type +of construction based on the use of large orthostatic slabs, sometimes +surmounted by courses of horizontal masonry, with either a roof of +horizontal slabs or a corbelled vault. Associated with this we +frequently find the hewing of underground chambers in the rock. In +almost all countries where megalithic structures occur certain fixed +types prevail; the dolmen is the most general of these, and it is clear +that many of the other forms are simply developments of this. The +occurrence of structures with a hole in one of the walls and of blocks +with 'cup-markings' is usual over the whole of the megalithic area. +There are even more remarkable resemblances in detail between structures +in widely separated countries. Thus the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia all +have a concave facade which forms a kind of semicircular court in front +of the entrance to the tomb. This feature is seen also in the temples of +Malta, in the tomb of Los Millares in Spain, in the _naus_ of the +Balearic Isles (where, however, the curve is slight), in the Giant's +Grave of Annaclochmullin and the chambered cairn of Newbliss in Ireland, +in the tomb of Cashtal-yn-Ard in the Isle of Man, in the barrow of West +Tump in Gloucestershire, and in the horned cairns of the north of +Scotland. These parallels are due to something more than coincidence; in +fact, it is clear that megalithic building is a widespread and +homogeneous system, which, despite local differences, always preserves +certain common features pointing to a single origin. It is thus +difficult to accept the suggestion that it is merely a phase through +which many races have passed. The phases which occur in many races alike +are always those which are natural and necessary in the development of a +people, such as the phase of using copper. But there is nothing either +natural or necessary in the use of huge unwieldy blocks of stone where +much smaller ones would have sufficed. + +There are further objections to this theory in the distribution of the +megalithic buildings both in space and time. In space they occupy a very +remarkable position along a vast sea-board which includes the +Mediterranean coast of Africa and the Atlantic coast of Europe. In other +words, they lie entirely along a natural sea route. It is more than +accident that the many places in which, according to this theory, the +megalithic phase independently arose all lie in most natural sea +connection with each other, while not one is in the interior of Europe. + +In time the vast majority of the megalithic monuments of Europe seem to +begin near the end of the neolithic period and cover the copper age, +the later forms continuing occasionally into that of bronze. Here again +it is curious that megalithic building, if merely an independent phase +in many countries, should arise in so many at about the same time, and +with no apparent reason. Had it been the use of _worked_ stones that +arose, and had this followed the appearance of copper tools, the +advocates of this theory would have had a stronger case, but there seems +to be no reason why huge unworked stones should _simultaneously_ begin +to be employed for tombs in many different countries unless this use +spread from a single source. + +For these reasons it is impossible to consider megalithic building as a +mere phase through which many nations passed, and it must therefore have +been a system originating with one race, and spreading far and wide, +owing either to trade influence or migration. But can we determine +which? + +Great movements of races by sea were not by any means unusual in +primitive days, in fact, the sea has always been less of an obstacle to +early man than the land with its deserts, mountains, and unfordable +rivers. There is nothing inherently impossible or even improbable in the +suggestion that a great immigration brought the megalithic monuments +from Sweden to India or vice versa. History is full of instances of such +migrations. According to the most widely accepted modern theory the +whole or at least the greater part of the neolithic population of Europe +moved in from some part of Africa at the opening of the neolithic age. +In medieval history we have the example of the Arabs, who in their +movement covered a considerable portion of the very megalithic area +which we are discussing. + +On the other hand, many find it preferable to suppose that over this +same distance there extended a vast trade route or a series of trade +routes, along which travelled the influences which account for the +presence of precisely similar dolmens in Denmark, Spain, and the +Caucasus. Yet although much has been written about neolithic trade +routes little has been proved, and the fact that early man occasionally +crossed large tracts of land and sea in the great movements of migration +does not show that he also did so by way of trade, nor does it prove the +existence of such steady and extensive commercial relations as such a +theory of the megalithic monuments would seem to require. Immigration is +often forced on a race. Change of climate or the diverting of the course +of a great river may make their country unfit for habitation, or they +may be expelled by a stronger race. In either case they must migrate, +and we know from history that they often covered long distances in their +attempt to follow the line of least resistance. Thus there is nothing a +priori improbable in the idea that the megalithic monuments were built +by a single invading race. + +There are other considerations which support such a theory. It will be +readily admitted that the commonest and most widely distributed form of +the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both this and its obvious +derivatives, the