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+Project Gutenberg's Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders, by T. Eric Peet
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders
+
+Author: T. Eric Peet
+
+Release Date: April 8, 2005 [EBook #15590]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST]
+
+
+
+
+                              ROUGH STONE
+                               MONUMENTS
+                               AND THEIR
+                               BUILDERS
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                             T. ERIC PEET
+
+              FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD;
+                 LATELY CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY
+                    OF OXFORD AND PELHAM STUDENT AT
+                      THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ROME
+
+
+
+
+                          HARPER & BROTHERS
+                         LONDON AND NEW YORK
+                       45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W.
+                                 1912
+
+
+
+                      _Published October, 1912_.
+
+
+
+
+                               PREFACE
+
+The aim of this volume is to enable those who are interested in
+Stonehenge and other great stone monuments of England to learn something
+of the similar buildings which exist in different parts of the world, of
+the men who constructed them, and of the great archæological system of
+which they form a part. It is hoped that to the archæologist it may be
+useful as a complete though brief sketch of our present knowledge of the
+megalithic monuments, and as a short treatment of the problems which
+arise in connection with them.
+
+To British readers it is unnecessary to give any justification for the
+comparatively full treatment accorded to the monuments of Great Britain
+and Ireland. Malta and Sardinia may perhaps seem to occupy more than
+their due share of space, but the usurpation is justified by the
+magnificence and the intrinsic interest of their megalithic buildings.
+Being of singularly complicated types and remarkably well preserved they
+naturally tell us much more of their builders than do the simpler
+monuments of other larger and now more important countries. In these two
+islands, moreover, research has in the last few years been extremely
+active, and it is felt that the accounts here given of them will contain
+some material new even to the archæologist.
+
+In order to assist those readers who may wish to follow out the subject
+in greater detail a short bibliography has been added to the book.
+
+For the figures and photographs with which this volume is illustrated I
+have to thank many archæological societies and individual scholars.
+Plate III and part of Plate II I owe to the kindness of Dr. Zammit,
+Director of the Museum of Valletta, while the other part of Plate II is
+from a photograph kindly lent to me by Dr. Ashby. I have to thank the
+Society of Antiquaries for Figures 1 and 3, the Reale Accademia dei
+Lincei for Figures 17 and 20, and the Société préhistorique de France,
+through Dr. Marcel Baudouin, for Figure 10. I am indebted to the Royal
+Irish Academy for Figure 8, to the Committee of the British School of
+Rome for Figure 18, and to Dr. Albert Mayr and the Akademie der
+Wissenschaften in Munich for the plan of Mnaidra. Professors Montelius,
+Siret and Cartailhac I have to thank not only for permission to
+reproduce illustrations from their works, but also for their kind
+interest in my volume. Figure 19 I owe to my friend Dr. Randall MacIver.
+The frontispiece and Plate I are fine photographs by Messrs. The
+Graphotone Co., Ltd.
+
+In conclusion, I must not forget to thank Canon F.F. Grensted for much
+help with regard to the astronomical problems connected with Stonehenge.
+
+                                                     T. ERIC PEET.
+
+LIVERPOOL,
+  _August 10th,_ 1912.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+    CHAPTER                                                 PAGE
+
+       I. INTRODUCTION                                         1
+
+      II. STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE
+          MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES                      15
+
+     III. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND
+          AND IRELAND                                         34
+
+      IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA                    52
+
+       V. FRANCE, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL                          59
+
+      VI. ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS                               76
+
+     VII. AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER.
+          MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS                               90
+
+    VIII. THE DOLMENS OF ASIA                                114
+
+      IX. THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC
+          MONUMENTS, THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS,
+          RELIGION, ETC                                      123
+
+       X. WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE
+          DID THEY COME?                                     143
+
+          BIBLIOGRAPHY                                       159
+
+          INDEX                                              167
+
+
+
+
+                             LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                    PLATES
+
+     Stonehenge from the south-east                 _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                     FACING PAGE
+  I. Stonehenge from the south-west                           17
+ II. Mnaidra, doorway of Room H. The _Nuraghe_ of
+       Madrone in Sardinia                                    82
+III. Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of chief room            100
+
+FIGURE                                                      PAGE
+  1. Plan of Stonehenge                                       16
+  2. Avebury and Kennet Avenue                                23
+  3. Plans of English Long Barrows                            31
+  4. Horned tumulus, Caithness                                39
+  5. Plans of three dolmen-types                              40
+  6. Type-plan of simple corridor-tomb                        42
+  7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb                           44
+  8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland                     47
+  9. Corridor-tomb at Ottagården, Sweden                      53
+ 10. Plan of La Pierre aux Fées, Oise, France                 61
+ 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy         63
+ 12. Plan of La Grotte des Fées, Arles, France                65
+ 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, Petit Morin, France          66
+ 14. Plan of corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain             69
+ 15. Section and plan of a _talayot_, Majorca                 72
+ 16. Section and plan of the _nau_ d'Es Tudons                73
+ 17. Elevation, section and plan of a Sardinian _nuraghe_     83
+ 18. Plan of Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia              87
+ 19. Plan of stone circle at the Senâm, Algeria               94
+ 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria                     97
+ 21. Plan of the Sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta                  99
+ 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat                    115
+
+
+
+
+
+                           ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+                               INTRODUCTION
+
+
+To the south of Salisbury Plain, about two miles west of the small
+country town of Amesbury, lies the great stone circle of Stonehenge. For
+centuries it has been an object of wonder and admiration, and even
+to-day it is one of the sights of our country. Perhaps, however, few of
+those who have heard of Stonehenge or even of those who have visited it
+are aware that it is but a unit in a vast crowd of megalithic monuments
+which, in space, extends from the west of Europe to India, and, in time,
+covers possibly more than a thousand years.
+
+What exactly is a megalithic monument? Strictly speaking, it is a
+building made of very large stones. This definition would, of course,
+include numbers of buildings of the present day and of the medieval and
+classical periods, while many of the Egyptian pyramids and temples would
+at once suggest themselves as excellent examples of this type of
+building. The archæologist, however, uses the term in a much more
+limited sense. He confines it to a series of tombs and buildings
+constructed in Western Asia, in North Africa, and in certain parts of
+Europe, towards the end of the neolithic period and during part of the
+copper and bronze ages which followed it. The structures are usually,
+though not quite invariably, made of large blocks of unworked or
+slightly worked stone, and they conform to certain definite types. The
+best known of these types are as follows: Firstly, the menhir, which is
+a tall, rough pillar of stone with its base fixed into the earth.
+Secondly, the trilithon, which consists of a pair of tall stones set at
+a short distance apart supporting a third stone laid across the top.
+Thirdly, the dolmen, which is a single slab of stone supported by
+several others arranged in such a way as to enclose a space or chamber
+beneath it. Some English writers apply the term cromlech to such a
+structure, quite incorrectly. Both menhir and dolmen are Breton words,
+these two types of megalithic monument being particularly frequent in
+Brittany. Menhir is derived from the Breton _men_, a stone, and _hir_,
+long; similarly dolmen is from _dol_, a table, and _men_, a stone. Some
+archæologists also apply the word dolmen to rectangular chambers roofed
+with more than one slab. We have carefully avoided this practice, always
+classing such chambers as corridor-tombs of an elementary type.
+Fourthly, we have the corridor-tomb (_Ganggrab_), which usually consists
+of a chamber entered by a gallery or corridor. In cases where the
+chamber is no wider than, and hence indistinguishable from the corridor,
+the tomb becomes a long rectangular gallery, and answers to the French
+_allée couverte_ in the strict sense. Fifthly, we come to the
+_alignement_, in which a series of menhirs is arranged in open lines on
+some definite system. We shall find a famous example of this at Morbihan
+in Brittany. Sixthly, there is the cromlech (from _crom_, curve, and
+_lec'h_, a stone), which consists of a number of menhirs arranged to
+enclose a space, circular, elliptical or, in rare cases, rectangular.
+
+These are the chief types of megalithic monument, but there are others
+which, though clearly belonging to the same class of structure, show
+special forms and are more complicated. They are in many cases
+developments of one or more of the simple types, and will be treated
+specially in their proper places. Such monuments are the _nuraghi_ of
+Sardinia and the 'temples' of Malta and Gozo.
+
+Finally, the rock-hewn sepulchre is often classed with the megalithic
+monuments, and it is therefore frequently mentioned in the following
+pages. This is justified by the fact that it generally occurs in
+connection with megalithic structures. The exact relation in which it
+stands to them will be fully discussed in the last chapter.
+
+
+We have now to consider what may be called the architectural methods of
+the megalithic builders, for although in dealing with such primitive
+monuments it would perhaps be exaggeration to speak of a style, yet
+there were certain principles which were as carefully and as invariably
+observed as were in later days those of the Doric or the Gothic styles
+in the countries where they took root.
+
+The first and most important principle, that on which the whole of the
+megalithic construction may be said to be based, is the use of the
+orthostatic block, i.e. the block set up on its edge. It is clear that
+in this way each block or slab is made to provide the maximum of wall
+area at the expense of the thickness of the wall. Naturally, in
+districts where the rock is of a slabby nature blocks of a more or less
+uniform thickness lay ready to the builders' hand, and the appearance of
+the structure was much more finished than it would be in places where
+the rock had a less regular fracture or where shapeless boulders had to
+be relied on. The orthostatic slabs were often deeply sunk into the
+ground where this consisted of earth or soft rock; of the latter case
+there are good examples at Stonehenge, where the rock is a soft chalk.
+When the ground had an uneven surface of hard rock, the slabs were set
+upright on it and small stones wedged in beneath them to make them stand
+firm. Occasionally, as at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, a course of horizontal
+blocks set at the foot of the uprights served to keep them more securely
+in position. With the upright block technique went hand in hand the
+roofing of narrow spaces by means of horizontal slabs laid across the
+top of the uprights.
+
+The second principle of megalithic architecture was the use of more or
+less coursed masonry set without mortar, each block lying on its side
+and not on its edge. It is quite possible that this principle is less
+ancient in origin than that of the orthostatic slab, for it usually
+occurs in structures of a more advanced type. Thus in simple and
+primitive types of building such as the dolmen it is most rare to find
+dry masonry, but in the advanced corridor-tombs of Ireland, the Giants'
+Graves and _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, and in the 'temples' of Malta this
+technique is largely used, often in combination with the upright slab
+system. Indeed, this combination is quite typical of the best megalithic
+work: a series of uprights is first set in position, and over this are
+laid several horizontal courses of rather smaller stones. We must note
+that the dry masonry which we are describing is still strictly
+megalithic, as the blocks used are never small and often of enormous
+size.
+
+Buildings in which this system is used are occasionally roofed with
+slabs, but more often corbelling is employed. At a certain height each
+succeeding course in the wall begins to project inwards over the last,
+so that the walls, as it were, lean together and finally meet to form a
+false barrel-vault or a false dome, according as the structure is
+rectangular or round. Occasionally, when the building was wide, it was
+impossible to corbel the walls sufficiently to make them meet. In this
+case they were corbelled as far as possible and the open space still
+left was covered with long flat slabs.
+
+It has often been commented on as a matter of wonder that a people
+living in the stone age, or at the best possessing a few simple tools of
+metal, should have been able to move and place in position such enormous
+blocks of stone. With modern cranes and traction engines all would be
+simple, but it might have been thought that in the stone age such
+building would be impossible. Thus, for instance, in the 'temple' of
+Hagiar Kim in Malta, there is one block of stone which measures 21 feet
+by 9, and must weigh many tons. In reality there is little that is
+marvellous in the moving and setting up of these blocks, for the tools
+needed are ready to the hand of every savage; but there is something to
+wonder at and to admire in the patience displayed and in the
+organization necessary to carry out such vast pieces of labour. Great,
+indeed, must have been the power of the cult which could combine the
+force of hundreds and even thousands of individuals for long periods of
+time in the construction of the great megalithic temples. Perhaps slave
+labour played a part in the work, but in any case it is clear that we
+are in the presence of strongly organized governments backed by a
+powerful religion which required the building of temples for the gods
+and vast tombs for the dead.
+
+Let us consider for a moment what was the procedure in building a simple
+megalithic monument. It was fourfold, for it involved the finding and
+possibly the quarrying of the stones, the moving of them to the desired
+spot, the erection of the uprights in their places, and the placing of
+the cover-slab or slabs on top of them.
+
+With regard to the first step it is probable that in most cases the
+place chosen for a tomb or cemetery was one in which numbers of great
+stones lay on the surface ready to hand. By this means labour was
+greatly economized. On the other hand, there are certainly cases where
+the stones were brought long distances in order to be used. Thus, in
+Charente in France there is at La Perotte a block weighing nearly 40
+tons which must have travelled over 18 miles. We have no evidence as to
+whether stones were ever actually quarried. If they were, the means used
+must have been the stone axe, fire, and water. It was not usual in the
+older and simpler dolmens to dress the stones in any way, though in the
+later and more complicated structures well-worked blocks were often
+used.
+
+The required stones having been found it was now necessary to move them
+to the spot. This could be done in two ways. The first and simpler is
+that which we see pictured on Egyptian monuments, such as the tomb of
+Tahutihotep at El Bersheh. A rough road of beams is laid in the required
+direction, and wooden rollers are placed under the stone on this road.
+Large numbers of men or oxen then drag the stone along by means of ropes
+attached to it. Other labourers assist the work from behind with levers,
+and replace the rollers in front of the stone as fast as they pass out
+behind. Those who have seen the modern Arabs in excavation work move
+huge blocks with wooden levers and palm-leaf rope will realize that for
+the building of the dolmens little was needed except numbers and time.
+
+The other method of moving the stones is as follows: a gentle slope of
+hard earth covered with wet clay is built with its higher extremity
+close beside the block to be moved. As many men as there is room for
+stand on each side of the block, and with levers resting on beams or
+stones as fulcra, raise the stone vertically as far as possible. Other
+men then fill up the space beneath it with earth and stones. The process
+is next repeated with higher fulcra, until the stone is level with the
+top of the clay slope, on to which it is then slipped. With a little
+help it now slides down the inclined plane to the bottom. Here a fresh
+slope is built, and the whole procedure is gone through again. The
+method can even be used on a slight uphill gradient. It requires less
+dragging and more vertical raising than the other, and would thus be
+more useful where oxen were unobtainable.
+
+When the stones were once on the spot it is not hard to imagine how they
+were set upright with levers and ropes. The placing of the cover-slab
+was, however, a more complicated matter. The method employed was
+probably to build a slope of earth leading up from one side to the
+already erected uprights and almost covering them. Up this the slab
+could be moved by means of rollers, ropes, and levers, until it was in
+position over the uprights. The slope could then be removed. If the
+dolmen was to be partly or wholly covered with a mound, as some
+certainly were, it would not even be necessary to remove the slope.
+
+Roughly speaking, the extension of megalithic monuments is from Spain to
+Japan and from Sweden to Algeria. These are naturally merely limits, and
+it must not be supposed that the regions which lie between them all
+contain megalithic monuments. More exactly, we find them in Asia, in
+Japan, Corea, India, Persia, Syria, and Palestine. In Africa we have
+them along the whole of the north coast, from Tripoli to Morocco; inland
+they are not recorded, except for one possible example in Egypt and
+several in the Soudan. In Europe the distribution of dolmens and other
+megalithic monuments is wide. They occur in the Caucasus and the Crimea,
+and quite lately examples have been recorded in Bulgaria. There are none
+in Greece, and only a few in Italy, in the extreme south-east corner.
+The islands, however, which lie around and to the south of Italy afford
+many examples: Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Gozo, Pantelleria, and
+Lampedusa are strongholds of the megalithic civilization, and it is
+possible that Sicily should be included in the list. Moving westward we
+find innumerable examples in the Spanish Peninsula and in France. To the
+north we find them frequent in the British Isles, Sweden, Denmark, and
+North Germany; they are rarer in Holland and Belgium. Two examples have
+been reported from Switzerland.
+
+It is only to be expected that these great megalithic monuments of a
+prehistoric age should excite the wonder and stimulate the imagination
+of those who see them. In all countries and at all times they have been
+centres of story and legend, and even at the present day many strange
+beliefs concerning them are to be found among the peasantry who live
+around them. Salomon Reinach has written a remarkable essay on this
+question, and the following examples are mainly drawn from the
+collection he has there made. The names given to the monuments often
+show clearly the ideas with which they are associated in the minds of
+the peasants. Thus the Penrith circle is locally known as "Meg and her
+Daughters," a dolmen in Berkshire is called "Wayland the Smith's Cave,"
+while in one of the Orkney Isles is a menhir named "Odin's Stone." In
+France many are connected with Gargantua, whose name, the origin of
+which is doubtful, stands clearly for a giant. Thus we find a rock
+called the "Chair of Gargantua," a menhir called "Gargantua's Little
+Finger," and an _allée couverte_ called "Gargantua's Tomb." Names
+indicating connections with fairies, virgins, witches, dwarfs, devils,
+saints, druids, and even historical persons are frequent. Dolmens are
+often "houses of dwarfs," a name perhaps suggested or at least helped by
+the small holes cut in some of them; they are "huts" or "caves of
+fairies," they are "kitchens" or "forges of the devil," while menhirs
+are called his arrows, and cromlechs his cauldrons. In France we have
+stones of various saints, while in England many monuments are connected
+with King Arthur. A dolmen in Wales is his quoit; the circle at Penrith
+is his round table, and that of Caermarthen is his park. Both in England
+and France we find stones and altars "of the druids"; in the Pyrenees,
+in Spain, and in Africa there are "graves of the Gentiles" or "tombs of
+idolaters"; in Arles (France) the _allées couvertes_ are called
+"prisons" or "shops of the Saracens," and the dolmens of the Eastern
+Pyrenees are locally known as "huts of the Moors." Dolmens in India are
+often "stones of the monkeys," and in France there are "wolves' altars,"
+"wolves' houses," and "wolves' tables."
+
+Passing now to more definite beliefs connected with megalithic
+monuments, we may notice that from quite early times they have been--as
+indeed they often are still--regarded with fear and respect, and even
+worshipped. In certain parts of France peasants are afraid to shelter
+under the dolmens, and never think of approaching them by night. In
+early Christian days there must have been a cult of the menhir, for the
+councils of Arles (A.D. 452), of Tours (A.D. 567), and of Nantes (A.D.
+658) all condemn the cult of trees, springs, and _stones_. In A.D. 789
+Charlemagne attempted to suppress stone-worship, and to destroy the
+stones themselves. In Spain, where, as in France, megalithic monuments
+are common, the councils of Toledo in A.D. 681 and 682 condemned the
+"Worshippers of Stones." Moreover there are many cases in which a
+monument itself bears traces of having been the centre of a cult in
+early or medieval times. The best example is perhaps the dolmen of
+Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, which was transformed into a chapel about the
+twelfth century. Similar transformations have been made in Spain. In
+many cases, too, crosses have been placed or engraved on menhirs in
+order to "Christianize" them.
+
+Remarkable powers and virtues have been attributed to many of the
+monuments. One of the dolmens of Finistère is said to cure rheumatism in
+anyone who rubs against the loftiest of its stones, and another heals
+fever patients who sleep under it. Stones with holes pierced in them are
+believed to be peculiarly effective, and it suffices to pass the
+diseased limb or, when possible, the invalid himself through the hole.
+
+Oaths sworn in or near a megalithic monument have a peculiar sanctity.
+In Scotland as late as the year A.D. 1438 "John off Erwyne and Will
+Bernardson swor on the Hirdmane Stein before oure Lorde ye Erie off
+Orknay and the gentiless off the cuntre."
+
+Many of the monuments are endowed by the credulous with life. The menhir
+du Champ Dolent sinks an inch every hundred years. Others say that a
+piece of it is eaten by the moon each night, and that when it is
+completely devoured the Last Judgment will take place. The stones of
+Carnac bathe in the sea once a year, and many of those of the Périgord
+leap three times each day at noon.
+
+We have already remarked on the connection of the monuments with dwarfs,
+giants, and mythical personages. There is an excellent example in our
+own country in Berkshire. Here when a horse has cast a shoe the rider
+must leave it in front of the dolmen called "The Cave of Wayland the
+Smith," placing at the same time a coin on the cover-stone. He must then
+retire for a suitable period, after which he returns to find the horse
+shod and the money gone.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                    STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE
+                     MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES
+
+
+Stonehenge, the most famous of our English megalithic monuments, has
+excited the attention of the historian and the legend-lover since early
+times. According to some of the medieval historians it was erected by
+Aurelius Ambrosius to the memory of a number of British chiefs whom
+Hengist and his Saxons treacherously murdered in A.D. 462. Others add
+that Ambrosius himself was buried there. Giraldus Cambrensis, who wrote
+in the twelfth century, mingles these accounts with myth. He says,
+"There was in Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy of
+admiration called the Giants' Dance, because giants from the remotest
+part of Africa brought them to Ireland, and in the plains of Kildare,
+not far from the castle of Naas, miraculously set them up.... These
+stones (according to the British history) Aurelius Ambrosius, King of
+the Britons, procured Merlin by supernatural means to bring from Ireland
+to Britain."
+
+From the present ruined state of Stonehenge it is not possible to state
+with certainty what was the original arrangement, but it is probable
+that it was approximately as follows (see frontispiece):
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. Plan of Stonehenge in 1901. (After
+_Archæologia_.) The dotted stones are of porphyritic diabase.]
+
+There was an outer circle of about thirty worked upright stones of
+square section (Fig. I). On each pair of these rested a horizontal
+block, but only five now remain in position. These 'lintels' probably
+formed a continuous architrave (Pl. I). The diameter of this outer
+circle is about 97-1/2 feet, inner measurement. The stones used are
+sarsens or blocks of sandstone, such as are to be found lying about in
+many parts of the district round Stonehenge.
+
+[Illustration: Plate I. STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-WEST
+               Photo Graphotone Co.     To face p. 17]
+
+Well within this circle stood the five huge trilithons (_a-e_), arranged
+in the form of a horseshoe with its open side to the north-east. Each
+trilithon, as the name implies, consists of three stones, two of which
+are uprights, the third being laid horizontally across the top. The
+height of the trilithons varies from 16 to 21-1/2 feet, the lowest being
+the two that stand at the open end of the horseshoe, and the highest
+that which is at the apex. Here again all the stones are sarsens and all
+are carefully worked. On the top end of each upright of the trilithons
+is an accurately cut tenon which dovetails into two mortices cut one at
+each end of the lower surface of the horizontal block. Each upright of
+the outer circle had a double tenon, and the lintels, besides being
+morticed to take these tenons, were also dovetailed each into its two
+neighbours.
+
+Within the horseshoe and close up to it stand the famous blue-stones,
+now twelve in number, but originally perhaps more. These stones are not
+so high as the trilithons, the tallest reaching only 7-1/2 feet. They
+are nearly all of porphyritic diabase. It has often been asserted that
+these blue-stones must have been brought to Stonehenge from a distance,
+as they do not occur anywhere in the district. Some have suggested that
+they came from Wales or Cornwall, or even by sea from Ireland. Now, the
+recent excavations have shown that the blue-stones were brought to
+Stonehenge in a rough state, and that all the trimming was done on the
+spot where they were erected. It seems unlikely that if they had been
+brought from a distance the rough trimming should not have been done on
+the spot where they were found, in order to decrease their weight for
+transport. It is therefore possible that the stones were erratic blocks
+found near Stonehenge.
+
+Within the horseshoe, and near its apex, lies the famous "Altar Stone"
+(A), a block measuring about 16 feet by 4. Between the horseshoe and the
+outer circle another circle of diabase stones is sometimes said to have
+existed, but very little of it now remains.
+
+The whole building is surrounded by a rampart of earth several feet
+high, forming a circle about 300 feet in diameter. An avenue still 1200
+feet in length, bordered by two walls of earth, leads up to the rampart
+from the north-east. On the axis of this avenue and nearly at its
+extremity stands the upright stone known as the Friar's Heel.
+
+In 1901, in the course of repairing the central trilithon, careful
+excavations were carried out over a small area at Stonehenge. More than
+a hundred stone implements were found, of which the majority were flint
+axes, probably used for dressing the softer of the sandstone blocks, and
+also for excavating the chalk into which the uprights were set. About
+thirty hammer-stones suitable for holding in the hand were found. These
+were doubtless used for dressing the surface of the blocks. Most
+remarkable of all were the 'mauls,' large boulders weighing from 36 to
+64 pounds, used for smashing blocks and also for removing large chips
+from the surfaces. Several antlers of deer were found, one of which had
+been worn down by use as a pickaxe.
+
+These excavations made it clear that the blue-stones had been shaped on
+the spot, whereas the sarsens had been roughly prepared at the place
+where they were found, and only finished off on the spot where they were
+erected.
+
+
+What is the date of the erection of Stonehenge? The finding of so many
+implements of flint in the excavations of 1901 shows that the structure
+belongs to a period when flint was still largely used. The occurrence of
+a stain of oxide of copper on a worked block of stone at a depth of 7
+feet does not necessarily prove that the stones were erected in the
+bronze age, for the stain may have been caused by the disintegration of
+malachite and not of metallic copper. At the same time, we must not
+infer from the frequency of the flint implements that metal was unknown,
+for flint continued to be used far on into the early metal age.
+Moreover, flint tools when worn out were simply thrown aside on the
+spot, while those of metal were carefully set apart for sharpening or
+re-casting, and are thus seldom found in large numbers in an excavation.
+We have, therefore, no means of accurately determining the date of
+Stonehenge; all that can be said is that the occurrence of flint in such
+large quantities points either to the neolithic age or to a
+comparatively early date in the copper or bronze period. It is unlikely
+that stone tools would play such a considerable rôle in the late bronze
+or the iron age.
+
+At the same time it must not be forgotten that Sir Arthur Evans has
+spoken in favour of a date in the first half of the third century B.C.
+He believes that the great circles are religious monuments which in form
+developed out of the round barrows, and that Stonehenge is therefore
+much later than some at least of the round barrows around it. That it is
+earlier than others is clear from the occurrence in some of them of
+chips from the sarsen stones. He therefore places its building late in
+the round barrow period, and sees confirmation of this in the fact that
+the round barrows which surround the monument are not grouped in regular
+fashion around it, as they should have been had they been later in
+date.
+
+Many attempts have been made to date the monuments by means of
+astronomy. All these start from the assumption that it was erected in
+connection with the worship of the sun, or at least in order to take
+certain observations with regard to the sun. Sir Norman Lockyer noticed
+that the avenue at Stonehenge pointed approximately to the spot where
+the sun rises at the midsummer solstice, and therefore thought that
+Stonehenge was erected to observe this midsummer rising. If he could
+find the exact direction of the avenue he would know where the sun rose
+at midsummer in the year when the circle was built. From this he could
+easily fix the date, for, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the
+point of the midsummer rising is continually altering, and the position
+for any year being known the date of that year can be found
+astronomically. But how was the precise direction of this very irregular
+avenue to be fixed? The line from the altar stone to the Friar's Heel,
+which is popularly supposed to point to the midsummer rising, has
+certainly never done so in the last ten thousand years, and therefore
+could not be used as the direction of the avenue. Eventually Sir Norman
+decided to use a line from the centre of the circle to a modern
+benchmark on Sidbury Hill, eight miles north-east of Stonehenge. On this
+line the sun rose in 1680 B.C. with a possible error of two hundred
+years each way: this Sir Norman takes to be the date of Stonehenge.
+
+Sir Norman's reasoning has been severely handled by his
+fellow-astronomer Mr. Hinks, who points out that the direction chosen
+for the avenue is purely arbitrary, since Sidbury Hill has no connection
+with Stonehenge at all. Moreover, Sir Norman determines sunrise for
+Stonehenge as being the instant when the edge of the sun's disk first
+appears, while in his attempts to date the Egyptian temple of Karnak he
+defined it as the moment when the sun's centre reached the horizon. We
+cannot say which alternative the builders would have chosen, and
+therefore we cannot determine the date of building.
+
+Sir Norman Lockyer has since modified his views. He now argues that the
+trilithons and outer circle are later additions to an earlier temple to
+which the blue-stones belong. This earlier temple was made to observe
+"primarily but not exclusively the May year," while the later temple
+"represented a change of cult, and was dedicated primarily to the
+solstitial year." This view seems to be disproved by the excavations of
+1901, which made it clear that the trilithons were erected before and
+not after the blue-stones.
+
+Nothing is more likely than that the builders of the megaliths had some
+knowledge of the movements of the sun in connection with the seasons,
+and that their priests or wise men determined for them, by observing the
+sun, the times of sowing, reaping, etc., as they do among many savage
+tribes at the present day. They may have been worshippers of the sun,
+and their temples may have contained 'observation lines' for determining
+certain of his movements. But the attempt to date the monuments from
+such lines involves so many assumptions and is affected by so many
+disturbing elements that it can never have a serious value for the
+archæologist. The uncertainty is even greater in the case of temples
+supposed to be oriented by some star, for in this case there is almost
+always a choice of two or more bright stars, giving the most divergent
+results.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Avebury and the Kennet Avenue.
+               (After Sir R. Colt Hoare.)]
+
+Next in importance to Stonehenge comes the huge but now almost destroyed
+circle of Avebury (Fig. 2). Its area is five times as great as that of
+St. Peter's in Rome, and a quarter of a million people could stand
+within it. It consists in the first place of a rampart of earth roughly
+circular in form and with a diameter of about 1200 feet. Within this is
+a ditch, and close on the inner edge of this was a circle of about a
+hundred upright stones. Within this circle were two pairs of concentric
+circles with their centres slightly east of the north-and-south diameter
+of the great circle. The diameters of the outer circles of these two
+pairs are 350 and 325 feet respectively. In the centre of the northern
+pair was a cover-slab supported by three uprights, and in the centre of
+the southern a single menhir. All the stones used are sarsens, such as
+are strewn everywhere over the district.
+
+An avenue flanked by two rows of stones ran in a south-easterly
+direction from the rampart towards the village of Kennet for a distance
+of about 1430 yards in a straight line.
+
+At a distance of 1200 yards due south from Avebury Circle stands the
+famous artificial mound called Silbury Hill. It is 552 feet in diameter,
+130 in height, and has a flat top 102 feet across. A pit was driven down
+into its centre in 1777, and in 1849 a trench was cut into it from the
+south side to the centre, but neither gave any result. It is quite
+possible that there are burials in the mound, whether in megalithic
+chambers or not.
+
+South-west of Avebury is Hakpen Hill, where there once stood two
+concentric ellipses of stones. A straight avenue is said to have run
+from these in a north-westerly direction. Whether these three monuments
+near Avebury have any connection with one another and, if so, what this
+connection is, is unknown.
+
+
+There are many other circles in England, but we have only space to
+mention briefly some of the more important. At Rollright, in
+Oxfordshire, there is a circle 100 feet in diameter with a tall menhir
+50 yards to the north-east. Derbyshire possesses a famous monument, that
+of Arbor Low, where a circle is surrounded by a rampart and ditch, while
+that of Stanton Drew in Somerset consists of a great circle A and two
+smaller circles B and C. The line joining the centres of B and A passes
+through a menhir called Hauptville's Quoit away to the north-east, while
+that which joins the centres of C and A cuts a group of three menhirs
+called The Cove, lying to the south-west.
+
+In Cumberland there are several circles. One of these, 330 feet in
+diameter with an outstanding menhir, is known as "Long Meg and her
+Daughters." Another, the Mayborough Circle, is of much the same size,
+but consists of a tall monolith in the centre of a rampart formed
+entirely of rather small water-worn stones. A similar circle not far
+from this is known as King Arthur's Round Table; here, however, there is
+no monolith. Near Keswick there is a finely preserved circle, and at
+Shap there seems to have existed a large circle with an avenue of stones
+running for over a mile to the north.
+
+Cornwall possesses a number of fine monuments. The most celebrated is
+the Dance Maen Circle, which is 76 feet in diameter and has two
+monoliths to the north-east, out of sight of the circle, but stated to
+be in a straight line with its centre. Local tradition calls the circle
+"The Merry Maidens," and has it that the stones are girls turned into
+stones for dancing on Sunday: the two monoliths are called the Pipers.
+The three circles known as the Hurlers lie close together with their
+centres nearly in a straight line in the direction N.N.E. by S.S.W. At
+Boscawen-un, near Penzance, is a circle called the Nine Maidens, and two
+circles near Tregeseal have the same name. Another well-known circle in
+Cornwall is called the Stripple Stones: the circle stands on a platform
+of earth surrounded by a ditch, outside which is a rampart. In the
+centre is a menhir 12 feet in height.
+
+At Merivale, in Somersetshire, there are the remains of a small circle,
+to the north of which lie two almost parallel double lines of menhirs,
+running about E.N.E. by W.S.W., the more southerly of the two lines
+overlapping the other at both extremities.
+
+
+With what purpose were these great circles erected? We have already
+mentioned the curious belief of Geoffrey of Monmouth with regard to
+Stonehenge, and we may pass on to more modern theories. James I was
+once taken to see Stonehenge when on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke at
+Wilton. He was so interested that he ordered his architect Inigo Jones
+to enquire into its date and purpose. The architect's conclusion was
+that it was a Roman temple "dedicated to the god Caelus and built after
+the Tuscan order."
+
+Many years later Dr. Stukeley started a theory which has not entirely
+been abandoned at the present day. For him Stonehenge and other stone
+circles were temples of the druids. This was in itself by no means a
+ridiculous theory, but Stukeley went further than this. Relying on a
+quaint story in Pliny wherein the druids of Gaul are said to use as a
+charm a certain magic egg manufactured by snakes, he imagined that the
+druids were serpent-worshippers, and essayed to see serpents even in the
+forms of their temples. Thus in the Avebury group the circle on Hakpen
+Hill was for him the head of a snake and its avenue part of the body.
+The Avebury circles were coils in the body, which was completed by the
+addition of imaginary stones and avenues. He also attempted with even
+less success to see the form of a serpent in other British circle
+groups.
+
+The druids, as we gather from the rather scanty references in Cæsar and
+other Roman authors, were priests of the Celts in Gaul. Suetonius
+further speaks of druids in Anglesey, and tradition has it that in Wales
+and Ireland there were druids in pre-Christian times. But that druids
+ever existed in England or in a tithe of the places in which megalithic
+circles and other monuments occur is unlikely. At the same time, it is
+not impossible that some of the circles of Ireland, Wales, and France
+were afterwards used by the druids as suitable places for meeting and
+preaching.
+
+Fergusson in his great work _Rude Stone Monuments_ held a remarkable
+view as to the purpose of the British stone circles. He believed that
+they were partly Roman in date, and that some of them at least marked
+the scene of battles fought by King Arthur against the Saxons. Thus, for
+example, he says with regard to Avebury, "I feel it will come eventually
+to be acknowledged that those who fell in Arthur's twelfth and greatest
+battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and that those who survived
+raised these stones and the mound of Silbury in the vain hope that they
+would convey to their latest posterity the memory of their prowess." It
+is hardly necessary to take this view seriously nowadays. Stonehenge,
+which Fergusson attributes to the same late era, has been proved by
+excavation to be prehistoric in origin, and with it naturally go the
+rest of the megalithic circles of England, except where there is any
+certain proof to the contrary.
+
+The most probable theory is that the circles are religious monuments of
+some kind. What the nature of the worship carried on in them was it is
+quite impossible to determine. It may be that some at least were built
+near the graves of deified heroes to whose worship they were
+consecrated. On the other hand, it is possible that they were temples
+dedicated to the sun or to others of the heavenly bodies. Whether they
+served for the taking of astronomical observations or not is a question
+which cannot be decided with certainty, though the frequency with which
+menhirs occur in directions roughly north-east of the circles is
+considered by some as a sign of connection with the watching of solar
+phenomena.
+
+
+Dolmens of simple type are not common in England, though they occur with
+comparative frequency in Wales, where the best known are the so-called
+Arthur's Quoit near Swansea, the dolmen of Pentre Ifan in Pembrokeshire,
+and that of Plas Newydd on the Menai Strait: in Anglesey they are quite
+common. In England we have numerous examples in Cornwall, especially
+west of Falmouth, among which are Chun Quoit and Lanyon Quoit. There are
+dolmens at Chagford and Drewsteignton in Devonshire, and there is one
+near the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire.
+
+Many of the so-called cromlechs of England are not true dolmens, but the
+remains of tombs of more complicated types. Thus the famous Kit's Coty
+House in Kent was certainly not a dolmen, though it is now impossible to
+say what its form was. Wayland the Smith's Cave was probably a
+three-chambered corridor-tomb covered with a mound. The famous
+Men-an-tol in Cornwall may well be all that is left of a chamber-tomb of
+some kind. It is a slab about 3-1/2 feet square, in which is a hole
+1-1/2 feet in diameter. There are other stones standing or lying around
+it. It is known to the peasants as the Crickstone, for it was said to
+cure sufferers from rickets or crick in the back if they passed nine
+times through the hole in a direction against the sun. The Isle of Man
+possesses a fine sepulchral monument on Meayll Hill. It consist of six
+T-shaped chamber-tombs arranged in a circle with entrances to the north
+and south. There is also a corridor-tomb, known as King Orry's Grave, at
+Laxey, and another with a semicircular façade at Maughold.
+
+
+Among the megalithic monuments of our islands the chambered barrows hold
+an important place. It is well known that in the neolithic period the
+dead in certain parts of England were buried under mounds of not
+circular but elongated shape. These graves are commonest in Wiltshire
+and the surrounding counties of Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and
+Gloucestershire. A few exist in other counties. Some contain no chamber,
+while others contain a structure of the megalithic type. It is with
+these latter that we have here to deal. Chambered long barrows are most
+frequent in Wiltshire, though they do occur in other counties, as, for
+example, Buckinghamshire, where the famous Cave of Wayland the Smith is
+certainly the remains of a barrow of this kind. In Derbyshire and
+Staffordshire a type of chambered mound does occur, but it seems
+uncertain from the description given whether it is round or elongated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. (_a_)--Barrow at Stoney Littleton, Somersetshire.
+               (_b_)--Barrow at Rodmarton, Gloucestershire.
+               (_c_)--Chambers of barrow at Uley, Gloucestershire.
+               (After Thurnam, _Archæologia,_ XLII.)]
+
+Turning first to the Wiltshire and Gloucestershire group of barrows we
+find that they are usually from 120 to 200 feet in length and from 30 to
+60 in breadth. In some cases there is a wall of dry stone-masonry around
+the foot of the mound and outside this a ditch. The megalithic chambers
+within the mound are of three types. In the first there is a central
+gallery entering the mound at its thicker end and leading to a chamber
+or series of chambers (Fig. 3, _a_ and _c_). Where this gallery enters
+the mound there is a cusp-shaped break in the outline of the mound as
+marked by the dry walling, and the entrance is closed by a stone block.
+The chambers are formed of large slabs set up on edge. Occasionally
+there are spaces between successive slabs, and these are filled up with
+dry masonry. The roof is made either by laying large slabs across the
+tops of the sides or by corbelling with smaller slabs as at Stoney
+Littleton.