Giant's Grave, the _allee couverte_, and others, are +known to have been tombs, while other types of structure, such as the +Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech, almost certainly had a +religious purpose. It is difficult to believe that these types of +building, so closely connected with religion and burial, were introduced +into all these regions simply by the influence of trade relations. +Religious customs and the burial rites connected with them are perhaps +the most precious possession of a primitive people, and they are those +in which they most oppose and resent change of any kind, even when it +only involves detail and not principle. Thus it is almost incredible +that the people, for instance, of Spain, because they were told by +traders that the people of North Africa buried in dolmens, gave up, even +in isolated instances, their habit of interment in trench graves in +favour of burial in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe that +this unnatural event happened in one country after another. It is true +that the use of metal was spread by means of commerce, but here there +was something to be gained by adopting the new discovery, and there was +no sacrifice of religious custom or principle. An exchange of products +between one country and another is not unnatural, but a traffic in +burial customs is unthinkable. + +Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the dolmen which was brought by +commerce, but simply the art of architecture in general, and this was +adapted to burial purposes. To this there are serious objections. In the +first place it does not explain why exactly the same types of building +(e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities of peculiar detail, +occur in countries so far apart; and in the second place, if what was +carried by trade was the art of building alone, why should the learners +go out of their way to use huge stones when smaller ones would have +suited their purpose equally well? That the megalithic builders knew how +to employ smaller stones we know from their work; that they preferred to +use large ones for certain purposes was not due to ignorance or chance, +it was because the large stone as such had some particular meaning and +association for them. We cannot definitely say that large stones were +themselves actually worshipped, but there can be no possible doubt that +for some reason or other they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used +in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead. It is impossible +that the men who possessed the skill to lay the horizontal upper courses +of the Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble to haul to the +spot and use vast blocks over 20 feet in length where far smaller ones +would have been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated +prejudice in favour of great stones. + +Such are the main difficulties involved by the influence theory. On the +other hand, objections have been urged against the idea that the +monuments were all built by one and the same race. Thus Dr. Montelius in +his excellent _Orient und Europa_ says, "In Europe at this time dwelt +Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be Aryans," the inference +being, of course, that the European dolmens were built by a different +race from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan. Unfortunately, +however, the major premise is not completely true, for though it is true +that Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were also people in +Europe who were not Aryans, and it is precisely among them that +megalithic buildings occur. + +The French archaeologist Dechelette also condemns the idea of a single +race. "Anthropological observations," he says, "have long since ruined +this adventurous hypothesis." He does not tell us what these +observations are, but we presume that he refers to the occurrence of +varying skull types among the people buried in the megalithic tombs. +Nothing is more natural than that some variation should occur. We are +dealing with a race which made enormous journeys, and thus became +contaminated by the various other races with which it came in contact. +It may even have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even if we found +skulls of very different types in the dolmens this would not in the +least disprove the idea that dolmen building was introduced into various +countries by one and the same race. It would be simply a case of the +common anthropological fact that a race immigrating into an already +inhabited country becomes to some extent modified by intermarriage with +the earlier inhabitants. The measurements given in the last chapter +would seem to show that despite local variation there is an underlying +homogeneity in the skulls of the megalithic people. + +It thus seems that the most probable theory of the origin of the +megalithic monuments is that this style of building was brought to the +various countries in which we find it by a single race in an immense +migration or series of migrations. It is significant that this theory +has been accepted by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first +authority on the megalithic structures of the Mediterranean basin. + + +One question still remains to be discussed. From what direction did +megalithic architecture come, and what was its original home? This is +clearly a point which is not altogether dependent on the means by which +this architecture was diffused. Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic +origin. He considers that caves, and tombs accessible from above, i.e. +simple pits dug in the earth, were native in Europe, while tombs reached +from the side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were introduced into +Europe from the east. Salomon Reinach, arguing mainly from the early +appearance of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia and the +rarity of the simpler types of monument, such as the dolmen, in Germany +and South Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first appeared in +North Europe and spread southwards. Mackenzie is more inclined to +believe in an African origin. If he is right it may be that some +climatic change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what is now the +Sahara desert, caused a migration from Africa to Europe very similar to +that which many believe to have given to Europe its early neolithic +population. The megalithic people may even have been a branch of the +same vast race as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that both +inhumed their dead in the contracted position. + +It is probable that the problem will never be solved. The only way to +attempt a solution would be to show that in some part of the megalithic +area the structures were definitely earlier than in any other, and that +as we move away from that part in any direction they become later and +later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful, for the earliest form +of structure, the dolmen, occurs in all parts of the area, and if we +attempt to date by objects we are met by the difficulty that a dolmen in +one place which contained copper might be earlier than one in another +place which contained none, copper having been known in the former place +earlier than in the latter. + + +It still remains to consider the question of the origin of the rock-hewn +sepulchre and its relation to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb +occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, South Italy, Sicily, +Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and +France. In all these places there are examples which are certainly +early, i.e. belong to the neolithic or early metal age, with the +exception of Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two types are +common, the chamber cut in the vertical face of rock and thus entered +from the side, sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the chamber cut +underground and entered from a vertical or sloping shaft placed not +directly over the chamber, but immediately to one side of it. It is +unlikely that these two types have a separate origin, for they are +clearly determined by geological reasons. A piece of country where +vertical cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the first type, +while the other alone was possible when the ground consisted of a flat +horizontal surface of rock. We frequently find the two side by side and +containing identically the same type of remains. In South-East Sicily we +have the horizontal entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge of +Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule in the tombs of the +Plemmirio, only a few miles distant. + +Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to the distribution of the +rock-hewn tombs. In the first place they are all in the vicinity of the +Mediterranean, and in the second some occur in the megalithic area, +while others do not. The examples of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that +this type of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean. Was it from +here that the type was introduced into the megalithic area, or did the +megalithic people bring with them a tradition of building rock-tombs +totally distinct from that which is represented by the tombs of Egypt, +Cyprus, and Crete? + +The question is difficult to answer. One thing alone is clear, that in +certain places, such as Malta and Sardinia, the megalithic people were +not averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms which they more +usually erected with large stones above ground. The finest instance of +this is the Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid rock is hewn +out with infinite care to imitate the form and even the details of +surface building. + +Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia and in France the same +forms of tomb were rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost +indifferently. + +There can therefore be no doubt that the hewing out of rock was +practised by the megalithic people, and that they were no mean exponents +of the art. We have no proof that they brought this art along with them +from their original centre of dispersion, though if they did it is +curious that they did not carry it into other countries where they +penetrated besides those of the Mediterranean. It may be that early +rock-tombs will yet be found in North Africa, but it seems improbable +that, had they existed in the British Isles, in North Germany, or in +Scandinavia, not a single example should have been found. + +On the other hand, if the megalithic people did not bring the idea of +the rock-tomb with them we must suppose either that it evolved among +them after their migration, or that they adopted it from the Eastern +Mediterranean. The last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it +would involve the modification of a burial custom by foreign influence. + +We have, in fact, no evidence on which to judge the question. Perhaps it +is least unreasonable to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb was +brought into the megalithic area by the same people who introduced the +megalithic monuments, and did not result from contact with the Eastern +Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to disclaim any direct +connection between the corridor-tombs of the megalithic area and the +great _tholoi_ of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first