+
+In the second type of chambered barrow there is no central corridor, but
+chambers are built in opposite pairs on the outside edge of the mound
+and opening outwards (Fig. 3, _b_). The two best known examples of this
+are the tumuli of Avening and of Rodmarton.
+
+In the third type of barrow there is no chamber connected with the
+outside, but its place is taken by several dolmens--so small as to be
+mere cists--within the mound.
+
+The burials in these barrows seem to have been without exception
+inhumations. The body was placed in the crouched position, either
+sitting up or reclining. In an untouched chamber at Rodmarton were found
+as many as thirteen bodies, and in the eastern chamber at Charlton's
+Abbott there were twelve. With the bodies lay pottery, vases, and
+implements of flint and bone.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III
+
+              MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND
+
+
+The stone circles of Scotland have been divided into three types--the
+Western Scottish, consisting of a rather irregular ring or pair of
+concentric rings; the Inverness type, in which a chamber entered by a
+straight passage is covered by a round tumulus with a retaining wall of
+stone, the whole being surrounded by a regular stone circle; and the
+Aberdeen type, which is similar to the last, but has a 'recumbent' stone
+between two of the uprights of its outer circle.
+
+The first type occurs in the southern counties, in the islands of the
+west and north coasts, and also extends into Argyll and Perthshire. The
+most famous example is the Callernish Circle in the Isle of Lewis. The
+circle is formed by thirteen stones from 12 to 15 feet high, and its
+centre is marked by an upright 17 feet high. From the circle extends a
+line of four stones to the east and another to the west. To the south
+runs a line of five uprights and several fallen stones, and to the
+N.N.E. runs a double line, forming as it were an avenue with nine
+stones on one side and ten on the other, but having no entrance to the
+circle. Inside the circle, between the central stone and the east side
+of the ring, is what is described as a cruciform grave with three cells
+under a low tumulus. In this tomb were found fragments of human bone
+apparently burnt. It has been suggested that the tomb is not part of the
+original structure, but was added later.
+
+The native tradition about this circle as repeated by Martin in 1700 was
+that it was a druidical place of worship, and that the chief druid stood
+near the central stone to address the assembled people. This tradition
+seems to have now disappeared.
+
+In the island of Arran, between Brodick and Lamlash, is a damaged circle
+21 feet in diameter. At a distance of 60 feet from its circumference in
+a direction 35° east of south is a stone 4 feet high. In the centre of
+the circle was found a cist cut in the underlying rock containing bluish
+earth and pieces of bone. Above were an implement and some fragments of
+flint.
+
+On the other side of the island there were still in 1860 remains of
+eight circles, five of sandstone and three of granite, quite close to
+one another. The diameter of the largest was 63 feet, and the highest
+stone reached 18 feet. One of them was a double ring. In four of them
+were found cists containing pottery, flint arrow-heads, a piece of a
+bronze pin, and some fragments of bone. Others appear to contain no
+cists.
+
+In the other islands of the west coast few circles seem to remain; there
+are, however, one at Kirkabrost in Skye, and another at Kingarth in
+Bute.
+
+At Stromness in Orkney is the famous circle called the Ring of Brogar.
+It originally consisted of sixty stones forming a circle 340 feet in
+diameter, outside which was a ditch 29 feet wide. In a direction 60°
+east of south from the centre, and at a distance of 63 chains, is a
+standing stone called the Watchstone, 18 feet high, and 42 or 43 chains
+further on in the same line is a second stone, the Barnstone, 15 feet
+high. To the left of this line are two stones apparently placed at
+random, and to the right are the few remaining blocks of the Ring of
+Stenness, somewhere to the north of which was the celebrated pierced
+block called the "Stone of Odin," destroyed early in the last century.
+At a distance of 42 or 43 chains to the north-east of the Barnstone lies
+the tumulus of Maeshowe. This tumulus conceals a long gallery leading
+into a rectangular chamber. The walls of this latter are built of
+horizontal courses of stones, except at the corners, where there are
+tall, vertically-placed slabs. The chamber has three niches or recesses,
+one on each of its closed sides. The roof is formed by corbelling the
+walls and finishing off with slabs laid across. If one sits within the
+chamber and looks in a direct line along the passage one sees the
+Barnstone.
+
+A series of measurements and alignments have been taken to connect the
+Maeshowe tumulus with the Ring of Brogar. Thus we have already seen that
+the distance from the Barnstone to the Watchstone is the same as from
+the Barnstone to the tumulus. Moreover, the Watchstone is equidistant
+from the ring and from the tumulus. Again, a line from the Barnstone to
+the tumulus passes through the point of the midsummer sunrise and also,
+on the other horizon, through the point of the setting sun ten days
+before the winter solstice; the line from the Watchstone to the Brogar
+Ring marks the setting of the sun at the Beltane festival in May and its
+rising ten days before the winter solstice, while the line from Maeshowe
+to the Watchstone is in the line of the equinoctial rising and setting.
+These alignments are the work of Mr. Magnus Spence; readers must choose
+what importance they will assign to them.
+
+The Inverness type of circle is entirely different from that of which we
+have been speaking. The finest examples were at Clava, seven miles from
+Inverness, where fifty years ago there were eight still in existence.
+One of these is still partly preserved. It consists of a circle 100 feet
+in diameter consisting of twelve stones. Within this is a cairn of
+stones with a circular retaining wall of stone blocks 2 or 3 feet high.
+The cairn originally covered a circular stone chamber 12-1/2 feet in
+diameter entered by a straight passage on its south-west side. In other
+words, the Inverness monuments are simply chamber-tombs covered with a
+cairn and surrounded by a circle.
+
+Around Aberdeen we find the third type of circle. It consists of a
+cist-tomb covered by a low mound, often with a retaining wall of small
+blocks, but there is no entrance passage leading into the cist. Outside
+the whole is a circle of large upright blocks with this peculiarity,
+that between the two highest--generally to the south or slightly east of
+south--lies a long block on its side, occupying the whole interval
+between them. The uprights nearest this 'recumbent' block are the
+tallest in the circle, and the size of the rest decreases towards the
+north. Of thirty circles known near Aberdeen twenty-six still possess
+the 'recumbent' stone, and in others it may originally have existed.
+
+
+Passing now to monuments of more definitely sepulchral type we find that
+the dolmen is not frequent in Scotland, though several are known in the
+lowlands and in part of Argyllshire.
+
+To the long barrows of England answer in part at least the chambered
+cairns of Caithness and the Orkneys. The best known type is a long
+rectangular horned cairn (Fig. 4), of which there are two fine examples
+near Yarhouse. The largest is 240 feet in length. The chamber is
+circular, and roofed partly by corbelling and partly by a large slab. In
+the cairn of Get we have a shorter and wider example of the horned type.
+Another type is circular or elliptical. In a cairn of this sort at
+Canister an iron knife was found. On the Holm of Papa-Westra in the
+Orkneys there is an elliptical cairn of this kind containing a long
+rectangular chamber running along its major axis with seven small
+circular niches opening off it. The entrance passage lies on the minor
+axis of the barrow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Horned tumulus at Garrywhin, Caithness.
+               (After Montelius.)]
+
+The megalithic monuments of Ireland are extremely numerous, and are
+found in almost every part of the country. They offer a particular
+interest from the fact that though they are of few different types they
+display all the stages by which the more complex were developed from the
+more simple. It must be remembered that most if not all the monuments we
+shall describe were originally covered by mounds of earth, though in
+most cases these have disappeared.
+
+The simple dolmen is found in almost all parts of the country. Its
+single cover-slab is supported by a varying number of uprights,
+sometimes as few as three, oftener four or more. It is of great
+importance to notice the fact that here in Ireland, as elsewhere in the
+megalithic area, e.g. Sardinia, we have the round and rectangular
+dolmens in juxtaposition (Fig. 5, _a_ and _c_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. Type-plans of _(a)_ the round dolmen;
+               _(b)_ the dolmen with portico;
+               _(c)_ the rectangular dolmen.]
+
+Occasionally one of the end-blocks of the dolmen instead of just
+closing up the space between the two nearest side-blocks is pushed back
+between them so as to form with them a small three-sided portico outside
+the chamber, but still under the shelter of the cover-slab (Fig. 5,
+_b_). A good example of this exists at Gaulstown, Waterford, where a
+table-stone weighing 6 tons rests on six uprights, three of which form
+the little portico just described. The famous dolmen of Carrickglass,
+Sligo, is a still more developed example of this type. Here the chamber
+is an accurate rectangle, and the portico is formed by adding two
+side-slabs outside one of the end-slabs, but still under the cover. This
+last is a remarkable block of limestone weighing about 70 tons. This
+form of tomb is without doubt a link between the simple dolmen and the
+corridor-tomb. The portico was at first built under the slab by pushing
+an end-stone inwards. Then external side-stones formed the portico,
+though still under the slab. The next move was to construct the portico
+outside the slab. The portico then needed a roof, and the addition of a
+second cover to provide it completed the transition to the simpler
+corridor-tomb. In many cases the Irish simple dolmens were surrounded by
+a circle of upright stones. At Carrowmore, Sligo, there seems to have
+been a veritable cemetery of dolmen-tombs, each of which has one or more
+circles around it, the outermost being 120 feet in diameter. The tombs
+in these Carrowmore circles were not always simple dolmens, but often
+corridor-tombs of more or less complicated types. Their excavation has
+not given very definite results. In many cases human bones have been
+found in considerable quantities, sometimes in a calcined condition; but
+there is no real evidence to show that cremation was the burial rite
+practised. The calcination of human bones may well have been caused by
+the lighting of fires in the tomb, either at some funeral ceremony, or
+in even later days, when the place was used as a shelter for peasants. A
+few poor flints were found and a little pottery, together with many
+bones of animals and some pins and borers of bone. The most important
+find made, however, was a small conical button made of bone with two
+holes pierced in its flat side and meeting in the middle. It is a type
+which occurs in Europe only at the period of transition from the age of
+stone to that of bronze, and usually in connection with megalithic
+monuments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. Type-plan of the simple rectangular corridor-tomb
+               or _allée couverte_.]
+
+We pass on now to consider the simplest form of corridor-tomb, that in
+which there are several cover-slabs, but no separate chamber (Fig. 6).
+These tombs occur in most parts of Ireland. At Carrick-a-Dhirra, County
+Waterford, there is a perfect example of the most simple type. The tomb
+is exactly rectangular and lies east and west, with a length of 19 feet
+and a breadth of 7-1/2. At each end is a single upright, and each long
+side consists of seven. The chamber thus formed is roofed by five slabs.
+The whole was surrounded by a circle of about twenty-six stones, and no
+doubt the chamber was originally covered by a mound. In a somewhat
+similar example at Coolback, Fermanagh, the remains of the elliptical
+cairn are still visible.
+
+But in most cases the plan of the corridor-tomb is complicated by a kind
+of outer lining of blocks which was added to it. Most of the monuments
+are so damaged that it is difficult to see what the exact form of this
+lining was. Whether it merely consisted of a line of upright blocks
+close around the sides of the chamber or whether these supported some
+further structure which covered up the whole chamber it is difficult to
+say. In some cases the roof-slab actually covers the outer line of
+blocks, and here it seems certain that this outer line served simply to
+reinforce the chamber walls, the space between being filled with earth
+or rubble. However, at Labbamologa, County Cork, is a tomb called Leaba
+Callighe, in which this was certainly not the case. The length of the
+whole monument is about 42 feet. The slabs cover the inner walls of the
+chamber, but not the outer lining: this last forms a kind of outer shell
+to the whole monument. It is shaped roughly like a ship, and runs to a
+point at the east end, thus representing the bow. The west end is
+damaged, but may have been pointed like the east. The whole reminds one
+very forcibly of the _naus_ of the Balearic Isles and the Giants' Graves
+of Sardinia. Occasionally the corridor-tomb has a kind of portico at its
+west end.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb. The roof slabs
+               are two or more in number.]
+
+In Munster the corridor-tomb takes a peculiar form (Fig. 7). It lies
+roughly east and west, and its two long sides are placed at a slight
+angle to one another in such a way that the west end is broader than the
+east. In a good example of this at Keamcorravooly, County Cork, there
+are two large capstones and the walls consist of double rows of slabs,
+the outer being still beneath the cover-slabs. On the upper surface of
+the covers are several small cup-shaped hollows, some of which at least
+have been produced artificially.
+
+These wedge-shaped structures are of remarkable interest, for exactly
+the same broadening of the west end is found in Scandinavia, in the
+_Hünenbetter_ of Holland, in the corridor-tombs of Portugal, and in the
+dolmens of the Deccan in India.
+
+In some Irish tombs the corridor leads to a well-defined chamber. In a
+curious tomb at Carrickard, Sligo, the chamber was rectangular and lay
+across the end of the corridor in such a way as to form a T. The whole
+seems to have been covered with an oval mound. In another at Highwood in
+the same county a long corridor joins two small circular chambers, the
+total length being 44 feet. The corridor was once divided into four
+sections by cross-slabs. The cairn which covered this tomb was
+triangular in form.
+
+In the county of Meath, in the parish of Lough Crew, is a remarkable
+series of stone cairns extending for three miles along the
+Slieve-na-Callighe Hills. These cairns conceal chamber-tombs. The cairns
+themselves are roughly circular, and the largest have a circle of
+upright blocks round the base. The chambers are built of upright slabs
+and are roofed by corbelling. Cairn H covered a corridor leading to a
+chamber and opening off on each side into a side-chamber, the whole
+group thus being cruciform. In these chambers were found human remains
+and objects of flint, bone, earthenware, amber, glass, bronze, and iron.
+Cairn L had a central corridor from which opened off seven chambers in a
+very irregular fashion. Cairn T consisted of a corridor leading to a
+fine octagonal chamber with small chambers off it on three sides.
+
+The chief interest of these tombs lies in the remarkable designs
+engraved on some of the stones of the passages and chambers. They are
+fairly deeply cut with a rather sharp implement, probably a metal
+chisel. They are arranged in the most arbitrary way on the stones and
+are often crowded together in masses. There is no attempt to depict
+scenes of any kind, nor is there, indeed, any example of animal life. In
+fact, the designs seem to be purely ornamental. The most frequent
+elements of design are cup-shaped hollows, concentric circles or ovals,
+star-shaped figures, circles with emanating rays, spirals, chevrons,
+reticulated figures, parallel straight or curved lines. There seems to
+be no clue as to the meaning of these designs. They may have been merely
+ornamental, though this is hardly likely.
+
+At New Grange, near Drogheda, there is a similar series of tumuli, one
+of which has become famous (Fig. 8). It consists of a huge mound of
+stones 280 feet in diameter surrounded by a circle of upright blocks.
+Access to the corridor is gained from the south-east side. This corridor
+leads to a chamber with three divisions, so that corridor and chambers
+together form a cross with a long shaft. The walls are formed of rough
+slabs set upright. In the passage the roof is of slabs laid right
+across, but the roof of the chamber is formed by corbelling. On the
+floor of each division of the chamber was found a stone basin.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland (Coffey,
+               _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, 1892.)]
+
+Around the edge of the mound runs an enclosure wall of stones lying on
+the ground edge to edge. A few of these are sculptured. The finest is a
+great stone which lies in front of the entrance and shows a
+well-arranged design of spirals and lozenges. There are also engravings
+on one of the stones of the chambers. These designs are in general more
+skilful than those of Lough Crew. They consist mainly of chevrons,
+lozenges, spirals, and triangles.
+
+
+The monuments we have so far described are all tombs. Ireland also
+possesses several stone circles. The largest are situated round Lough
+Gur, 10 or 12 miles south of Limerick. There was at one time a fine
+circle west of Lough Gur at Rockbarton, but it is now destroyed. On the
+eastern edge of the lough is a double concentric ring of stones, the
+diameter of the inner circle being about 100 feet. The rings are 6 feet
+apart, and the space between them is filled up with earth. In 1869 an
+excavation was made within the circle and revealed some human remains,
+mostly those of children from six to eight years old.
+
+Further north is a remarkable group of monuments known as the
+Carrigalla circles. The first is a plain circle (L) 33 or 34 feet in
+diameter, composed of twenty-eight stones. The space within them is
+filled up with earth to form a raised platform. At a distance of 75 feet
+are two concentric circles, diameters 155 and 184 feet respectively,
+made of stones 5 or 6 feet high. The space between the two circles is
+filled with earth. Within these is a third concentric circle about 48
+feet in diameter made of stones of the same size. This group of three
+concentric circles we will call M. The line joining the centres of L and
+M runs in a direction of 29° or 30° west of north and passes through a
+stone (N) 8 feet high standing on the top of a ridge 2500 feet away.
+There are two other stones more to the west (O and P) in such a position
+that the line joining them (41° west of north) passes through the centre
+of M, from which they are distant 860 and 1450 feet respectively.
+Further, a line through the centre of L and a great standing stone (Q)
+2480 feet from it in a direction 10° east of south passes through the
+highest point in the district, 1615 feet away and 492 feet in height.
+
+Mr. Lewis compares this group of monuments with that of Stanton Drew in
+Somersetshire. In both a line joining the centre of two circles passes
+through a single stone in a northerly direction, and there is in both a
+fixed line from the centre of the larger circle. Captain Boyle
+Somerville, R.N., finds that the line 29° or 30° west of north would
+mark the setting of Capella in B.C. 1600, or Arcturus 500 B.C.; he adds
+that the direction 41° west of north would suit Capella in 2500 B.C. or
+Castor in 2000 B.C.
+
+On the west side of Lough Gur is another group of monuments. There is in
+the first place a circle 55 feet in diameter. On a line 35° east of
+north from this is a stone 10 feet high, and the same line produced
+strikes a prominent hill-top. Somewhere to the south-west of this
+circle, perhaps with its centre in the line just described, lay a second
+circle between 150 and 170 feet in diameter, destroyed in 1870. Three
+other stones mentioned by early writers as being near the circles have
+now disappeared. The direction 35° east of north is the same as that of
+the King-stone with regard to the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire. This
+line, allowing a height of 3° for the horizon, would, according to Sir
+Norman Lockyer, have struck the rising points of Capella in 1700 B.C.
+and Arcturus in 500 B.C.
+
+To the south of the destroyed circle is another about 150 to 155 feet in
+diameter, with stones of over 5 feet in height set close together. Earth
+is piled up outside them to form a bank 30 feet wide. There is an
+entrance 3 feet wide in a direction 59° east of north from the centre of
+the circle. There is said to have been at one time a cromlech 100 feet
+wide due south of the circle and connected with it by a paved way. Sir
+Norman Lockyer thinks that the position of the doorway is connected with
+observation of the sun's rising in May. Moreover, the tallest stone of
+the circle, 9 feet high, is 30° east of north from the centre, a
+direction which according to him points to the rising of Capella in 1950
+B.C. and Arcturus in 280 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+                    THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA
+
+
+In Scandinavia megalithic monuments abound. They have been studied with
+unusual care from quite an early date in the history of archæology, and
+classified in the order of their development. The earliest type appears
+to be the simple dolmen with either four or five sides and a very rough
+cover-slab. This and the upper part of the sides remained uncovered by
+the mound of earth which was always heaped round the tomb. In later
+times the dolmen became more regularly rectangular in shape, and only
+its roof-block appeared above the mound. Contemporary with this later
+form of dolmen were several other types of tomb. One was simply the
+earlier dolmen with one side open and in front of it a sort of portico
+or elementary corridor formed by two upright slabs with no roofing (cf.
+the Irish type, Fig. 5, _b_). This quickly developed into the true
+corridor-tomb, which had at first a small round chamber with one or two
+cover-slabs, a short corridor, and a round or rectangular mound. Later
+types have an oval chamber (Fig. 9) with from one to four cover-slabs or
+a rectangular chamber with a long corridor and a circular mound.
+Finally we reach a type where thin slabs are used in the construction,
+and the mound completely covers the cap-stones: here the corridor leads
+out from one of the short ends of the rectangular chamber.
+
+The earliest of these types in point of view of development, the true
+dolmen, is common both in Denmark and in South Sweden; only one example
+exists in Norway. In Sweden it is never found far from the sea-coast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Corridor-tomb, Ottagården, Sweden.
+               (Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)]
+
+The corridor-tomb is also frequent in Denmark and Sweden, though it is
+unknown in Norway. In Sweden it is, like all megalithic monuments,
+confined to the south of the country. Of the early transition type with
+elementary corridor there are fine examples at Herrestrup in Denmark and
+Torebo in Sweden. A tomb at Sjöbol in Sweden where the corridor,
+consisting of only two uprights, is covered in with two roof-slabs
+instead of being left open, shows very clearly the transition to the
+corridor-tomb proper, in which the entrance passage consists of at least
+four uprights, two on each side. Of this there are numerous fine
+examples. A tomb of this type at Broholm in Denmark has a roughly
+circular chamber separated from the corridor by a kind of
+threshold-stone. Another at Tyfta in Sweden is remarkable for its
+curious construction, the uprights being set rather apart from one
+another and the spaces between filled up with dry masonry of small
+stones. Possibly there were not sufficient large blocks at hand to
+construct a tomb of the required size.
+
+The still later type consisting of a rectangular chamber with a long
+corridor leading out of one of its long sides often attains to very
+imposing dimensions. In Westgothland, a province of Sweden, there are
+fine examples with walls of limestone and often roofs of granite visible
+above the surface of the mound. The largest of these tombs is that of
+Karleby near Falköping. In another at Axevalla Heath were found nineteen
+bodies seated round the wall of the chamber, each in a separate small
+cist of stone slabs. The position of the bodies in the Scandinavian
+graves is rather variable, both the outstretched and the contracted
+posture being used. It is usual to find many bodies in the same tomb,
+often as many as twenty or thirty: in that of Borreby on the island of
+Seeland were found seventy skeletons, all of children of from two to
+eighteen years of age.
+
+In Denmark these rectangular tombs occasionally have one or more small
+round niches. In 1837 a large tomb was excavated at Lundhöj on Jütland,
+which had a circular niche opposite to the entrance. The niche had a
+threshold-stone, and the two uprights of the main chamber which lay on
+either side of this had been crudely engraved with designs, among which
+were a man, an animal, and a circle with a pair of diameters marked.
+Little was found in the chamber, and only some bones and a pot in the
+niche.
+
+In Denmark often occur mounds which contain two or more tombs, usually
+of the same form, each with its separate entrance passage. At the
+entrance of the chamber there is sometimes a well-worked framework into
+which fitted a door of stone or wood.
+
+The late type in which the corridor leads out of one of the narrow ends
+of the chamber is represented in both Sweden and Denmark. From this may
+be derived the rather unusual types in which the corridor has become
+indistinguishable from the chamber or forms a sort of antechamber to it.
+An example of the former type at Knyttkärr in Sweden is wider at one end
+than at the other, and has an outer coating of stone slabs. It resembles
+very closely the wedge-shaped tombs of Munster (cf. Fig. 7):
+
+In Germany megalithic monuments are not infrequent, but they are
+practically confined to the northern part of the country. They extend as
+far east as Königsberg and as far west as the borders of Holland. They
+are very frequent in Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover. There are even
+examples in Prussian Saxony, but in South Germany they cease entirely.
+Keller in one edition of his _Lake Dwellings_ figures two supposed
+dolmens north of Lake Pfäffikon in Switzerland, but we have no details
+with regard to them.
+
+The true dolmen is extremely rare in Germany, and only occurs in small
+groups in particular localities. The corridor-tomb with a distinct
+chamber is also very exceptional, especially east of the Elbe. The most
+usual type of megalithic tomb is that known as the _Hünenbett_ or
+_Riesenbett_. The latter name means Giants' Bed, and it seems probable
+that the former should be similarly translated, despite the suggested
+connection with the Huns, for a word _Hünen_ has been in use in North
+Germany for several centuries with the meaning of giants. A _Hünenbett_
+consists of a rectangular (rarely oval or round) hill of earth covering
+a megalithic tomb. This is a simple elongated rectangle in shape, made
+of upright blocks and roofed with two or more cover-slabs. The great
+_Hünenbett_ or Grewismühlen in Mecklenburg has a mound measuring 150
+feet by 36 with a height of 5 feet. On the edge of the mound are
+arranged forty-eight tall upright blocks of stone.
+
+The _Hünenbetter_ of the Altmark are among the best known and explored.
+Here the corridors are usually about 20 feet long, though in rare cases
+they reach a length of 40 feet. Each is filled with clean sand up to
+two-thirds of its height, and on this lie the bodies and their funeral
+deposit. The bodies must have been laid flat, though not necessarily in
+an extended position, as there was not room above the sand for them to
+have been seated upright. Various implements of flint have been found in
+the tombs together with stone hammers and vases of pottery. There is no
+certain instance of the finding of metal.
+
+
+A book printed by John Picardt at Amsterdam in 1660 contains quaint
+pictures of giants and dwarfs engaged in the building of a megalithic
+monument which is clearly a _Hünenbett_. According to tradition the
+giants, after employing the labour of the dwarfs, proceeded to devour
+them. _Hünenbetter_ similar to those shown in Picardt's illustrations
+are still to be seen in Holland, but only in the north, where over fifty
+are known. They are of elongated rectangular form, built of upright
+blocks, and roofed with from two to ten cover-slabs. They all widen
+slightly towards the west end. The most perfect example still remaining
+is that of Tinaarloo, and the largest is that of Borger, which contains
+forty-five blocks, of which ten are cap-stones. Several _Hünenbetter_
+have been excavated. In them are found pottery vases, flint celts, axes
+and hammers of grey granite, basalt, and jade.
+
+Belgium possesses several true dolmens, of which the best known is that
+called La Pierre du Diable on the right bank of the Meuse. Near Lüttich
+are two simple corridor-tombs, each with a round hole in one of the
+end-slabs and a small portico outside it.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                      FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL
+
+
+France contains large numbers of megalithic monuments. Of dolmens and
+corridor-tombs no less than 4458 have been recorded. In the east and
+south-east they are rare, but they abound over a wide strip running from
+the Breton coasts of the English Channel to the Mediterranean shores of
+Hérault and Card. In 1901 Mortillef counted 6192 menhirs, including
+those which formed parts of _alignements_ and cromlechs. Several of
+these attain to a great size. That to Locmariaquer (Morbihan), now
+unfortunately fallen and broken, measured over 60 feet in height, being
+thus not much shorter than the Egyptian obelisk which stands in the
+Place de la Concorde in Paris.
+
+Passing now to combinations of menhirs in groups, we must first mention
+the remarkable _alignements_ of Brittany, of which the most famous are
+those of Carnac. They run east and west over a distance of 3300 yards,
+but the line is broken at two points in such a way that the whole forms
+three groups. The most westerly, that of Ménec, consists of eleven lines
+of menhirs and a cromlech, the total number of stones standing being
+1169, the tallest of which is 13 feet in height. The central group, that
+of Kermario, consists of 982 stones arranged in ten straight lines,
+while the most easterly, that of Kerlescan, is formed by 579 menhirs, 39
+of which form a rectangular enclosure.
+
+There are other _alignements_ in Brittany, of which the most important
+is that of Erdeven, comprising 1129 stones arranged in ten lines.
+Outside Brittany _alignements_ are unusual, but a fine example, now
+ruined, is said to have existed at Saint Pantaléon north of Autun. In
+the fields around it are found large quantities of polished stone axes
+with knives, scrapers, and arrow-heads of flint.
+
+We have already noticed the cromlechs which form part of the
+_alignements_ of Brittany. There are other examples in France. At
+Er-Lanic are two circles touching one another, the lower of which is
+covered by the sea even at low tide. Excavations carried out within the
+circles brought to light rough pottery and axes of polished stone. Two
+fine circles at Can de Ceyrac (Gard) have diameters of about 100 yards,
+and are formed of stones about 3 feet high. Each has a short entrance
+avenue which narrows as it approaches the circle, and in the centre of
+each rises a trilithon of rough stones.
+
+Of the definitely sepulchral monuments the dolmen is common in all
+parts of the French megalithic area. It will suffice to mention the
+magnificent example known as the Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer.
+Perhaps the most typical structure in France is the corridor-tomb in
+which the chamber is indistinguishable from the passage, and the whole
+forms a long rectangular area. This is the _allée couverte_ in the
+narrower sense. In the department of Oise occurs a special type of this
+in which one of the end-slabs has a hole pierced in its centre and is
+preceded by a small portico consisting of two uprights supporting a
+roof-slab (Fig 10). A remarkable example in Brittany known as Les
+Pierres Plates turns at a sharp angle in the middle, and is thus
+elbow-shaped.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. _Allée couverte_, called La Pierre aux Fées,
+               Oise, France. (_Compte rendu du Congrès Préhistorique
+               de France_.)]
+
+In the north of France the _allée_ is often merely cut out in the
+surface of the ground and has no roof at all. It is sometimes paved
+with slabs and divided into two partitions by an upright with a hole in
+its centre. Tombs of this kind often contain from forty to eighty
+skeletons, some of which are in the contracted position. The skulls are
+in some cases trepanned, i.e. small round pieces of the bone have been
+cut out of them; such pieces are sometimes found separate in the graves.
+No objects of metal occur in these North French tombs.
+
+There are many fine examples in Brittany of the corridor-tomb with
+distinct chamber. The best known lies on the island of Gavr'inis
+(Morbihan). It is covered by a tumulus nearly 200 feet in diameter. The
+circular chamber, 6 feet in height, is roofed by a huge block measuring
+13 feet by 10. The corridor which leads out to the edge of the mound is
+40 feet in length. Twenty-two of the upright blocks used in this tomb
+are almost entirely covered with engraved designs. These are massed
+together with very little order, the main object having been apparently
+to cover the whole surface of the stone with ornament. The designs
+consist of spirals, concentric circles and semicircles, chevrons, rows
+of strokes, and triangles, and bear a considerable resemblance to those
+of Lough Crew and New Grange in Ireland.
+
+Another tomb in the same district, that of Mané-er-Hroeck, was intact
+when discovered in 1863. It contained within its chamber a hoard of 101
+axes of fibrolite and jadeite, 50 pebbles of a kind of turquoise known
+as _callaïs_, pieces of pottery, flints, and a peculiarly fine celt of
+jadeite together with a flat ring-shaped club-head of the same stone.
+The tomb was concealed by a huge oval mound more than 100 yards in
+length. The famous Mont S. Michel is an artificial mound containing a
+central megalithic chamber and several smaller cists, some of which held
+cremated bodies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion,
+               Normandy. (After Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)]
+
+A very remarkable mound in Calvados (Fig. 11) was found to contain no
+less than twelve circular corbelled chambers, each with a separate
+entrance passage. The megalithic tombs of Brittany all belong to the
+late neolithic period, and contain tools and arrow-heads of flint, small
+ornaments of gold, _callaïs_, and pottery which includes among its forms
+the bell-shaped cup.
+
+In Central and South France the _allées couvertes_ are mostly of a
+semi-subterranean type, i.e. they are cut in the ground and merely
+roofed with slabs of stone. The most famous is that of the Grotte des
+Fées near Arles (Fig. 12), in which a passage (_a_) with a staircase at
+one end and two niches (_b b_) in its sides leads into a narrow
+rectangular chamber (_c_). The total length is nearly 80 feet. Another
+tomb of the same type, La Grotte du Castellet, contained over a hundred
+skeletons, together with thirty-three flint arrow or spear-heads, one of
+which was stuck fast in a human vertebra, a bell-shaped cup, axes of
+polished stone, beads and pendants of various materials, 114 pieces of
+_callaïs_, and a small plaque of gold.
+
+On the plateau of Ger near the town of Dax are large numbers of mounds,
+some of which contain cremated bodies in urns and others megalithic
+tombs. Bertrand saw in this a cemetery of two different peoples living
+side by side. But it has since been shown that the cremation mounds
+belong to a much later period than those which contain megalithic
+graves. In these last the skeletons were found seated around the walls
+of the chamber accompanied by objects of flint and other stone, beads of
+_callaïs_, and small gold ornaments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Plan and section of La Grotte des Fées, Arles,
+               France (_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1873).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, from the tombs of
+               the Petit Morin. (After de Baye.)]
+
+France has also its rock-hewn tombs, for in the valley of the
+Petit-Morin is a series of such graves. A trench leads down to the
+entrance, which is closed by a slab. The chamber itself is completely
+underground. In the shallower tombs were either two rows of bodies with
+a passage between or separate layers parted by slabs or strata of sand.
+In the deeper were seldom more than eight bodies, in the extended or
+contracted position, with tools and weapons of flint, pots, and beads
+of amber and of _callaïs_. On the walls were rough sculptures of human
+figures (Fig. 13), to which we shall have to return later.
+
+The Channel Islands possess megalithic monuments not unlike those of
+Brittany. They are corridor-tombs covered with a mound and often
+surrounded by a circle of stones. Within the chamber, which is usually
+round, lies, under a layer of shells, a mass of mingled human and animal
+bones. The bodies had been buried in the sitting position, and with them
+lay objects of stone and bone, but none of metal.
+
+
+The Spanish Peninsula abounds in megalithic monuments. With the
+exception of a few menhirs, whose purpose is uncertain, all are
+sepulchral. Dolmens and corridor-tombs are numerous in many parts,
+especially in the north-east provinces, in Galicia, in Andalusia, and,
+above all, in Portugal. There is a fine dolmen in the Vall Gorguina in
+North-East Spain. The cover-slab, measuring 10 feet by 8, is supported
+by seven rough uprights with considerable spaces between them. In the
+same region is a ruined dolmen surrounded by a circle nearly 90 feet in
+circumference, consisting of seven large stones, some of which appear to
+be partly worked. Circles are also found round dolmens in Andalusia.
+Portugal abounds in fine dolmens both of the round and rectangular
+types. At Fonte Coberta on the Douro stands a magnificent dolmen known
+locally as the Moors' House. In the name of the field, Fonte Coberta,
+there is doubtless an allusion to the belief that the dolmens conceal
+springs of water, a belief also held in parts of Ireland.
+
+At Eguilaz in the Basque provinces is a fine corridor-tomb, in which a
+passage 20 feet long, roofed with flat slabs, leads to a rectangular
+chamber 13 feet by 15 with an immense cover-slab nearly 20 feet in
+length: the whole was covered with a mound of earth. The chamber
+contained human bones and "lanceheads of stone and bronze." A famous
+tomb of a similar type exists at Marcella in Algarve. The chamber is a
+fine circle of upright slabs. It is paved with stones, and part of its
+area is divided into two or perhaps three rectangular compartments. A
+couple of orthostatic slabs form a sort of neck joining the circle to
+the passage, which narrows as it leads away from the circle, and was
+probably divided into two sections by a doorway whose side-posts still
+remain.
+
+In South-East Spain the brothers Siret have found corridor-tombs in
+which the chamber is cut in the rock surface and roofed with slabs; the
+entrance passage becomes a slope or a staircase. Here we have a parallel
+to the Giants' Graves of Sardinia, which are built usually of stone
+blocks on the surface, but occasionally are cut in the solid rock.
+Other tombs in the same district show the common megalithic construction
+consisting of a base course of upright slabs surmounted by several
+courses of horizontal masonry (Fig. 14). The chamber is usually round,
+and may have two or more niches in its circumference. It is roofed by
+the successive overlapping or corbelling of the upper courses. The vault
+thus formed is further supported by a pillar of wood or stone set in
+the centre of the chamber. On the walls of some of the chambers there
+are traces of rough painting in red. The whole tomb is covered with a
+circular mound. In the best known example at Los Millares there are
+remains of a semicircular façade in front of the entrance, as in many
+other megalithic monuments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. Corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain.
+               (After Siret.)]
+
+The finest, however, of all the Spanish monuments is the corridor-tomb
+of Antequera in Andalusia. It consists of a short passage leading into a
+long rectangular chamber roofed with four slabs. Within it on its axial
+line are three stone pillars placed directly under the three
+meeting-points of the four slabs, but quite unnecessary for their
+support. The whole tomb is covered with a low mound of earth. In the
+great upright slab which forms the inner end of the chamber is a
+circular hole rather above the centre.
+
+It is not the plan of this tomb, but the size, that compels the
+admiration of the beholder. He stands, as it were, within a vast cave
+lighted only from its narrow end, the roof far above his head. The rough
+surface of the blocks lends colour to the feeling that this is the work
+of Nature and not of man. Here, even if not in Stonehenge, he will pause
+to marvel at the patient energy of the men of old who put together such
+colossal masses of stone.
+
+Among the corridor-tombs of Spain must be mentioned a wedge-shaped type
+which bears a close resemblance to those of Munster in Ireland (cf.
+Fig. 7). In Alemtejo, south of Cape de Sines, are several of these,
+usually about 6 feet in length, with a slight portico at one end.
+
+A further point of similarity with the Irish monuments is seen in the
+corridor-tombs of Monte Abrahaõ in Portugal, where the chamber walls
+seem to have been reinforced by an outer lining of slabs. Remains of
+eighty human bodies were found in this tomb, together with objects of
+stone and bone, including a small conical button similar to that of
+Carrowmore in Ireland.
+
+The Spanish Peninsula also possesses rock-hewn tombs. At Palmella, near
+Lisbon, is a circular example about 12 feet in diameter preceded by a
+bell-shaped passage which slopes slightly downwards. Another circular
+chamber in the same group has a much longer passage, which bulges out
+into two small rounded antechambers. These tombs have been excavated and
+yielded some pottery vases, together with objects of copper and beads of
+a peculiar precious stone called _callaïs_. All the finds made in the
+megalithic remains of Spain and Portugal point to the period of
+transition from the age of stone to that of metal.
+
+The Balearic Islands contain remarkable megalithic monuments. Those
+known as the _talayots_ are towers having a circular or rarely a square
+base and sloping slightly inwards as they rise. The largest is 50 feet
+in diameter. The stones, which are rather large and occasionally
+trimmed, are laid flat, not on edge. A doorway just large enough to be
+entered with comfort leads through the thickness of the wall into a
+round chamber roofed by corbelling, with the assistance sometimes of one
+or more pillars. From analogy with the _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, which they
+resemble rather closely, it seems probable that the _talayots_ are
+fortified dwellings, perhaps only used in time of danger (Fig. 15).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Section and plan of the Talayot of Sa Aquila,
+               Majorca. (After Cartailhac.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Nau d'Es Tudons, plan and section.
+               (After Cartailhac.)]
+
+The _naus_ or _navetas_ are so named from their resemblance to ships.
+The construction is similar to that of the _talayots_. The outer wall
+has a considerable batter. The famous Nau d'Es Tudons is about 36 feet
+in length. The façade is slightly concave. A low door (_a_) gives access
+through a narrow slab-roofed passage (_b_) to a long rectangular chamber
+(_c_), the method of whose roofing is uncertain. All the _naus_ are
+built with their façades to the south or south-east, with the exception
+of that of Benigaus Nou, the inner end of which is cut in the rock,
+while the outer part is built up of blocks as usual. The abnormal
+orientation was here clearly determined by the desire to make use of the
+face of rock in the construction. The _naus_ seem to have been tombs, as
+human remains have been found in them.
+
+Rock-tombs also occur in the islands. The most remarkable are those of
+S. Vincent in Majorca. One of these has a kind of open antechamber cut
+in the rock, and is exactly similar in plan to the Grotte des Fées in
+France (cf. Fig. 12).
+
+Prehistoric villages surrounded by great stone walls can still be traced
+in the Balearic Isles. The houses were of two types, built either above
+ground or below. The first are square or rectangular with rounded
+corners, the base course occasionally consisting of orthostatic slabs.
+The subterranean dwellings are faced with stone and roofed with flat
+slabs supported by columns. In each village was one building of a
+different type. It stood above ground and was semicircular in plan. In
+its centre stood a horizontal slab laid across the top of an upright,
+forming a T-shaped structure which helped to support the roof-slabs, but
+which may also have had some religious significance. The stones which
+composed it were always carefully worked, and the lower was let into a
+socket on the under side of the upper.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+                         ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS
+
+
+Italy cannot be called a country of megalithic monuments. In the centre
+and north they do not occur, the supposed examples mentioned by Dennis
+in his _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ having been proved
+non-existent by the Italian Ministry of Education. It is only in the
+extreme south-west that megalithic structures appear. They are dolmens
+of ordinary type, except that in some cases the walls are formed not of
+upright slabs, but of stones roughly superposed one upon another. On the
+farm of the Grassi, near Lecce, are what appear to be two small dolmens
+at a distance of only 4 feet apart; they are perhaps parts of a single
+corridor-tomb. In the neighbourhood of Tarentum there is a dolmen-tomb
+approached by a short passage, and at Bisceglie, near Ruvo, there is an
+even finer example, the discovery of which is one of the most important
+events which have occurred in Italian prehistoric archæology during the
+last few years. The tomb is a simple rectangular corridor 36 feet in
+length, lying east and west. Only one cover-slab, that at the west end,
+remains, and the exact disposition of the rest of the tomb is
+uncertain. In one of the side uprights which supports this slab is a
+circular hole, which, however, seems to be the work of Nature, though
+its presence may have led to the choice of the stone. The tomb was
+carefully excavated, and the remains of several skeletons were found,
+one of which lay in the contracted position on the right side. Three of
+the skulls were observed by an expert to be dolichocephalic, but their
+fragile condition prevented the taking of actual measurements. Burnt
+bones of animals, fragments of pottery, a terra-cotta bead, and a stone
+pendant were also found, together with flint knives and a fragment of
+obsidian.
+
+These discoveries show that the heel of Italy fell under the influence
+which caused the spread of the megalithic monuments, whatever that
+influence may have been. The same influence may also have been
+responsible for the bronze age rock-hewn tombs of Matera in the
+Basilicata, each of which is surrounded by a circle of fairly large
+stones.
+
+Geographical considerations would lead one to suppose that the same
+conditions existed in Sicily, and it is possible that this was the case.
+Yet it is an affirmation which must be made with great reserve.
+Megalithic monuments in the ordinary sense of the term are unknown in
+Sicily. There are, however, four tombs in the south-east of the island
+which show some affinity to megalithic work. Two of these were found by
+Orsi at Monteracello. They were rectangular chambers built of squared
+slabs of limestone set on edge. At one end of the finer of the two was a
+small opening or window cut in the upright slab. This same grave
+contained a skeleton lying on the right side with the legs slightly
+contracted. These two tombs can hardly be described as dolmens; they
+seem to have had no cover-slabs, and the blocks, which were small, were
+let into the earth, scarcely appearing above the surface. Taken by
+themselves the Monteracello tombs would hardly prove the presence of the
+megalithic civilization in Sicily. However, in the valley called Cava
+Lazzaro there is a rock-hewn tomb where the vertical face of the rock in
+which the tomb is cut has been shaped into a curved façade, a very usual
+feature of megalithic architecture. This is ornamented on each side of
+the entrance of the tomb with four pilasters cut in relief in the solid
+rock, each pair being connected by a semicircular arch also in relief.
+On the pilasters is incised a pattern of circles and V-shaped signs. A
+somewhat similar arrangement of pilasters is seen in two rock-tombs at
+Cava Lavinaro in the same district. This work forcibly recalls the work
+of the megalithic builders in the hypogeum of Halsaflieni in Malta (see
+Chap. VII), and on the façades of the Giants' Tombs in Sardinia (see
+below). It affords, at any rate, a presumption that in all three
+islands we have to deal with the same civilization if not the same
+people.
+
+Such a presumption is not weakened by the fact that in Sicily the usual
+form of tomb was the rock-hewn sepulchre, which, as will be seen later,
+is very often a concomitant of the megalithic monument, and in many
+cases is proved to be the work of the same people. In the early
+neolithic period in Sicily, called by Orsi the Sicanian Period,
+rock-hewn tombs seem not to have been used. It is only at the beginning
+of the metal age that they begin to appear. In this period, the
+so-called First Siculan, the tomb-chamber was almost always circular or
+elliptical, entered by a small door or window in the face of the rock.
+The dead were often seated round the wall of the chamber, evidently
+engaged in a funerary feast, as is clear from the great vase set in
+their midst with small cups for ladling out the liquid. A single tomb
+often contained many bodies, especially in cases where the banquet
+arrangement was not observed; one chamber held more than a hundred
+skeletons, and it has been suggested that the bodies were only laid in
+the tomb after the flesh had been removed from the bones, either
+artificially or as the result of a temporary burial elsewhere. Such a
+custom is not unknown in other parts of the megalithic area. With these
+bodies were found large quantities of painted pottery, a few implements
+of copper and many of flint. Among the ornaments which the dead
+carried--for they seem to have been buried in complete costume--were
+several axe-shaped pendants of polished stone, precisely similar to
+those of Sardinia, Malta, and France. The most important cemeteries of
+this period are those of Castelluccio, Melilli, and Monteracello. Near
+this last site was also found a round hut based on a course of
+orthostatic slabs of typically megalithic appearance.
+
+In the full bronze age, called the Second Siculan Period, burial in
+rock-tombs still remained the rule. The tomb-form had developed
+considerably. The circular type was still usual, though beside it a
+rectangular form was fast coming into favour. The main chamber often had
+side-niches, and was usually preceded by a corridor which sometimes
+passed through an antechamber. Occasionally we find an elaborate
+open-air court outside the façade of the tomb, built very much after the
+megalithic style. Large vertical surfaces of rock were carefully sought
+after for tombs, and the almost inaccessible cliffs of Pantalica and
+Cassibile are literally honeycombed with them. Where such surfaces of
+rock were unobtainable a vertical shaft was sunk in the level rock and a
+chamber was opened off the bottom of it. The tradition of the banquet of
+the dead is still kept up, but the number of the skeletons in each tomb
+steadily decreases. The sitting posture is still frequent, though
+occasionally the body lies flat on one side with the legs slightly
+contracted. Flint is now rare, but objects of bronze are plentiful. The
+local painted pottery has almost entirely given place to simpler yet
+better wares with occasional Mycenean importations.
+
+It is impossible to decide whether this Sicilian civilization ought to
+be included under the term megalithic. If, as seems probable, the idea
+of megalithic building was brought to Europe by the immigration of a new
+race it is possible that a branch of this race entered Sicily. In that
+case I should prefer to think that they came not at the beginning of the
+First Siculan Period as we know it, but rather earlier. Certain vases
+found with neolithic burials in a cave at Villafrati and elsewhere in
+Sicily resemble the pottery usually found in megalithic tombs; one of
+them is in fact a bell-shaped cup, a form typical of megalithic pottery.
+It is thus possible that an immigration of megalithic people into Sicily
+took place during the stone age, definitely later than the period of the
+earliest neolithic remains on the island, but earlier than that of such
+sites as the Castelluccio cemetery. This, however, is and will perhaps
+remain a mere conjecture, though it is quite possible that there are in
+the interior of Sicily dolmens which have not yet come to the notice of
+the archæologist; in this connection it is worth while to remember that
+up to five years ago the existence of dolmens in both Sardinia and Malta
+passed unnoticed.
+
+
+If the inclusion of Sicily in the megalithic area is doubtful there is
+fortunately no question about the island of Sardinia. Here we have one
+of the chief strongholds of the megalithic civilization, where the
+architecture displays its greatest variety and flexibility. The simplest
+manifestation of megalithic building, the dolmen, was up till lately
+thought to be absent from Sardinia, but the researches of the last few
+years have brought to light several examples, of which the best known
+are those of Birori, where the chamber is approximately circular in
+plan.
+
+The monuments, however, for which Sardinia is most famous are the
+_nuraghi._ A _nuraghe_ is a tower-like structure of truncated conical
+form, built of large stones laid in comparatively regular courses (Pl.
+II, Fig. 2). The stones are often artificially squared, and set with a
+clay mortar. The plan and arrangement of a simple _nuraghe_ are usually
+as follows (Fig. 17): The diameter of the building is generally under 30
+feet. A door of barely comfortable height even for an average man and
+surmounted by a single lintel-block gives access to a narrow passage cut
+through the thickness of the wall. In this passage are, to the right, a
+small niche (_c_) just large enough to hold a man, and, on the left,
+a winding staircase in the wall (_d_) leading to an upper storey. The
+passage itself leads into the chamber (_a_), which is circular, often
+with two or three side-niches (_b b_), and roofed by corbelling, i.e. by
+making each of the upper courses of stones in its wall project inwards
+over the last. The upper chamber, which is rarely preserved, is similar
+in form to the lower.
+
+[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 1. MNAIDRA, DOORWAY OF ROOM H]
+
+[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 2. THE NURAGHE OF MADRONE IN SARDINIA
+               To face p. 82]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Elevation, section and plan of a _nuraghe_.
+               (Pinza, _Monumenti Antichi_.)]
+
+Considerable speculation has been indulged in concerning the purpose of
+the _nuraghi_. For many years they were regarded as tombs, a view which
+was first combated by Nissardi at the International Congress in Rome in
+1903. Further exploration since that time has placed it beyond all doubt
+that the _nuraghi_ were fortified dwellings. The form of the building
+itself is almost conclusive. The lowness of the door would at once put
+an enemy at a disadvantage in attempting to enter; it is significant
+that in the _nuraghe_ of Su Cadalanu, where the doorway was over 6 feet
+in height, its breadth was so much reduced that it was necessary to
+enter sideways. Arrangements were made for the closing of the entrance
+from inside by a heavy slab of stone, often fitted into grooves. The
+niche on the right of the passage clearly served to hold a man, who
+would command the passage itself and the staircase to the upper floor;
+he would, moreover, be able to attack the undefended flank of an enemy
+entering with his shield on his left arm. To the same effort at
+impregnability we may safely ascribe the fact that the staircase leading
+to the upper room did not begin on the floor-level of the passage, but
+was reached through a hole high up in the wall. Many of the _nuraghi_
+are surrounded by elaborate fortifications consisting of walls, towers,
+and bastions, sometimes built at the same time as the dwelling itself,
+sometimes added later. Those of Aiga, Losa, and s'Aspru are among the
+most famous of this type. All the _nuraghi_ stand in commanding
+situations overlooking large tracts of country, and the more important a
+position is from the strategical point of view the stronger will be the
+_nuraghe_ which defends it. All are situated close to streams and
+springs of good water, and some, as for instance that of Abbameiga, are
+actually built over a natural spring. At Nossiu is a building which can
+only be described as a fortress. It consists of a rhomboidal enclosure
+with _nuraghe_-like towers at its corners and four narrow gateways in
+its walls. It is surrounded by the ruins of a village of stone huts.
+There cannot be the least doubt that in time of danger the inhabitants
+drove their cattle into the fortified enclosure, entered it themselves,
+and then closed the gates.
+
+Each _nuraghe_ formed the centre of a group of stone huts. Mackenzie has
+described such a village at Serucci, where the circular plan of the
+huts was still visible. The walls in one case stood high enough to
+show, from the corbelling of their upper courses, that the huts were
+roofed in the same fashion as the _nuraghi_ themselves. Another village,
+that which surrounds the _nuraghe_ of Su Chiai, was protected by a wall
+of huge stones.
+
+It is thus clear that the _nuraghi_ were the fortified centres of the
+various villages of Sardinia. Probably each formed the residence of the
+local chieftain; that they were actually inhabited is clear from the
+remains of everyday life found in them, and from the polish which
+continual use has set on the side-walls of some of the staircases. In
+general appearance and design the _nuraghi_ recall the modern _truddhi_,
+hundreds of which dot the surface of Apulia and help to beguile the
+tedium of the railway journey from Brindisi to Foggia. The _truddhi_,
+however, are built in steps or terraces and have no upper chamber.
+
+Who were the foes against whom such elaborate preparations for defence
+were made? Two alternatives are possible. Either Sardinia was a
+continual prey to some piratical Mediterranean people, or she was
+divided against herself through the rivalry of the local chieftains.
+
+The second explanation is perhaps the more probable. Mackenzie seems to
+adopt it, and fancies that in the growth of the largest _nuraghi_ we may
+trace the rise to power of some of these local dynasts at the expense of
+their neighbours. He suggests that the existence of the fortified
+enclosure of Nossiu, where there is no sign of a true _nuraghe_, may
+mean that there were certain communities which succeeded in maintaining
+their independence in the face of these powerful rulers. But here, as he
+himself is the first to admit, we are in the realm of pure conjecture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia. (Mackenzie,
+_Papers of the British School of Rome_, V.)]
+
+It is now established that in the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia we are to
+see the graves of the inhabitants of the _nuraghe_ villages. Every
+Giant's Tomb lies close to such a village, and almost every village has
+its Giants' Tombs, one or more in number according to its size. A
+Giant's Tomb consists of a long rectangular chamber of upright slabs
+roofed by corbelled masonry (Fig. 18). The slab which closes one end of
+the tomb is of great size, and consists of a lower rectangular half with
+a small hole at the base and an upper part shaped like a rounded gable.
+There is a raised border to the whole slab, and a similar band in relief
+marks out the two halves. This front slab forms the centre-piece in a
+curved façade of upright slabs. The chamber is covered with a coating of
+ashlar masonry, which is shaped into an apsidal form at the end opposite
+to the façade. Occasionally more than 50 feet in length, the Giants'
+Tombs served as graves for whole families, or even for whole villages.
+Mackenzie has shown that the form is derived from the simple dolmen, and
+has pointed out several of the intermediate stages.
+
+The inhabitants of Sardinia in the megalithic period also buried their
+dead in rock-hewn sepulchres, of which there are numerous examples at
+Anghelu Ruju. The contents of these graves make it clear that they are
+the work of the same people as the Giants' Graves. Were further proof
+needed it could be afforded by a grave at Molafà, where a Giant's Grave
+with its façade and gabled slab has been faithfully imitated in the
+solid rock. There is a similar tomb at St. George. Two natural caves in
+Cape Sant' Elia on the south of the island contain burials of this same
+period.
+
+The neighbouring island of Corsica also contains important megalithic
+remains. They consist of thirteen dolmens, forty-one menhirs, two
+_alignements_, and a cromlech. They fall geographically into two groups,
+one in the extreme north and the other in the extreme south of the
+island.
+
+The stones used are chiefly granite and gneiss. The dolmens, which are
+of carefully chosen flat blocks showing no trace of work, are all
+rectangular in plan, and usually consist of four side-walls and a
+cover-slab. The finest of all, however, the dolmen of Fontanaccia, has
+seven blocks supporting the cover, one at each short end, three in one
+of the long sides, and two in the other. None of the dolmens are covered
+by mounds.
+
+Of the _alignements_, that of Caouria seems to consist, in part at
+least, of two parallel lines of menhirs, the rest of the plan being
+uncertain. There are still thirty-two blocks, of which six have fallen.
+The other _alignement_, that of Rinaiou, consists of seven menhirs set
+in a straight line. The cromlech is circular and stands on Cape Corse.
+
+On the small island of Pianosa, near Elba, are several rock-hewn tombs
+of the æneolithic period which ought perhaps to be classed with the
+megalithic monuments of Sardinia and Corsica.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII
+
+                    AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER
+                         MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS
+
+
+North Africa is a great stronghold of the megalithic civilization,
+indeed it is thought by some that it is the area in which megalithic
+building originated. Morocco, Tunis, Algeria, and Tripoli all abound in
+dolmens and other monuments. Even in the Nile Valley they occur, for
+what looks like a dolmen surrounded by a circle was discovered by de
+Morgan in the desert near Edfu, and Wilson and Felkin describe a number
+of simple dolmens which exist near Ladò in the Sudan. Tripoli remains as
+yet comparatively unexplored. The traveller Barth speaks of stone
+circles near Mourzouk and near the town of Tripoli. The great trilithons
+(_senams_) with holes pierced in their uprights and 'altar tables' at
+their base, which Barth, followed by Cooper in his _Hill of the Graces_,
+described as megalithic monuments, have been shown to be nothing more
+than olive-presses, the 'altar tables' being the slabs over which the
+oil ran off as it descended. True dolmens do, however, occur in Tripoli,
+and Cooper figures a fine monument at Messa in the Cyrenaica, which
+appears to consist of a single straight line of tall uprights with a
+continuous entablature of blocks similar to that of the outer circle at
+Stonehenge.
+
+Algeria has been far more completely explored, and possesses a
+remarkable number of megalithic monuments. Many of the finest are
+situated near the town of Constantine. Thus at Bou Nouara there is a
+hill about a mile in length which is a regular necropolis of
+dolmen-tombs. Each grave consists of a dolmen within a circle of stones.
+The blocks are all natural and completely unworked. The circle consists
+of a wall of stone blocks so built as to neutralize the slope of the
+hill and to form a level platform for the dolmen. Thus on the lower side
+there are three courses of carefully laid stones rising to about five
+feet, while on the upper side there is only one course. The diameter of
+the circles varies from 22 to 33 feet. In the centre of the circle lies
+the dolmen with its single long cover-slab. This usually rests on two
+entire side-slabs, the ends being filled up either with entire slabs or
+with masonry of small stones. In rare cases the side-slabs are replaced
+by masonry walls. The average size of the cover-slab is 6-1/2 by 5 feet.
+The dolmen itself is, of course, built directly on to the platform, and
+the space between it and the circle is filled up with rough stones. The
+orientation of the dolmens varied considerably, but the cover-slab was
+never placed in such a way that its length ran up the hill-slope,
+probably because in moving the slab into place this would have been an
+awkward position.
+
+Another equally fine site is that of Bou Merzoug, near Oulad Rahmoun,
+about an hour's railway journey from Constantine. The place is naturally
+adapted for a settlement as there is a spring of water there. This
+spring was later utilized by the Romans to provide water for the city of
+Cirta. The dolmen-graves lie in great numbers on the hill at the foot of
+which the spring rises, and extend down into the valley. Each dolmen
+lies in the centre of a stone circle. This last is in some cases formed
+by very large slabs set on edge, but more often by two or three courses
+of rough oblong blocks. Many of the graves are badly damaged. One of the
+finest had an outer circle about 27 feet in diameter, and an inner
+circle 14 feet in diameter. Between these two a third circle, much more
+irregular and of small stones, could just be distinguished. But in most
+cases it was impossible to make out clearly more than the one outer
+circle and the dolmen within it. The dolmen itself consisted of a large
+slab resting on walls formed of several large blocks, the spaces between
+which were filled up with smaller stones. None of the stones used were
+worked. The dolmens were not oriented according to any fixed system. M.
+Féraud states that the separate graves were united together by open
+corridors formed by double or triple rows of large stones, but no traces
+of such a system could be found by the later visitors to the site,
+Messrs. MacIver and Wilkin.
+
+Fortunately we have some record of what these graves contained, for
+thirteen were opened by Mr. Christy and M. Féraud. One contained a human
+skeleton in good condition, buried in the contracted position with the
+knees to chin and arms crossed. With this were two whole vases,
+fragments of others, and pieces of cedar wood. At the feet of the
+skeleton were two human heads, and as the graves would not have
+accommodated more than one whole body M. Féraud suggests that these
+belong to decapitated victims. Another grave contained, in addition to
+human bones, those of a horse, together with three objects of copper,
+viz. a ring, an earring, and a buckle. In another were found the teeth
+and bones of a horse and an iron bit.
+
+An entirely different type of monument is found near Msila, south-west
+of Algiers. Here is a long low hill called the Senâm, covered with large
+numbers of stone circles. These consist of large slabs of natural
+limestone set up on edge and not very closely fitted. The height of the
+slabs varies from 2 to 3 feet, and the diameters of the three still
+perfect circles are 23-1/2, 26-3/4, and 34-1/3 feet respectively. At a
+point roughly south-east there is a break in the circumference, filled
+by a rectangular niche (Fig. 19) consisting of three large slabs, and
+varying in width from 2 ft. 6 in. to 6 feet. There is a possibility that
+the niches were originally roofed, but the evidence on this point is far
+from conclusive. The interior of the circle is filled with blocks of
+stone, apparently heaped up without any definite plan. There seems to be
+no clue as to the meaning of these circles, as none have as yet been
+explored. MacIver and Wilkin are probably right in classing them as
+graves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 19. Stone circle at the Senâm, Algeria.
+               (After MacIver and Wilkin).]
+
+The most famous, however, of the Algerian sites is unquestionably that
+of Roknia. Here the tombs lie on the side of a steep hill. They consist
+of dolmens often surrounded by stone circles from 25 to 33 feet in
+diameter. The cover-slabs of the dolmens usually rest on single
+uprights, and never on built walls. Several of the graves excavated
+contained more than one body, one yielding as many as seven. It is
+remarkable that three of the skulls showed wounds, the dead having been
+apparently killed in battle. Several vases have been found and a few
+pieces of bronze.
+
+We have seen that in some of the tombs of Bou Merzoug objects of iron
+were found. This makes it clear that some at least of the Algerian tombs
+belong to the iron age, i.e. that they are probably later than 1000
+B.C., but beyond this we cannot go. The medal of Faustina sometimes
+quoted as evidence for a very late date proves nothing, as it is not
+stated to have been found in a tomb. There is no evidence to show how
+far back the graves go. It may be that, as MacIver and Wilkin suggest,
+the parts of the cemeteries excavated chance to be the latest. At Bou
+Merzoug the excavators worked chiefly among the graves on the plain and
+at the bottom of the hill. The more closely crowded graves which lie on
+the hill itself may well be older than these. In fact, all that may be
+said of the Algerian graves is that some are of the iron age, while
+others may be and probably are earlier.
+
+
+In Tunis the dolmen is not uncommon, and several groups or cemeteries
+have been reported. Near Ellez occurs a type of corridor-tomb in which
+three dolmen-like chambers lie on either side of a central passage, and
+a seventh at the end opposite to the entrance. The whole is constructed
+of upright slabs of stone, and is surrounded by a circle formed in the
+same way.
+
+Morocco, too, has its dolmens, especially in the district of Kabylia,
+while near Tangier there is a stone circle.
+
+Off the north coast of Africa, and thus on the highway which leads from
+Africa to Europe, lie the Italian islands of Lampedusa and Linosa. The
+latter is volcanic in origin, and its surface presents no opportunity
+for the building of megalithic monuments. Lampedusa, on the other hand,
+consists of limestone, which lies about in great blocks on its surface.
+On the slopes of the south coast there are several remains of megalithic
+construction, but they are too damaged to show much of their original
+form. However, on the north side of the island there are megalithic huts
+in a very fair state of preservation. They are oval in form and have in
+many cases a base course of orthostatic slabs.
+
+Some miles to the north of Linosa lies the much larger volcanic island
+of Pantelleria, also a possession of Italy. Here megalithic remains both
+of dwellings and of tombs have been found. On the plateau of the Mursia
+are the remains of rectangular huts made of rough blocks of stone. These
+huts seemed to have formed a village, which was surrounded by a wall for
+purposes of defence. In the huts were found implements of obsidian and
+flat stones used for grinding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria.
+               (Orsi, _Monumenti Antichi_, IX.)]
+
+The tombs of the people who inhabited this village are, unlike the
+houses, circular or elliptical in form. They are locally known as
+_sesi._ The smaller are of truncated conical shape, the circular chamber
+being entered by a low door and having a corbelled roof. In one of the
+_sesi_ a skeleton was found buried in the contracted position. The
+finest of the tombs, known as the Sese Grande, elliptical in form (Fig.
+20), has a major diameter of more than 60 feet, and rises in ridges,
+being domed at the top. It contains not one chamber, but twelve, each of
+which has a separate entrance from the outside of the _sese._ To judge
+by the remains found in the _sesi_ they belong entirely to the neolithic
+period.
+
+
+The island of Malta as seen to-day is an almost treeless, though not
+unfertile, stretch of rock, with a harbour on the north coast which must
+always make the place a necessary possession to the first sea power of
+Europe. Much of its soil is of comparatively modern creation, and four
+thousand years ago the island may well have had a forbidding aspect.
+This is perhaps the reason why the first great inroads of neolithic man
+into the Mediterranean left it quite untouched, although it lay directly
+in the path of tribes immigrating into Europe from Africa. The earliest
+neolithic remains of Italy, Crete, and the Ægean seem to have no
+parallel in Malta, and the first inhabitants of whom we find traces in
+the island were builders of megalithic monuments. Small as Malta is it
+contains some of the grandest and most important structures of this kind
+ever erected. The two greatest of these, the so-called "Phoenician
+temples" of Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra, were constructed on opposite sides
+of one of the southern valleys, each within sight of the other and of
+the little rocky island of Filfla.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. Plan of the megalithic sanctuary of Mnaidra,
+               Malta. (After Albert Mayr's plan.)]
+
+The temple of Mnaidra is the simpler of the two in plan (Fig. 21). It
+consists of two halves, the more northerly of which was almost certainly
+built later than the other. Each half consists of two elliptical
+chambers set one behind the other. The south half is the better
+preserved. It has a concave façade of large orthostatic slabs with
+horizontal blocks set in front of them to keep them in position. In the
+centre of this opens a short paved passage formed of fine upright slabs
+of stone, one of which is 13 feet in height. The first elliptical
+chamber (_E_) into which this passage leads us has a length of 45 feet.
+Its walls (Pl. III) consist of roughly squared orthostatic slabs over 6
+feet in height, above which are several courses of horizontal blocks
+which carry the walls in places up to a height of nearly 14 feet. This
+combination of vertical and horizontal masonry is typical of all the
+Maltese temples. To the left of the entrance is a rectangular niche in
+the wall containing one of the remarkable trilithons (_a_) which form so
+striking a feature of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim. It consists of a
+horizontal slab of stone nearly 10 feet in length, supported at its ends
+by two vertical slabs about 5 feet high. To the right of the entrance is
+a window-like opening (_b_, behind the seated figure in Pl. III) in one
+of the slabs of the wall, preceded by two steps and giving access to
+an irregular triangular space (_F_). In the north-west angle of this
+triangle is fixed a trilithon table (_c_) of the usual type, 32 inches
+high; at a like height above the table is fixed another horizontal slab
+which serves as a roof to the corner. The south corner of the triangle
+is shut off by a vertical slab, in which is cut a window 29 inches by
+17. Through this is seen a shrine (?) consisting of a box (_d_) made of
+five well-cut slabs of stone, the front being open. The aperture by
+which _F_ is entered was evidently intended to be closed with a slab of
+stone from the inside of _F_, for it was rebated on that side, and there
+are holes to be used in securing the slab. When the entrance was thus
+blocked _F_ still communicated with _E_ by means of a small rectangular
+window 16 inches by 12 in one of the adjacent slabs (visible in Pl.
+III).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III TEMPLE OF MNAIDRA, MALTA. APSE OF CHIEF ROOM
+               To face p. 100]
+
+Returning to the area _E_ we find in the south-west wall an elaborate
+doorway (Pl. II, Fig. I, p. 82) leading to a rectangular room _H_. The
+doorway consists of two tall pillars with a great lintel laid across the
+top. The space between the pillars is closed by a fixed vertical slab in
+which is a window-like aperture similar to that which gives access to
+Room _F_. All the stones in this doorway are ornamented with pit-marks.
+The rectangular room _H_ has niches in its walls to the north, south,
+and west. Each niche is formed by a pair of uprights with a block laid
+across the top. The west niche is occupied by a horizontal table or
+slab (_e_) supported at its centre by a stone pillar 39 inches in
+height, of circular section narrowing in the centre (visible through the
+doorway in Pl. II, Fig. I). The southern niche contains an ordinary
+trilithon table (_f_): the northern niche is damaged, but apparently
+held a table like that of the western.
+
+The area _I_ consists of only half an ellipse, the southern half being
+replaced by the area _H_, which we have already described. It has a
+rectangular niche to the west containing a fine trilithon with a
+cover-slab nearly 10 feet long.
+
+The whole of the southern half of the Mnaidra temple is surrounded by a
+wall of huge rough blocks of stone, presenting a great contrast to the
+dressed slabs of which the inner walls are formed. They are placed
+alternately with their broad faces and their narrow edges outwards. The
+roughness of this enclosure wall gives the structure a remarkably wild
+and craggy appearance from a distance. The northern half of Mnaidra is
+clearly a later addition.
+
+There is no doubt as to the way in which the areas were roofed. In the
+apse-like ends of the elliptical rooms the horizontal courses are
+corbelled, i.e. each course projects slightly forward over the last.
+Thus the space narrows as the walls rise, until the aperture is small
+enough to be roofed by great slabs laid across. The corbelling of the
+apse is just perceptible in Pl. III. Whether the roofing of the Mnaidra
+temple was ever complete it is impossible to say: in any case the system
+we have described could only be applied to the apsidal portions of the
+areas, and their centres must either have been open to the sky or roofed
+quite simply with slabs.
+
+
+In the still more famous temple of Hagiar Kim we have a complicated
+building, in which the original plan has been much altered and enlarged.
+The main portion doubtless consisted originally of a curved façade and a
+pair of elliptical areas, the inner of which has been fitted with a
+second entrance to the north-west and completely remodelled at its
+south-west end. Four elliptical chambers, one of which is at a much
+higher level than the rest of the building, have been added. Here, too,
+as at Mnaidra, we find niches containing trilithon tables. In the first
+elliptical area, in which the apsidal ends are divided from the central
+space by means of walls of vertical slabs, a remarkable group of objects
+was found. In front of a well-cut vertical block stood what must be an
+altar, cut in one piece of stone. It is square in section except for the
+top, which is circular. On the four vertical edges are pilasters in
+relief, and in the front between these is cut in relief what looks like
+a plant growing out of a pot or box. To the left of the altar and the
+vertical slab behind were an upright stone with two hanging spirals cut
+on it in relief, and at its foot a horizontal slab. Both the altar and
+the carved stone are covered with small pit-marks.
+
+In the outside wall of the building, quite unconnected with the
+interior, is a niche partly restored on old foundations, in which stands
+a rough stone pillar 6-1/2 feet high. In front of this pillar is a
+vertical slab nearly 3 feet high, narrowing towards the base, and
+covered with pit-markings. This pillar can hardly be anything but a
+baetyl, or sacred stone.
+
+The temple called the Gigantia, on the island of Gozo, is no less
+remarkable than the two which we have already described; in one place
+its wall is preserved up to a height of over 20 feet. The plan is
+similar to that of Mnaidra, though here the two halves seem to have been
+built at one and the same time. Several of the blocks show a design of
+spirals in relief, while on others there are the usual pit-markings.
+Another bears a figure of a fish or serpent. At the foot of one of the
+trilithons was found a baetyl 51 inches in height, now in the museum at
+Valletta.
+
+That these three buildings were sanctuaries of some kind seems almost
+certain from their form and arrangement. We do not, however, know what
+was the exact nature of the worship carried on in them, though there can
+be no doubt that the stone tables supported by single pillars and the
+trilithons found in the niches played an important part in the ritual.
+Sir Arthur Evans in his famous article _Mycenæan Tree and Pillar Cult_
+has suggested that in Malta we have a cult similar to that seen in the
+Mycenæan world. This latter was an aneiconic worship developed out of
+the cult of the dead; in it the deity or hero was represented by a
+baetyl, i.e. a tree or pillar sometimes standing free, sometimes placed
+in a 'dolmen-like' cell or shrine, in which latter case the pillar often
+served to support the roof of the shrine. In Malta Sir Arthur Evans sees
+signs of a baetyl-worship very similar to this. Thus at Hagiar Kim we
+have a pillar still standing free in a niche, and another pillar, which,
+to judge from its shape, must have stood free, was found in the
+Gigantia. On the other hand, at Mnaidra we have pillars which support
+slabs in a cell or shrine, and at Cordin several small pillars were
+found which must originally have served a similar purpose.
+
+There can hardly be any doubt that Sir Arthur Evans is right in seeing
+in the Maltese temples signs of a baetylic worship. But is he right in
+his further assertion that the cult was a cult of the dead? Albert Mayr
+assumes that he is, and endeavours to show that the 'dolmen-like' cells
+in the niches are not altars, but stereotyped representations of the
+dolmen-tombs of the heroes worshipped. He thinks that the slabs which
+cover them are too large for altar-tables, and that the niches in which
+they stand are too narrow and inaccessible to have been the scene of
+sacrificial rites. Neither of these arguments has much force, nor is it
+easy to see how the cells are derived from dolmens. The fact is that the
+word 'dolmen-like,' which has become current coin in archæological
+phraseology, is a question-begging epithet. The Maltese cells are not
+like dolmens at all, they are either trilithons or tables resting on a
+pillar. They are always open to the front, and instead of the rough
+unhewn block which should cover a dolmen they are roofed with a
+well-squared slab. If the pillar which supports the slab is, like the
+free-standing pillars, a baetyl, the slab is probably a mere roof to
+cover and protect it; if not, the slab is almost certainly a table.
+
+At the same time, although we may not accept the hypothesis that the
+cell is derived from a dolmen, Sir Arthur Evans may still be right in
+supposing the worship to have originated in a cult of the dead. But he
+was almost certainly wrong, as recent excavation has shown, in supposing
+that the cells were the actual burial place of the deified heroes.
+
+A number of statuettes were found at Hagiar Kim, two of which are of
+pottery and the rest of limestone. One figure represents a woman
+standing, but in the rest she is seated on a rather low stool with her
+feet tucked under her. There is no sign of clothing, except on one
+figure which shows a long shirt and a plain bodice with very low neck.
+All these statuettes are characterized by what is known as steatopygy,
+that is, the over-development of the fat which lies on and behind the
+hips and thighs.
+
+Steatopygous figures have been found in many places, viz. France, Malta,
+Crete, the Cyclades, Greece, Thessaly, Servia, Transylvania, Poland,
+Egypt, and the Italian colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea. The French
+examples are from caves of the palæolithic period; the rest mainly
+belong to the neolithic and bronze ages. Various reasons have been given
+for the abnormal appearance of these figures. In the first place it has
+been suggested that they represent women of a steatopygous type, like
+the modern Bushwomen, and that this race was in early days widely
+diffused in the Mediterranean and in South Europe. Another hypothesis is
+that they represent not a truly steatopygous type of women, but only an
+abnormally fat type. A third suggestion is that they portray the
+generative aspect of nature in the form of a pregnant goddess.
+
+Naturally there are considerable local differences in the shapes of the
+figures from the various countries we have enumerated, and it may be
+that no single hypothesis will explain them all.
+
+There are other megalithic buildings in Malta besides the three which
+we have discussed, but none of them call for more than passing mention.
+On the heights of Cordin or Corradino, overlooking the Grand Harbour of
+Valletta, there are no less than three groups, all of which have been
+lately excavated. In all three we see signs of the typical arrangement
+of elliptical areas one behind another, and in the finest of the three
+the curved façade and the paved court which lies before it are still
+preserved.
+
+It was for a long time believed that there were no dolmens in Malta.
+Professor Tagliaferro has been able to upset this belief by discovering
+two, one near Musta and the other near Siggewi. It is hardly credible
+that these are the only two dolmens which ever existed in Malta. More
+will no doubt yet be found, especially in the wild north-west corner of
+the isle.
+
+
+The megalithic builders of Malta did not confine their achievements to
+structures above ground, they could also work with equal facility below.
+In the village of Casal Paula, which lies about a mile from the head of
+the Grand Harbour of Valletta, is a wonderful complex of subterranean
+chambers known as the Hypogeum of Halsaflieni, which may justly be
+considered as one of the wonders of the world.
+
+The chambers, which seem to follow no definite plan, are excavated in
+the soft limestone and arranged in two storeys connected by a staircase,
+part of which still remains in place. The finest rooms are in the upper
+storey. The largest is circular, and contains in its walls a series of
+false doors and windows. It is in this room that the remarkable nature
+of the work in the hypogeum is most apparent. On entering it one sees at
+once that the intention of the original excavator was to produce in
+solid rock underground a copy of a megalithic structure above ground.
+Thus the walls curve slightly inwards towards the top as do those of the
+apses of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, and the ceiling is cut to represent a
+roof of great blocks laid across from wall to wall with a space left
+open in the centre where the width would be too great for the length of
+the stones. The treatment of the doors and windows recalls at once that
+of the temples above ground. The mason was not content, when he needed a
+door, to cut a rectangular opening in the rock; he must represent in
+high relief the monolithic side-posts and lintel which were the great
+features of the megalithic 'temples' of Malta. Nor has he failed in his
+intention, for, as one moves from room to room in the hypogeum, one
+certainly has the feeling of being in a building constructed of separate
+blocks and not merely cut in the solid rock. No description can do
+justice to the grace of the curves and the flow of the line in the
+circular chamber and in the passage beyond it, and we have here the
+work of an architect who felt the æsthetic effect of every line he
+traced.
+
+Behind the circular chamber and across the passage just referred to lies
+a small room which, rightly or wrongly, has been called the 'Holy of
+Holies,' the idea being that it formed a kind of inner sanctuary to the
+chamber. It contains a rough shelf cut in the wall, and in the centre of
+this a shallow circular pit. It has been suggested that this pit was
+made to hold the base of the cult-object, whether it was a baetyl or an
+idol. This, however, is a mere conjecture. In the passage just outside
+the door of this room are two small circular pits about 6 inches in
+diameter and the same distance apart. They connect with one another
+below, and are closed with tightly fitting limestone plugs. In one of
+them was found a cow's horn. Their purpose is unknown, but similar pairs
+of pits occur elsewhere at Halsaflieni.
+
+In two of the largest chambers in the hypogeum the roof and walls are
+still decorated with designs in red paint. The patterns consist of
+graceful combinations of curved lines and spirals. Many other rooms,
+including the circular chamber, were originally painted with designs in
+red, which have now almost wholly disappeared.
+
+Many of the chambers are extremely small, too small for an adult even to
+stand upright in them, and their entrances are merely windows, perhaps
+a foot square and well above the ground.