sight there is +a considerable similarity between them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae +with its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular corridor seems +very little removed, except in size and finish, from the tombs of Gavr' +Inis and Lough Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference. The two +last are tombs built partly with upright slabs on the surface of the +ground, entered by horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds. The +Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated rock-tomb cut underground +with a sloping shaft; as the ground consisted only of loose soil a +coating of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance to a +megalithic monument. + + + + + BIBLIOGRAPHY + + OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS + + + GENERAL + +Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_ (London 1872). +Bonstetten, _Essai sur les dolmens_ (Geneva 1865). +Mortillet, _Compte rendu du congres d'archeologie + prehistorique_, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff. +Reinach, _Le mirage oriental_, in _L'Anthropologie_, 1893, pp. 557 ff. +Montelius, _Orient und Europa_. +Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_, Vols. II and III. +Reinach, _Terminologie des monuments megalithiques + in Revue archeologique_, 3^{e} ser., XXII, 1893. +Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_ (London 1872). + + + ENGLAND AND WALES + +Fergusson, _op. cit._ +_Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Archaeologia_, LVIII, pp. 37 ff. +Flinders Petrie, _Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and + Theories_ (London 1880). +Windle, _Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England._ +James, Sir Henry, _Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan + in the Island of Lewis_ (Southampton 1867). +Evans, Sir A., _Archaeological Review_, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff. +Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, November 21st, 1901. +Hinks, _XIXth Century_, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff. +Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff., + 345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff. +Lewis, A. A., _Stone Circles in Britain, Archaeological + Journal_, XLIX, pp. 136 ff. +Thurnam, _Ancient British Barrows, Archaeologia_, + XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff. +Lewis, A. A., _Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the + Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905. +Kermode and Herdman, _Illustrated Notes on Manks + Antiquities_ (Liverpool 1904). + + + SCOTLAND + +Wilson, _The Archaeological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland._ +Forbes Leslie, _Early Races of Scotland._ +Spence, Magnus, _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness._ + + + IRELAND + +Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland._ +Lewis, A. A., _Some Stone Circles in Ireland_, in + _Journal Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXXIX, pp. 517 ff. + + + SWEDEN + +Montelius, _Orient und Europa._ +Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens._ +Montelius, _Dolmens en France et en Suede_ (Le Mans 1907). +Montelius, Graf fran stenaldern, upptaeckt vid + Oeringe i Ekeby socken, 1907. +Nilsson, _Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des + Scandinavischen Nordens_ (Hamburg 1865). + + + DENMARK + +Montelius, _Orient und Europa._ +Sophus Mueller, _L'Europe prehistorique._ +Sophus Mueller, _Nordische Alterthumskunde._ + + + HOLLAND + +_Archaeological Journal_, 1870, pp. 53 ff. +_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, VI, 1876, p. 158. +_Compte rendu du congres d'arch. prehist._, Stockholm, 1874. + + + BELGIUM + +Engelhardt, _Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse_, + in _Aarboeger f. nord. Oldkynd._, 1870, pp. 177 ff. + + + GERMANY + +Krause und Schoetensack in _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, + 1893 (Altmark only). +Morlot, _L'archeologie du Meclenbourg_ (Zurich 1868). +von Estorff, _Heidnische Altertuemer der Gegend von + Aelzen_ (Hanover 1846). + + + SWITZERLAND + +Keller, _Pfahlbauten_, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101; + Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9. + + + FRANCE + +Cartailhac, _La France prehistorique._ +Bertrand in _Revue archeologique_, 1864 (List of monuments). +Bertrand, _Archeologie celtique et gauloise_, 2nd edit., 1889. +Dechelette, _Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique celtique + et gallo-romaine_, Vol. I. +Lewis, _Alignements at Autun_ in _Journal Anthrop. + Inst._, XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff. +Lewis, _On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit._, + XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff. +de Baye, _L'archeologie prehistorique_ (Petit-Morin tombs). +Reinach, S., _La Sculpture en Europe_ (Angers 1896. + Figures of the 'dolmen deity'). + + + SPAIN + +Cartailhac, _Ages prehistorique de l'Espagne_. +Cartailhac, _Monuments primitifs des iles baleares_. +Bezzenberger in _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, XXXIX, + 1907, pp. 567 ff. + + + ITALY + +_Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXV, pp. 178 ff. +Nicolucci, _Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di + Terra d'Otranto_, 1893. +_Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXXVII, pp. 6 ff. +Mosso and Samarelli, _Il dolmen di Bisceglie_, in _Bull. + Paletn. Ital._, XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff. + + + SICILY + +Orsi in _Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello). +Orsi in _Ausonia_, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro). +Orsi