+
+What then was the purpose of this wonderful complex of rooms? Before
+attempting to answer this question we must consider what has been found
+in them. When the museum authorities first took over the hypogeum
+practically all the chambers were filled to within a short distance of
+their roofs with a mass of reddish soil, which proved to contain the
+remains of thousands of human skeletons. In other words, Halsaflieni was
+used as a burial place, though this may not have been its original
+purpose. The bones lay for the most part in disorder, and so thickly
+that in a space of about 4 cubic yards lay the remains of no less than
+120 individuals. One skeleton, however, was found intact, lying on the
+right side in the crouched position, i.e. with arms and knees bent up.
+
+With the bones were found enormous quantities of pottery and other
+objects, buried with the dead as provision for the next world. The
+pottery is rough in comparison with the fine painted wares of Crete, but
+it is extremely varied in its decoration. One particularly fine bowl
+shows a series of animals which have been identified by Professor
+Tagliaferro as the long-horned buffalo, an animal which once existed on
+the northern coasts of Africa. Ornaments of all kinds were common, and
+include beads, pendants, and conical buttons of stone and shell. The
+most remarkable of all are a large number of model celts made of
+jadeite and other hard stones. These are of the same shape as the stone
+axes used by neolithic man, but they are far too small ever to have been
+used, and they must therefore have been models hung round the neck as
+amulets. Each is provided with a small hole for this purpose. The
+popularity of the axe-amulet makes it probable that the axe had some
+religious significance.
+
+Finally Halsaflieni has yielded several steatopygous figurines. Some of
+these resemble those of Hagiar Kim, but two are of rather different
+type. Each of these represents a female lying on a rather low couch. In
+the better preserved of the two she lies on her right side, her head on
+a small uncomfortable-looking pillow. The upper part of her body is
+naked, but from the waist downwards she is clad in a flounced skirt
+which reaches to the ankles. The other figurine is very similar, but the
+woman here is face downwards on the couch.
+
+The bodies themselves were so damaged with damp that only ten skulls
+could be saved whole. These, however, afford very valuable
+anthropological evidence. They have been carefully measured by Dr.
+Zammit, and they prove to belong to a long-headed (dolichocephalic) type
+usual among the neolithic races of the Mediterranean.
+
+We have still to discuss the purpose of this great complex of
+underground chambers and passages. It is quite clear that its eventual
+fate was to be used as a burial place for thousands of individuals, but
+it is far from certain that this was the purpose for which it was built.
+The existence of the central chamber, with its careful work and
+laborious imitation of an open-air 'temple,' is against this
+interpretation. It has therefore been suggested that the hypogeum was
+meant for a burial place, and that the central chamber was the chapel or
+sanctuary in which the funeral rites were performed, after which the
+body was buried in one of the smaller rooms. This, however, does not
+explain the presence of burials in the chapel itself, and it is far more
+likely that it was only after Halsaflieni had ceased to be used for its
+original purpose that it was seized upon as a convenient place for
+burial.
+
+The question of the date of the Maltese megalithic buildings is a
+difficult one. It is true that no metal has been found in them, and that
+we can therefore speak of them as belonging to the neolithic age. But
+the neolithic age of Malta need not be parallel in date with that of
+Crete for example. It is extremely probable that Malta lay outside the
+main currents of civilization, and that flint continued to be used there
+long after copper had been adopted by her more fortunate neighbours.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+                          THE DOLMENS OF ASIA
+
+
+In the south-east of Europe lie three groups of dolmens which are no
+doubt in origin more closely connected with those of Asia than with
+those of the rest of Europe. The first group lies in Bulgaria, where no
+less than sixty dolmens have been found north of Adrianople. The second
+consists of a few dolmens which still remain in the Crimea, and the
+third lies in the Caucasus in two divisions, one to the south-east and
+the other to the south-west of the town of Ekaterinodar. These last are
+made of slabby rock, and thus have a finished appearance. A dolmen near
+Tzarskaya has a small semicircular hole at the bottom of one of its
+end-slabs, while another in the valley of Pehada has sides consisting of
+single blocks, placed so as to slant inwards considerably, and a
+circular hole in the centre of the slab which closes one of its ends.
+
+In Asia megalithic monuments are not infrequent. We first find them in
+Syria, they have been reported from Persia, and in Central and South
+India they exist in large numbers. Corridor-tombs occur in Japan, but
+they are late in date, and there is no evidence to show whether they
+are connected with those of India or not.
+
+Syria is comparatively rich in megalithic monuments, but it is
+remarkable that almost all of them lie to the east of the Jordan. Thus
+while there are hundreds of dolmens in the country of Pera and in Ammon
+and Moab, very few have been found in Galilee, and only one in Judæa,
+despite careful search. There is, however, a circle of stones west of
+Tiberias, and an enclosure of menhirs between Tyre and Sidon. According
+to Perrot and Chipiez some of the Moabite monuments are very similar in
+type to the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia. Others are simple dolmens. In a
+good example at Ala Safat (Fig. 22) the floor of the tomb is formed by a
+single flat slab of stone. The great cover-slab rests on two long
+blocks, one on either side, placed on edge. The narrow ends are closed
+up with smaller slabs, one of which, that which faces north, has a small
+hole pierced in it. A similar closure slab with a hole is also found in
+certain rock-tombs quite close to this dolmen. Apparently none of these
+dolmens have been systematically excavated, and nothing is known of
+their date.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat. (After de
+Luynes.)]
+
+Menhirs, too, are not wanting in Syria. Perrot and Chipiez figure an
+example from Gebel-Mousa in Moab which is quite unworked, except for a
+shallow furrow across the centre of the face. In many cases the menhir
+is surrounded by one or more rows of stones. Thus at Der Ghuzaleh a
+menhir about 3 feet in height is set in the centre of what when complete
+must have been a rectangle. In other cases the enclosure was elliptical
+or circular in form. In an example at Minieh the menhir stands in the
+centre of a double (in part triple) circle of stones, on which abuts an
+elliptical enclosure. In some cases the circle has no proper entrance,
+in others it has a door consisting of a large slab resting on two
+others. The largest of the circles attains a diameter of 600 feet, and
+has a double line of stones.
+
+Within these circles and near them are found large numbers of monuments
+consisting each of a large flat slab resting on two others. On the
+upper surface of the top slab are often seen a number of basin-shaped
+holes, sometimes connected by furrows. Many of the slabs are slightly
+slanting, and it has been suggested that the series of holes and furrows
+was intended for the pouring a libation of some kind. In a monument of
+this type at Ammân the cover-slab slopes considerably; the upper part of
+its surface is a network of small channels converging on a hole 11
+inches deep about the centre of the slab. Here, again, no excavations
+have been carried out, and we do not even know what was the purpose of
+these structures. It is, however, probable that these trilithons were
+not, like the dolmens, tombs, but served some religious purpose,
+possibly connected with the worship of the menhirs.
+
+In the Jaulân, where the rock consists of a slabby type of basalt, there
+are many dolmens of fine appearance. They often lie east and west, and
+are often broader at the west end. Many are surrounded by a double
+circle of stones. In one of them two copper rings were found. At Ain
+Dakkar more than 160 dolmen-tombs are visible from a single spot. They
+are built on circular terraces of earth and stones about 3 feet high.
+The Arabs call them Graves of the Children of Israel. Most of them lie
+east and west, and are broader at the west. In the eastern slab there is
+often a hole about 2 feet in diameter. Near Tsîl are several
+corridor-tombs of simple type. Each consists of a long rectangular
+chamber with only one cover-slab, that being at the west end. In a
+well-known example of this type at Kosseir there is a hole in one of the
+two uprights which support the cover.
+
+These examples will serve to show the importance and variety of the
+Syrian monuments. They present analogies with those of many parts of the
+megalithic area, and we therefore await anxiously the publication of
+Mackenzie's promised article on his own explorations in this district.
+
+
+The central and southern parts of India afford numerous examples of
+dolmens. They are to be found in almost all parts of Lower India from
+the Nerbudda River to Cape Comorin. In the Nilgiri hills there are stone
+circles and dolmens, and numbers of dolmens are said to exist in the
+Neermul jungle in Central India. In the collectorate of Bellary dolmens
+and other monuments to the number of 2129 have been recorded. Others
+occur in the principality of Sorapoor and near Vellore in the Madras
+presidency. These latter appear to be of two types, either with three
+supports only or with four supports, one of which is pierced with a
+circular hole. Of the 2200 dolmens known in the Deccan, half are of this
+pierced type. They are known to the natives as "dwarfs' houses." One
+only had a pair of uprights outside the pierced stone, thus forming a
+sort of portico to the dolmen. Near Chittore in North Arcot there is
+said to be a square mile of ground covered with these monuments. In them
+were found human remains in sarcophagi, and fragments of black pottery.
+Several of the Indian dolmens are said to have contained objects of
+iron. Occasionally the dolmen is surrounded by a double circle of stones
+or covered with a cairn. The Deccan, in addition to its numerous
+dolmens, possesses also megalithic monuments of another type. They
+consist each of two rows, each of thirteen unworked stones set as close
+together as possible, in front of which is a row of three stones, each
+about 4 feet high, not let into the ground. The planted stones were
+whitewashed, and each was marked with a large spot of red paint with
+black in the centre. These stones seem to have been in use in modern
+times. Colonel Forbes Leslie thinks that a cock had been sacrificed on
+one of the three stones which lie in front of the double row, but there
+seems to be no certain evidence for this. It is, however, very probable
+that these _alignements_ had some religious signification, and the same
+is no doubt true of certain small circles of small stones, also found in
+the Deccan.
+
+The modern inhabitants of the Khasi Hills in India still make use of
+megalithic monuments. They set up a group of an odd number of menhirs,
+3, 5, 7, 9, or 11, and in front of these two structures of dolmen form.
+These are raised in honour of some important member of the tribe who has
+died, and whose spirit is thought to have done some good to the tribe.
+If the benefits continue it is usual to increase the number of menhirs.
+
+The earliest burials in Japan are marked by simple mounds of earth. It
+was not until the beginning of the iron age that megalithic tombs came
+into use. The true dolmen is not found in Japan, and all the known
+graves are corridor-tombs covered with a mound. They are of four types.
+First, we have a simple corridor with no separate chamber; secondly, a
+corridor broadening out at one side near the end; thirdly, a true
+chamber with a corridor of access; and fourthly, a type in which the
+corridor is preceded by an antechamber. All four types occur in rough
+unworked stone, roofed with huge slabs, but a few examples of the third
+type are made of well-cut and dressed blocks. The mounds are usually
+conical, though some are of a complex form shortly to be described. Some
+of these contain stone sarcophagi. The bodies were never cremated, but
+the bones are so damaged that it is impossible to say what the most
+usual position was. Objects of bronze and iron together with pottery and
+ornaments were found in the tombs.
+
+The more important tombs are of a more complicated type. They seem to
+have contained the remains of emperors and their families. They consist
+each of a circular mound, to which is added on one side another mound of
+trapezoidal form. The megalithic tomb-chamber or the sarcophagus which
+sometimes replaces it lies in the circular part of the mound. The total
+axial length of the basis of the whole mound is in a typical case--that
+of Nara (Yamato)--674 feet, the diameter of the round end being 420
+feet. The mounds have in most cases terraced sides, and are surrounded
+by a moat. In early times it seems to have been the custom to slay or
+bury alive the servants of the emperor on his mound, but this was given
+up about the beginning of the Christian era.
+
+These imperial double mounds seem to begin about two centuries before
+the Christian era, and to continue for five or six centuries after it.
+Many of them can be definitely assigned to their owners, and others are
+attributed by tradition. Thus a rather small mound at the foot of Mount
+Unebi (Yamato) is considered to be the burial place of the Emperor
+Jimmu, the founder of the Imperial dynasty, and annual ceremonies are
+performed before it.
+
+The Japanese Emperors are still buried in terraced mounds, and in the
+group of huge stone blocks which have been placed on the mound of the
+Emperor Komei, who died in 1866, we may be tempted to see a survival of
+the ancient megalithic chamber.
+
+These early corridor-tombs are evidently not the work of the Ainu, the
+aborigines of Japan, but of the Japanese invaders who conquered them.
+These latter do not seem to have brought the idea of megalithic building
+with them, as their earlier tombs are simple mounds. As no dolmen has
+yet been found in Japan we cannot at present derive the corridor-tomb
+there from it. It is, however, worthy of mention that true dolmens occur
+as near as Corea, though none have been reported from China.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+               THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS,
+                 THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ETC.
+
+
+With regard to the date of the megalithic monuments it only remains to
+sum up the evidence given in the previous chapters. It may be said that
+in Europe they never belong to the beginning of the neolithic age, but
+either to its end or to the period which followed it, i.e. to the age of
+copper and bronze. The majority date from the dawn of this latter
+period, though some of the chambered cairns of Ireland seem to belong to
+the iron age. Outside Europe there are certainly megalithic tombs which
+are late. In North Africa, for example, we know that the erection of
+dolmens continued into the early iron age; many of the Indian tombs are
+clearly late, and the corridor-tombs of Japan can be safely attributed
+in part at least to the Christian era.
+
+With what purpose were the megalithic monuments erected? The most simple
+example, the menhir or upright stone, may have served many purposes. In
+discussing the temples of Malta we saw reason for believing that the
+megalithic peoples were in the habit of worshipping great stones as
+such. Other stones, not actually worshipped, may mark the scene of some
+great event. Jacob commemorated a dream by setting up the stone which
+had served him as a pillow, and Samuel, victorious over the Philistines,
+set up twelve stones, and called the place "Stones of Deliverance."
+Others again perhaps stood in a spot devoted to some particular national
+or religious ceremony. Thus the Angami of the present day in Assam set
+up stones in commemoration of their village feasts. It seems clear from
+the excavations that the menhirs do not mark the place of burials,
+though they may in some cases have been raised in honour of the dead.
+
+The question of the purpose of stone circles has already been dealt with
+in connection with those of Great Britain. _Alignements_ are more
+difficult to explain, for, from their form, they cannot have served as
+temples in the sense of meeting-places for worship. Yet they must surely
+have been connected with religion in some way or other. Possibly they
+were not constructed once and for all, but the stones were added
+gradually, each marking some event or the performance of some periodic
+ceremony, or even the death of some great chief. The so-called
+"Canaanite High Place" recently found at Gezer consists of a line of
+ten menhirs running north and south, together with a large block in
+which was a socket for an idol or other object of worship. Several
+bodies of children found near it have suggested that the monument was a
+place of sacrifice.
+
+Other megalithic structures can be definitely classed as dwellings or
+tombs, as we have seen in our separate treatment of them. It is not
+improbable that, if we are right in considering the dolmen as the most
+primitive form of megalithic monument, megalithic architecture was
+funerary in origin. Yet, as we find it in its great diffusion, it
+provides homes for the living as well as for the dead. In their original
+home, perhaps in Africa, the megalithic race may have lived in huts of
+wattle or skins, but after their migration the need of protection in a
+hostile country and the exigencies of a colder climate may have forced
+them to employ stone for their dwellings. In any case, in megalithic
+architecture as seen in Europe the tomb and the dwelling types are
+considerably intermixed, and may have reacted on one another. This,
+however, does not justify the assertion so often made that the
+megalithic tomb was a conscious imitation of the hut. It is true that
+some peoples make the home of their dead to resemble that of the living.
+Among certain tribes of Greenland it is usual to leave the dead man
+seated in his hut by way of burial. But such a conception does not exist
+among all peoples, and to say that the dolmen is an imitation in stone
+of a hut is the purest conjecture. Still more improbable is Montelius's
+idea that the corridor-tomb imitates a dwelling. It is true that the
+Eskimos have a type of hut which is entered by a low passage often 30
+feet in length, but for one who believes as Montelius does that the
+corridor-tomb is southern or eastern in origin such a derivation is
+impossible, for this type of house is essentially northern, its aim
+being to exclude the icy winds. In the south it would be intolerably
+close, and its low passage besides serving no purpose would be
+inconvenient.
+
+There is really no reason to derive either the dolmen or the
+corridor-tomb from dwellings at all. Granted the use of huge stones,
+both are purely natural forms, and the presence of the corridor in the
+latter is dictated by necessity. The problem was how to cover a large
+tomb-chamber with a mound and to leave it still accessible for later
+interments, and the obvious solution was to add a covered passage
+leading out to the edge of the mound.
+
+A remarkable feature of the megalithic tombs is the occurrence in many
+of them of a small round or rectangular hole in one of the walls,
+usually an end-wall, more rarely a partition-wall between two chambers.
+Occasionally the hole was formed by placing side by side two upright
+blocks each with a semicircular notch in its edge. Tombs with a holed
+block or blocks occur in England, instances being the barrows of Avening
+and Rodmarton, King Orry's Grave in the Isle of Man, Lanyon Quoit in
+Cornwall, and Plas Newydd in Wales, which has two holes. There are also
+examples in Ireland, France, Belgium, Central Germany, and Scandinavia,
+where they are common. Passing further afield we find holes in the
+Giants' Graves of Sardinia, and in Syria, the Caucasus, and India, where
+half the dolmens in the Deccan are of this type. The holes are usually
+too small to allow of the passage of a human body. It has been suggested
+that they served as an outlet for the soul of the deceased, or in some
+cases as a means of passing in food to him.
+
+Attention has been frequently drawn to curious round pits so often found
+on the stones of dolmens and usually known as cup-markings. They vary in
+diameter from about two to four inches, and are occasionally connected
+by a series of narrow grooves in the stone. They vary considerably in
+number, sometimes there are few, sometimes many. They occur nearly
+always on the upper surface of the cover-slab, very rarely on its under
+surface or on the side-walls.
+
+Some have attempted to show that these pits are purely natural and not
+artificial. It has been suggested, for instance, that they are simply
+the casts of a species of fossil sea-urchin which has weathered out
+from the surface of the stone. This explanation may be true in some
+cases, but it will not serve in all, for the 'cups' are sometimes
+arranged in such regular order that their artificial origin is palpable.
+These markings are found on dolmens and corridor-tombs in Palestine,
+North Africa, Corsica, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Great Britain.
+In Wales there is a fine example of a dolmen with pits at Clynnog Fawr,
+while in Cornwall we may instance the monument called "The Three
+Brothers of Grugith" near Meneage.
+
+There is no clue to the purpose of these pits. Some have thought that
+they were made to hold the blood of sacrifice which was poured over the
+slab, and from some such idea may have arisen some of the legends of
+human victims which still cling round the dolmens. Others have opposed
+to this the fact that the pits sometimes occur on vertical walls or
+under the cover-slabs, and have preferred to see in them some totemistic
+signification or some expression of star-worship. It is possible that we
+have to deal with a complex and not a simple phenomenon, and that the
+pits were not all made to serve a single purpose. Those which cover some
+of the finest stones at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim are certainly meant to be
+ornamental, though there may be in them a reminiscence of some religious
+tradition. In any case, it is worth while to remember that cup-markings
+also occur on natural rocks and boulders in Switzerland, Scandinavia,
+Great Britain (where there is a good example near Ilkley in Yorkshire),
+near Como in Italy, and in Germany, Russia, and India.
+
+
+Of the builders of the megalithic monuments themselves we cannot expect
+to know very much, especially while their origin remains veiled in
+obscurity. Yet there are a few facts which stand out clearly. We even
+know something about their appearance, for the skulls found in the
+megalithic tombs have in many cases been subjected to careful
+examination and measurement. Into the detail of these measurements we
+cannot enter here; suffice it to say that the most important of them are
+the maximum length of the skull from front to back and its maximum
+breadth, both measures, of course, being taken in a straight line with a
+pair of callipers, and not round the contour of the skull. If we now
+divide the maximum breadth by the maximum length and multiply the result
+by 100 we get what is known as the cephalic index of the skull. Thus if
+a skull has a length of 180 millimetres and a breadth of 135, its
+cephalic index is 135/180 X 100, i.e. 75. It is clear that in a roundish
+type of head the breadth will be greater in proportion to the length
+than in a narrow elliptical type. Thus in a broad head the cephalic
+index is high, while in a narrow head it is low. The former is called
+brachycephalic (short-headed), and the latter dolichocephalic
+(long-headed).
+
+This index is now accepted by most anthropologists as a useful criterion
+of race, though, of course, there are other characteristics which must
+often be taken into account, such as the height and breadth of the face,
+the cubic capacity of the skull and its general contour. At any rate, if
+we can show that the skulls of the megalithic tombs conform to a single
+type in respect of their index we shall have a presumption, though not a
+certainty, that they belong to a single race.
+
+For Africa the evidence consists in a group of twenty skulls from
+dolmen-tombs giving cephalic indices which range from 70.5 to 84.4. The
+average index is 75.27, and the majority of the indices lay within a few
+units of that number. Ten skulls from Halsaflieni in Malta have cephalic
+indices running from 66 to 75.1, the average being 71.84. Of a series of
+44 skulls from the rock-tombs of the Petit Morin in France, 12 had an
+index of over 80, 22 were between 75 and 80, and 10 were below 75. But
+in the dolmens of Lozère distinctly broad skulls were frequent. A series
+of British neolithic skulls, mostly from barrows, ran from 67 to 77.
+
+The builders of the megalithic monuments thus belonged in the main to a
+fairly dolichocephalic race or races, for the large majority of the
+skulls measured are of a long-headed type. There are, however, in
+various localities, especially in France, occasional anomalous types of
+skull which are distinctly brachycephalic, and show that contamination
+of some kind was taking or had taken place.
+
+
+Of the state of civilization to which the builders of the megalithic
+monuments had attained, and of the social condition in which they lived,
+there is something to be gathered. It is clear in the first place from
+the evidence of the Maltese buildings that they were a pastoral people
+who domesticated the ox, the sheep, the pig, and the goat, upon whose
+flesh they partly lived. Shellfish also formed a part of their diet, and
+the shells when emptied of their contents were occasionally pierced to
+be used as pendants or to form necklaces or bracelets.
+
+Whether these people were agricultural is a question more difficult to
+answer. It is true that flat stones have been found, on which some kind
+of cereal was ground up with the aid of round pebbles, but the grain for
+which these primitive mills were used may have been wild and not
+cultivated. No grain of any kind has been found in the Maltese
+settlements.
+
+The megalithic race do not seem to have been great traders. This is
+remarkably exemplified in Malta, where there is not a trace of
+connection with the wonderful civilization which must have been
+flourishing so near at hand in Crete and the Ægean at the time when the
+megalithic temples were built. The island seems to have been entirely
+self-sufficing, except for the importation of obsidian, probably from
+the neighbouring island of Linosa. Of copper, which wide trade would
+have introduced, there is no sign.
+
+Some writers, however, have argued the existence of extensive
+trade-relations from the occurrence of a peculiar kind of turquoise
+called _callaïs_ in some of the megalithic monuments of France and
+Portugal. The rarity of this stone has inclined some archæologists to
+attribute it to a single source, while some have gone so far as to
+consider it eastern in origin. For the last theory there is no evidence
+whatsoever. No natural deposit of _callaïs_ is known, but it is highly
+probable that the sources of the megalithic examples lay in France or
+Portugal.
+
+It would of course be foolish to suppose that the megalithic people
+received none of the products of other countries, especially at a time
+when the discovery of copper was giving a great impetus to trade. No
+doubt they enjoyed the benefits of that kind of slow filtering trade
+which a primitive tribe, even if it had wished, could hardly have
+avoided, but they were not a great trading nation as were the Cretans of
+the Middle and Late Minoan Periods, or the Egyptians of the XIIth and
+XVIIIth Dynasties. We know nothing of their political conditions, of the
+groups into which they were divided, or the centres from which they were
+governed. That there were strong centres of government is, however,
+clear from the very existence of such huge monuments, many of which must
+have required the combined and organized labour of large armies of
+workers, in the gathering of which the state was doubtless strongly
+backed by religion.
+
+We have seen that the megalithic peoples frequently dwelt in huts of
+great stones. Yet in the majority of cases their huts must have been,
+like those of most primitive races, of perishable material, such as
+wood, wattle, skins, turf, and clay. As for their form there was
+probably a continual conflict between the round and the rectangular
+plan, just as there was in the stone examples. Which form prevailed in
+any particular district was probably determined almost by accident. Thus
+in Sardinia the round type was mostly kept for the huts and _nuraghi_,
+while the rectangular was reserved for the dolmens and Giants' Graves.
+Even here the confusion between the two types is shown by the fact that
+near Birori there are two dolmens with a round plan. Again, in
+Pantelleria the huts of the Mursia are rectangular, while the _sesi_,
+which are tombs, are roughly circular. It is therefore probable that the
+round and rectangular types of building were both in use among the
+megalithic people before they spread over Europe.
+
+Within their huts these people led a life of the simplest description.
+Their weapons and tools, though occasionally of copper, were for the
+most part of stone. Flint was the most usual material. In Scandinavia it
+was often polished, but elsewhere it was merely flaked. The implements
+made from it were of simple types, knives, borers, scrapers, lanceheads,
+and more rarely arrowheads. Many of these were quite roughly made, no
+more flaking being done than was absolutely necessary to produce the
+essential form, and the work being, when possible, confined to one face
+of the flint.
+
+In the Mediterranean obsidian, a volcanic rock, occasionally took the
+place of flint, especially in Sardinia and Pantelleria. Axes or celts
+were often made of flint in Scandinavia and North Germany, but elsewhere
+other stones, such as jade, jadeite, and diorite were commonly used.
+
+We can only guess at the way in which the megalithic people were
+clothed. No doubt the skins of the animals they domesticated and of
+those they hunted provided them with some form of covering, at any rate
+in countries where it was needed. Possibly they spun wool or flax into a
+thread, for at Halsaflieni two objects were found which look like
+spindle-whorls, and others occur on sites which are almost certainly to
+be attributed to the megalithic people. There is, however, nothing to
+show that they wove the thread into stuffs.
+
+The love of personal decoration was highly developed among them, and all
+branches of nature were called upon to minister to their desire for
+ornament. Shells, pierced and strung separately or in masses, were
+perhaps their favourite adornment, but close on these follow beads and
+pendants of almost every conceivable substance, bone, horn, stone, clay,
+nuts, beans, copper, and occasionally gold.
+
+One small object assumes a great importance on account of its wide
+distribution. This is the conical button with two converging holes in
+its base to pass the thread through. This little object, which may have
+served exactly the purpose of the modern button, occurs in several parts
+of the megalithic area. There are examples in Malta made of stone and
+shell. Elsewhere it is most usually of bone. It occurs in Sardinia, in
+France, in the rock-tombs of Gard, and in the corridor and rock-tombs of
+Lozère and Ardèche, in Portugal in the _allée couverte_ of Monte
+Abrahaõ, in Bohuslän (Sweden), and at Carrowmore in Ireland. Outside the
+megalithic area it has been found in two of the Swiss lake-dwellings and
+in Italy.
+
+The pottery of the megalithic people was of a simple type. It was all
+made by hand, the potter's wheel being still unknown to the makers.
+Pottery with painted designs does not occur outside Sicily, except for
+a few poor and late examples in Malta. The best vases were of fairly
+purified clay, moderately well fired, and having a polished surface,
+usually of a darkish colour. On this surface were often incised
+ornamental designs, varying both in type and in the skill with which
+they were engraved. As a rule the schemes were rectilinear, more rarely
+they were carried out in curves. Sardinia furnishes some fine examples
+of rectilinear work, while the best of the curved designs are found in
+Malta, where elaborate conventional and even naturalistic patterns are
+traced out with wonderful freedom and steadiness of hand.
+
+The pottery of the megalithic area is not all alike; it would be
+surprising if it were. Even supposing that the invaders brought with
+them a single definite style of pottery-making this would rapidly become
+modified by local conditions and by the already existing pottery
+industry of the country, often, no doubt, superior to that of the
+new-comers. Nevertheless, there are a few points of similarity between
+the pottery of various parts of the megalithic area. The most remarkable
+example is the bell-shaped cup, which occurs in Denmark, England,
+France, Spain, Sardinia, and possibly Malta (the specimen is too broken
+for certainty). Outside the area it is found in Bohemia, Hungary, and
+North Italy. Here, as in the case of the conical button, we cannot argue
+that the form was actually introduced by the megalithic race, though
+there is a certain possibility in favour of such a hypothesis.
+
+
+That the megalithic people possessed a religion of some kind will hardly
+be doubted. Their careful observance of the rites due to the dead, and
+their construction of buildings which can hardly have been anything but
+places of worship, is a strong testimony to this. We have seen that in
+the Maltese temples the worship of baetyls or pillars of stone seems to
+have been carried on. Several stone objects which can scarcely have been
+anything but baetyls were found in the megalithic structures of Los
+Millares in Spain, but none are known elsewhere in the megalithic area.
+
+There is some reason for thinking that among the megalithic race there
+existed a cult of the axe. In France, for instance, the sculptured
+rock-tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin show, some a human figure,
+some an axe, and some a combination of the two. This same juxtaposition
+of the two also occurs on a slab which closed the top of a corbelled
+chamber at Collorgues in Gard. A simple _allée couverte_ at Göhlitzsch
+in Saxony has on one of its blocks an axe and handle engraved and
+coloured red. There are further examples in the _allée couverte_ of
+Gavr'inis and the dolmen called La Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer.
+
+These sculptured axes call to mind at once the numerous axe-shaped
+pendants of fine polished stone (jade, jadeite, etc.) found in Malta,
+Sicily, Sardinia, and France, and apparently used as amulets. The
+excavation of Crete has brought to light a remarkable worship of the
+double axe, and it has been argued with great probability that one of
+the early boat signs figured on the pre-dynastic painted vases of Egypt
+is a double axe, and that this was a cult object. It seems very probable
+that in the megalithic area, or at least in part of it, there was a
+somewhat similar worship, the object of cult, however, being not a
+double but a single axe, usually represented as fitted with a handle. It
+need not be assumed that the axe itself was worshipped, though this is
+not impossible; it is more likely that it was an attribute of some god
+or goddess.
+
+Among the rock-hewn tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin in the
+department of Marne, France, were seven which contained engravings on
+one of the walls. Several of these represent human figures (Fig. 13).
+The eyes are not marked, but the hair and nose are clear. In some the
+breasts are shown, in others they are omitted. On each figure is
+represented what appears to be a collar or necklace. Similar figures
+occur on the slabs of some of the _allées couvertes_ of Seine et Oise,
+and on certain blocks found in and near megalithic burials in the South
+of France. Moreover, in the departments of Aveyron, Tarn, and Hérault
+have been found what are known as menhir-statues, upright pillars of
+stone roughly shaped into human semblance at the top; they are of two
+types, the one clearly female and the other with no breasts, but always
+with a collar or baldric.
+
+It has been argued that these figures represent a deity or deities of
+the megalithic people. Déchelette, comparing what are apparently tattoo
+marks on a menhir-statue at Saint Sermin (Aveyron) with similar marks on
+a figure cut on a schist plaque at Idanha a Nova (Portugal) and on a
+marble idol from the island of Seriphos in the Ægean, seems inclined to
+argue that in France and Portugal we have the same deity as in the
+Ægean. This seems rather a hazardous conjecture, for we know that many
+primitive peoples practised tattooing, and, moreover, it is not certain
+that the French figures represent deities at all. It is quite as likely,
+if not more so, that they represent the deceased, and take the place of
+a grave-stone: this would account for the occurrence of both male and
+female types. This was almost certainly the purpose of six stones that
+remain of a line that ran parallel to a now destroyed tomb at Tamuli
+(Sardinia). Three have breasts as if to distinguish the sex of three of
+those buried in the tomb. We must not therefore assume that any of the
+French figures represents a 'dolmen-deity.'
+
+The method of burial observed in the megalithic tombs is almost
+universally inhumation. Cremation seems to occur only in France, but
+there it is beyond all doubt. The known examples are found in the
+departments of Finistère, Marne, and Aisne, and in the neighbourhood of
+Paris. In Finistère out of 92 megalithic burials examined 61 were
+cremations, 26 were inhumations, and 5 were uncertain. It is extremely
+curious that this small portion of France should be the only part of the
+megalithic area where cremation was practised. It is generally held that
+cremation was brought into Europe by the broad-headed 'Alpine' people,
+who seem to have invaded the centre of the continent at some period in
+the neolithic age. It is possible that in parts of France a mixture took
+place between the megalithic builders and the Alpine race. Intermarriage
+would no doubt lead to confusion in many cases between the two rites.
+
+In all other cases the builders of the megalithic monuments buried their
+dead unburned. Often the body was lying stretched out on its back, or
+was set in a sitting position against the side of the tomb; but most
+frequently it was placed in what is known as the contracted position,
+laid on one side, generally the left, with the knees bent and drawn up
+towards the chin, the arms bent at the elbow, and the hands placed close
+to the face. Many explanations of this position have been suggested.
+Some see in it a natural posture of repose, some an attempt to crowd the
+body into as small a space as possible. Some have suggested that the
+corpse was tightly bound up with cords in order that the spirit might
+not escape and do harm to the living. Perhaps the most widely approved
+theory is that which considers this position to be embryonic, i.e. the
+position of the embryo previous to birth. None of these explanations is
+entirely convincing, but no better one has been put forward up to the
+present.
+
+This custom, it must be noted, was not limited to the megalithic
+peoples. It was the invariable practice of the pre-dynastic Egyptians
+and has been found further east in Persia. It occurs in the neolithic
+period in Crete and the Ægean, in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and other
+parts of Europe, and it is one of the facts which go to show that the
+builders of the megaliths were ethnologically connected, however
+remotely, with their predecessors in Europe.
+
+At Halsaflieni, in Malta, we have perhaps examples of the curious custom
+of secondary interment; the body is buried temporarily in some suitable
+place, and after the flesh has left the bones the latter are collected
+and thrown together into a common ossuary. That the bones at Halsaflieni
+were placed there when free from flesh is probable from the closeness
+with which they were packed together (see p. 111). There are also
+possible examples in Sicily (see p. 79). The custom was not unknown in
+neolithic days, especially in Crete. It is still occasionally practised
+on the island and on the Greek mainland, where, after the dead have lain
+a few years in hallowed soil, their bones are dug up, roughly cleaned,
+and deposited in caves.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+            WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE DID THEY COME?
+
+
+Modern discussion of the origin of the megalithic monuments may be said
+to date from Bertrand's publication of the French examples in 1864. In
+this work Bertrand upheld the thesis that "the dolmens and _allées
+couvertes_ are sepulchres; and their origin seems up to the present to
+be northern." In 1865 appeared Bonstetten's famous _Essai sur les
+dolmens_, in which he maintained that the dolmens were constructed by
+one and the same people spreading over Europe from north to south. At
+this time the dolmens of North Africa were still unstudied. In 1867
+followed an important paper by Bertrand. In 1872 two events of
+importance to the subject occurred, the publication of Fergusson's _Rude
+Stone Monuments in All Countries_, and the discussion raised at the
+Brussels Congress by General Faidherbe's paper on the dolmens of
+Algeria. Faidherbe maintained the thesis that dolmens, whether in Europe
+or Africa, were the work of a single people moving southward from the
+Baltic Sea.
+
+The question thus raised has been keenly debated since. At the
+Stockholm Congress in 1874 de Mortillet advanced the theory that
+megalithic monuments in different districts were due to different
+peoples, and that what spread was the custom of building such structures
+and not the builders themselves. This theory has been accepted by most
+archæologists, including Montelius, Salomon Reinach, Sophus Müller,
+Hoernes, and Déchelette. But while the rest believe the influences which
+produced the megalithic monuments to have spread from east to west, i.e.
+from Asia to Europe, Salomon Reinach holds the contrary view, which he
+has supported in a remarkable paper called _Le Mirage Oriental_,
+published in 1893.
+
+The questions we have to discuss are, therefore, as follows: Are all the
+megalithic monuments due to a single race or to several? If to a single
+race, whence did that race come and in what direction did it move? If to
+several, did the idea of building megalithic structures arise among the
+several races independently, or did it spread from one to another?
+
+We shall consider first the theory that the idea of megalithic building
+was evolved among several races independently, i.e. that it was a phase
+of culture through which they separately passed.
+
+On the whole, this idea has not found favour among archæologists. The
+use of stone for building might have arisen in many places
+independently. But megalithic architecture is something much more than
+this. It is the use of great stones in certain definite and particular
+ways. We have already examined what may be called the style of
+megalithic architecture and found that the same features are noticeable
+in all countries where these buildings occur. In each case we see a type
+of construction based on the use of large orthostatic slabs, sometimes
+surmounted by courses of horizontal masonry, with either a roof of
+horizontal slabs or a corbelled vault. Associated with this we
+frequently find the hewing of underground chambers in the rock. In
+almost all countries where megalithic structures occur certain fixed
+types prevail; the dolmen is the most general of these, and it is clear
+that many of the other forms are simply developments of this. The
+occurrence of structures with a hole in one of the walls and of blocks
+with 'cup-markings' is usual over the whole of the megalithic area.
+There are even more remarkable resemblances in detail between structures
+in widely separated countries. Thus the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia all
+have a concave façade which forms a kind of semicircular court in front
+of the entrance to the tomb. This feature is seen also in the temples of
+Malta, in the tomb of Los Millares in Spain, in the _naus_ of the
+Balearic Isles (where, however, the curve is slight), in the Giant's
+Grave of Annaclochmullin and the chambered cairn of Newbliss in Ireland,
+in the tomb of Cashtal-yn-Ard in the Isle of Man, in the barrow of West
+Tump in Gloucestershire, and in the horned cairns of the north of
+Scotland. These parallels are due to something more than coincidence; in
+fact, it is clear that megalithic building is a widespread and
+homogeneous system, which, despite local differences, always preserves
+certain common features pointing to a single origin. It is thus
+difficult to accept the suggestion that it is merely a phase through
+which many races have passed. The phases which occur in many races alike
+are always those which are natural and necessary in the development of a
+people, such as the phase of using copper. But there is nothing either
+natural or necessary in the use of huge unwieldy blocks of stone where
+much smaller ones would have sufficed.
+
+There are further objections to this theory in the distribution of the
+megalithic buildings both in space and time. In space they occupy a very
+remarkable position along a vast sea-board which includes the
+Mediterranean coast of Africa and the Atlantic coast of Europe. In other
+words, they lie entirely along a natural sea route. It is more than
+accident that the many places in which, according to this theory, the
+megalithic phase independently arose all lie in most natural sea
+connection with each other, while not one is in the interior of Europe.
+
+In time the vast majority of the megalithic monuments of Europe seem to
+begin near the end of the neolithic period and cover the copper age,
+the later forms continuing occasionally into that of bronze. Here again
+it is curious that megalithic building, if merely an independent phase
+in many countries, should arise in so many at about the same time, and
+with no apparent reason. Had it been the use of _worked_ stones that
+arose, and had this followed the appearance of copper tools, the
+advocates of this theory would have had a stronger case, but there seems
+to be no reason why huge unworked stones should _simultaneously_ begin
+to be employed for tombs in many different countries unless this use
+spread from a single source.
+
+For these reasons it is impossible to consider megalithic building as a
+mere phase through which many nations passed, and it must therefore have
+been a system originating with one race, and spreading far and wide,
+owing either to trade influence or migration. But can we determine
+which?
+
+Great movements of races by sea were not by any means unusual in
+primitive days, in fact, the sea has always been less of an obstacle to
+early man than the land with its deserts, mountains, and unfordable
+rivers. There is nothing inherently impossible or even improbable in the
+suggestion that a great immigration brought the megalithic monuments
+from Sweden to India or vice versa. History is full of instances of such
+migrations. According to the most widely accepted modern theory the
+whole or at least the greater part of the neolithic population of Europe
+moved in from some part of Africa at the opening of the neolithic age.
+In medieval history we have the example of the Arabs, who in their
+movement covered a considerable portion of the very megalithic area
+which we are discussing.
+
+On the other hand, many find it preferable to suppose that over this
+same distance there extended a vast trade route or a series of trade
+routes, along which travelled the influences which account for the
+presence of precisely similar dolmens in Denmark, Spain, and the
+Caucasus. Yet although much has been written about neolithic trade
+routes little has been proved, and the fact that early man occasionally
+crossed large tracts of land and sea in the great movements of migration
+does not show that he also did so by way of trade, nor does it prove the
+existence of such steady and extensive commercial relations as such a
+theory of the megalithic monuments would seem to require. Immigration is
+often forced on a race. Change of climate or the diverting of the course
+of a great river may make their country unfit for habitation, or they
+may be expelled by a stronger race. In either case they must migrate,
+and we know from history that they often covered long distances in their
+attempt to follow the line of least resistance. Thus there is nothing a
+priori improbable in the idea that the megalithic monuments were built
+by a single invading race.
+
+There are other considerations which support such a theory. It will be
+readily admitted that the commonest and most widely distributed form of
+the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both this and its obvious
+derivatives, the Giant's Grave, the _allée couverte_, and others, are
+known to have been tombs, while other types of structure, such as the
+Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech, almost certainly had a
+religious purpose. It is difficult to believe that these types of
+building, so closely connected with religion and burial, were introduced
+into all these regions simply by the influence of trade relations.
+Religious customs and the burial rites connected with them are perhaps
+the most precious possession of a primitive people, and they are those
+in which they most oppose and resent change of any kind, even when it
+only involves detail and not principle. Thus it is almost incredible
+that the people, for instance, of Spain, because they were told by
+traders that the people of North Africa buried in dolmens, gave up, even
+in isolated instances, their habit of interment in trench graves in
+favour of burial in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe that
+this unnatural event happened in one country after another. It is true
+that the use of metal was spread by means of commerce, but here there
+was something to be gained by adopting the new discovery, and there was
+no sacrifice of religious custom or principle. An exchange of products
+between one country and another is not unnatural, but a traffic in
+burial customs is unthinkable.
+
+Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the dolmen which was brought by
+commerce, but simply the art of architecture in general, and this was
+adapted to burial purposes. To this there are serious objections. In the
+first place it does not explain why exactly the same types of building
+(e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities of peculiar detail,
+occur in countries so far apart; and in the second place, if what was
+carried by trade was the art of building alone, why should the learners
+go out of their way to use huge stones when smaller ones would have
+suited their purpose equally well? That the megalithic builders knew how
+to employ smaller stones we know from their work; that they preferred to
+use large ones for certain purposes was not due to ignorance or chance,
+it was because the large stone as such had some particular meaning and
+association for them. We cannot definitely say that large stones were
+themselves actually worshipped, but there can be no possible doubt that
+for some reason or other they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used
+in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead. It is impossible
+that the men who possessed the skill to lay the horizontal upper courses
+of the Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble to haul to the
+spot and use vast blocks over 20 feet in length where far smaller ones
+would have been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated
+prejudice in favour of great stones.
+
+Such are the main difficulties involved by the influence theory. On the
+other hand, objections have been urged against the idea that the
+monuments were all built by one and the same race. Thus Dr. Montelius in
+his excellent _Orient und Europa_ says, "In Europe at this time dwelt
+Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be Aryans," the inference
+being, of course, that the European dolmens were built by a different
+race from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan. Unfortunately,
+however, the major premise is not completely true, for though it is true
+that Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were also people in
+Europe who were not Aryans, and it is precisely among them that
+megalithic buildings occur.
+
+The French archæologist Déchelette also condemns the idea of a single
+race. "Anthropological observations," he says, "have long since ruined
+this adventurous hypothesis." He does not tell us what these
+observations are, but we presume that he refers to the occurrence of
+varying skull types among the people buried in the megalithic tombs.
+Nothing is more natural than that some variation should occur. We are
+dealing with a race which made enormous journeys, and thus became
+contaminated by the various other races with which it came in contact.
+It may even have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even if we found
+skulls of very different types in the dolmens this would not in the
+least disprove the idea that dolmen building was introduced into various
+countries by one and the same race. It would be simply a case of the
+common anthropological fact that a race immigrating into an already
+inhabited country becomes to some extent modified by intermarriage with
+the earlier inhabitants. The measurements given in the last chapter
+would seem to show that despite local variation there is an underlying
+homogeneity in the skulls of the megalithic people.
+
+It thus seems that the most probable theory of the origin of the
+megalithic monuments is that this style of building was brought to the
+various countries in which we find it by a single race in an immense
+migration or series of migrations. It is significant that this theory
+has been accepted by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first
+authority on the megalithic structures of the Mediterranean basin.
+
+
+One question still remains to be discussed. From what direction did
+megalithic architecture come, and what was its original home? This is
+clearly a point which is not altogether dependent on the means by which
+this architecture was diffused. Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic
+origin. He considers that caves, and tombs accessible from above, i.e.
+simple pits dug in the earth, were native in Europe, while tombs reached
+from the side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were introduced into
+Europe from the east. Salomon Reinach, arguing mainly from the early
+appearance of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia and the
+rarity of the simpler types of monument, such as the dolmen, in Germany
+and South Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first appeared in
+North Europe and spread southwards. Mackenzie is more inclined to
+believe in an African origin. If he is right it may be that some
+climatic change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what is now the
+Sahara desert, caused a migration from Africa to Europe very similar to
+that which many believe to have given to Europe its early neolithic
+population. The megalithic people may even have been a branch of the
+same vast race as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that both
+inhumed their dead in the contracted position.
+
+It is probable that the problem will never be solved. The only way to
+attempt a solution would be to show that in some part of the megalithic
+area the structures were definitely earlier than in any other, and that
+as we move away from that part in any direction they become later and
+later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful, for the earliest form
+of structure, the dolmen, occurs in all parts of the area, and if we
+attempt to date by objects we are met by the difficulty that a dolmen in
+one place which contained copper might be earlier than one in another
+place which contained none, copper having been known in the former place
+earlier than in the latter.
+
+
+It still remains to consider the question of the origin of the rock-hewn
+sepulchre and its relation to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb
+occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, South Italy, Sicily,
+Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and
+France. In all these places there are examples which are certainly
+early, i.e. belong to the neolithic or early metal age, with the
+exception of Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two types are
+common, the chamber cut in the vertical face of rock and thus entered
+from the side, sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the chamber cut
+underground and entered from a vertical or sloping shaft placed not
+directly over the chamber, but immediately to one side of it. It is
+unlikely that these two types have a separate origin, for they are
+clearly determined by geological reasons. A piece of country where
+vertical cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the first type,
+while the other alone was possible when the ground consisted of a flat
+horizontal surface of rock. We frequently find the two side by side and
+containing identically the same type of remains. In South-East Sicily we
+have the horizontal entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge of
+Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule in the tombs of the
+Plemmirio, only a few miles distant.
+
+Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to the distribution of the
+rock-hewn tombs. In the first place they are all in the vicinity of the
+Mediterranean, and in the second some occur in the megalithic area,
+while others do not. The examples of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that
+this type of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean. Was it from
+here that the type was introduced into the megalithic area, or did the
+megalithic people bring with them a tradition of building rock-tombs
+totally distinct from that which is represented by the tombs of Egypt,
+Cyprus, and Crete?
+
+The question is difficult to answer. One thing alone is clear, that in
+certain places, such as Malta and Sardinia, the megalithic people were
+not averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms which they more
+usually erected with large stones above ground. The finest instance of
+this is the Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid rock is hewn
+out with infinite care to imitate the form and even the details of
+surface building.
+
+Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia and in France the same
+forms of tomb were rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost
+indifferently.
+
+There can therefore be no doubt that the hewing out of rock was
+practised by the megalithic people, and that they were no mean exponents
+of the art. We have no proof that they brought this art along with them
+from their original centre of dispersion, though if they did it is
+curious that they did not carry it into other countries where they
+penetrated besides those of the Mediterranean. It may be that early
+rock-tombs will yet be found in North Africa, but it seems improbable
+that, had they existed in the British Isles, in North Germany, or in
+Scandinavia, not a single example should have been found.
+
+On the other hand, if the megalithic people did not bring the idea of
+the rock-tomb with them we must suppose either that it evolved among
+them after their migration, or that they adopted it from the Eastern
+Mediterranean. The last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it
+would involve the modification of a burial custom by foreign influence.
+
+We have, in fact, no evidence on which to judge the question. Perhaps it
+is least unreasonable to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb was
+brought into the megalithic area by the same people who introduced the
+megalithic monuments, and did not result from contact with the Eastern
+Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to disclaim any direct
+connection between the corridor-tombs of the megalithic area and the
+great _tholoi_ of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first sight there is
+a considerable similarity between them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenæ
+with its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular corridor seems
+very little removed, except in size and finish, from the tombs of Gavr'
+Inis and Lough Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference. The two
+last are tombs built partly with upright slabs on the surface of the
+ground, entered by horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds. The
+Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated rock-tomb cut underground
+with a sloping shaft; as the ground consisted only of loose soil a
+coating of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance to a
+megalithic monument.
+
+
+
+
+                             BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+                     OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS
+
+
+                               GENERAL
+
+Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_ (London 1872).
+Bonstetten, _Essai sur les dolmens_ (Geneva 1865).
+Mortillet, _Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie
+    préhistorique_, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff.
+Reinach, _Le mirage oriental_, in _L'Anthropologie_, 1893, pp. 557 ff.
+Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.
+Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_, Vols. II and III.
+Reinach, _Terminologie des monuments mégalithiques
+     in Revue archéologique_, 3^{e} sér., XXII, 1893.
+Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_ (London 1872).
+
+
+                           ENGLAND AND WALES
+
+Fergusson, _op. cit._
+_Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Archæologia_, LVIII, pp. 37 ff.
+Flinders Petrie, _Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and
+     Theories_ (London 1880).
+Windle, _Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England._
+James, Sir Henry, _Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan
+     in the Island of Lewis_ (Southampton 1867).
+Evans, Sir A., _Archæological Review_, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff.
+Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, November 21st, 1901.
+Hinks, _XIXth Century_, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff.
+Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff.,
+     345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff.
+Lewis, A. A., _Stone Circles in Britain, Archæological
+     Journal_, XLIX, pp. 136 ff.
+Thurnam, _Ancient British Barrows, Archæologia_,
+     XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff.
+Lewis, A. A., _Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the
+     Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905.
+Kermode and Herdman, _Illustrated Notes on Manks
+     Antiquities_ (Liverpool 1904).
+
+
+                               SCOTLAND
+
+Wilson, _The Archæological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland._
+Forbes Leslie, _Early Races of Scotland._
+Spence, Magnus, _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness._
+
+
+                                IRELAND
+
+Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland._
+Lewis, A. A., _Some Stone Circles in Ireland_, in
+  _Journal Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXXIX, pp. 517 ff.
+
+
+                                SWEDEN
+
+Montelius, _Orient und Europa._
+Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens._
+Montelius, _Dolmens en France et en Suède_ (Le Mans 1907).
+Montelius, Graf från stenåldern, upptäckt vid
+    Öringe i Ekeby socken, 1907.
+Nilsson, _Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des
+    Scandinavischen Nordens_ (Hamburg 1865).
+
+
+                               DENMARK
+
+Montelius, _Orient und Europa._
+Sophus Müller, _L'Europe préhistorique._
+Sophus Müller, _Nordische Alterthumskunde._
+
+
+                               HOLLAND
+
+_Archæological Journal_, 1870, pp. 53 ff.
+_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, VI, 1876, p. 158.
+_Compte rendu du congrès d'arch. préhist._, Stockholm, 1874.
+
+
+                                BELGIUM
+
+Engelhardt, _Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse_,
+    in _Aarböger f. nord. Oldkynd._, 1870, pp. 177 ff.
+
+
+                                GERMANY
+
+Krause und Schoetensack in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_,
+   1893 (Altmark only).
+Morlot, _L'archéologie du Meclenbourg_ (Zurich 1868).
+von Estorff, _Heidnische Altertümer der Gegend von
+   Aelzen_ (Hanover 1846).
+
+
+                              SWITZERLAND
+
+Keller, _Pfahlbauten_, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101;
+    Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9.
+
+
+                                FRANCE
+
+Cartailhac, _La France préhistorique._
+Bertrand in _Revue archéologique_, 1864 (List of monuments).
+Bertrand, _Archéologie celtique et gauloise_, 2nd edit., 1889.
+Déchelette, _Manuel d'archéologie préhistorique celtique
+    et gallo-romaine_, Vol. I.
+Lewis, _Alignements at Autun_ in _Journal Anthrop.
+    Inst._, XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff.
+Lewis, _On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit._,
+    XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff.
+de Baye, _L'archéologie préhistorique_ (Petit-Morin tombs).
+Reinach, S., _La Sculpture en Europe_ (Angers 1896.
+    Figures of the 'dolmen deity').
+
+
+                                SPAIN
+
+Cartailhac, _Âges préhistorique de l'Espagne_.
+Cartailhac, _Monuments primitifs des îles baléares_.
+Bezzenberger in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, XXXIX,
+    1907, pp. 567 ff.
+
+
+                                ITALY
+
+_Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXV, pp. 178 ff.
+Nicolucci, _Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di
+    Terra d'Otranto_, 1893.
+_Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXXVII, pp. 6 ff.
+Mosso and Samarelli, _Il dolmen di Bisceglie_, in _Bull.
+    Paletn. Ital._, XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff.
+
+
+                               SICILY
+
+Orsi in _Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello).
+Orsi in _Ausonia_, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro).
+Orsi in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro).
+
+
+                               SARDINIA
+
+La Marmora, _Voyage en Sardaigne_.
+Pinza in _Monumenti Antichi_, Vol. VIII.
+Nissardi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale_, Roma,
+    1903, sezione preistorica.
+Nissardi and Taramelli in _Mon. Ant._, Vol. XVII.
+Taramelli in _Memnon_, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35.
+Préchac in _Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire_, XXVIII.
+Mackenzie in _Ausonia_, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff.
+Mackenzie in _Memnon_, Vol. II, fasc. 3.
+Mackenzie in _Papers of the British School of Rome_, V, pp. 89 ff.
+Taramelli, _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju).
+Colini in _Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXIV, pp. 252 ff.
+
+
+                                CORSICA
+
+_Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques_, Vol. III,
+1892, pp. 49 ff.
+
+
+                                PIANOSA
+_Bullettino di Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 281 ff.
+
+
+                                 MALTA
+
+Mayr, A., _Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmäler von Malta_.
+Mayr, A., _Die Insel Malta_.
+Zammit, _First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum_.
+Tagliaferro, _The Prehistoric Pottery found in the
+    Hypogeum at Halsaflieni_, in _Annals of Archæology
+    and Anthropology_, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff.
+Zammit and Peet, _Report on the small objects found
+    at Halsaflieni_ (Valletta, in the Press).
+Magri, _Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo_.
+Ashby, T., and others, _Report on Excavations at
+    Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim_, appearing
+    in Vol. VI of _Papers of the British School of Rome_.
+Peet, _Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric
+    Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of
+    Rome_, V, pp. 141 ff.
+Tagliaferro, _Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez_,
+    in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff.
+
+
+                             NORTH AFRICA
+
+Faidherbe in _Compte rendu du congrès d'archéologie
+    préhistorique_, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff.
+Flower in _Transactions of the International Congress
+of Prehistoric Archæology_, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff.
+MacIver and Wilkin, _Libyan Notes_.
+
+
+                                MOROCCO
+
+_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, V, p. 342;
+    VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112.
+
+
+                                 TUNIS
+
+Cartailhac in _L'Anthropologie_, 1903, pp. 620 ff.
+Carton in _L'Anthropologie_, 1891, pp. 1 ff.
+_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, XXI, Pl. VI;
+    XXII, pp. 373 and 416.
+
+
+                           EGYPT AND THE SUDAN
+
+Wilson and Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan_,
+    Vol. II, p. 123.
+de Morgan, _Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte_, p. 239, Fig. 398.
+
+
+                               PANTELLERIA
+
+Orsi in _Monumenti Antichi_, IX, pp. 449 ff.
+
+
+                                LAMPEDUSA
+
+Ashby in _Annals of Archæology and Anthropology_, Vol. IV.
+
+
+                                 BULGARIA
+
+_Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in
+    Wien_, 1888, pp. 285 ff.
+_L'Anthropologie_, 1890, p. 110.
+
+
+                                  CRIMEA
+
+Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722.
+
+
+                            CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA
+
+Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_,
+    Vol. I, pp. 50 ff.
+Chantre in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen
+     Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 344.
+_Matériaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1885, pp. 545 ff.
+Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722.
+
+
+                            SYRIA AND PALESTINE
+
+_Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports_ for
+    1882; _Annual_, 1911, pp. 1 ff.
+Conder, _Heth and Moab_, pp. 190, 293.
+Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9.
+
+
+                                  PERSIA
+
+de Morgan in _Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie
+    de Paris_, 1902, p. 187.
+de Morgan, _La délégation en Perse_, 1902.
+de Morgan, _L'histoire d'Elam_, Paris, 1902.
+
+
+                                  INDIA
+
+_Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, XXIV, 1865.
+Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_.
+
+
+                                  COREA
+
+_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, XXIV, p. 330.
+
+
+                                  JAPAN
+
+Gowland in _Archæologia_, LV, pp. 439 ff.
+Gowland in _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, 1907, pp. 10 ff.
+
+
+
+
+                                  INDEX
+
+Abbameiga, 85
+Aberdeen, circles near, 38
+Adrianople, 114
+Africa, 90-6
+Aiga, 85
+Ain Dakkar, 117
+Ainu, the, 122
+Ala Safat, 116
+Alemtejo, 71
+Algeria, 91-5
+_Alignements_, 3, 59-60, 89,
+   119-20, 124, 154-7
+_Allées couvertes_, 3, 61, 64
+Altar Stone at Stonehenge, 18
+Altmark, 57
+Ammân, 117
+Ammon, 115
+Anghelu Ruju, 88
+Anglesey, 27, 29
+Annaclochmullin, 145
+Antequera, 70
+Arbor Low, 25
+Arcturus, 50, 51
+Arles, 64
+Arles, Council of, 12
+Arran, circles on, 35-6
+Arthur, King, 11, 25
+Arthur's Quoit, 29
+Asia, 114-22
+Atreus, Treasury of, 157
+Aurelius Ambrosius, 15
+Avebury, 23-4, 27-8
+Avening, 33, 127
+Axe, cult of, 137-8
+Axe-shaped pendants, 80, 112
+Axevalla Heath, 54
+
+
+Baetyls, 104, 105-6, 137
+Balearic Isles, 71-5
+Barnstone, the, 36-7
+Barrows, long, 30-3
+Barth, 90
+Belgium, 58
+Bellary, 118
+Bell-shaped cup, 64, 81, 136
+Beltane festival, 37
+Benigaus Nou, 74
+Bertrand, 64, 143
+Birori, 82, 133
+Bisceglie, 76
+Bonstetten, 143
+Borreby, 54-5
+Boscawen-un, 26
+Bou Merzoug, 92
+Bou Nouara, 91
+Boyle Somerville, Captain, 50
+Brittany, 59-60
+Brogar, Ring of, 36-7
+Broholm, 54
+Bulgaria, 114
+Button, conical, 42, 71, 111, 135
+
+
+Cæsar, 27
+Cairns, horned, 38-9
+Caithness, cairns of, 38-9
+_Callaïs_, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 132
+Callernish Circle, 34
+Calvados, 64
+Camster, 39
+Can de Ceyrac, 60
+Caouria, 89
+Capella, 50, 51
+Carnac, 13, 59-60
+Carrick-a-Dhirra, 43
+Carrickard, 45
+Carrickglass, 41
+Carrigalla, 49
+Carrowmore, 41-2
+Cashtal-yn-Ard, 145
+Cassibile, 80
+Castelluccio, 80, 81
+Castor, 50
+Caucasus, 114
+Cava Lavinaro, 78
+Cava Lazzaro, 78
+Cave burial, 81, 88
+Chagford, 29
+Champ Dolent, menhir of, 13
+Channel Isles, 67
+Charlemagne, 12
+Charlton's Abbott, 33
+China, 122
+Chittore, 119
+Chun Quoit, 29
+Circles, stone, 15-28, 34-8, 48-51,
+   60, 96, 115
+Cirta, 92
+Clava, 37
+Clynnog Fawr, 128
+Collorgues, 137
+Constantine, 91
+Contracted burials, 33, 54, 62, 77, 80,
+  81, 93, 97, 111, 140-1, 153
+Coolback, 43
+Corbelled roofs, 6, 32, 45, 48,
+  69, 73, 84, 86, 87, 102-3
+Cordin, 105, 108
+Corea, 122
+Cornwall, dolmens in, 29
+  monuments of, 26
+Corridor-tombs, 3, 43-8, 52-5, 56-8,
+  62-4, 67-71, 76-7, 96, 118, 120-2
+Corse, Cape, 89
+Corsica, 88-9
+Coursed masonry, use of, 5, 73, 82
+Cove, the, 25
+Cremation, 35, 42, 66, 140
+Crete, 113, 132, 142, 155, 157
+Crickstone, the, 30
+Crimea, 114
+Cromlechs, 3
+Cumberland, monuments of, 25
+Cup-markings, 117, 127-8
+Cyprus, 155
+Cyrenaica, 91
+
+
+Dance Maen Circle, 26
+Date of megaliths, 123
+Dax, 64
+Deccan, 118-9
+Déchelette, 139, 151
+de Morgan, 90
+Denmark, 53-5
+Dennis, 76
+Der Ghuzaleh, 116
+Dolmens, 2, 29, 40-1, 52-3, 56, 58, 61, 67-8,
+    82, 89, 90, 91-6, 108, 114-9
+Drawings on stones, 46, 48, 55, 62, 110
+Drewsteignton, 29
+Druids, 11, 27-8
+
+
+Edfu, 90
+Eguilaz, 68
+Egypt, 155
+Ellez, 96
+England, monuments of, 15-33
+Erdeven, 60
+Er-Lanic, 60
+Eskimos, 126
+Es Tudons, _nau_ of, 73-4
+Evans, Sir Arthur, 20, 105
+
+
+Façades, curved, 78, 145-6
+Faidherbe, General, 143
+Faustina, medal of, 95
+Féraud, M., 92-3
+Fergusson, 28, 143
+Fibrolite, 63
+Finistère, dolmens of, 13
+Fontanaccia, 89
+Fonte Coberta, 68
+Forbes Leslie, Colonel, 119
+France, 59-67
+Friar's Heel, 18, 21
+
+
+Galilee, 115
+Gargantua, 11
+Gaulstown, 41
+Gavr'inis, 62, 137
+Gebel Mousa, 116
+Geoffrey of Monmouth, 26
+Ger, 64
+Germany, 56-7
+Get, 39
+Gezer, 124
+Giant's Bed, 56
+Giant's Tombs, 87-8
+Gigantia, 104
+
+Giraldus Cambrensis, 15
+Göhlitzsch, 137
+Gozo, Is., 104
+Greenland, 125
+Grewismühlen, 56
+Grotte des Fées, 64, 74
+Grotte du Castellet, 64
+
+
+Hagiar Kim, 6, 103-4
+Hakpen Hill, 24, 27
+Halsaflieni, 108-13, 130
+Hauptville's Quoit, 25
+Hengist, 15
+Herrestrup, 53
+Highwood, 45
+Hinks, Mr., 22
+Hirdmane Stone, 13
+Holed tombs, 77, 114, 116, 117, 126-7
+Holland, 57-8
+Horned cairns, 146
+_Hünenbetter_, 45, 56-8
+Hurlers, the, 26
+
+
+Idanha a Nova, 139
+India, 118-20
+Inigo Jones, 27
+Inverness, circles in, 37-8
+Ireland, monuments of, 40-51
+Iron, 39, 46, 93, 119
+Italy, 76-7
+
+
+Jadeite, 63
+James I, 27
+Japan, 120-2
+Jaulân, 117
+Jimmu, 121
+Judæa, 115
+
+
+Karleby, 54
+Karnak (Egypt), 22
+Keamcorravooly, 44
+Keller, 56
+Kennet Avenue, 24
+Kerlescan, 60
+Kermario, 60
+Keswick Circle, 25
+Khasi Hills, 119
+Kingarth, circle at, 36
+Kirkabrost, circle at, 36
+Kit's Coty House, 29
+Knyttkärr, 55
+Komei, 121
+Kosseir, 118
+
+
+Labbamologa, 43
+Ladò, 90
+Lampedusa, Isle of, 96
+Lanyon Quoit, 29, 127
+La Perotte, 7
+Leaba Callighe, 43
+Lecce, 76
+Lewis, Isle of, 34
+Linosa, Isle of, 96, 132
+Lockyer, Sir Norman, 21-2, 51
+Long Meg and her daughters, 25
+Losa, 85
+Los Millares, 70, 137, 145
+Lough Crew, 45, 48, 62
+Lough Gur, 48-51
+Lozère, 130
+Lundhöj, 55
+Lüttich, 58
+
+
+MacIver, D.R., 93-4
+Mackenzie, Duncan, 85, 152, 153
+Maeshowe, 36-7
+Malta, 98-113
+Man, Isle of, 30
+Mané-er-Hroeck, 62-3
+Marcella, 68
+Matera, 77
+Maughold, 30
+Mayborough Circle, 25
+Mayr, Albert, 105
+Meayll Hill, 30
+Melilli, 80
+Men-an-tol, 30
+Ménec, 59
+Menhirs, 2, 29, 59, 115-6, 123-4
+  cult of, 12, 123-4
+Merivale, circle at, 26
+Merlin, 15
+Merry Maidens, the, 26
+Messa, 90
+Minieh, 116
+Mnaidra, 100-3
+Moab, 115-7
+Molafà, 88
+Monte Abrahaõ, 71
+Montelius, O., 126, 151, 153
+Monteracello, 78
+Morocco, 96
+Mortillet, de, 59, 144
+Mourzouk, 90
+Msila, 93
+Munster, tombs of, 44
+Mursia, 97
+Musta, 108
+Mycenean vases, 81
+
+
+Naas, 15
+Nantes, Council of, 12
+Nara, 121
+_Naus_, 73-4, 145
+_Navetas_, see _Naus_
+Neermul jungle, 118
+Newbliss, 145
+New Grange, 46, 62
+Nile valley, 90
+Nilgiri Hills, 118
+Nine Maidens, the, 26
+Nissardi, 84
+Norway, 53
+Nossiu, 85, 87
+_Nuraghi_, 82-7
+
+
+Obsidian, 77, 134
+Odin's Stone, 11, 36
+Orkney Isles, cairns of, 38-9
+Orry's Grave, 30, 127
+Orsi, Paolo, 78, 79
+Orthostatic slabs, use of, 4, 69, 74,
+   80, 96, 100
+
+
+Palmella, 71
+Pantalica, 80, 155
+Pantelleria, Isle of, 96-8
+Papa-Westra, 39
+Pehada, 114
+Penrith Circle, 11
+Pentre Ifan, 29
+Pera, 115
+Périgord, 13
+Persia, 114
+Petit Morin, 66-7, 130
+Pfäffikon, Lake, 56
+Phoenicia, 154
+Pianosa, 89
+Picardt, John, 57
+Pierre du Diable, La, 58
+Pierres Plates, Les, 61
+Piper, the, 26
+Plas Newydd, 29, 127
+Plemmirio, 155
+Pliny, 27
+Portico-dolmens, 40-1, 52, 119
+Portugal, 67
+Pottery, 135-6
+
+
+Reinach, Salomon, 144
+Religion, megalithic, 105-6, 137-9
+Rhodes, 154
+Rinaiou, 89
+Rock-tombs, 3, 66-7, 71, 74, 79-81, 88
+Rockbarton, 48
+Rodmarton, 33, 127
+Roknia, 94
+Rollright Circle, 25, 29, 50
+
+
+Saint George, 88
+Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, 12
+Saint Michel, Mont, 63
+Saint Pantaléon, 60
+Saint Sermin, 139
+Saint Vincent, 74
+Sant' Elia, Cape, 88
+Sardinia, 82-8
+S'Aspru, 85
+Scandinavia, 52-5
+Scotland, monuments of, 34-9
+Sculptures, 67, 138
+Secondary burial, 79, 141-2
+Senâm, the, 93-4
+Seriphos, 139
+Serucci, 85
+_Sesi_, the, 97-8
+Shap, circle at, 23
+Sicily, 77-82
+Sidbury Hill, 21
+Sidon, 115
+Siggewi, 108
+Silbury Hill, 24, 28
+Siret, Messieurs, 68
+Sjöbol, 53
+Skulls, 77, 112, 129-31
+Sorapoor, 118
+Spain, 67-71
+Spence, Magnus, 37
+Stanton Drew, 25, 49
+Star-worship, 23, 50-1, 128
+Steatopygous figures, 107, 112
+Stenness, Ring of, 36
+Stonehenge, 15-23
+Stoney-Littleton, 32
+Stripple Stones, the, 26
+Stromness, circle at, 36
+Stukeley, Dr., 27
+Su Cadalanu, 84
+Sudan, 90
+Suetonius, 27
+Sun-worship, 21-3, 28-9, 37, 51
+Sweden, 52-5
+Switzerland, 56
+Syria, 115-8
+
+
+Table des Marchands, La, 16, 137
+Tagliaferro, Professor, 108, 111
+Tahutihotep, tomb of, 8
+_Talayots_, 71-3
+Tamuli, 139
+Tangier, 96
+Tarentum, 76
+Tattooing, 139
+"Three Brothers of Grugith," the, 128
+Tiberias, 115
+Tinaarloo, 57
+Toledo, Council of, 12
+Torebo, 53
+Tours, Council of, 12
+Trade relations, 131-3
+Tregeseal, circles near, 26
+Trepanned skulls, 62
+Trilithons, 2, 17, 90, 100-1, 103-4, 117
+Tripoli, 90-1
+_Truddhi_, 86
+Tsîl, 117-8
+Tunis, 95-6
+Tyfta, 54
+Tyre, 115
+Tzarskaya, 114
+
+
+Unebi, Mt., 121
+
+
+Vail Gorguina, 67
+Vellore, 118
+Villafrati, 81
+Villages, megalithic, 74, 85-6, 97
+
+
+Wales, monuments of, 29
+Watchstone, the, 36-7
+Wayland the Smith's Cave, 11, 14, 30, 32
+Wedge-shaped tomb, 44-5, 55, 70-1, 117
+Westgothland, 54
+West Tump, 146
+
+
+Yarhouse, 39
+
+
+Zammit, Dr. T., 112
+
+
+
+
+                     WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.
+                         PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH
+
+
+
+
+           ------------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |      HARPER'S LIBRARY OF LIVING THOUGHT       |
+           |                                               |
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+           |    Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather     |
+           |                 3s. 6d. net._                 |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |           By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D.         |
+           |(Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons)|
+           |                                               |
+           |             ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                _Illustrated_                  |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | From discoveries of ancient human remains     |
+           | made within the last half-century,            |
+           | anthropologists are now able to place in      |
+           | order changes that have taken place in the    |
+           | posture, gait, height, and to some extent     |
+           | the habits of man during a period of at       |
+           | least a half-million years. Prof. Keith, who  |
+           | is one of the foremost investigators in this  |
+           | field, tells the story of the various forms   |
+           | which the body of the man has assumed, in a   |
+           | lucid and attractive way.                     |
+           |                                               |
+           | "The kind of book that only a master of his   |
+           | subject could write. It must interest every   |
+           | thinking person."--_British Medical           |
+           | Journal._                                     |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |         By Prof W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE          |
+           |                                               |
+           |          PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT           |
+           |              BEFORE CHRISTIANITY              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | "The author gauges what ideas were already    |
+           | part of the religious thought in the first    |
+           | century, and what were the terms and ideas    |
+           | in Christianity which were new to mankind.    |
+           | The current literature of the time was as     |
+           | naturally taken for granted by Christians as  |
+           | were the books of the Old Testament which     |
+           | were familiar to them. The separation of the  |
+           | new ideas in the teaching of Christ and of    |
+           | the Apostles from the general terms of        |
+           | religion at the time, is the only road to     |
+           | understanding what Christianity meant to      |
+           | those who actually heard the teaching."       |
+           |                                               |
+           |                           _Notts Guardian._   |
+           |                                               |
+           | "A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a   |
+           | real contribution to the study of             |
+           | comparative religion."                        |
+           |                                               |
+           |                        _Methodist Recorder._  |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+            -----------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |          By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER           |
+           |                                               |
+           |       RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE      |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | "Anything from such an authority on Greek     |
+           | art is welcome. This subject in the hands of  |
+           | Professor Gardner becomes a profoundly        |
+           | interesting study in the philosophy of        |
+           | religion. He has dealt with the religion of   |
+           | Greece as it affected the art of sculpture,   |
+           | and with the reaction of that art upon the    |
+           | ideals and aspirations of the people and its  |
+           | influence upon the popular and the educated   |
+           | conceptions of the gods. It is well worth     |
+           | the trouble to study the religious art of     |
+           | such a people, and this is an epitome of the  |
+           | subject such as readers can get nowhere       |
+           | else."                                        |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                 _Scotsman._   |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |      Harper's Library of Living Thought       |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |         By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE         |
+           |                                               |
+           |        THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION        |
+           |                                               |
+           |                 _Illustrated_                 |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | In the light of history--so enormously        |
+           | extended in recent years--the author surveys  |
+           | the waxing and waning of civilisation as      |
+           | evidenced in sculpture, painting,             |
+           | literature, mechanics, and wealth. In         |
+           | tracing the various forces at work in this    |
+           | fluctuation he arrives at most significant    |
+           | conclusions, notably in connection with race  |
+           | mixture and forms of government.              |
+           |                                               |
+           | "We know nothing that exhibits in so brief a  |
+           | compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of     |
+           | human progress and retrogression since the    |
+           | dawn of history."--_Birmingham Post._         |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+           ------------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |         By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and        |
+           |         HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D.        |
+           |                                               |
+           |        CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE        |
+           |                                               |
+           |               _Map, Plans, etc._              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | "The wondrous story of a great civilisation   |
+           | which flourished before Abraham was born,     |
+           | and left behind a memory of itself in the     |
+           | Arts of Ancient Greece and in the traditions  |
+           | of a golden age and a 'Lost                   |
+           | Atlantis.'"--_Evening Standard._              |
+           |                                               |
+           | "We have now the material for forming a very  |
+           | fair conception of the fruitful contribution  |
+           | made by Crete to Grecian and European         |
+           | civilisation. What was long accounted         |
+           | fable--statements of Herodotus and            |
+           | Thucydides--have been turned into             |
+           | established fact. The book supplies material  |
+           | for forming judgments on some of the most     |
+           | interesting and still highly debated          |
+           | problems of early Greek history."             |
+           |                             _Glasgow Herald._ |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+
+           -------------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |           By Prof. G. ELLIOT SMITH            |
+           |                                               |
+           |            THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                _Illustrated_                  |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | An account of the Egyptians of the            |
+           | unrecorded past as revealed by the            |
+           | investigations of the anthropologist. The     |
+           | author traces to their source the various     |
+           | streams of alien immigrants which made their  |
+           | way into the Nile valley, and correlates his  |
+           | facts with the great racial movements in the  |
+           | neighbouring continents. He shows how the     |
+           | Egyptians inaugurated a higher                |
+           | civilisation--particularly in bringing the    |
+           | Stone Age to a close and introducing the use  |
+           | of metals.                                    |
+           |                                               |
+           | "This is a brilliant little book,             |
+           | illuminating the whole subject of the         |
+           | history of the human race since man assumed   |
+           | his proper shape."--_Manchester Guardian._    |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |  Algernon Charles Swinburne                   |
+           |     THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE                |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Leo Tolstoy                                  |
+           |      THE TEACHING OF JESUS                    |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie                   |
+           |      PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE        |
+           |        CHRISTIANITY                           |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.                     |
+           |      THE ETHER OF SPACE.  Illustrated         |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. William Wrede                          |
+           |   (University of Breslau)                     |
+           |      THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. C.H. Becker                            |
+           |   (Colonial Institute, Hamburg)               |
+           |      CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM                   |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Svante Arrhenius                       |
+           |   (Nobel Institute, Stockholm)                |
+           |      THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE.                |
+           |        2 vols. Illustrated                    |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich)    |
+           |       JESUS OR PAUL?                          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. D.A. Bertholet (University of Basle)   |
+           |      THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS              |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Reinhold Seeberg                       |
+           |    (University of Berlin)                     |
+           |      REVELATION AND INSPIRATION               |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Johannes Weiss                         |
+           |   (University of Heidelberg)                  |
+           |       PAUL AND JESUS                          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Rudolph Eucken (University of Jena)    |
+           |       CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University)     |
+           |       ROMAN LAW IN MEDIÆVAL EUROPE            |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., LL.D.     |
+           |      DIAMONDS. Illustrated                    |
+           |                                               |
+           |       _PLEASE WRITE FOR PROSPECTUS            |
+           |            AND ANNOUNCEMENTS_                 |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |  C.H. Hawes, M.A., and                        |
+           |  Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A.                     |
+           |    CRETE THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE. Maps, etc. |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir William A. Tilden, F.R.S.                |
+           |    THE ELEMENTS: Speculations as to their     |
+           |      Nature and Origin.  Illustrated          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Ernest A. Gardner                      |
+           |   (University of London)                      |
+           |     RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE        |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. F.W. Mott, F.R.S., M.D.                |
+           |    THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND      |
+           |      SONG.  Illustrated                       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. G. Elliott Smith                       |
+           |   (University of Manchester)                  |
+           |     THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, and their          |
+           |       Influence upon the Civilisation         |
+           |       of Europe.  Illustrated                 |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Frederick Czapek                       |
+           |   (University of Prague)                      |
+           |     CHEMICAL PHENOMENA IN LIFE                |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie                   |
+           |     THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION.          |
+           |       Copiously Illustrated                   |
+           |                                               |
+           |  The Very Rev. the Hon. W.H. Fremantle, D.D.  |
+           |    (Dean of Ripon)                            |
+           |      NATURAL CHRISTIANITY                     |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. A.W. Bickerton                         |
+           |      THE BIRTH OF WORLDS AND SYSTEMS.         |
+           |        Illustrated.                           |
+           |        Preface by Prof. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Arthur Keith, M.D.                     |
+           |      ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN.  Illustrated       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S.                   |
+           |      ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONS.  Diagrams        |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Arthur Holmes, B.Sc.                         |
+           |      THE AGE OF THE EARTH.  Illustrated       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  T. Eric Peet, M.A.                           |
+           |      ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND                |
+           |        THEIR BUILDERS.  Illustrated           |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |           :: HARPER AND BROTHERS ::           |
+           |          45 Albemarle St: London, W.          |
+           |             Franklin Sq. New York             |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rough Stone Monuments and Their
+Builders, by T. Eric Peet
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND ***
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+Project Gutenberg's Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders, by T. Eric Peet
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders
+
+Author: T. Eric Peet
+
+Release Date: April 8, 2005 [EBook #15590]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
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+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="Cover"><tr><td>
+<div class="cover">
+<h1 class="down1">ROUGH STONE&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br /> MONUMENTS&nbsp;&nbsp;<br /> AND THEIR&nbsp;&nbsp;<br /> BUILDERS&nbsp;&nbsp;</h1>
+<h2 class="down2">T. ERIC PEET&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>
+<h2 class="down3">HARPER &amp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br /> BROTHERS&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>
+<h4 class="down4">LONDON &amp; NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</h4>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<!-- FRONTISPIECE -->
+
+<div><a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="600" height="305" alt="Frontispiece" title="Frontispiece" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Photo">
+<tr><td class="photo_left">Photo</td><td class="photo_attribution">Graphotone Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Stonehenge from the South-east</b></span><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td><i>Frontispiece.</i></td><td></td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+
+<h1>ROUGH STONE<br />
+MONUMENTS<br />
+AND THEIR<br />
+BUILDERS<br /><br /></h1>
+
+
+<h3>BY<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<h2>T. ERIC PEET</h2>
+
+
+<p class="center"><small>
+FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD;<br />
+LATELY CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY<br />
+OF OXFORD AND PELHAM STUDENT AT<br />
+THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ROME</small><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<big>HARPER&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&amp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;BROTHERS<br />
+LONDON AND NEW YORK</big><br />
+45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W.<br />
+1912<br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Published October, 1912</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The aim of this volume is to enable those
+who are interested in Stonehenge and
+other great stone monuments of England to
+learn something of the similar buildings which
+exist in different parts of the world, of the men
+who constructed them, and of the great arch&aelig;ological
+system of which they form a part. It is
+hoped that to the arch&aelig;ologist it may be useful
+as a complete though brief sketch of our present
+knowledge of the megalithic monuments, and as
+a short treatment of the problems which arise in
+connection with them.</p>
+
+<p>To British readers it is unnecessary to give any
+justification for the comparatively full treatment
+accorded to the monuments of Great Britain and
+Ireland. Malta and Sardinia may perhaps seem
+to occupy more than their due share of space,
+but the usurpation is justified by the magnificence
+and the intrinsic interest of their megalithic
+buildings. Being of singularly complicated types
+and remarkably well preserved they naturally
+tell us much more of their builders than do the
+simpler monuments of other larger and now more
+important countries. In these two islands,
+moreover, research has in the last few years been
+extremely active, and it is felt that the accounts
+here given of them will contain some material
+new even to the arch&aelig;ologist.</p>
+
+<p>In order to assist those readers who may wish
+to follow out the subject in greater detail a short
+bibliography has been added to the book.</p>
+
+<p>For the figures and photographs with which
+this volume is illustrated I have to thank many
+arch&aelig;ological societies and individual scholars.