in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro). + + + SARDINIA + +La Marmora, _Voyage en Sardaigne_. +Pinza in _Monumenti Antichi_, Vol. VIII. +Nissardi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale_, Roma, + 1903, sezione preistorica. +Nissardi and Taramelli in _Mon. Ant._, Vol. XVII. +Taramelli in _Memnon_, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35. +Prechac in _Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire_, XXVIII. +Mackenzie in _Ausonia_, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff. +Mackenzie in _Memnon_, Vol. II, fasc. 3. +Mackenzie in _Papers of the British School of Rome_, V, pp. 89 ff. +Taramelli, _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju). +Colini in _Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXIV, pp. 252 ff. + + + CORSICA + +_Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques_, Vol. III, +1892, pp. 49 ff. + + + PIANOSA +_Bullettino di Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 281 ff. + + + MALTA + +Mayr, A., _Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmaeler von Malta_. +Mayr, A., _Die Insel Malta_. +Zammit, _First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum_. +Tagliaferro, _The Prehistoric Pottery found in the + Hypogeum at Halsaflieni_, in _Annals of Archaeology + and Anthropology_, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff. +Zammit and Peet, _Report on the small objects found + at Halsaflieni_ (Valletta, in the Press). +Magri, _Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo_. +Ashby, T., and others, _Report on Excavations at + Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim_, appearing + in Vol. VI of _Papers of the British School of Rome_. +Peet, _Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric + Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of + Rome_, V, pp. 141 ff. +Tagliaferro, _Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez_, + in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff. + + + NORTH AFRICA + +Faidherbe in _Compte rendu du congres d'archeologie + prehistorique_, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff. +Flower in _Transactions of the International Congress +of Prehistoric Archaeology_, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff. +MacIver and Wilkin, _Libyan Notes_. + + + MOROCCO + +_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, V, p. 342; + VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112. + + + TUNIS + +Cartailhac in _L'Anthropologie_, 1903, pp. 620 ff. +Carton in _L'Anthropologie_, 1891, pp. 1 ff. +_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, XXI, Pl. VI; + XXII, pp. 373 and 416. + + + EGYPT AND THE SUDAN + +Wilson and Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan_, + Vol. II, p. 123. +de Morgan, _Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte_, p. 239, Fig. 398. + + + PANTELLERIA + +Orsi in _Monumenti Antichi_, IX, pp. 449 ff. + + + LAMPEDUSA + +Ashby in _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, Vol. IV. + + + BULGARIA + +_Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in + Wien_, 1888, pp. 285 ff. +_L'Anthropologie_, 1890, p. 110. + + + CRIMEA + +Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722. + + + CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA + +Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_, + Vol. I, pp. 50 ff. +Chantre in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen + Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 344. +_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1885, pp. 545 ff. +Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722. + + + SYRIA AND PALESTINE + +_Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports_ for + 1882; _Annual_, 1911, pp. 1 ff. +Conder, _Heth and Moab_, pp. 190, 293. +Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9. + + + PERSIA + +de Morgan in _Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie + de Paris_, 1902, p. 187. +de Morgan, _La delegation en Perse_, 1902. +de Morgan, _L'histoire d'Elam_, Paris, 1902. + + + INDIA + +_Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, XXIV, 1865. +Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_. + + + COREA + +_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, XXIV, p. 330. + + + JAPAN + +Gowland in _Archaeologia_, LV, pp. 439 ff. +Gowland in _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, 1907, pp. 10 ff. + + + + + INDEX + +Abbameiga, 85 +Aberdeen, circles near, 38 +Adrianople, 114 +Africa, 90-6 +Aiga, 85 +Ain Dakkar, 117 +Ainu, the, 122 +Ala Safat, 116 +Alemtejo, 71 +Algeria, 91-5 +_Alignements_, 3, 59-60, 89, + 119-20, 124, 154-7 +_Allees couvertes_, 3, 61, 64 +Altar Stone at Stonehenge, 18 +Altmark, 57 +Amman, 117 +Ammon, 115 +Anghelu Ruju, 88 +Anglesey, 27, 29 +Annaclochmullin, 145 +Antequera, 70 +Arbor Low, 25 +Arcturus, 50, 51 +Arles, 64 +Arles, Council of, 12 +Arran, circles on, 35-6 +Arthur, King, 11, 25 +Arthur's Quoit, 29 +Asia, 114-22 +Atreus, Treasury of, 157 +Aurelius Ambrosius, 15 +Avebury, 23-4, 27-8 +Avening, 33, 127 +Axe, cult of, 137-8 +Axe-shaped pendants, 80, 112 +Axevalla Heath, 54 + + +Baetyls, 104, 105-6, 137 +Balearic Isles, 71-5 +Barnstone, the, 36-7 +Barrows, long, 30-3 +Barth, 90 +Belgium, 58 +Bellary, 118 +Bell-shaped cup, 64, 81, 136 +Beltane festival, 37 +Benigaus Nou, 74 +Bertrand, 64, 143 +Birori, 82, 133 +Bisceglie, 76 +Bonstetten, 143 +Borreby, 54-5 +Boscawen-un, 26 +Bou Merzoug, 92 +Bou Nouara, 91 +Boyle Somerville, Captain, 50 +Brittany, 59-60 +Brogar, Ring of, 36-7 +Broholm, 54 +Bulgaria, 114 +Button, conical, 42, 71, 111, 135 + + +Caesar, 27 +Cairns, horned, 38-9 +Caithness, cairns of, 38-9 +_Callais_, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 