+Plate III and part of Plate II I owe to the kindness
+of Dr. Zammit, Director of the Museum of
+Valletta, while the other part of Plate II is from
+a photograph kindly lent to me by Dr. Ashby.
+I have to thank the Society of Antiquaries for
+Figures 1 and 3, the Reale Accademia dei Lincei
+for Figures 17 and 20, and the Soci&eacute;t&eacute; pr&eacute;historique
+de France, through Dr. Marcel Baudouin, for
+Figure 10. I am indebted to the Royal Irish
+Academy for Figure 8, to the Committee of the
+British School of Rome for Figure 18, and to Dr.
+Albert Mayr and the Akademie der Wissenschaften
+in Munich for the plan of Mnaidra. Professors
+Montelius, Siret and Cartailhac I have
+to thank not only for permission to reproduce
+illustrations from their works, but also for their
+kind interest in my volume. Figure 19 I owe to
+my friend Dr. Randall MacIver. The frontispiece
+and Plate I are fine photographs by Messrs. The
+Graphotone Co., Ltd.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I must not forget to thank
+Canon F. F. Grensted for much help with regard
+to the astronomical problems connected with
+Stonehenge.</p>
+
+<p class="sig"><big>T. Eric Peet.</big></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="address">Liverpool,</span><br />
+<i>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;August</i> 10<i>th</i>,  1912.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div><h2><a name="contents" id="contents"></a>CONTENTS.</h2></div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="8" summary="ToC">
+<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td align='center'></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>I.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Introduction</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_001">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>II.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Stonehenge and other great stone monuments in England and Wales</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_015">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>III.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Megalithic monuments in Scotland and Ireland</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_034">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>IV.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>The Scandinavian megalithic area</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>V.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>France, Spain and Portugal</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_059">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>VI.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Italy and its islands</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_076">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>VII.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Africa, Malta, and the smaller Mediterranean islands</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_090">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>VIII.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>The Dolmens of Asia</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>IX.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>The builders of the megalithic monuments, their habits, customs, religion, etc.</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><b>X.</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Who were the builders, and whence did they come?</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Bibliography</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'><span class="smcap"><b>Index</b></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_167">167</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div><h2><a name="illustrations" id="illustrations"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2></div>
+
+<div><h3>PLATES</h3></div>
+
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="8" summary="ToC">
+<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='right'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='left'>Stonehenge from the south-east</td><td align='right'><a href="#frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'></td><td align='center'></td><td align='right'><small>FACING PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Stonehenge from the south-west</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_1">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Mnaidra, doorway of Room H.</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_2a">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The <i>Nuraghe</i> of Madrone in Sardinia</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_2b">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of chief room</td><td align='right'><a href="#plate_3">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><small>Figure</small></td><td align='center'></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>1.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of Stonehenge</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_016">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>2.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Avebury and Kennet Avenue</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_023">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>3.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plans of English Long Barrows</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_031">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>4.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Horned tumulus, Caithness</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_039">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>5.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plans of three dolmen-types</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_040">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>6.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Type-plan of simple corridor-tomb</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_042">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>7.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_044">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>8.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_047">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>9.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Corridor-tomb at Ottag&aring;rden, Sweden</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_053">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>10.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of La Pierre aux F&eacute;es, Oise, France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_061">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>11.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_063">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>12.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of La Grotte des F&eacute;es, Arles, France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_065">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>13.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>The so-called dolmen-deity, Petit Morin, France</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_066">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>14.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_069">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>15.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Section and plan of a <i>talayot</i>, Majorca</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_072">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>16.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Section and plan of the <i>nau</i> d'Es Tudons</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_073">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>17.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Elevation, section and plan of a Sardinian <i>nuraghe</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>18.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_087">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>19.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of stone circle at the Sen&acirc;m, Algeria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_094">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>20.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_097">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>21.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Plan of the Sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_099">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>22.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat</td><td align='right'><a href="#Pg_115">115</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_001" id="Pg_001" title="Pg_001">[1]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ROUGH_STONE_MONUMENTS" id="ROUGH_STONE_MONUMENTS"></a>ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTION<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>To the south of Salisbury Plain, about two
+miles west of the small country town of
+Amesbury, lies the great stone circle of Stonehenge.
+For centuries it has been an object of
+wonder and admiration, and even to-day it is one
+of the sights of our country. Perhaps, however,
+few of those who have heard of Stonehenge or
+even of those who have visited it are aware that
+it is but a unit in a vast crowd of megalithic
+monuments which, in space, extends from the
+west of Europe to India, and, in time, covers
+possibly more than a thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>What exactly is a megalithic monument?
+Strictly speaking, it is a building made of very
+large stones. This definition would, of course,
+include numbers of buildings of the present day
+and of the medieval and classical periods, while
+many of the Egyptian pyramids and temples
+would at once suggest themselves as excellent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_002" id="Pg_002" title="Pg_002">[2]</a></span>examples of this type of building. The arch&aelig;ologist,
+however, uses the term in a much more
+limited sense. He confines it to a series of tombs
+and buildings constructed in Western Asia, in
+North Africa, and in certain parts of Europe,
+towards the end of the neolithic period and during
+part of the copper and bronze ages which followed
+it. The structures are usually, though not quite
+invariably, made of large blocks of unworked or
+slightly worked stone, and they conform to certain
+definite types. The best known of these types
+are as follows: Firstly, the menhir, which is a
+tall, rough pillar of stone with its base fixed into
+the earth. Secondly, the trilithon, which consists
+of a pair of tall stones set at a short distance
+apart supporting a third stone laid across the top.
+Thirdly, the dolmen, which is a single slab of
+stone supported by several others arranged in
+such a way as to enclose a space or chamber
+beneath it. Some English writers apply the term
+cromlech to such a structure, quite incorrectly.
+Both menhir and dolmen are Breton words, these
+two types of megalithic monument being particularly
+frequent in Brittany. Menhir is derived
+from the Breton <i>men</i>, a stone, and <i>hir</i>, long;
+similarly dolmen is from <i>dol</i>, a table, and <i>men</i>, a
+stone. Some arch&aelig;ologists also apply the word
+dolmen to rectangular chambers roofed with more
+than one slab. We have carefully avoided this
+practice, always classing such chambers as corridor-tombs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_003" id="Pg_003" title="Pg_003">[3]</a></span>of an elementary type. Fourthly, we have
+the corridor-tomb (<i>Ganggrab</i>), which usually
+consists of a chamber entered by a gallery or
+corridor. In cases where the chamber is no wider
+than, and hence indistinguishable from the
+corridor, the tomb becomes a long rectangular
+gallery, and answers to the French <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i>
+in the strict sense. Fifthly, we come to the
+<i>alignement</i>, in which a series of menhirs is arranged
+in open lines on some definite system. We shall
+find a famous example of this at Morbihan in
+Brittany. Sixthly, there is the cromlech (from
+<i>crom</i>, curve, and <i>lec'h</i>, a stone), which consists
+of a number of menhirs arranged to enclose a
+space, circular, elliptical or, in rare cases, rectangular.</p>
+
+<p>These are the chief types of megalithic monument,
+but there are others which, though clearly
+belonging to the same class of structure, show
+special forms and are more complicated. They
+are in many cases developments of one or more
+of the simple types, and will be treated specially
+in their proper places. Such monuments are the
+<i>nuraghi</i> of Sardinia and the 'temples' of Malta
+and Gozo.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the rock-hewn sepulchre is often classed
+with the megalithic monuments, and it is therefore
+frequently mentioned in the following pages.
+This is justified by the fact that it generally
+occurs in connection with megalithic structures.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_004" id="Pg_004" title="Pg_004">[4]</a></span>The exact relation in which it stands to them will
+be fully discussed in the last chapter.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>We have now to consider what may be called
+the architectural methods of the megalithic
+builders, for although in dealing with such primitive
+monuments it would perhaps be exaggeration
+to speak of a style, yet there were certain principles
+which were as carefully and as invariably
+observed as were in later days those of the Doric
+or the Gothic styles in the countries where they
+took root.</p>
+
+<p>The first and most important principle, that on
+which the whole of the megalithic construction
+may be said to be based, is the use of the orthostatic
+block, i.e. the block set up on its edge.
+It is clear that in this way each block or slab is
+made to provide the maximum of wall area at
+the expense of the thickness of the wall. Naturally,
+in districts where the rock is of a slabby nature
+blocks of a more or less uniform thickness lay
+ready to the builders' hand, and the appearance
+of the structure was much more finished than it
+would be in places where the rock had a less
+regular fracture or where shapeless boulders had
+to be relied on. The orthostatic slabs were often
+deeply sunk into the ground where this consisted
+of earth or soft rock; of the latter case there are
+good examples at Stonehenge, where the rock is a
+soft chalk. When the ground had an uneven
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_005" id="Pg_005" title="Pg_005">[5]</a></span>surface of hard rock, the slabs were set upright on
+it and small stones wedged in beneath them to
+make them stand firm. Occasionally, as at
+Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, a course of horizontal
+blocks set at the foot of the uprights served to
+keep them more securely in position. With the
+upright block technique went hand in hand the
+roofing of narrow spaces by means of horizontal
+slabs laid across the top of the uprights.</p>
+
+<p>The second principle of megalithic architecture
+was the use of more or less coursed masonry set
+without mortar, each block lying on its side and
+not on its edge. It is quite possible that this
+principle is less ancient in origin than that of the
+orthostatic slab, for it usually occurs in structures
+of a more advanced type. Thus in simple and
+primitive types of building such as the dolmen
+it is most rare to find dry masonry, but in the
+advanced corridor-tombs of Ireland, the Giants'
+Graves and <i>nuraghi</i> of Sardinia, and in the
+'temples' of Malta this technique is largely used,
+often in combination with the upright slab system.
+Indeed, this combination is quite typical of the
+best megalithic work: a series of uprights is
+first set in position, and over this are laid several
+horizontal courses of rather smaller stones. We
+must note that the dry masonry which we are
+describing is still strictly megalithic, as the blocks
+used are never small and often of enormous size.</p>
+
+<p>Buildings in which this system is used are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_006" id="Pg_006" title="Pg_006">[6]</a></span>occasionally roofed with slabs, but more often
+corbelling is employed. At a certain height each
+succeeding course in the wall begins to project
+inwards over the last, so that the walls, as it were,
+lean together and finally meet to form a false
+barrel-vault or a false dome, according as the
+structure is rectangular or round. Occasionally,
+when the building was wide, it was impossible
+to corbel the walls sufficiently to make them meet.
+In this case they were corbelled as far as possible
+and the open space still left was covered with
+long flat slabs.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been commented on as a matter of
+wonder that a people living in the stone age, or
+at the best possessing a few simple tools of metal,
+should have been able to move and place in
+position such enormous blocks of stone. With
+modern cranes and traction engines all would be
+simple, but it might have been thought that in
+the stone age such building would be impossible.
+Thus, for instance, in the 'temple' of Hagiar Kim
+in Malta, there is one block of stone which measures
+21 feet by 9, and must weigh many tons. In
+reality there is little that is marvellous in the
+moving and setting up of these blocks, for the
+tools needed are ready to the hand of every
+savage; but there is something to wonder at
+and to admire in the patience displayed and in
+the organization necessary to carry out such vast
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_007" id="Pg_007" title="Pg_007">[7]</a></span>pieces of labour. Great, indeed, must have been
+the power of the cult which could combine the
+force of hundreds and even thousands of individuals
+for long periods of time in the construction
+of the great megalithic temples. Perhaps slave
+labour played a part in the work, but in any case
+it is clear that we are in the presence of strongly
+organized governments backed by a powerful
+religion which required the building of temples for
+the gods and vast tombs for the dead.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider for a moment what was the
+procedure in building a simple megalithic monument.
+It was fourfold, for it involved the finding
+and possibly the quarrying of the stones, the
+moving of them to the desired spot, the erection
+of the uprights in their places, and the placing of
+the cover-slab or slabs on top of them.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the first step it is probable that
+in most cases the place chosen for a tomb or
+cemetery was one in which numbers of great
+stones lay on the surface ready to hand. By this
+means labour was greatly economized. On the
+other hand, there are certainly cases where the
+stones were brought long distances in order to
+be used. Thus, in Charente in France there is at
+La Perotte a block weighing nearly 40 tons which
+must have travelled over 18 miles. We have no
+evidence as to whether stones were ever actually
+quarried. If they were, the means used must
+have been the stone axe, fire, and water. It was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_008" id="Pg_008" title="Pg_008">[8]</a></span>not usual in the older and simpler dolmens to dress
+the stones in any way, though in the later and
+more complicated structures well-worked blocks
+were often used.</p>
+
+<p>The required stones having been found it was
+now necessary to move them to the spot. This
+could be done in two ways. The first and
+simpler is that which we see pictured on Egyptian
+monuments, such as the tomb of Tahutihotep at
+El Bersheh. A rough road of beams is laid in the
+required direction, and wooden rollers are placed
+under the stone on this road. Large numbers of
+men or oxen then drag the stone along by means
+of ropes attached to it. Other labourers assist
+the work from behind with levers, and replace the
+rollers in front of the stone as fast as they pass
+out behind. Those who have seen the modern
+Arabs in excavation work move huge blocks with
+wooden levers and palm-leaf rope will realize that
+for the building of the dolmens little was needed
+except numbers and time.</p>
+
+<p>The other method of moving the stones is as
+follows: a gentle slope of hard earth covered
+with wet clay is built with its higher extremity
+close beside the block to be moved. As many men
+as there is room for stand on each side of the
+block, and with levers resting on beams or stones
+as fulcra, raise the stone vertically as far as possible.
+Other men then fill up the space beneath it with
+earth and stones. The process is next repeated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_009" id="Pg_009" title="Pg_009">[9]</a></span>with higher fulcra, until the stone is level with the
+top of the clay slope, on to which it is then slipped.
+With a little help it now slides down the inclined
+plane to the bottom. Here a fresh slope is built,
+and the whole procedure is gone through again.
+The method can even be used on a slight uphill
+gradient. It requires less dragging and more
+vertical raising than the other, and would thus
+be more useful where oxen were unobtainable.</p>
+
+<p>When the stones were once on the spot it is not
+hard to imagine how they were set upright with
+levers and ropes. The placing of the cover-slab
+was, however, a more complicated matter. The
+method employed was probably to build a slope
+of earth leading up from one side to the already
+erected uprights and almost covering them. Up
+this the slab could be moved by means of rollers,
+ropes, and levers, until it was in position over the
+uprights. The slope could then be removed.
+If the dolmen was to be partly or wholly covered
+with a mound, as some certainly were, it would
+not even be necessary to remove the slope.</p>
+
+<p>Roughly speaking, the extension of megalithic
+monuments is from Spain to Japan and from
+Sweden to Algeria. These are naturally merely
+limits, and it must not be supposed that the
+regions which lie between them all contain megalithic
+monuments. More exactly, we find them
+in Asia, in Japan, Corea, India, Persia, Syria, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_010" id="Pg_010" title="Pg_010">[10]</a></span>Palestine. In Africa we have them along the
+whole of the north coast, from Tripoli to Morocco;
+inland they are not recorded, except for one
+possible example in Egypt and several in the
+Soudan. In Europe the distribution of dolmens
+and other megalithic monuments is wide. They
+occur in the Caucasus and the Crimea, and quite
+lately examples have been recorded in Bulgaria.
+There are none in Greece, and only a few in Italy,
+in the extreme south-east corner. The islands,
+however, which lie around and to the south of
+Italy afford many examples: Corsica, Sardinia,
+Malta, Gozo, Pantelleria, and Lampedusa are
+strongholds of the megalithic civilization, and it
+is possible that Sicily should be included in the
+list. Moving westward we find innumerable
+examples in the Spanish Peninsula and in France.
+To the north we find them frequent in the British
+Isles, Sweden, Denmark, and North Germany;
+they are rarer in Holland and Belgium. Two
+examples have been reported from Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>It is only to be expected that these great
+megalithic monuments of a prehistoric age should
+excite the wonder and stimulate the imagination
+of those who see them. In all countries and at all
+times they have been centres of story and legend,
+and even at the present day many strange beliefs
+concerning them are to be found among the
+peasantry who live around them. Salomon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_011" id="Pg_011" title="Pg_011">[11]</a></span>Reinach has written a remarkable essay on this
+question, and the following examples are mainly
+drawn from the collection he has there made.
+The names given to the monuments often show
+clearly the ideas with which they are associated in
+the minds of the peasants. Thus the Penrith circle
+is locally known as "Meg and her Daughters,"
+a dolmen in Berkshire is called "Wayland the
+Smith's Cave," while in one of the Orkney Isles
+is a menhir named "Odin's Stone." In France
+many are connected with Gargantua, whose name,
+the origin of which is doubtful, stands clearly for
+a giant. Thus we find a rock called the "Chair of
+Gargantua," a menhir called "Gargantua's Little
+Finger," and an <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i> called "Gargantua's
+Tomb." Names indicating connections with fairies,
+virgins, witches, dwarfs, devils, saints, druids,
+and even historical persons are frequent. Dolmens
+are often "houses of dwarfs," a name perhaps
+suggested or at least helped by the small holes
+cut in some of them; they are "huts" or "caves
+of fairies," they are "kitchens" or "forges of the
+devil," while menhirs are called his arrows, and
+cromlechs his cauldrons. In France we have
+stones of various saints, while in England many
+monuments are connected with King Arthur.
+A dolmen in Wales is his quoit; the circle at
+Penrith is his round table, and that of Caermarthen
+is his park. Both in England and France we
+find stones and altars "of the druids"; in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_012" id="Pg_012" title="Pg_012">[12]</a></span>Pyrenees, in Spain, and in Africa there are "graves
+of the Gentiles" or "tombs of idolaters"; in
+Arles (France) the <i>all&eacute;es couvertes</i> are called
+"prisons" or "shops of the Saracens," and the
+dolmens of the Eastern Pyrenees are locally
+known as "huts of the Moors." Dolmens in
+India are often "stones of the monkeys," and in
+France there are "wolves' altars," "wolves'
+houses," and "wolves' tables."</p>
+
+<p>Passing now to more definite beliefs connected
+with megalithic monuments, we may notice that
+from quite early times they have been&mdash;as indeed
+they often are still&mdash;regarded with fear and
+respect, and even worshipped. In certain parts
+of France peasants are afraid to shelter under the
+dolmens, and never think of approaching them by
+night. In early Christian days there must have
+been a cult of the menhir, for the councils of
+Arles (A.D. 452), of Tours (A.D. 567), and of
+Nantes (A.D. 658) all condemn the cult of trees,
+springs, and <i>stones</i>. In A.D. 789 Charlemagne
+attempted to suppress stone-worship, and to
+destroy the stones themselves. In Spain, where,
+as in France, megalithic monuments are common,
+the councils of Toledo in A.D. 681 and 682 condemned
+the "Worshippers of Stones." Moreover
+there are many cases in which a monument itself
+bears traces of having been the centre of a cult
+in early or medieval times. The best example is
+perhaps the dolmen of Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_013" id="Pg_013" title="Pg_013">[13]</a></span>which was transformed into a chapel about the
+twelfth century. Similar transformations have
+been made in Spain. In many cases, too, crosses
+have been placed or engraved on menhirs in order
+to "Christianize" them.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable powers and virtues have been
+attributed to many of the monuments. One of
+the dolmens of Finist&egrave;re is said to cure rheumatism
+in anyone who rubs against the loftiest of its
+stones, and another heals fever patients who sleep
+under it. Stones with holes pierced in them are
+believed to be peculiarly effective, and it suffices
+to pass the diseased limb or, when possible, the
+invalid himself through the hole.</p>
+
+<p>Oaths sworn in or near a megalithic monument
+have a peculiar sanctity. In Scotland as late as
+the year A.D. 1438 "John off Erwyne and Will
+Bernardson swor on the Hirdmane Stein before
+oure Lorde ye Erie off Orknay and the gentiless
+off the cuntre."</p>
+
+<p>Many of the monuments are endowed by the
+credulous with life. The menhir du Champ Dolent
+sinks an inch every hundred years. Others say
+that a piece of it is eaten by the moon each night,
+and that when it is completely devoured the Last
+Judgment will take place. The stones of Carnac
+bathe in the sea once a year, and many of those
+of the P&eacute;rigord leap three times each day at noon.</p>
+
+<p>We have already remarked on the connection
+of the monuments with dwarfs, giants, and mythical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_014" id="Pg_014" title="Pg_014">[14]</a></span>personages. There is an excellent example
+in our own country in Berkshire. Here when a
+horse has cast a shoe the rider must leave it in
+front of the dolmen called "The Cave of Wayland
+the Smith," placing at the same time a coin on
+the cover-stone. He must then retire for a suitable
+period, after which he returns to find the horse
+shod and the money gone.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_015" id="Pg_015" title="Pg_015">[15]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE<br />
+MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>Stonehenge, the most famous of our
+English megalithic monuments, has excited
+the attention of the historian and the legend-lover
+since early times. According to some of the
+medieval historians it was erected by Aurelius
+Ambrosius to the memory of a number of British
+chiefs whom Hengist and his Saxons treacherously
+murdered in A.D. 462. Others add that Ambrosius
+himself was buried there. Giraldus Cambrensis,
+who wrote in the twelfth century, mingles these
+accounts with myth. He says, "There was in
+Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy
+of admiration called the Giants' Dance, because
+giants from the remotest part of Africa brought
+them to Ireland, and in the plains of Kildare, not
+far from the castle of Naas, miraculously set them
+up.... These stones (according to the British
+history) Aurelius Ambrosius, King of the Britons,
+procured Merlin by supernatural means to bring
+from Ireland to Britain."</p>
+
+<p>From the present ruined state of Stonehenge
+it is not possible to state with certainty what was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_016" id="Pg_016" title="Pg_016">[16]</a></span>the original arrangement, but it is probable that
+it was approximately as follows (see <a href="#frontispiece">frontispiece</a>):</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 1 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_1" id="figure_1"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_01.png" width="600" height="624" alt="figure_1" title="Figure 1" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 1.</b> </span><b>Plan of Stonehenge in 1901. (After <i>Arch&aelig;ologia</i>.)</b><br /> <b>The dotted stones are of porphyritic diabase.</b></td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>There was an outer circle of about thirty worked
+upright stones of square section (Fig. I). On each
+pair of these rested a horizontal block, but only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_017" id="Pg_017" title="Pg_017">[17]</a></span>five now remain in position. These 'lintels' probably
+formed a continuous architrave (Pl. I). The
+diameter of this outer circle is about 97&frac12; feet,
+inner measurement. The stones used are sarsens
+or blocks of sandstone, such as are to be found
+lying about in many parts of the district round
+Stonehenge.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<!-- Plate 1 -->
+
+<div><a name="plate_1" id="plate_1"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/plate_01.jpg" width="600" height="365" alt="Plate_1" title="Plate 1" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate">
+<tr><td class="photo_left">Photo</td><td class="photo_attribution">Graphotone Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Stonehenge from the South-west</b></span><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="photo_left"><b>Plate I</b></td><td class="photo_attribution">To face p. 17</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Well within this circle stood the five huge
+trilithons (<i>a-e</i>), arranged in the form of a horseshoe
+with its open side to the north-east. Each
+trilithon, as the name implies, consists of three
+stones, two of which are uprights, the third being
+laid horizontally across the top. The height of
+the trilithons varies from 16 to 21&frac12; feet, the lowest
+being the two that stand at the open end of the
+horseshoe, and the highest that which is at the
+apex. Here again all the stones are sarsens and
+all are carefully worked. On the top end of each
+upright of the trilithons is an accurately cut tenon
+which dovetails into two mortices cut one at each
+end of the lower surface of the horizontal block.
+Each upright of the outer circle had a double
+tenon, and the lintels, besides being morticed to
+take these tenons, were also dovetailed each into
+its two neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>Within the horseshoe and close up to it stand
+the famous blue-stones, now twelve in number,
+but originally perhaps more. These stones are
+not so high as the trilithons, the tallest reaching
+only 7&frac12; feet. They are nearly all of porphyritic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_018" id="Pg_018" title="Pg_018">[18]</a></span>diabase. It has often been asserted that these
+blue-stones must have been brought to Stonehenge
+from a distance, as they do not occur anywhere
+in the district. Some have suggested that they
+came from Wales or Cornwall, or even by sea from
+Ireland. Now, the recent excavations have
+shown that the blue-stones were brought to
+Stonehenge in a rough state, and that all the
+trimming was done on the spot where they were
+erected. It seems unlikely that if they had been
+brought from a distance the rough trimming
+should not have been done on the spot where they
+were found, in order to decrease their weight for
+transport. It is therefore possible that the stones
+were erratic blocks found near Stonehenge.</p>
+
+<p>Within the horseshoe, and near its apex, lies
+the famous "Altar Stone" (A), a block measuring
+about 16 feet by 4. Between the horseshoe and
+the outer circle another circle of diabase stones is
+sometimes said to have existed, but very little
+of it now remains.</p>
+
+<p>The whole building is surrounded by a rampart
+of earth several feet high, forming a circle about
+300 feet in diameter. An avenue still 1200 feet
+in length, bordered by two walls of earth, leads
+up to the rampart from the north-east. On the
+axis of this avenue and nearly at its extremity
+stands the upright stone known as the Friar's Heel.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901, in the course of repairing the central
+trilithon, careful excavations were carried out over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_019" id="Pg_019" title="Pg_019">[19]</a></span>a small area at Stonehenge. More than a hundred
+stone implements were found, of which the majority
+were flint axes, probably used for dressing the
+softer of the sandstone blocks, and also for excavating
+the chalk into which the uprights were
+set. About thirty hammer-stones suitable for
+holding in the hand were found. These were
+doubtless used for dressing the surface of the
+blocks. Most remarkable of all were the 'mauls,'
+large boulders weighing from 36 to 64 pounds,
+used for smashing blocks and also for removing
+large chips from the surfaces. Several antlers of
+deer were found, one of which had been worn
+down by use as a pickaxe.</p>
+
+<p>These excavations made it clear that the blue-stones
+had been shaped on the spot, whereas the
+sarsens had been roughly prepared at the place
+where they were found, and only finished off on
+the spot where they were erected.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>What is the date of the erection of Stonehenge?
+The finding of so many implements of flint in the
+excavations of 1901 shows that the structure
+belongs to a period when flint was still largely
+used. The occurrence of a stain of oxide of copper
+on a worked block of stone at a depth of 7 feet
+does not necessarily prove that the stones were
+erected in the bronze age, for the stain may have
+been caused by the disintegration of malachite
+and not of metallic copper. At the same time,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_020" id="Pg_020" title="Pg_020">[20]</a></span>we must not infer from the frequency of the flint
+implements that metal was unknown, for flint
+continued to be used far on into the early metal
+age. Moreover, flint tools when worn out were
+simply thrown aside on the spot, while those of
+metal were carefully set apart for sharpening or
+re-casting, and are thus seldom found in large
+numbers in an excavation. We have, therefore,
+no means of accurately determining the date of
+Stonehenge; all that can be said is that the
+occurrence of flint in such large quantities points
+either to the neolithic age or to a comparatively
+early date in the copper or bronze period. It is
+unlikely that stone tools would play such a
+considerable r&ocirc;le in the late bronze or the iron
+age.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time it must not be forgotten that
+Sir Arthur Evans has spoken in favour of a date
+in the first half of the third century B.C. He
+believes that the great circles are religious monuments
+which in form developed out of the round
+barrows, and that Stonehenge is therefore much
+later than some at least of the round barrows
+around it. That it is earlier than others is clear
+from the occurrence in some of them of chips
+from the sarsen stones. He therefore places its
+building late in the round barrow period, and sees
+confirmation of this in the fact that the round
+barrows which surround the monument are not
+grouped in regular fashion around it, as they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_021" id="Pg_021" title="Pg_021">[21]</a></span>should have been had they been later in
+date.</p>
+
+<p>Many attempts have been made to date the
+monuments by means of astronomy. All these
+start from the assumption that it was erected in
+connection with the worship of the sun, or at least
+in order to take certain observations with regard
+to the sun. Sir Norman Lockyer noticed that
+the avenue at Stonehenge pointed approximately
+to the spot where the sun rises at the midsummer
+solstice, and therefore thought that Stonehenge
+was erected to observe this midsummer rising.
+If he could find the exact direction of the avenue
+he would know where the sun rose at midsummer
+in the year when the circle was built. From this
+he could easily fix the date, for, owing to the
+precession of the equinoxes, the point of the midsummer
+rising is continually altering, and the
+position for any year being known the date of
+that year can be found astronomically. But how
+was the precise direction of this very irregular
+avenue to be fixed? The line from the altar stone
+to the Friar's Heel, which is popularly supposed
+to point to the midsummer rising, has certainly
+never done so in the last ten thousand years, and
+therefore could not be used as the direction of the
+avenue. Eventually Sir Norman decided to use
+a line from the centre of the circle to a modern
+benchmark on Sidbury Hill, eight miles north-east
+of Stonehenge. On this line the sun rose in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_022" id="Pg_022" title="Pg_022">[22]</a></span>1680 B.C. with a possible error of two hundred
+years each way: this Sir Norman takes to be
+the date of Stonehenge.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Norman's reasoning has been severely
+handled by his fellow-astronomer Mr. Hinks, who
+points out that the direction chosen for the
+avenue is purely arbitrary, since Sidbury Hill has
+no connection with Stonehenge at all. Moreover,
+Sir Norman determines sunrise for Stonehenge as
+being the instant when the edge of the sun's disk
+first appears, while in his attempts to date the
+Egyptian temple of Karnak he defined it as the
+moment when the sun's centre reached the horizon.
+We cannot say which alternative the builders
+would have chosen, and therefore we cannot
+determine the date of building.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Norman Lockyer has since modified his
+views. He now argues that the trilithons and
+outer circle are later additions to an earlier
+temple to which the blue-stones belong. This
+earlier temple was made to observe "primarily
+but not exclusively the May year," while the later
+temple "represented a change of cult, and was
+dedicated primarily to the solstitial year." This
+view seems to be disproved by the excavations of
+1901, which made it clear that the trilithons were
+erected before and not after the blue-stones.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is more likely than that the builders
+of the megaliths had some knowledge of the
+movements of the sun in connection with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_023" id="Pg_023" title="Pg_023">[23]</a></span>seasons, and that their priests or wise men determined
+for them, by observing the sun, the times
+of sowing, reaping, etc., as they do among many
+savage tribes at the present day. They may
+have been worshippers of the sun, and their
+temples may have contained 'observation lines'
+for determining certain of his movements. But
+the attempt to date the monuments from such
+lines involves so many assumptions and is affected
+by so many disturbing elements that it can never
+have a serious value for the arch&aelig;ologist. The
+uncertainty is even greater in the case of temples
+supposed to be oriented by some star, for in this
+case there is almost always a choice of two or
+more bright stars, giving the most divergent results.</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 2 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_2" id="figure_2"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_02.png" width="600" height="179" alt="figure_2" title="Figure 2" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 2.</b></span> <b>Avebury and the Kennet Avenue. (After Sir R. Colt Hoare.)</b></td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Next in importance to Stonehenge comes the
+huge but now almost destroyed circle of Avebury
+(Fig. 2). Its area is five times as great as that of
+St. Peter's in Rome, and a quarter of a million
+people could stand within it. It consists in the
+first place of a rampart of earth roughly circular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_024" id="Pg_024" title="Pg_024">[24]</a></span>in form and with a diameter of about 1200 feet.
+Within this is a ditch, and close on the inner edge
+of this was a circle of about a hundred upright
+stones. Within this circle were two pairs of concentric
+circles with their centres slightly east of the
+north-and-south diameter of the great circle. The
+diameters of the outer circles of these two pairs are
+350 and 325 feet respectively. In the centre of
+the northern pair was a cover-slab supported by
+three uprights, and in the centre of the southern a
+single menhir. All the stones used are sarsens,
+such as are strewn everywhere over the district.</p>
+
+<p>An avenue flanked by two rows of stones ran
+in a south-easterly direction from the rampart
+towards the village of Kennet for a distance of
+about 1430 yards in a straight line.</p>
+
+<p>At a distance of 1200 yards due south from
+Avebury Circle stands the famous artificial mound
+called Silbury Hill. It is 552 feet in diameter,
+130 in height, and has a flat top 102 feet across.
+A pit was driven down into its centre in 1777,
+and in 1849 a trench was cut into it from the south
+side to the centre, but neither gave any result.
+It is quite possible that there are burials in the
+mound, whether in megalithic chambers or not.</p>
+
+<p>South-west of Avebury is Hakpen Hill, where
+there once stood two concentric ellipses of stones.
+A straight avenue is said to have run from these
+in a north-westerly direction. Whether these
+three monuments near Avebury have any connection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_025" id="Pg_025" title="Pg_025">[25]</a></span>with one another and, if so, what this
+connection is, is unknown.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>There are many other circles in England, but
+we have only space to mention briefly some of the
+more important. At Rollright, in Oxfordshire,
+there is a circle 100 feet in diameter with a tall
+menhir 50 yards to the north-east. Derbyshire
+possesses a famous monument, that of Arbor Low,
+where a circle is surrounded by a rampart and
+ditch, while that of Stanton Drew in Somerset
+consists of a great circle A and two smaller circles
+B and C. The line joining the centres of B and A
+passes through a menhir called Hauptville's
+Quoit away to the north-east, while that which
+joins the centres of C and A cuts a group of three
+menhirs called The Cove, lying to the south-west.</p>
+
+<p>In Cumberland there are several circles. One
+of these, 330 feet in diameter with an outstanding
+menhir, is known as "Long Meg and her
+Daughters." Another, the Mayborough Circle,
+is of much the same size, but consists of a tall
+monolith in the centre of a rampart formed entirely
+of rather small water-worn stones. A
+similar circle not far from this is known as King
+Arthur's Round Table; here, however, there is
+no monolith. Near Keswick there is a finely
+preserved circle, and at Shap there seems to have
+existed a large circle with an avenue of stones
+running for over a mile to the north.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_026" id="Pg_026" title="Pg_026">[26]</a></span>Cornwall possesses a number of fine monuments.
+The most celebrated is the Dance Maen Circle,
+which is 76 feet in diameter and has two monoliths
+to the north-east, out of sight of the circle, but
+stated to be in a straight line with its centre.
+Local tradition calls the circle "The Merry
+Maidens," and has it that the stones are girls
+turned into stones for dancing on Sunday: the
+two monoliths are called the Pipers. The three
+circles known as the Hurlers lie close together
+with their centres nearly in a straight line in the
+direction N.N.E. by S.S.W. At Boscawen-un,
+near Penzance, is a circle called the Nine Maidens,
+and two circles near Tregeseal have the same
+name. Another well-known circle in Cornwall is
+called the Stripple Stones: the circle stands on a
+platform of earth surrounded by a ditch, outside
+which is a rampart. In the centre is a menhir
+12 feet in height.</p>
+
+<p>At Merivale, in Somersetshire, there are the
+remains of a small circle, to the north of which
+lie two almost parallel double lines of menhirs,
+running about E.N.E. by W.S.W., the more
+southerly of the two lines overlapping the other
+at both extremities.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>With what purpose were these great circles
+erected? We have already mentioned the curious
+belief of Geoffrey of Monmouth with regard to
+Stonehenge, and we may pass on to more modern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_027" id="Pg_027" title="Pg_027">[27]</a></span>theories. James I was once taken to see Stonehenge
+when on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke
+at Wilton. He was so interested that he ordered
+his architect Inigo Jones to enquire into its date
+and purpose. The architect's conclusion was that
+it was a Roman temple "dedicated to the god
+Caelus and built after the Tuscan order."</p>
+
+<p>Many years later Dr. Stukeley started a theory
+which has not entirely been abandoned at the
+present day. For him Stonehenge and other stone
+circles were temples of the druids. This was in
+itself by no means a ridiculous theory, but Stukeley
+went further than this. Relying on a quaint story
+in Pliny wherein the druids of Gaul are said to
+use as a charm a certain magic egg manufactured
+by snakes, he imagined that the druids were
+serpent-worshippers, and essayed to see serpents
+even in the forms of their temples. Thus in the
+Avebury group the circle on Hakpen Hill was
+for him the head of a snake and its avenue part
+of the body. The Avebury circles were coils in
+the body, which was completed by the addition
+of imaginary stones and avenues. He also attempted
+with even less success to see the form of
+a serpent in other British circle groups.</p>
+
+<p>The druids, as we gather from the rather scanty
+references in C&aelig;sar and other Roman authors,
+were priests of the Celts in Gaul. Suetonius
+further speaks of druids in Anglesey, and tradition
+has it that in Wales and Ireland there were druids
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_028" id="Pg_028" title="Pg_028">[28]</a></span>in pre-Christian times. But that druids ever
+existed in England or in a tithe of the places in
+which megalithic circles and other monuments
+occur is unlikely. At the same time, it is not
+impossible that some of the circles of Ireland,
+Wales, and France were afterwards used by the
+druids as suitable places for meeting and preaching.</p>
+
+<p>Fergusson in his great work <i>Rude Stone Monuments</i>
+held a remarkable view as to the purpose
+of the British stone circles. He believed that they
+were partly Roman in date, and that some of
+them at least marked the scene of battles fought
+by King Arthur against the Saxons. Thus, for
+example, he says with regard to Avebury, "I
+feel it will come eventually to be acknowledged
+that those who fell in Arthur's twelfth and greatest
+battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and that
+those who survived raised these stones and the
+mound of Silbury in the vain hope that they
+would convey to their latest posterity the memory
+of their prowess." It is hardly necessary to take
+this view seriously nowadays. Stonehenge, which
+Fergusson attributes to the same late era, has
+been proved by excavation to be prehistoric in
+origin, and with it naturally go the rest of the
+megalithic circles of England, except where there
+is any certain proof to the contrary.</p>
+
+<p>The most probable theory is that the circles
+are religious monuments of some kind. What the
+nature of the worship carried on in them was it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_029" id="Pg_029" title="Pg_029">[29]</a></span>quite impossible to determine. It may be that
+some at least were built near the graves of deified
+heroes to whose worship they were consecrated.
+On the other hand, it is possible that they were
+temples dedicated to the sun or to others of the
+heavenly bodies. Whether they served for the
+taking of astronomical observations or not is a
+question which cannot be decided with certainty,
+though the frequency with which menhirs occur
+in directions roughly north-east of the circles is
+considered by some as a sign of connection with
+the watching of solar phenomena.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Dolmens of simple type are not common in
+England, though they occur with comparative
+frequency in Wales, where the best known are
+the so-called Arthur's Quoit near Swansea, the
+dolmen of Pentre Ifan in Pembrokeshire, and that
+of Plas Newydd on the Menai Strait: in Anglesey
+they are quite common. In England we have
+numerous examples in Cornwall, especially west
+of Falmouth, among which are Chun Quoit and
+Lanyon Quoit. There are dolmens at Chagford
+and Drewsteignton in Devonshire, and there is
+one near the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the so-called cromlechs of England
+are not true dolmens, but the remains of tombs
+of more complicated types. Thus the famous
+Kit's Coty House in Kent was certainly not a
+dolmen, though it is now impossible to say what
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_030" id="Pg_030" title="Pg_030">[30]</a></span>its form was. Wayland the Smith's Cave was
+probably a three-chambered corridor-tomb covered
+with a mound. The famous Men-an-tol in Cornwall
+may well be all that is left of a chamber-tomb
+of some kind. It is a slab about 3&frac12; feet
+square, in which is a hole 1&frac12; feet in diameter.
+There are other stones standing or lying around it.
+It is known to the peasants as the Crickstone,
+for it was said to cure sufferers from rickets or
+crick in the back if they passed nine times through
+the hole in a direction against the sun. The Isle
+of Man possesses a fine sepulchral monument on
+Meayll Hill. It consist of six T-shaped chamber-tombs
+arranged in a circle with entrances to the
+north and south. There is also a corridor-tomb,
+known as King Orry's Grave, at Laxey, and
+another with a semicircular fa&ccedil;ade at Maughold.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Among the megalithic monuments of our
+islands the chambered barrows hold an important
+place. It is well known that in the neolithic
+period the dead in certain parts of England were
+buried under mounds of not circular but elongated
+shape. These graves are commonest in Wiltshire
+and the surrounding counties of Dorsetshire,
+Somersetshire, and Gloucestershire. A few exist
+in other counties. Some contain no chamber,
+while others contain a structure of the megalithic
+type. It is with these latter that we have here to
+deal. Chambered long barrows are most frequent
+in Wiltshire, though they do occur in other
+counties, as, for example, Buckinghamshire, where
+the famous Cave of Wayland the Smith is certainly
+the remains of a barrow of this kind. In
+Derbyshire and Staffordshire a type of chambered
+mound does occur, but it seems uncertain from
+the description given whether it is round or
+elongated.</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_031" id="Pg_031" title="Pg_031">[31]</a></span></div>
+
+<!-- Figure 3 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_3" id="figure_3"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_03.png" width="474" height="700" alt="figure_3" title="Figure 3" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="474" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 3.</b></span>
+<b>(<i>a</i>)&mdash;Barrow at Stoney Littleton, Somersetshire.
+(<i>b</i>)&mdash;Barrow at Rodmarton, Gloucestershire. (<i>c</i>)&mdash;Chambers
+of barrow at Uley, Gloucestershire. (After Thurnam, <i>Arch&aelig;ologia,</i>
+XLII.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_032" id="Pg_032" title="Pg_032">[32]</a></span></div>
+
+<p>Turning first to the Wiltshire and Gloucestershire
+group of barrows we find that they are usually
+from 120 to 200 feet in length and from 30 to 60
+in breadth. In some cases there is a wall of dry
+stone-masonry around the foot of the mound and
+outside this a ditch. The megalithic chambers
+within the mound are of three types. In the
+first there is a central gallery entering the mound
+at its thicker end and leading to a chamber or
+series of chambers (Fig. 3, <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>). Where this
+gallery enters the mound there is a cusp-shaped
+break in the outline of the mound as marked by
+the dry walling, and the entrance is closed by a
+stone block. The chambers are formed of large
+slabs set up on edge. Occasionally there are
+spaces between successive slabs, and these are
+filled up with dry masonry. The roof is made
+either by laying large slabs across the tops of the
+sides or by corbelling with smaller slabs as at
+Stoney Littleton.</p>
+
+<p>In the second type of chambered barrow there
+is no central corridor, but chambers are built in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_033" id="Pg_033" title="Pg_033">[33]</a></span>opposite pairs on the outside edge of the mound
+and opening outwards (Fig. 3, <i>b</i>). The two best
+known examples of this are the tumuli of Avening
+and of Rodmarton.</p>
+
+<p>In the third type of barrow there is no chamber
+connected with the outside, but its place is taken
+by several dolmens&mdash;so small as to be mere cists&mdash;within
+the mound.</p>
+
+<p>The burials in these barrows seem to have been
+without exception inhumations. The body was
+placed in the crouched position, either sitting up
+or reclining. In an untouched chamber at Rodmarton
+were found as many as thirteen bodies,
+and in the eastern chamber at Charlton's Abbott
+there were twelve. With the bodies lay pottery,
+vases, and implements of flint and bone.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_034" id="Pg_034" title="Pg_034">[34]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>The stone circles of Scotland have been
+divided into three types&mdash;the Western
+Scottish, consisting of a rather irregular ring or
+pair of concentric rings; the Inverness type, in
+which a chamber entered by a straight passage
+is covered by a round tumulus with a retaining
+wall of stone, the whole being surrounded by a
+regular stone circle; and the Aberdeen type,
+which is similar to the last, but has a 'recumbent'
+stone between two of the uprights of its
+outer circle.</p>
+
+<p>The first type occurs in the southern counties,
+in the islands of the west and north coasts, and
+also extends into Argyll and Perthshire. The
+most famous example is the Callernish Circle in
+the Isle of Lewis. The circle is formed by
+thirteen stones from 12 to 15 feet high, and its
+centre is marked by an upright 17 feet high. From
+the circle extends a line of four stones to the east
+and another to the west. To the south runs a
+line of five uprights and several fallen stones,
+and to the N.N.E. runs a double line, forming
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_035" id="Pg_035" title="Pg_035">[35]</a></span>as it were an avenue with nine stones on one side
+and ten on the other, but having no entrance to
+the circle. Inside the circle, between the central
+stone and the east side of the ring, is what is
+described as a cruciform grave with three cells
+under a low tumulus. In this tomb were found
+fragments of human bone apparently burnt.
+It has been suggested that the tomb is not part
+of the original structure, but was added later.</p>
+
+<p>The native tradition about this circle as repeated
+by Martin in 1700 was that it was a druidical
+place of worship, and that the chief druid stood
+near the central stone to address the assembled
+people. This tradition seems to have now disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>In the island of Arran, between Brodick and
+Lamlash, is a damaged circle 21 feet in diameter.
+At a distance of 60 feet from its circumference in a
+direction 35&deg; east of south is a stone 4 feet
+high. In the centre of the circle was found a
+cist cut in the underlying rock containing bluish
+earth and pieces of bone. Above were an implement
+and some fragments of flint.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side of the island there were still
+in 1860 remains of eight circles, five of sandstone
+and three of granite, quite close to one another.
+The diameter of the largest was 63 feet, and the
+highest stone reached 18 feet. One of them was
+a double ring. In four of them were found cists
+containing pottery, flint arrow-heads, a piece of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_036" id="Pg_036" title="Pg_036">[36]</a></span>a bronze pin, and some fragments of bone. Others
+appear to contain no cists.</p>
+
+<p>In the other islands of the west coast few circles
+seem to remain; there are, however, one at
+Kirkabrost in Skye, and another at Kingarth in
+Bute.</p>
+
+<p>At Stromness in Orkney is the famous circle
+called the Ring of Brogar. It originally consisted
+of sixty stones forming a circle 340 feet in
+diameter, outside which was a ditch 29 feet wide.
+In a direction 60&deg; east of south from the centre,
+and at a distance of 63 chains, is a standing stone
+called the Watchstone, 18 feet high, and 42 or 43
+chains further on in the same line is a second
+stone, the Barnstone, 15 feet high. To the left
+of this line are two stones apparently placed at
+random, and to the right are the few remaining
+blocks of the Ring of Stenness, somewhere to the
+north of which was the celebrated pierced block
+called the "Stone of Odin," destroyed early in
+the last century. At a distance of 42 or 43 chains
+to the north-east of the Barnstone lies the tumulus
+of Maeshowe. This tumulus conceals a long
+gallery leading into a rectangular chamber. The
+walls of this latter are built of horizontal courses
+of stones, except at the corners, where there are
+tall, vertically-placed slabs. The chamber has
+three niches or recesses, one on each of its closed
+sides. The roof is formed by corbelling the walls
+and finishing off with slabs laid across. If one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_037" id="Pg_037" title="Pg_037">[37]</a></span>sits within the chamber and looks in a direct line
+along the passage one sees the Barnstone.</p>
+
+<p>A series of measurements and alignments have
+been taken to connect the Maeshowe tumulus
+with the Ring of Brogar. Thus we have already
+seen that the distance from the Barnstone to the
+Watchstone is the same as from the Barnstone
+to the tumulus. Moreover, the Watchstone is
+equidistant from the ring and from the tumulus.
+Again, a line from the Barnstone to the tumulus
+passes through the point of the midsummer sunrise
+and also, on the other horizon, through the
+point of the setting sun ten days before the
+winter solstice; the line from the Watchstone to
+the Brogar Ring marks the setting of the sun at
+the Beltane festival in May and its rising ten days
+before the winter solstice, while the line from
+Maeshowe to the Watchstone is in the line of the
+equinoctial rising and setting. These alignments
+are the work of Mr. Magnus Spence; readers
+must choose what importance they will assign to
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The Inverness type of circle is entirely different
+from that of which we have been speaking. The
+finest examples were at Clava, seven miles from
+Inverness, where fifty years ago there were eight
+still in existence. One of these is still partly
+preserved. It consists of a circle 100 feet in
+diameter consisting of twelve stones. Within
+this is a cairn of stones with a circular retaining
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_038" id="Pg_038" title="Pg_038">[38]</a></span>wall of stone blocks 2 or 3 feet high. The cairn
+originally covered a circular stone chamber 12&frac12;
+feet in diameter entered by a straight passage
+on its south-west side. In other words, the Inverness
+monuments are simply chamber-tombs
+covered with a cairn and surrounded by a circle.</p>
+
+<p>Around Aberdeen we find the third type of
+circle. It consists of a cist-tomb covered by a
+low mound, often with a retaining wall of small
+blocks, but there is no entrance passage leading
+into the cist. Outside the whole is a circle of
+large upright blocks with this peculiarity, that
+between the two highest&mdash;generally to the south
+or slightly east of south&mdash;lies a long block on its
+side, occupying the whole interval between them.
+The uprights nearest this 'recumbent' block are
+the tallest in the circle, and the size of the rest
+decreases towards the north. Of thirty circles
+known near Aberdeen twenty-six still possess the
+'recumbent' stone, and in others it may originally
+have existed.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Passing now to monuments of more definitely
+sepulchral type we find that the dolmen is not
+frequent in Scotland, though several are known
+in the lowlands and in part of Argyllshire.</p>
+
+<p>To the long barrows of England answer in part
+at least the chambered cairns of Caithness and
+the Orkneys. The best known type is a long
+rectangular horned cairn (Fig. 4), of which there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_039" id="Pg_039" title="Pg_039">[39]</a></span>are two fine examples near Yarhouse. The largest
+is 240 feet in length. The chamber is circular,
+and roofed partly by corbelling and partly by
+a large slab. In the cairn of Get we have a shorter
+and wider example of the horned type. Another
+type is circular or elliptical. In a cairn of this
+sort at Canister an iron knife was found. On the
+Holm of Papa-Westra in the Orkneys there is an
+elliptical cairn of this kind containing a long
+rectangular chamber running along its major
+axis with seven small circular niches opening off
+it. The entrance passage lies on the minor axis
+of the barrow.</p>
+
+
+
+<!-- Figure 4 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_4" id="figure_4"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_04.png" width="600" height="435" alt="figure_4" title="Figure 4" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 4.</b></span>
+<b>Horned tumulus at Garrywhin, Caithness. (After Montelius.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_040" id="Pg_040" title="Pg_040">[40]</a></span>The megalithic monuments of Ireland are
+extremely numerous, and are found in almost
+every part of the country. They offer a particular
+interest from the fact that though they are of few
+different types they display all the stages by
+which the more complex were developed from the
+more simple. It must be remembered that most
+if not all the monuments we shall describe were
+originally covered by mounds of earth, though
+in most cases these have disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The simple dolmen is found in almost all parts
+of the country. Its single cover-slab is supported
+by a varying number of uprights, sometimes as
+few as three, oftener four or more. It is of great
+importance to notice the fact that here in Ireland,
+as elsewhere in the megalithic area, e.g. Sardinia,
+we have the round and rectangular dolmens in
+juxtaposition (Fig. 5, <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 5 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_5" id="figure_5"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_05.png" width="600" height="256" alt="figure_5" title="Figure 5" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 5.</b></span>
+<b>Type-plans of <i>(a)</i> the round dolmen; <i>(b)</i> the
+dolmen with portico; <i>(c)</i> the rectangular dolmen.</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Occasionally one of the end-blocks of the dolmen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_041" id="Pg_041" title="Pg_041">[41]</a></span>instead of just closing up the space between the
+two nearest side-blocks is pushed back between
+them so as to form with them a small three-sided
+portico outside the chamber, but still under the
+shelter of the cover-slab (Fig. 5, <i>b</i>). A good
+example of this exists at Gaulstown, Waterford,
+where a table-stone weighing 6 tons rests on six
+uprights, three of which form the little portico
+just described. The famous dolmen of Carrickglass,
+Sligo, is a still more developed example of
+this type. Here the chamber is an accurate rectangle,
+and the portico is formed by adding two
+side-slabs outside one of the end-slabs, but still
+under the cover. This last is a remarkable block
+of limestone weighing about 70 tons. This form
+of tomb is without doubt a link between the
+simple dolmen and the corridor-tomb. The
+portico was at first built under the slab by pushing
+an end-stone inwards. Then external side-stones
+formed the portico, though still under the slab.
+The next move was to construct the portico outside
+the slab. The portico then needed a roof, and the
+addition of a second cover to provide it completed
+the transition to the simpler corridor-tomb. In
+many cases the Irish simple dolmens were surrounded
+by a circle of upright stones. At Carrowmore,
+Sligo, there seems to have been a veritable
+cemetery of dolmen-tombs, each of which has
+one or more circles around it, the outermost being
+120 feet in diameter. The tombs in these Carrowmore
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_042" id="Pg_042" title="Pg_042">[42]</a></span>circles were not always simple dolmens,
+but often corridor-tombs of more or less complicated
+types. Their excavation has not given
+very definite results. In many cases human
+bones have been found in considerable quantities,
+sometimes in a calcined condition; but there is
+no real evidence to show that cremation was the
+burial rite practised. The calcination of human
+bones may well have been caused by the lighting
+of fires in the tomb, either at some funeral ceremony,
+or in even later days, when the place was
+used as a shelter for peasants. A few poor flints
+were found and a little pottery, together with
+many bones of animals and some pins and borers
+of bone. The most important find made, however,
+was a small conical button made of bone
+with two holes pierced in its flat side and meeting
+in the middle. It is a type which occurs in Europe
+only at the period of transition from the age of
+stone to that of bronze, and usually in connection
+with megalithic monuments.</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 6 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_6" id="figure_6"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_06.png" width="600" height="187" alt="figure_6" title="Figure 6" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 6.</b></span>
+<b>Type-plan of the simple rectangular
+corridor-tomb or <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i></b>.
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>We pass on now to consider the simplest form
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_043" id="Pg_043" title="Pg_043">[43]</a></span>of corridor-tomb, that in which there are several
+cover-slabs, but no separate chamber (Fig. 6).
+These tombs occur in most parts of Ireland. At
+Carrick-a-Dhirra, County Waterford, there is a
+perfect example of the most simple type. The
+tomb is exactly rectangular and lies east and west,
+with a length of 19 feet and a breadth of 7&frac12;. At
+each end is a single upright, and each long side
+consists of seven. The chamber thus formed is
+roofed by five slabs. The whole was surrounded
+by a circle of about twenty-six stones, and no
+doubt the chamber was originally covered by a
+mound. In a somewhat similar example at
+Coolback, Fermanagh, the remains of the elliptical
+cairn are still visible.</p>
+
+<p>But in most cases the plan of the corridor-tomb
+is complicated by a kind of outer lining of blocks
+which was added to it. Most of the monuments
+are so damaged that it is difficult to see what the
+exact form of this lining was. Whether it merely
+consisted of a line of upright blocks close around
+the sides of the chamber or whether these supported
+some further structure which covered up
+the whole chamber it is difficult to say. In some
+cases the roof-slab actually covers the outer line
+of blocks, and here it seems certain that this
+outer line served simply to reinforce the chamber
+walls, the space between being filled with earth
+or rubble. However, at Labbamologa, County
+Cork, is a tomb called Leaba Callighe, in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_044" id="Pg_044" title="Pg_044">[44]</a></span>this was certainly not the case. The length of
+the whole monument is about 42 feet. The slabs
+cover the inner walls of the chamber, but not
+the outer lining: this last forms a kind of outer
+shell to the whole monument. It is shaped roughly
+like a ship, and runs to a point at the east end,
+thus representing the bow. The west end is
+damaged, but may have been pointed like the
+east. The whole reminds one very forcibly of
+the <i>naus</i> of the Balearic Isles and the Giants'
+Graves of Sardinia. Occasionally the corridor-tomb
+has a kind of portico at its west end.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 7 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_7" id="figure_7"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_07.png" width="600" height="266" alt="figure_7" title="Figure 7" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 7.</b></span>
+<b>Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb. The roof
+slabs are two or more in number.</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In Munster the corridor-tomb takes a peculiar
+form (Fig. 7). It lies roughly east and west, and
+its two long sides are placed at a slight angle to one
+another in such a way that the west end is broader
+than the east. In a good example of this at
+Keamcorravooly, County Cork, there are two large
+capstones and the walls consist of double rows of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_045" id="Pg_045" title="Pg_045">[45]</a></span>slabs, the outer being still beneath the cover-slabs.
+On the upper surface of the covers
+are several small cup-shaped hollows, some of
+which at least have been produced artificially.</p>
+
+<p>These wedge-shaped structures are of remarkable
+interest, for exactly the same broadening
+of the west end is found in Scandinavia, in the
+<i>H&uuml;nenbetter</i> of Holland, in the corridor-tombs of
+Portugal, and in the dolmens of the Deccan in India.</p>
+
+<p>In some Irish tombs the corridor leads to a well-defined
+chamber. In a curious tomb at Carrickard,
+Sligo, the chamber was rectangular and lay across
+the end of the corridor in such a way as to form
+a T. The whole seems to have been covered with
+an oval mound. In another at Highwood in the
+same county a long corridor joins two small
+circular chambers, the total length being 44 feet.
+The corridor was once divided into four sections
+by cross-slabs. The cairn which covered this
+tomb was triangular in form.</p>
+
+<p>In the county of Meath, in the parish of Lough
+Crew, is a remarkable series of stone cairns extending
+for three miles along the Slieve-na-Callighe
+Hills. These cairns conceal chamber-tombs.
+The cairns themselves are roughly
+circular, and the largest have a circle of upright
+blocks round the base. The chambers are built
+of upright slabs and are roofed by corbelling.
+Cairn H covered a corridor leading to a chamber
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_046" id="Pg_046" title="Pg_046">[46]</a></span>and opening off on each side into a side-chamber,
+the whole group thus being cruciform. In these
+chambers were found human remains and objects
+of flint, bone, earthenware, amber, glass, bronze,
+and iron. Cairn L had a central corridor from
+which opened off seven chambers in a very irregular
+fashion. Cairn T consisted of a corridor leading
+to a fine octagonal chamber with small chambers
+off it on three sides.</p>
+
+<p>The chief interest of these tombs lies in the
+remarkable designs engraved on some of the stones
+of the passages and chambers. They are fairly
+deeply cut with a rather sharp implement, probably
+a metal chisel. They are arranged in the
+most arbitrary way on the stones and are often
+crowded together in masses. There is no attempt
+to depict scenes of any kind, nor is there, indeed,
+any example of animal life. In fact, the designs
+seem to be purely ornamental. The most frequent
+elements of design are cup-shaped hollows, concentric
+circles or ovals, star-shaped figures,
+circles with emanating rays, spirals, chevrons,
+reticulated figures, parallel straight or curved
+lines. There seems to be no clue as to the meaning
+of these designs. They may have been merely
+ornamental, though this is hardly likely.</p>
+
+<p>At New Grange, near Drogheda, there is a
+similar series of tumuli, one of which has become
+famous (Fig. 8). It consists of a huge mound of
+stones 280 feet in diameter surrounded by a circle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_047" id="Pg_047" title="Pg_047">[47]</a></span>of upright blocks. Access to the corridor is gained</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 8 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_8" id="figure_8"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_08.png" width="600" height="465" alt="figure_8" title="Figure 8" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 8.</b></span>
+<b>Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland.<br />
+(Coffey, <i>Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, 1892.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>from the south-east side. This corridor leads to a
+chamber with three divisions, so that corridor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_048" id="Pg_048" title="Pg_048">[48]</a></span>and chambers together form a cross with a long
+shaft. The walls are formed of rough slabs set
+upright. In the passage the roof is of slabs laid
+right across, but the roof of the chamber is formed
+by corbelling. On the floor of each division of the
+chamber was found a stone basin.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>Around the edge of the mound runs an enclosure
+wall of stones lying on the ground edge to edge.
+A few of these are sculptured. The finest is a
+great stone which lies in front of the entrance
+and shows a well-arranged design of spirals and
+lozenges. There are also engravings on one of the
+stones of the chambers. These designs are in
+general more skilful than those of Lough Crew.
+They consist mainly of chevrons, lozenges, spirals,
+and triangles.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The monuments we have so far described are
+all tombs. Ireland also possesses several stone
+circles. The largest are situated round Lough
+Gur, 10 or 12 miles south of Limerick. There
+was at one time a fine circle west of Lough Gur
+at Rockbarton, but it is now destroyed. On the
+eastern edge of the lough is a double concentric
+ring of stones, the diameter of the inner circle
+being about 100 feet. The rings are 6 feet apart,
+and the space between them is filled up with
+earth. In 1869 an excavation was made within
+the circle and revealed some human remains,
+mostly those of children from six to eight years old.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_049" id="Pg_049" title="Pg_049">[49]</a></span>Further north is a remarkable group of monuments
+known as the Carrigalla circles. The first
+is a plain circle (L) 33 or 34 feet in diameter,
+composed of twenty-eight stones. The space
+within them is filled up with earth to form a
+raised platform. At a distance of 75 feet are two
+concentric circles, diameters 155 and 184 feet
+respectively, made of stones 5 or 6 feet high. The
+space between the two circles is filled with earth.
+Within these is a third concentric circle about
+48 feet in diameter made of stones of the same
+size. This group of three concentric circles we
+will call M. The line joining the centres of L and
+M runs in a direction of 29&deg; or 30&deg; west of north
+and passes through a stone (N) 8 feet high standing
+on the top of a ridge 2500 feet away. There are
+two other stones more to the west (O and P) in
+such a position that the line joining them (41&deg;
+west of north) passes through the centre of M,
+from which they are distant 860 and 1450 feet
+respectively. Further, a line through the centre
+of L and a great standing stone (Q) 2480 feet from
+it in a direction 10&deg; east of south passes through
+the highest point in the district, 1615 feet away
+and 492 feet in height.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lewis compares this group of monuments
+with that of Stanton Drew in Somersetshire. In
+both a line joining the centre of two circles passes
+through a single stone in a northerly direction,
+and there is in both a fixed line from the centre
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_050" id="Pg_050" title="Pg_050">[50]</a></span>of the larger circle. Captain Boyle Somerville,
+R.N., finds that the line 29&deg; or 30&deg; west of north
+would mark the setting of Capella in B.C. 1600,
+or Arcturus 500 B.C.; he adds that the direction
+41&deg; west of north would suit Capella in 2500 B.C.
+or Castor in 2000 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>On the west side of Lough Gur is another
+group of monuments. There is in the first place
+a circle 55 feet in diameter. On a line 35&deg; east
+of north from this is a stone 10 feet high, and the
+same line produced strikes a prominent hill-top.
+Somewhere to the south-west of this circle, perhaps
+with its centre in the line just described, lay a
+second circle between 150 and 170 feet in diameter,
+destroyed in 1870. Three other stones
+mentioned by early writers as being near the
+circles have now disappeared. The direction 35&deg;
+east of north is the same as that of the King-stone
+with regard to the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire.
+This line, allowing a height of 3&deg; for the
+horizon, would, according to Sir Norman Lockyer,
+have struck the rising points of Capella in 1700
+B.C. and Arcturus in 500 B.C.</p>
+
+<p>To the south of the destroyed circle is another
+about 150 to 155 feet in diameter, with stones of
+over 5 feet in height set close together. Earth is
+piled up outside them to form a bank 30 feet wide.
+There is an entrance 3 feet wide in a direction
+59&deg; east of north from the centre of the circle.
+There is said to have been at one time a cromlech
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_051" id="Pg_051" title="Pg_051">[51]</a></span>100 feet wide due south of the circle and connected
+with it by a paved way. Sir Norman Lockyer
+thinks that the position of the doorway is connected
+with observation of the sun's rising in May.
+Moreover, the tallest stone of the circle, 9 feet
+high, is 30&deg; east of north from the centre, a direction
+which according to him points to the rising
+of Capella in 1950 B.C. and Arcturus in 280 B.C.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_052" id="Pg_052" title="Pg_052">[52]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>In Scandinavia megalithic monuments abound.
+They have been studied with unusual care
+from quite an early date in the history of arch&aelig;ology,
+and classified in the order of their development.
+The earliest type appears to be the simple
+dolmen with either four or five sides and a very
+rough cover-slab. This and the upper part of the
+sides remained uncovered by the mound of earth
+which was always heaped round the tomb. In
+later times the dolmen became more regularly
+rectangular in shape, and only its roof-block
+appeared above the mound. Contemporary with
+this later form of dolmen were several other types
+of tomb. One was simply the earlier dolmen with
+one side open and in front of it a sort of portico or
+elementary corridor formed by two upright slabs
+with no roofing (cf. the Irish type, <a href="#Pg_040">Fig. 5, <i>b</i></a>).
+This quickly developed into the true corridor-tomb,
+which had at first a small round chamber
+with one or two cover-slabs, a short corridor, and
+a round or rectangular mound. Later types
+have an oval chamber (Fig. 9) with from one to
+four cover-slabs or a rectangular chamber with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_053" id="Pg_053" title="Pg_053">[53]</a></span>long corridor and a circular mound. Finally we
+reach a type where thin slabs are used in the
+construction, and the mound completely covers
+the cap-stones: here the corridor leads out from
+one of the short ends of the rectangular chamber.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest of these types in point of view of
+development, the true dolmen, is common both in
+Denmark and in South Sweden; only one example
+exists in Norway. In Sweden it is never
+found far from the sea-coast.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 9 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_9" id="figure_9"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_09.png" width="600" height="465" alt="figure_9" title="Figure 9" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 9.</b></span>
+<b>Corridor-tomb, Ottag&aring;rden, Sweden.<br />
+(Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa</i>.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The corridor-tomb is also frequent in Denmark
+and Sweden, though it is unknown in Norway.
+In Sweden it is, like all megalithic monuments,
+confined to the south of the country. Of the early
+transition type with elementary corridor there are
+fine examples at Herrestrup in Denmark and
+Torebo in Sweden. A tomb at Sj&ouml;bol in Sweden
+where the corridor, consisting of only two uprights,
+is covered in with two roof-slabs instead
+of being left open, shows very clearly the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_054" id="Pg_054" title="Pg_054">[54]</a></span>transition to the corridor-tomb proper, in which
+the entrance passage consists of at least four
+uprights, two on each side. Of this there are
+numerous fine examples. A tomb of this type at
+Broholm in Denmark has a roughly circular
+chamber separated from the corridor by a kind of
+threshold-stone. Another at Tyfta in Sweden is
+remarkable for its curious construction, the
+uprights being set rather apart from one another
+and the spaces between filled up with dry masonry
+of small stones. Possibly there were not sufficient
+large blocks at hand to construct a tomb of the
+required size.</p>
+
+<p>The still later type consisting of a rectangular
+chamber with a long corridor leading out of one
+of its long sides often attains to very imposing
+dimensions. In Westgothland, a province of
+Sweden, there are fine examples with walls of
+limestone and often roofs of granite visible above
+the surface of the mound. The largest of these
+tombs is that of Karleby near Falk&ouml;ping. In
+another at Axevalla Heath were found nineteen
+bodies seated round the wall of the chamber,
+each in a separate small cist of stone slabs. The
+position of the bodies in the Scandinavian graves
+is rather variable, both the outstretched and the
+contracted posture being used. It is usual to
+find many bodies in the same tomb, often as
+many as twenty or thirty: in that of Borreby
+on the island of Seeland were found seventy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_055" id="Pg_055" title="Pg_055">[55]</a></span>skeletons, all of children of from two to eighteen
+years of age.</p>
+
+<p>In Denmark these rectangular tombs occasionally
+have one or more small round niches.
+In 1837 a large tomb was excavated at Lundh&ouml;j
+on J&uuml;tland, which had a circular niche opposite
+to the entrance. The niche had a threshold-stone,
+and the two uprights of the main chamber which
+lay on either side of this had been crudely engraved
+with designs, among which were a man, an animal,
+and a circle with a pair of diameters marked.
+Little was found in the chamber, and only some
+bones and a pot in the niche.</p>
+
+<p>In Denmark often occur mounds which contain
+two or more tombs, usually of the same form,
+each with its separate entrance passage. At the
+entrance of the chamber there is sometimes a
+well-worked framework into which fitted a door
+of stone or wood.</p>
+
+<p>The late type in which the corridor leads out
+of one of the narrow ends of the chamber is
+represented in both Sweden and Denmark. From
+this may be derived the rather unusual types in
+which the corridor has become indistinguishable
+from the chamber or forms a sort of antechamber
+to it. An example of the former type at Knyttk&auml;rr
+in Sweden is wider at one end than at the other,
+and has an outer coating of stone slabs. It
+resembles very closely the wedge-shaped tombs of
+Munster (cf. <a href="#Pg_044">Fig. 7</a>):</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_056" id="Pg_056" title="Pg_056">[56]</a></span>In Germany megalithic monuments are not
+infrequent, but they are practically confined to
+the northern part of the country. They extend
+as far east as K&ouml;nigsberg and as far west as the
+borders of Holland. They are very frequent in
+Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover. There are
+even examples in Prussian Saxony, but in South
+Germany they cease entirely. Keller in one edition
+of his <i>Lake Dwellings</i> figures two supposed dolmens
+north of Lake Pf&auml;ffikon in Switzerland, but we
+have no details with regard to them.</p>
+
+<p>The true dolmen is extremely rare in Germany,
+and only occurs in small groups in particular
+localities. The corridor-tomb with a distinct
+chamber is also very exceptional, especially east
+of the Elbe. The most usual type of megalithic
+tomb is that known as the <i>H&uuml;nenbett</i> or <i>Riesenbett</i>.
+The latter name means Giants' Bed, and it seems
+probable that the former should be similarly
+translated, despite the suggested connection with
+the Huns, for a word <i>H&uuml;nen</i> has been in use in
+North Germany for several centuries with the
+meaning of giants. A <i>H&uuml;nenbett</i> consists of a
+rectangular (rarely oval or round) hill of earth
+covering a megalithic tomb. This is a simple
+elongated rectangle in shape, made of upright
+blocks and roofed with two or more cover-slabs.
+The great <i>H&uuml;nenbett</i> or Grewism&uuml;hlen in Mecklenburg
+has a mound measuring 150 feet by 36 with
+a height of 5 feet. On the edge of the mound
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_057" id="Pg_057" title="Pg_057">[57]</a></span>are arranged forty-eight tall upright blocks of
+stone.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>H&uuml;nenbetter</i> of the Altmark are among
+the best known and explored. Here the corridors
+are usually about 20 feet long, though in rare
+cases they reach a length of 40 feet. Each is filled
+with clean sand up to two-thirds of its height,
+and on this lie the bodies and their funeral deposit.
+The bodies must have been laid flat, though not
+necessarily in an extended position, as there was
+not room above the sand for them to have been
+seated upright. Various implements of flint have
+been found in the tombs together with stone
+hammers and vases of pottery. There is no certain
+instance of the finding of metal.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>A book printed by John Picardt at Amsterdam
+in 1660 contains quaint pictures of giants and
+dwarfs engaged in the building of a megalithic
+monument which is clearly a <i>H&uuml;nenbett</i>. According
+to tradition the giants, after employing the labour
+of the dwarfs, proceeded to devour them. <i>H&uuml;nenbetter</i>
+similar to those shown in Picardt's illustrations
+are still to be seen in Holland, but only in
+the north, where over fifty are known. They are
+of elongated rectangular form, built of upright
+blocks, and roofed with from two to ten cover-slabs.
+They all widen slightly towards the west
+end. The most perfect example still remaining
+is that of Tinaarloo, and the largest is that of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_058" id="Pg_058" title="Pg_058">[58]</a></span>Borger, which contains forty-five blocks, of which
+ten are cap-stones. Several <i>H&uuml;nenbetter</i> have been
+excavated. In them are found pottery vases,
+flint celts, axes and hammers of grey granite,
+basalt, and jade.</p>
+
+<p>Belgium possesses several true dolmens, of
+which the best known is that called La Pierre du
+Diable on the right bank of the Meuse. Near
+L&uuml;ttich are two simple corridor-tombs, each with
+a round hole in one of the end-slabs and a small
+portico outside it.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_059" id="Pg_059" title="Pg_059">[59]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>France contains large numbers of megalithic
+monuments. Of dolmens and corridor-tombs
+no less than 4458 have been recorded. In
+the east and south-east they are rare, but they
+abound over a wide strip running from the Breton
+coasts of the English Channel to the Mediterranean
+shores of H&eacute;rault and Card. In 1901 Mortillef
+counted 6192 menhirs, including those which
+formed parts of <i>alignements</i> and cromlechs.
+Several of these attain to a great size. That to
+Locmariaquer (Morbihan), now unfortunately
+fallen and broken, measured over 60 feet in height,
+being thus not much shorter than the Egyptian
+obelisk which stands in the Place de la Concorde
+in Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Passing now to combinations of menhirs in
+groups, we must first mention the remarkable
+<i>alignements</i> of Brittany, of which the most famous
+are those of Carnac. They run east and west over
+a distance of 3300 yards, but the line is broken
+at two points in such a way that the whole forms
+three groups. The most westerly, that of M&eacute;nec,
+consists of eleven lines of menhirs and a cromlech,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_060" id="Pg_060" title="Pg_060">[60]</a></span>the total number of stones standing being 1169,
+the tallest of which is 13 feet in height. The
+central group, that of Kermario, consists of 982
+stones arranged in ten straight lines, while the
+most easterly, that of Kerlescan, is formed by
+579 menhirs, 39 of which form a rectangular enclosure.</p>
+
+<p>There are other <i>alignements</i> in Brittany, of which
+the most important is that of Erdeven, comprising
+1129 stones arranged in ten lines. Outside
+Brittany <i>alignements</i> are unusual, but a fine
+example, now ruined, is said to have existed at
+Saint Pantal&eacute;on north of Autun. In the fields
+around it are found large quantities of polished
+stone axes with knives, scrapers, and arrow-heads
+of flint.</p>
+
+<p>We have already noticed the cromlechs which
+form part of the <i>alignements</i> of Brittany. There
+are other examples in France. At Er-Lanic are
+two circles touching one another, the lower of
+which is covered by the sea even at low tide.
+Excavations carried out within the circles brought
+to light rough pottery and axes of polished stone.