132 +Callernish Circle, 34 +Calvados, 64 +Camster, 39 +Can de Ceyrac, 60 +Caouria, 89 +Capella, 50, 51 +Carnac, 13, 59-60 +Carrick-a-Dhirra, 43 +Carrickard, 45 +Carrickglass, 41 +Carrigalla, 49 +Carrowmore, 41-2 +Cashtal-yn-Ard, 145 +Cassibile, 80 +Castelluccio, 80, 81 +Castor, 50 +Caucasus, 114 +Cava Lavinaro, 78 +Cava Lazzaro, 78 +Cave burial, 81, 88 +Chagford, 29 +Champ Dolent, menhir of, 13 +Channel Isles, 67 +Charlemagne, 12 +Charlton's Abbott, 33 +China, 122 +Chittore, 119 +Chun Quoit, 29 +Circles, stone, 15-28, 34-8, 48-51, + 60, 96, 115 +Cirta, 92 +Clava, 37 +Clynnog Fawr, 128 +Collorgues, 137 +Constantine, 91 +Contracted burials, 33, 54, 62, 77, 80, + 81, 93, 97, 111, 140-1, 153 +Coolback, 43 +Corbelled roofs, 6, 32, 45, 48, + 69, 73, 84, 86, 87, 102-3 +Cordin, 105, 108 +Corea, 122 +Cornwall, dolmens in, 29 + monuments of, 26 +Corridor-tombs, 3, 43-8, 52-5, 56-8, + 62-4, 67-71, 76-7, 96, 118, 120-2 +Corse, Cape, 89 +Corsica, 88-9 +Coursed masonry, use of, 5, 73, 82 +Cove, the, 25 +Cremation, 35, 42, 66, 140 +Crete, 113, 132, 142, 155, 157 +Crickstone, the, 30 +Crimea, 114 +Cromlechs, 3 +Cumberland, monuments of, 25 +Cup-markings, 117, 127-8 +Cyprus, 155 +Cyrenaica, 91 + + +Dance Maen Circle, 26 +Date of megaliths, 123 +Dax, 64 +Deccan, 118-9 +Dechelette, 139, 151 +de Morgan, 90 +Denmark, 53-5 +Dennis, 76 +Der Ghuzaleh, 116 +Dolmens, 2, 29, 40-1, 52-3, 56, 58, 61, 67-8, + 82, 89, 90, 91-6, 108, 114-9 +Drawings on stones, 46, 48, 55, 62, 110 +Drewsteignton, 29 +Druids, 11, 27-8 + + +Edfu, 90 +Eguilaz, 68 +Egypt, 155 +Ellez, 96 +England, monuments of, 15-33 +Erdeven, 60 +Er-Lanic, 60 +Eskimos, 126 +Es Tudons, _nau_ of, 73-4 +Evans, Sir Arthur, 20, 105 + + +Facades, curved, 78, 145-6 +Faidherbe, General, 143 +Faustina, medal of, 95 +Feraud, M., 92-3 +Fergusson, 28, 143 +Fibrolite, 63 +Finistere, dolmens of, 13 +Fontanaccia, 89 +Fonte Coberta, 68 +Forbes Leslie, Colonel, 119 +France, 59-67 +Friar's Heel, 18, 21 + + +Galilee, 115 +Gargantua, 11 +Gaulstown, 41 +Gavr'inis, 62, 137 +Gebel Mousa, 116 +Geoffrey of Monmouth, 26 +Ger, 64 +Germany, 56-7 +Get, 39 +Gezer, 124 +Giant's Bed, 56 +Giant's Tombs, 87-8 +Gigantia, 104 + +Giraldus Cambrensis, 15 +Goehlitzsch, 137 +Gozo, Is., 104 +Greenland, 125 +Grewismuehlen, 56 +Grotte des Fees, 64, 74 +Grotte du Castellet, 64 + + +Hagiar Kim, 6, 103-4 +Hakpen Hill, 24, 27 +Halsaflieni, 108-13, 130 +Hauptville's Quoit, 25 +Hengist, 15 +Herrestrup, 53 +Highwood, 45 +Hinks, Mr., 22 +Hirdmane Stone, 13 +Holed tombs, 77, 114, 116, 117, 126-7 +Holland, 57-8 +Horned cairns, 146 +_Huenenbetter_, 45, 56-8 +Hurlers, the, 26 + + +Idanha a Nova, 139 +India, 118-20 +Inigo Jones, 27 +Inverness, circles in, 37-8 +Ireland, monuments of, 40-51 +Iron, 39, 46, 93, 119 +Italy, 76-7 + + +Jadeite, 63 +James I, 27 +Japan, 120-2 +Jaulan, 117 +Jimmu, 121 +Judaea, 115 + + +Karleby, 54 +Karnak (Egypt), 22 +Keamcorravooly, 44 +Keller, 56 +Kennet Avenue, 24 +Kerlescan, 60 +Kermario, 60 +Keswick Circle, 25 +Khasi Hills, 119 +Kingarth, circle at, 36 +Kirkabrost, circle at, 36 +Kit's Coty House, 29 +Knyttkaerr, 55 +Komei, 121 +Kosseir, 118 + + +Labbamologa, 43 +Lado, 90 +Lampedusa, Isle of, 96 +Lanyon Quoit, 29, 127 +La Perotte, 7 +Leaba Callighe, 43 +Lecce, 76 +Lewis, Isle of, 34 +Linosa, Isle of, 96, 132 +Lockyer, Sir Norman, 21-2, 51 +Long Meg and her daughters, 25 +Losa, 85 +Los Millares, 70, 137, 145 +Lough Crew, 45, 48, 62 +Lough Gur, 48-51 +Lozere, 130 +Lundhoej, 55 +Luettich, 58 + + +MacIver, D.R., 93-4 +Mackenzie, Duncan, 85, 152, 153 +Maeshowe, 36-7 +Malta, 98-113 +Man, Isle of, 30 +Mane-er-Hroeck, 62-3 +Marcella, 68 +Matera, 77 +Maughold, 30 +Mayborough Circle, 25 +Mayr, Albert, 105 +Meayll Hill, 30 +Melilli, 80 +Men-an-tol, 30 +Menec, 59 +Menhirs, 2, 29, 59, 115-6, 123-4 + cult of, 12, 123-4 +Merivale, circle at, 26 +Merlin, 15 +Merry Maidens, the, 26 +Messa, 90 +Minieh, 116 +Mnaidra, 100-3 +Moab, 115-7 +Molafa, 88 +Monte Abrahao, 71 +Montelius, O., 126, 151, 153 +Monteracello, 78 +Morocco, 96 +Mortillet, de, 59, 144 +Mourzouk, 90 +Msila, 93 +Munster, tombs of, 44 +Mursia, 97 +Musta, 108 +Mycenean vases, 81 + + +Naas, 15 +Nantes, Council of, 12 +Nara, 121 +_Naus_, 73-4, 145 +_Navetas_, see _Naus_ +Neermul jungle, 118 +Newbliss, 145 +New Grange, 46, 62 +Nile valley, 90 +Nilgiri Hills, 118 +Nine Maidens, the, 26 +Nissardi, 84 +Norway, 53 +Nossiu, 85, 87 +_Nuraghi_, 82-7 + + +Obsidian, 77, 134 +Odin's Stone, 11, 36 +Orkney Isles, cairns of, 38-9 +Orry's Grave, 30, 127 +Orsi, Paolo, 78, 79 +Orthostatic slabs, use of, 4, 69, 74, + 80, 96, 100 + + +Palmella, 71 +Pantalica, 80, 155 +Pantelleria, Isle of, 96-8 +Papa-Westra, 39 +Pehada, 114 +Penrith Circle, 11 +Pentre Ifan, 29 +Pera, 115 +Perigord, 13 +Persia, 114 +Petit Morin, 66-7, 130 +Pfaeffikon, Lake, 56 +Phoenicia, 154 +Pianosa, 89 +Picardt, John, 57 +Pierre du Diable, La, 58 +Pierres Plates, Les, 61 +Piper, the, 26 +Plas Newydd, 29, 127 +Plemmirio, 155 +Pliny, 27 +Portico-dolmens, 40-1, 52, 119 +Portugal, 67 +Pottery, 135-6 + + +Reinach, Salomon, 144 +Religion, megalithic, 105-6, 137-9 +Rhodes, 154 +Rinaiou, 89 +Rock-tombs, 3, 66-7, 71, 74, 79-81, 88 +Rockbarton, 48 +Rodmarton, 33, 127 +Roknia, 94 +Rollright Circle, 25, 29, 50 + + +Saint George, 88 +Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, 12 +Saint Michel, Mont, 63 +Saint Pantaleon, 60 +Saint Sermin, 139 +Saint Vincent, 74 +Sant' Elia, Cape, 88 +Sardinia, 82-8 +S'Aspru, 85 +Scandinavia, 52-5 +Scotland, monuments of, 34-9 +Sculptures, 67, 138 +Secondary burial, 79, 141-2 +Senam, the, 93-4 +Seriphos, 139 +Serucci, 85 +_Sesi_, the, 97-8 +Shap, circle at, 23 +Sicily, 77-82 +Sidbury Hill, 21 +Sidon, 115 +Siggewi, 108 +Silbury Hill, 24, 28 +Siret, Messieurs, 68 +Sjoebol, 53 +Skulls, 77, 112, 129-31 +Sorapoor, 118 +Spain, 67-71 +Spence, Magnus, 37 +Stanton Drew, 25, 49 +Star-worship, 23, 50-1, 128 +Steatopygous figures, 107, 112 +Stenness, Ring of, 36 +Stonehenge, 15-23 +Stoney-Littleton, 32 +Stripple Stones, the, 26 +Stromness, circle at, 36 +Stukeley, Dr., 27 +Su Cadalanu, 84 +Sudan, 90 +Suetonius, 27 +Sun-worship, 21-3, 28-9, 37, 51 +Sweden, 52-5 +Switzerland, 56 +Syria, 115-8 + + +Table des Marchands, La, 16, 137 +Tagliaferro, Professor, 108, 111 +Tahutihotep, tomb of, 8 +_Talayots_, 71-3 +Tamuli, 139 +Tangier, 96 +Tarentum, 76 +Tattooing, 139 +"Three Brothers of Grugith," the, 128 +Tiberias, 115 +Tinaarloo, 57 +Toledo, Council of, 12 +Torebo, 53 +Tours, Council of, 12 +Trade relations, 131-3 +Tregeseal, circles near, 26 +Trepanned skulls, 62 +Trilithons, 2, 17, 90, 100-1, 103-4, 117 +Tripoli, 90-1 +_Truddhi_, 86 +Tsil, 117-8 +Tunis, 95-6 +Tyfta, 54 +Tyre, 115 +Tzarskaya, 114 + + +Unebi, Mt., 121 + + +Vail Gorguina, 67 +Vellore, 118 +Villafrati, 81 +Villages, megalithic, 74, 85-6, 97 + + +Wales, monuments of, 29 +Watchstone, the, 36-7 +Wayland the Smith's Cave, 11, 14, 30, 32 +Wedge-shaped tomb, 44-5, 55, 70-1, 117 +Westgothland, 54 +West Tump, 146 + + +Yarhouse, 39 + + +Zammit, Dr. T., 112 + + + + + WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD. + PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH + + + + + ------------------------------------------------ + | | + | HARPER'S LIBRARY OF LIVING THOUGHT | + | | + | _Foolscap 8vo, gilt tops, decorative covers, | + | richly gilt backs | + | | + | Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather | + | 3s. 6d. net._ | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D. | + |(Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons)| + | | + | ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN | + | | + | _Illustrated_ | + | | + | | + | From discoveries of ancient human remains | + | made within the last half-century, | + | anthropologists are now able to place in | + | order changes that have taken place in the | + | posture, gait, height, and to some extent | + | the habits of man during a period of at | + | least a half-million years. Prof. Keith, who | + | is one of the foremost investigators in this | + | field, tells the story of the various forms | + | which the body of the man has assumed, in a | + | lucid and attractive way. | + | | + | "The kind of book that only a master of his | + | subject could write. It must interest every | + | thinking person."--_British Medical | + | Journal._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE | + | | + | PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT | + | BEFORE CHRISTIANITY | + | | + | | + | "The author gauges what ideas were already | + | part of the religious thought in the first | + | century, and what were the terms and ideas | + | in Christianity which were new to mankind. | + | The current literature of the time was as | + | naturally taken for granted by Christians as | + | were the books of the Old Testament which | + | were familiar to them. The separation of the | + | new ideas in the teaching of Christ and of | + | the Apostles from the general terms of | + | religion at the time, is the only road to | + | understanding what Christianity meant to | + | those who actually heard the teaching." | + | | + | _Notts Guardian._ | + | | + | "A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a | + | real contribution to the study of | + | comparative religion." | + | | + | _Methodist Recorder._ | + | | + | | + ----------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER | + | | + | RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE | + | | + | | + | "Anything from such an authority on Greek | + | art is welcome. This subject in the hands of | + | Professor Gardner becomes a profoundly | + | interesting study in the philosophy of | + | religion. He has dealt with the religion of | + | Greece as it affected the art of sculpture, | + | and with the reaction of that art upon the | + | ideals and aspirations of the people and its | + | influence upon the popular and the educated | + | conceptions of the gods. It is well worth | + | the trouble to study the religious art of | + | such a people, and this is an epitome of the | + | subject such as readers can get nowhere | + | else." | + | | + | _Scotsman._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE | + | | + | THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION | + | | + | _Illustrated_ | + | | + | | + | In the light of history--so enormously | + | extended in recent years--the author surveys | + | the waxing and waning of civilisation as | + | evidenced in sculpture, painting, | + | literature, mechanics, and wealth. In | + | tracing the various forces at work in this | + | fluctuation he arrives at most significant | + | conclusions, notably in connection with race | + | mixture and forms of government. | + | | + | "We know nothing that exhibits in so brief a | + | compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of | + | human progress and retrogression since the | + | dawn of history."--_Birmingham Post._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ------------------------------------------------ + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and | + | HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D. | + | | + | CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE | + | | + | _Map, Plans, etc._ | + | | + | | + | "The wondrous story of a great civilisation | + | which flourished before Abraham was born, | + | and left behind a memory of itself in the | + | Arts of Ancient Greece and in the traditions | + | of a golden age and a 'Lost | + | Atlantis.'"--_Evening Standard._ | + | | + | "We have now the material for forming a very | + | fair conception of the fruitful contribution | + | made by Crete to Grecian and European | + | civilisation. What was long accounted | + | fable--statements of Herodotus and | + | Thucydides--have been turned into | + | established fact. The book supplies material | + | for forming judgments on some of the most | + | interesting and still highly debated | + | problems of early Greek history." | + | _Glasgow Herald._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + + ------------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | By Prof. G. ELLIOT SMITH | + | | + | THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS | + | | + | _Illustrated_ | + | | + | | + | An account of the Egyptians of the | + | unrecorded past as revealed by the | + | investigations of the anthropologist. The | + | author traces to their source the various | + | streams of alien immigrants which made their | + | way into the Nile valley, and correlates his | + | facts with the great racial movements in the | + | neighbouring continents. He shows how the | + | Egyptians inaugurated a higher | + | civilisation--particularly in bringing the | + | Stone Age to a close and introducing the use | + | of metals. | + | | + | "This is a brilliant little book, | + | illuminating the whole subject of the | + | history of the human race since man assumed | + | his proper shape."--_Manchester Guardian._ | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | Algernon Charles Swinburne | + | THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE | + | | + | Leo Tolstoy | + | THE TEACHING OF JESUS | + | | + | Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie | + | PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE | + | CHRISTIANITY | + | | + | Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S. | + | THE ETHER OF SPACE. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. William Wrede | + | (University of Breslau) | + | THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT | + | | + | Prof. C.H. Becker | + | (Colonial Institute, Hamburg) | + | CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM | + | | + | Prof. Svante Arrhenius | + | (Nobel Institute, Stockholm) | + | THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE. | + | 2 vols. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich) | + | JESUS OR PAUL? | + | | + | Prof. D.A. Bertholet (University of Basle) | + | THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS | + | | + | Prof. Reinhold Seeberg | + | (University of Berlin) | + | REVELATION AND INSPIRATION | + | | + | Prof. Johannes Weiss | + | (University of Heidelberg) | + | PAUL AND JESUS | + | | + | Prof. Rudolph Eucken (University of Jena) | + | CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM | + | | + | Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University) | + | ROMAN LAW IN MEDIAEVAL EUROPE | + | | + | Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., LL.D. | + | DIAMONDS. Illustrated | + | | + | _PLEASE WRITE FOR PROSPECTUS | + | AND ANNOUNCEMENTS_ | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + ----------------------------------------------- + | | + | Harper's Library of Living Thought | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | C.H. Hawes, M.A., and | + | Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A. | + | CRETE THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE. Maps, etc. | + | | + | Sir William A. Tilden, F.R.S. | + | THE ELEMENTS: Speculations as to their | + | Nature and Origin. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. Ernest A. Gardner | + | (University of London) | + | RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE | + | | + | Prof. F.W. Mott, F.R.S., M.D. | + | THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND | + | SONG. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. G. Elliott Smith | + | (University of Manchester) | + | THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, and their | + | Influence upon the Civilisation | + | of Europe. Illustrated | + | | + | Prof. Frederick Czapek | + | (University of Prague) | + | CHEMICAL PHENOMENA IN LIFE | + | | + | Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie | + | THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION. | + | Copiously Illustrated | + | | + | The Very Rev. the Hon. W.H. Fremantle, D.D. | + | (Dean of Ripon) | + | NATURAL CHRISTIANITY | + | | + | Prof. A.W. Bickerton | + | THE BIRTH OF WORLDS AND SYSTEMS. | + | Illustrated. | + | Preface by Prof. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. | + | | + | Prof. Arthur Keith, M.D. | + | ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN. Illustrated | + | | + | Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S. | + | ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONS. Diagrams | + | | + | Arthur Holmes, B.Sc. | + | THE AGE OF THE EARTH. Illustrated | + | | + | T. Eric Peet, M.A. | + | ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND | + | THEIR BUILDERS. Illustrated | + | | + |-----------------------------------------------| + | | + | :: HARPER AND BROTHERS :: | + | 45 Albemarle St: London, W. | + | Franklin Sq. New York | + | | + ------------------------------------------------- + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rough Stone Monuments and Their +Builders, by T. Eric Peet + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND *** + +***** This file should be named 15590.txt or 15590.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/5/9/15590/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/15590.zip b/15590.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..49ab088 --- /dev/null +++ b/15590.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f1462e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #15590 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15590) |