+Two fine circles at Can de Ceyrac (Gard) have
+diameters of about 100 yards, and are formed of
+stones about 3 feet high. Each has a short
+entrance avenue which narrows as it approaches
+the circle, and in the centre of each rises a trilithon
+of rough stones.</p>
+
+<p>Of the definitely sepulchral monuments the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_061" id="Pg_061" title="Pg_061">[61]</a></span>dolmen is common in all parts of the French
+megalithic area. It will suffice to mention the
+magnificent example known as the Table des
+Marchands at Locmariaquer. Perhaps the most
+typical structure in France is the corridor-tomb
+in which the chamber is indistinguishable from
+the passage, and the whole forms a long rectangular
+area. This is the <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i> in the
+narrower sense. In the department of Oise occurs
+a special type of this in which one of the end-slabs
+has a hole pierced in its centre and is preceded
+by a small portico consisting of two uprights
+supporting a roof-slab (Fig 10). A remarkable
+example in Brittany known as Les Pierres Plates
+turns at a sharp angle in the middle, and is thus
+elbow-shaped.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 10 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_10" id="figure_10"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_10.png" width="600" height="465" alt="figure_10" title="Figure 10" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 10.</b></span>
+<b><i>All&eacute;e couverte</i>, called La Pierre aux F&eacute;es, Oise, France.<br />
+(<i>Compte rendu du Congr&egrave;s Pr&eacute;historique de France</i>.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>In the north of France the <i>all&eacute;e</i> is often merely
+cut out in the surface of the ground and has no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_062" id="Pg_062" title="Pg_062">[62]</a></span>roof at all. It is sometimes paved with slabs and
+divided into two partitions by an upright with
+a hole in its centre. Tombs of this kind often
+contain from forty to eighty skeletons, some of
+which are in the contracted position. The skulls
+are in some cases trepanned, i.e. small round
+pieces of the bone have been cut out of them;
+such pieces are sometimes found separate in the
+graves. No objects of metal occur in these North
+French tombs.</p>
+
+<p>There are many fine examples in Brittany of
+the corridor-tomb with distinct chamber. The
+best known lies on the island of Gavr'inis (Morbihan).
+It is covered by a tumulus nearly 200
+feet in diameter. The circular chamber, 6 feet in
+height, is roofed by a huge block measuring 13
+feet by 10. The corridor which leads out to the
+edge of the mound is 40 feet in length. Twenty-two
+of the upright blocks used in this tomb are
+almost entirely covered with engraved designs.
+These are massed together with very little order,
+the main object having been apparently to cover
+the whole surface of the stone with ornament.
+The designs consist of spirals, concentric circles
+and semicircles, chevrons, rows of strokes, and
+triangles, and bear a considerable resemblance to
+those of Lough Crew and New Grange in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Another tomb in the same district, that of
+Man&eacute;-er-Hroeck, was intact when discovered in
+1863. It contained within its chamber a hoard
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_063" id="Pg_063" title="Pg_063">[63]</a></span>of 101 axes of fibrolite and jadeite, 50 pebbles
+of a kind of turquoise known as <i>calla&iuml;s</i>, pieces of
+pottery, flints, and a peculiarly fine celt of jadeite
+together with a flat ring-shaped club-head of the
+same stone. The tomb was concealed by a huge
+oval mound more than 100 yards in length. The
+famous Mont S. Michel is an artificial mound
+containing a central megalithic chamber and
+several smaller cists, some of which held cremated bodies.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<!-- Figure 11 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_11" id="figure_11"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_11.png" width="600" height="606" alt="figure_11" title="Figure 11" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 11.</b></span>
+<b>Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy.<br />
+(After Montelius, <i>Orientund Europa</i>.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_064" id="Pg_064" title="Pg_064">[64]</a></span>A very remarkable mound in Calvados (Fig. 11)
+was found to contain no less than twelve circular
+corbelled chambers, each with a separate entrance
+passage. The megalithic tombs of Brittany all
+belong to the late neolithic period, and contain
+tools and arrow-heads of flint, small ornaments of
+gold, <i>calla&iuml;s</i>, and pottery which includes among
+its forms the bell-shaped cup.</p>
+
+<p>In Central and South France the <i>all&eacute;es couvertes</i>
+are mostly of a semi-subterranean type, i.e. they
+are cut in the ground and merely roofed with
+slabs of stone. The most famous is that of the
+Grotte des F&eacute;es near Arles (Fig. 12), in which a
+passage (<i>a</i>) with a staircase at one end and two
+niches (<i>b b</i>) in its sides leads into a narrow rectangular
+chamber (<i>c</i>). The total length is nearly
+80 feet. Another tomb of the same type, La
+Grotte du Castellet, contained over a hundred
+skeletons, together with thirty-three flint arrow
+or spear-heads, one of which was stuck fast in
+a human vertebra, a bell-shaped cup, axes of
+polished stone, beads and pendants of various
+materials, 114 pieces of <i>calla&iuml;s</i>, and a small plaque
+of gold.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_065" id="Pg_065" title="Pg_065">[65]</a></span></div>
+
+<!-- Figure 12 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_12" id="figure_12"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_12.png" width="600" height="263" alt="figure_12" title="Figure 12" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 12.</b></span>
+<b> Plan and section of La Grotte des F&eacute;es, Arles, France<br />
+(<i>Mat&eacute;riaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, 1873).</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>On the plateau of Ger near the town of Dax are
+large numbers of mounds, some of which contain
+cremated bodies in urns and others megalithic
+tombs. Bertrand saw in this a cemetery of two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_066" id="Pg_066" title="Pg_066">[66]</a></span>different peoples living side by side. But it has
+since been shown that the cremation mounds
+belong to a much later period than those which
+contain megalithic graves. In these last the
+skeletons were found seated around the walls of
+the chamber accompanied by objects of flint
+and other stone, beads of <i>calla&iuml;s</i>, and small gold
+ornaments.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 13 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_13" id="figure_13"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_13.png" width="392" height="528" alt="figure_13" title="Figure 13" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="392" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 13.</b></span>
+<b>The so-called dolmen-deity, from the tombs of the Petit Morin.
+(After de Baye.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>France has also its rock-hewn tombs, for in
+the valley of the Petit-Morin is a series of such
+graves. A trench leads down to the entrance,
+which is closed by a slab. The chamber itself is
+completely underground. In the shallower tombs
+were either two rows of bodies with a passage
+between or separate layers parted by slabs or
+strata of sand. In the deeper were seldom more
+than eight bodies, in the extended or contracted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_067" id="Pg_067" title="Pg_067">[67]</a></span>position, with tools and weapons of flint, pots,
+and beads of amber and of <i>calla&iuml;s</i>. On the walls
+were rough sculptures of human figures (Fig. 13),
+to which we shall have to return later.</p>
+
+<p>The Channel Islands possess megalithic monuments
+not unlike those of Brittany. They are
+corridor-tombs covered with a mound and often
+surrounded by a circle of stones. Within the
+chamber, which is usually round, lies, under a
+layer of shells, a mass of mingled human and
+animal bones. The bodies had been buried in
+the sitting position, and with them lay objects
+of stone and bone, but none of metal.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The Spanish Peninsula abounds in megalithic
+monuments. With the exception of a few menhirs,
+whose purpose is uncertain, all are sepulchral.
+Dolmens and corridor-tombs are numerous in
+many parts, especially in the north-east provinces,
+in Galicia, in Andalusia, and, above all, in Portugal.
+There is a fine dolmen in the Vall Gorguina
+in North-East Spain. The cover-slab, measuring
+10 feet by 8, is supported by seven rough uprights
+with considerable spaces between them. In the
+same region is a ruined dolmen surrounded by
+a circle nearly 90 feet in circumference, consisting
+of seven large stones, some of which appear to
+be partly worked. Circles are also found round
+dolmens in Andalusia. Portugal abounds in fine
+dolmens both of the round and rectangular types.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_068" id="Pg_068" title="Pg_068">[68]</a></span>At Fonte Coberta on the Douro stands a
+magnificent dolmen known locally as the Moors'
+House. In the name of the field, Fonte Coberta,
+there is doubtless an allusion to the belief that the
+dolmens conceal springs of water, a belief also
+held in parts of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>At Eguilaz in the Basque provinces is a fine
+corridor-tomb, in which a passage 20 feet long,
+roofed with flat slabs, leads to a rectangular
+chamber 13 feet by 15 with an immense cover-slab
+nearly 20 feet in length: the whole was
+covered with a mound of earth. The chamber
+contained human bones and "lanceheads of stone
+and bronze." A famous tomb of a similar type
+exists at Marcella in Algarve. The chamber is a
+fine circle of upright slabs. It is paved with
+stones, and part of its area is divided into two
+or perhaps three rectangular compartments. A
+couple of orthostatic slabs form a sort of neck
+joining the circle to the passage, which narrows
+as it leads away from the circle, and was probably
+divided into two sections by a doorway whose side-posts
+still remain.</p>
+
+<p>In South-East Spain the brothers Siret have
+found corridor-tombs in which the chamber is
+cut in the rock surface and roofed with slabs;
+the entrance passage becomes a slope or a staircase.
+Here we have a parallel to the Giants'
+Graves of Sardinia, which are built usually of
+stone blocks on the surface, but occasionally are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_069" id="Pg_069" title="Pg_069">[69]</a></span>cut in the solid rock. Other tombs in the same
+district show the common megalithic construction
+consisting of a base course of upright slabs surmounted
+by several courses of horizontal masonry
+(Fig. 14). The chamber is usually round, and
+may have two or more niches in its circumference.
+It is roofed by the successive overlapping or
+corbelling of the upper courses. The vault thus
+formed is further supported by a pillar of wood</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 14 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_14" id="figure_14"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_14.png" width="558" height="700" alt="figure_14" title="Figure 14" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="558" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 14.</b></span>
+<b>Corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain. (After Siret.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_070" id="Pg_070" title="Pg_070">[70]</a></span>or stone set in the centre of the chamber. On
+the walls of some of the chambers there are traces
+of rough painting in red. The whole tomb is
+covered with a circular mound. In the best known
+example at Los Millares there are remains of a
+semicircular fa&ccedil;ade in front of the entrance, as
+in many other megalithic monuments.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The finest, however, of all the Spanish monuments
+is the corridor-tomb of Antequera in Andalusia.
+It consists of a short passage leading into
+a long rectangular chamber roofed with four
+slabs. Within it on its axial line are three stone
+pillars placed directly under the three meeting-points
+of the four slabs, but quite unnecessary
+for their support. The whole tomb is covered
+with a low mound of earth. In the great upright
+slab which forms the inner end of the chamber is
+a circular hole rather above the centre.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the plan of this tomb, but the size, that
+compels the admiration of the beholder. He
+stands, as it were, within a vast cave lighted only
+from its narrow end, the roof far above his head.
+The rough surface of the blocks lends colour to
+the feeling that this is the work of Nature and
+not of man. Here, even if not in Stonehenge, he
+will pause to marvel at the patient energy of the
+men of old who put together such colossal masses
+of stone.</p>
+
+<p>Among the corridor-tombs of Spain must be
+mentioned a wedge-shaped type which bears a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_071" id="Pg_071" title="Pg_071">[71]</a></span>close resemblance to those of Munster in Ireland
+(cf. <a href="#Pg_044">Fig. 7</a>). In Alemtejo, south of Cape de Sines,
+are several of these, usually about 6 feet in length,
+with a slight portico at one end.</p>
+
+<p>A further point of similarity with the Irish
+monuments is seen in the corridor-tombs of Monte
+Abraha&otilde; in Portugal, where the chamber walls
+seem to have been reinforced by an outer lining
+of slabs. Remains of eighty human bodies were
+found in this tomb, together with objects of stone
+and bone, including a small conical button similar
+to that of Carrowmore in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish Peninsula also possesses rock-hewn
+tombs. At Palmella, near Lisbon, is a
+circular example about 12 feet in diameter preceded
+by a bell-shaped passage which slopes
+slightly downwards. Another circular chamber
+in the same group has a much longer passage,
+which bulges out into two small rounded antechambers.
+These tombs have been excavated
+and yielded some pottery vases, together with
+objects of copper and beads of a peculiar precious
+stone called <i>calla&iuml;s</i>. All the finds made in the
+megalithic remains of Spain and Portugal point
+to the period of transition from the age of stone
+to that of metal.</p>
+
+<p>The Balearic Islands contain remarkable megalithic
+monuments. Those known as the <i>talayots</i>
+are towers having a circular or rarely a square
+base and sloping slightly inwards as they rise.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_072" id="Pg_072" title="Pg_072">[72]</a></span>The largest is 50 feet in diameter. The stones,
+which are rather large and occasionally trimmed,</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 15 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_15" id="figure_15"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_15.png" width="446" height="700" alt="figure_15" title="Figure 15" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="446" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 15.</b></span>
+<b>Section and plan of the Talayot of Sa Aquila, Majorca.<br />
+(After Cartailhac.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_073" id="Pg_073" title="Pg_073">[73]</a></span>are laid flat, not on edge. A doorway just large
+enough to be entered with comfort leads through
+the thickness of the wall into a round chamber
+roofed by corbelling, with the assistance sometimes
+of one or more pillars. From analogy with
+the <i>nuraghi</i> of Sardinia, which they resemble
+rather closely, it seems probable that the <i>talayots</i>
+are fortified dwellings, perhaps only used in time
+of danger (Fig. 15).<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 16 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_16" id="figure_16"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_16.png" width="600" height="405" alt="figure_16" title="Figure 16" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 16.</b></span>
+<b>Nau d'Es Tudons, plan and section.<br />
+(After Cartailhac.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The <i>naus</i> or <i>navetas</i> are so named from their
+resemblance to ships. The construction is similar
+to that of the <i>talayots</i>. The outer wall has a
+considerable batter. The famous Nau d'Es Tudons
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_074" id="Pg_074" title="Pg_074">[74]</a></span>is about 36 feet in length. The fa&ccedil;ade is slightly
+concave. A low door (<i>a</i>) gives access through a
+narrow slab-roofed passage (<i>b</i>) to a long rectangular
+chamber (<i>c</i>), the method of whose roofing
+is uncertain. All the <i>naus</i> are built with their
+fa&ccedil;ades to the south or south-east, with the exception
+of that of Benigaus Nou, the inner end of
+which is cut in the rock, while the outer part is
+built up of blocks as usual. The abnormal orientation
+was here clearly determined by the desire to
+make use of the face of rock in the construction.
+The <i>naus</i> seem to have been tombs, as human
+remains have been found in them.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Rock-tombs also occur in the islands. The
+most remarkable are those of S. Vincent in
+Majorca. One of these has a kind of open antechamber
+cut in the rock, and is exactly similar
+in plan to the Grotte des F&eacute;es in France (cf. <a href="#Pg_065">Fig. 12</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Prehistoric villages surrounded by great stone
+walls can still be traced in the Balearic Isles.
+The houses were of two types, built either above
+ground or below. The first are square or rectangular
+with rounded corners, the base course
+occasionally consisting of orthostatic slabs. The
+subterranean dwellings are faced with stone and
+roofed with flat slabs supported by columns.
+In each village was one building of a different type.
+It stood above ground and was semicircular in
+plan. In its centre stood a horizontal slab laid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_075" id="Pg_075" title="Pg_075">[75]</a></span>across the top of an upright, forming a T-shaped
+structure which helped to support the roof-slabs,
+but which may also have had some religious
+significance. The stones which composed it were
+always carefully worked, and the lower was let
+into a socket on the under side of the upper.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_076" id="Pg_076" title="Pg_076">[76]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>Italy cannot be called a country of megalithic
+monuments. In the centre and north
+they do not occur, the supposed examples mentioned
+by Dennis in his <i>Cities and Cemeteries of
+Etruria</i> having been proved non-existent by the
+Italian Ministry of Education. It is only in the
+extreme south-west that megalithic structures
+appear. They are dolmens of ordinary type,
+except that in some cases the walls are formed
+not of upright slabs, but of stones roughly superposed
+one upon another. On the farm of the
+Grassi, near Lecce, are what appear to be two
+small dolmens at a distance of only 4 feet apart;
+they are perhaps parts of a single corridor-tomb.
+In the neighbourhood of Tarentum there is a
+dolmen-tomb approached by a short passage, and
+at Bisceglie, near Ruvo, there is an even finer
+example, the discovery of which is one of the most
+important events which have occurred in Italian
+prehistoric arch&aelig;ology during the last few years.
+The tomb is a simple rectangular corridor 36 feet
+in length, lying east and west. Only one cover-slab,
+that at the west end, remains, and the exact
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_077" id="Pg_077" title="Pg_077">[77]</a></span>disposition of the rest of the tomb is uncertain.
+In one of the side uprights which supports this
+slab is a circular hole, which, however, seems to
+be the work of Nature, though its presence may
+have led to the choice of the stone. The tomb
+was carefully excavated, and the remains of
+several skeletons were found, one of which lay
+in the contracted position on the right side.
+Three of the skulls were observed by an expert
+to be dolichocephalic, but their fragile condition
+prevented the taking of actual measurements.
+Burnt bones of animals, fragments of pottery, a
+terra-cotta bead, and a stone pendant were also
+found, together with flint knives and a fragment
+of obsidian.</p>
+
+<p>These discoveries show that the heel of Italy
+fell under the influence which caused the spread
+of the megalithic monuments, whatever that
+influence may have been. The same influence
+may also have been responsible for the bronze
+age rock-hewn tombs of Matera in the Basilicata,
+each of which is surrounded by a circle of fairly
+large stones.</p>
+
+<p>Geographical considerations would lead one to
+suppose that the same conditions existed in
+Sicily, and it is possible that this was the case.
+Yet it is an affirmation which must be made with
+great reserve. Megalithic monuments in the
+ordinary sense of the term are unknown in Sicily.
+There are, however, four tombs in the south-east
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_078" id="Pg_078" title="Pg_078">[78]</a></span>of the island which show some affinity to megalithic
+work. Two of these were found by Orsi at
+Monteracello. They were rectangular chambers
+built of squared slabs of limestone set on edge. At
+one end of the finer of the two was a small opening
+or window cut in the upright slab. This same
+grave contained a skeleton lying on the right side
+with the legs slightly contracted. These two
+tombs can hardly be described as dolmens; they
+seem to have had no cover-slabs, and the blocks,
+which were small, were let into the earth, scarcely
+appearing above the surface. Taken by themselves
+the Monteracello tombs would hardly prove the
+presence of the megalithic civilization in Sicily.
+However, in the valley called Cava Lazzaro there
+is a rock-hewn tomb where the vertical face of
+the rock in which the tomb is cut has been shaped
+into a curved fa&ccedil;ade, a very usual feature of
+megalithic architecture. This is ornamented on
+each side of the entrance of the tomb with four
+pilasters cut in relief in the solid rock, each pair
+being connected by a semicircular arch also in
+relief. On the pilasters is incised a pattern of
+circles and V-shaped signs. A somewhat similar
+arrangement of pilasters is seen in two rock-tombs
+at Cava Lavinaro in the same district. This work
+forcibly recalls the work of the megalithic builders
+in the hypogeum of Halsaflieni in Malta (see
+Chap. VII), and on the fa&ccedil;ades of the Giants'
+Tombs in Sardinia (see below). It affords, at any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_079" id="Pg_079" title="Pg_079">[79]</a></span>rate, a presumption that in all three islands we
+have to deal with the same civilization if not the
+same people.</p>
+
+<p>Such a presumption is not weakened by the
+fact that in Sicily the usual form of tomb was the
+rock-hewn sepulchre, which, as will be seen later,
+is very often a concomitant of the megalithic
+monument, and in many cases is proved to be
+the work of the same people. In the early neolithic
+period in Sicily, called by Orsi the Sicanian
+Period, rock-hewn tombs seem not to have been
+used. It is only at the beginning of the metal age
+that they begin to appear. In this period, the
+so-called First Siculan, the tomb-chamber was
+almost always circular or elliptical, entered by
+a small door or window in the face of the rock.
+The dead were often seated round the wall of the
+chamber, evidently engaged in a funerary feast,
+as is clear from the great vase set in their midst
+with small cups for ladling out the liquid. A
+single tomb often contained many bodies, especially
+in cases where the banquet arrangement was
+not observed; one chamber held more than a hundred
+skeletons, and it has been suggested that the
+bodies were only laid in the tomb after the flesh
+had been removed from the bones, either artificially
+or as the result of a temporary burial
+elsewhere. Such a custom is not unknown in
+other parts of the megalithic area. With these
+bodies were found large quantities of painted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_080" id="Pg_080" title="Pg_080">[80]</a></span>pottery, a few implements of copper and many of
+flint. Among the ornaments which the dead
+carried&mdash;for they seem to have been buried in
+complete costume&mdash;were several axe-shaped pendants
+of polished stone, precisely similar to those
+of Sardinia, Malta, and France. The most important
+cemeteries of this period are those of
+Castelluccio, Melilli, and Monteracello. Near
+this last site was also found a round hut based
+on a course of orthostatic slabs of typically
+megalithic appearance.</p>
+
+<p>In the full bronze age, called the Second Siculan
+Period, burial in rock-tombs still remained the
+rule. The tomb-form had developed considerably.
+The circular type was still usual, though beside
+it a rectangular form was fast coming into favour.
+The main chamber often had side-niches, and was
+usually preceded by a corridor which sometimes
+passed through an antechamber. Occasionally
+we find an elaborate open-air court outside the
+fa&ccedil;ade of the tomb, built very much after the
+megalithic style. Large vertical surfaces of rock
+were carefully sought after for tombs, and the
+almost inaccessible cliffs of Pantalica and Cassibile
+are literally honeycombed with them. Where
+such surfaces of rock were unobtainable a vertical
+shaft was sunk in the level rock and a chamber
+was opened off the bottom of it. The tradition
+of the banquet of the dead is still kept up, but the
+number of the skeletons in each tomb steadily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_081" id="Pg_081" title="Pg_081">[81]</a></span>decreases. The sitting posture is still frequent,
+though occasionally the body lies flat on one side
+with the legs slightly contracted. Flint is now
+rare, but objects of bronze are plentiful. The
+local painted pottery has almost entirely given
+place to simpler yet better wares with occasional
+Mycenean importations.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to decide whether this Sicilian
+civilization ought to be included under the term
+megalithic. If, as seems probable, the idea of
+megalithic building was brought to Europe by
+the immigration of a new race it is possible that
+a branch of this race entered Sicily. In that case
+I should prefer to think that they came not at
+the beginning of the First Siculan Period as we
+know it, but rather earlier. Certain vases found
+with neolithic burials in a cave at Villafrati and
+elsewhere in Sicily resemble the pottery usually
+found in megalithic tombs; one of them is in fact
+a bell-shaped cup, a form typical of megalithic
+pottery. It is thus possible that an immigration
+of megalithic people into Sicily took place during
+the stone age, definitely later than the period of
+the earliest neolithic remains on the island, but
+earlier than that of such sites as the Castelluccio
+cemetery. This, however, is and will perhaps
+remain a mere conjecture, though it is quite
+possible that there are in the interior of Sicily
+dolmens which have not yet come to the notice
+of the arch&aelig;ologist; in this connection it is worth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_082" id="Pg_082" title="Pg_082">[82]</a></span>while to remember that up to five years ago the
+existence of dolmens in both Sardinia and Malta
+passed unnoticed.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>If the inclusion of Sicily in the megalithic area
+is doubtful there is fortunately no question about
+the island of Sardinia. Here we have one of the
+chief strongholds of the megalithic civilization,
+where the architecture displays its greatest
+variety and flexibility. The simplest manifestation
+of megalithic building, the dolmen, was up
+till lately thought to be absent from Sardinia,
+but the researches of the last few years have
+brought to light several examples, of which the
+best known are those of Birori, where the chamber
+is approximately circular in plan.</p>
+
+<p>The monuments, however, for which Sardinia
+is most famous are the <i>nuraghi.</i> A <i>nuraghe</i> is a
+tower-like structure of truncated conical form,
+built of large stones laid in comparatively regular
+courses (Pl. II, Fig. 2). The stones are often
+artificially squared, and set with a clay mortar.
+The plan and arrangement of a simple <i>nuraghe</i>
+are usually as follows (Fig. 17): The diameter
+of the building is generally under 30 feet. A door
+of barely comfortable height even for an average
+man and surmounted by a single lintel-block
+gives access to a narrow passage cut through the
+thickness of the wall. In this passage are, to the
+right, a small niche (<i>c</i>) just large enough to hold</p>
+
+
+<!-- Plate 2a -->
+
+<div><a name="plate_2a" id="plate_2a"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/plate_02a.jpg" width="600" height="656" alt="Plate_2a" title="Plate 2a" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate II, Fig. 1.</b></span>
+<b>Mnaidra, Doorway of Room H</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<!-- Plate 2b -->
+
+<div><a name="plate_2b" id="plate_2b"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/plate_02b.jpg" width="600" height="600" alt="Plate_2b" title="Plate 2b" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate">
+<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Plate II, Fig. 2. The Nuraghe of Madrone in Sardinia</b></span><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="photo_left"></td><td class="photo_attribution">To face p. 82</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_083" id="Pg_083" title="Pg_083">[83]</a></span></div>
+
+<!-- Figure 17 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_17" id="figure_17"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_17.png" width="266" height="700" alt="figure_17" title="Figure 17" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="266" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 17.</b></span>
+<b>Elevation, section and plan of a <i>nuraghe</i>.<br />
+(Pinza, <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_084" id="Pg_084" title="Pg_084">[84]</a></span>a man, and, on the left, a winding staircase in
+the wall (<i>d</i>) leading to an upper storey. The
+passage itself leads into the chamber (<i>a</i>), which is
+circular, often with two or three side-niches (<i>b b</i>),
+and roofed by corbelling, i.e. by making each of
+the upper courses of stones in its wall project
+inwards over the last. The upper chamber,
+which is rarely preserved, is similar in form to the lower.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>Considerable speculation has been indulged
+in concerning the purpose of the <i>nuraghi</i>. For
+many years they were regarded as tombs, a view
+which was first combated by Nissardi at the
+International Congress in Rome in 1903. Further
+exploration since that time has placed it beyond
+all doubt that the <i>nuraghi</i> were fortified dwellings.
+The form of the building itself is almost conclusive.
+The lowness of the door would at once put an
+enemy at a disadvantage in attempting to enter;
+it is significant that in the <i>nuraghe</i> of Su Cadalanu,
+where the doorway was over 6 feet in height, its
+breadth was so much reduced that it was necessary
+to enter sideways. Arrangements were made
+for the closing of the entrance from inside by a
+heavy slab of stone, often fitted into grooves.
+The niche on the right of the passage clearly
+served to hold a man, who would command the
+passage itself and the staircase to the upper floor;
+he would, moreover, be able to attack the undefended
+flank of an enemy entering with his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_085" id="Pg_085" title="Pg_085">[85]</a></span>shield on his left arm. To the same effort at
+impregnability we may safely ascribe the fact
+that the staircase leading to the upper room did
+not begin on the floor-level of the passage, but
+was reached through a hole high up in the wall.
+Many of the <i>nuraghi</i> are surrounded by elaborate
+fortifications consisting of walls, towers, and
+bastions, sometimes built at the same time as the
+dwelling itself, sometimes added later. Those of
+Aiga, Losa, and s'Aspru are among the most
+famous of this type. All the <i>nuraghi</i> stand in
+commanding situations overlooking large tracts
+of country, and the more important a position is
+from the strategical point of view the stronger
+will be the <i>nuraghe</i> which defends it. All are
+situated close to streams and springs of good
+water, and some, as for instance that of Abbameiga,
+are actually built over a natural spring. At
+Nossiu is a building which can only be described
+as a fortress. It consists of a rhomboidal enclosure
+with <i>nuraghe</i>-like towers at its corners
+and four narrow gateways in its walls. It is
+surrounded by the ruins of a village of stone huts.
+There cannot be the least doubt that in time of
+danger the inhabitants drove their cattle into the
+fortified enclosure, entered it themselves, and
+then closed the gates.</p>
+
+<p>Each <i>nuraghe</i> formed the centre of a group of
+stone huts. Mackenzie has described such a
+village at Serucci, where the circular plan of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_086" id="Pg_086" title="Pg_086">[86]</a></span>huts was still visible. The walls in one case stood
+high enough to show, from the corbelling of their
+upper courses, that the huts were roofed in the
+same fashion as the <i>nuraghi</i> themselves. Another
+village, that which surrounds the <i>nuraghe</i> of Su
+Chiai, was protected by a wall of huge stones.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus clear that the <i>nuraghi</i> were the
+fortified centres of the various villages of Sardinia.
+Probably each formed the residence of the local
+chieftain; that they were actually inhabited is
+clear from the remains of everyday life found in
+them, and from the polish which continual use
+has set on the side-walls of some of the staircases.
+In general appearance and design the <i>nuraghi</i>
+recall the modern <i>truddhi</i>, hundreds of which dot
+the surface of Apulia and help to beguile the
+tedium of the railway journey from Brindisi to
+Foggia. The <i>truddhi</i>, however, are built in steps
+or terraces and have no upper chamber.</p>
+
+<p>Who were the foes against whom such elaborate
+preparations for defence were made? Two
+alternatives are possible. Either Sardinia was a
+continual prey to some piratical Mediterranean
+people, or she was divided against herself through
+the rivalry of the local chieftains.</p>
+
+<p>The second explanation is perhaps the more
+probable. Mackenzie seems to adopt it, and fancies
+that in the growth of the largest <i>nuraghi</i> we may
+trace the rise to power of some of these local
+dynasts at the expense of their neighbours. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_087" id="Pg_087" title="Pg_087">[87]</a></span>suggests that the existence of the fortified enclosure
+of Nossiu, where there is no sign of a true
+<i>nuraghe</i>, may mean that there were certain
+communities which succeeded in maintaining
+their independence in the face of these powerful
+rulers. But here, as he himself is the first to
+admit, we are in the realm of pure conjecture.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 18 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_18" id="figure_18"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_18.png" width="600" height="547" alt="figure_18" title="Figure 18" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 18.</b></span>
+<b>Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia.<br />
+(Mackenzie, <i>Papers of the British School of Rome</i>, V.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>It is now established that in the Giants' Tombs
+of Sardinia we are to see the graves of the inhabitants
+of the <i>nuraghe</i> villages. Every Giant's
+Tomb lies close to such a village, and almost every
+village has its Giants' Tombs, one or more in
+number according to its size. A Giant's Tomb
+consists of a long rectangular chamber of upright
+slabs roofed by corbelled masonry (Fig. 18).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_088" id="Pg_088" title="Pg_088">[88]</a></span>The slab which closes one end of the tomb is of
+great size, and consists of a lower rectangular
+half with a small hole at the base and an upper
+part shaped like a rounded gable. There is a
+raised border to the whole slab, and a similar
+band in relief marks out the two halves. This
+front slab forms the centre-piece in a curved
+fa&ccedil;ade of upright slabs. The chamber is covered
+with a coating of ashlar masonry, which is shaped
+into an apsidal form at the end opposite to the
+fa&ccedil;ade. Occasionally more than 50 feet in length,
+the Giants' Tombs served as graves for whole
+families, or even for whole villages. Mackenzie
+has shown that the form is derived from the
+simple dolmen, and has pointed out several of
+the intermediate stages.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of Sardinia in the megalithic
+period also buried their dead in rock-hewn sepulchres,
+of which there are numerous examples at
+Anghelu Ruju. The contents of these graves
+make it clear that they are the work of the same
+people as the Giants' Graves. Were further proof
+needed it could be afforded by a grave at Molaf&agrave;,
+where a Giant's Grave with its fa&ccedil;ade and gabled
+slab has been faithfully imitated in the solid rock.
+There is a similar tomb at St. George. Two
+natural caves in Cape Sant' Elia on the south of
+the island contain burials of this same period.</p>
+
+<p>The neighbouring island of Corsica also contains
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_089" id="Pg_089" title="Pg_089">[89]</a></span>important megalithic remains. They consist of
+thirteen dolmens, forty-one menhirs, two <i>alignements</i>,
+and a cromlech. They fall geographically
+into two groups, one in the extreme north and the
+other in the extreme south of the island.</p>
+
+<p>The stones used are chiefly granite and gneiss.
+The dolmens, which are of carefully chosen flat
+blocks showing no trace of work, are all rectangular
+in plan, and usually consist of four side-walls and
+a cover-slab. The finest of all, however, the dolmen
+of Fontanaccia, has seven blocks supporting
+the cover, one at each short end, three in one of the
+long sides, and two in the other. None of the
+dolmens are covered by mounds.</p>
+
+<p>Of the <i>alignements</i>, that of Caouria seems to
+consist, in part at least, of two parallel lines of
+menhirs, the rest of the plan being uncertain.
+There are still thirty-two blocks, of which six
+have fallen. The other <i>alignement</i>, that of Rinaiou,
+consists of seven menhirs set in a straight line.
+The cromlech is circular and stands on Cape Corse.</p>
+
+<p>On the small island of Pianosa, near Elba, are
+several rock-hewn tombs of the &aelig;neolithic period
+which ought perhaps to be classed with the
+megalithic monuments of Sardinia and Corsica.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_090" id="Pg_090" title="Pg_090">[90]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER<br />MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>North Africa is a great stronghold of the
+megalithic civilization, indeed it is thought
+by some that it is the area in which megalithic
+building originated. Morocco, Tunis, Algeria, and
+Tripoli all abound in dolmens and other monuments.
+Even in the Nile Valley they occur, for
+what looks like a dolmen surrounded by a circle
+was discovered by de Morgan in the desert near
+Edfu, and Wilson and Felkin describe a number
+of simple dolmens which exist near Lad&ograve; in the
+Sudan. Tripoli remains as yet comparatively
+unexplored. The traveller Barth speaks of stone
+circles near Mourzouk and near the town of
+Tripoli. The great trilithons (<i>senams</i>) with holes
+pierced in their uprights and 'altar tables' at
+their base, which Barth, followed by Cooper in
+his <i>Hill of the Graces</i>, described as megalithic
+monuments, have been shown to be nothing
+more than olive-presses, the 'altar tables' being
+the slabs over which the oil ran off as it descended.
+True dolmens do, however, occur in Tripoli, and
+Cooper figures a fine monument at Messa in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_091" id="Pg_091" title="Pg_091">[91]</a></span>Cyrenaica, which appears to consist of a single
+straight line of tall uprights with a continuous
+entablature of blocks similar to that of the outer
+circle at Stonehenge.</p>
+
+<p>Algeria has been far more completely explored,
+and possesses a remarkable number of megalithic
+monuments. Many of the finest are situated near
+the town of Constantine. Thus at Bou Nouara
+there is a hill about a mile in length which is a
+regular necropolis of dolmen-tombs. Each grave
+consists of a dolmen within a circle of stones.
+The blocks are all natural and completely unworked.
+The circle consists of a wall of stone
+blocks so built as to neutralize the slope of the
+hill and to form a level platform for the dolmen.
+Thus on the lower side there are three courses of
+carefully laid stones rising to about five feet,
+while on the upper side there is only one course.
+The diameter of the circles varies from 22 to 33
+feet. In the centre of the circle lies the dolmen
+with its single long cover-slab. This usually
+rests on two entire side-slabs, the ends being filled
+up either with entire slabs or with masonry of
+small stones. In rare cases the side-slabs are
+replaced by masonry walls. The average size of
+the cover-slab is 6&frac12; by 5 feet. The dolmen itself
+is, of course, built directly on to the platform,
+and the space between it and the circle is filled
+up with rough stones. The orientation of the
+dolmens varied considerably, but the cover-slab
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_092" id="Pg_092" title="Pg_092">[92]</a></span>was never placed in such a way that its length ran
+up the hill-slope, probably because in moving the
+slab into place this would have been an awkward position.</p>
+
+<p>Another equally fine site is that of Bou Merzoug,
+near Oulad Rahmoun, about an hour's railway
+journey from Constantine. The place is naturally
+adapted for a settlement as there is a spring of
+water there. This spring was later utilized by the
+Romans to provide water for the city of Cirta.
+The dolmen-graves lie in great numbers on the
+hill at the foot of which the spring rises, and
+extend down into the valley. Each dolmen lies
+in the centre of a stone circle. This last is in
+some cases formed by very large slabs set on edge,
+but more often by two or three courses of rough
+oblong blocks. Many of the graves are badly
+damaged. One of the finest had an outer circle
+about 27 feet in diameter, and an inner circle
+14 feet in diameter. Between these two a third
+circle, much more irregular and of small stones,
+could just be distinguished. But in most cases
+it was impossible to make out clearly more than
+the one outer circle and the dolmen within it.
+The dolmen itself consisted of a large slab resting
+on walls formed of several large blocks, the spaces
+between which were filled up with smaller stones.
+None of the stones used were worked. The dolmens
+were not oriented according to any fixed
+system. M. F&eacute;raud states that the separate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_093" id="Pg_093" title="Pg_093">[93]</a></span>graves were united together by open corridors
+formed by double or triple rows of large stones,
+but no traces of such a system could be found by
+the later visitors to the site, Messrs. MacIver and
+Wilkin.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately we have some record of what
+these graves contained, for thirteen were opened
+by Mr. Christy and M. F&eacute;raud. One contained a
+human skeleton in good condition, buried in the
+contracted position with the knees to chin and
+arms crossed. With this were two whole vases,
+fragments of others, and pieces of cedar wood.
+At the feet of the skeleton were two human heads,
+and as the graves would not have accommodated
+more than one whole body M. F&eacute;raud suggests
+that these belong to decapitated victims. Another
+grave contained, in addition to human bones,
+those of a horse, together with three objects of
+copper, viz. a ring, an earring, and a buckle. In
+another were found the teeth and bones of a
+horse and an iron bit.</p>
+
+<p>An entirely different type of monument is
+found near Msila, south-west of Algiers. Here
+is a long low hill called the Sen&acirc;m, covered with
+large numbers of stone circles. These consist of
+large slabs of natural limestone set up on edge
+and not very closely fitted. The height of the
+slabs varies from 2 to 3 feet, and the diameters
+of the three still perfect circles are 23&frac12;, 26&frac34;, and
+34&#8531; feet respectively. At a point roughly south-east
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_094" id="Pg_094" title="Pg_094">[94]</a></span>there is a break in the circumference, filled
+by a rectangular niche (Fig. 19) consisting of
+three large slabs, and varying in width from 2 ft.
+6 in. to 6 feet. There is a possibility that the
+niches were originally roofed, but the evidence
+on this point is far from conclusive. The interior
+of the circle is filled with blocks of stone, apparently
+heaped up without any definite plan.
+There seems to be no clue as to the meaning of
+these circles, as none have as yet been explored.
+MacIver and Wilkin are probably right in classing
+them as graves.</p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 19 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_19" id="figure_19"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_19.png" width="600" height="614" alt="figure_19" title="Figure 19" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 19.</b></span>
+<b>Stone circle at the Sen&acirc;m, Algeria.<br />
+(After MacIver and Wilkin).</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The most famous, however, of the Algerian
+sites is unquestionably that of Roknia. Here the
+tombs lie on the side of a steep hill. They consist
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_095" id="Pg_095" title="Pg_095">[95]</a></span>of dolmens often surrounded by stone circles
+from 25 to 33 feet in diameter. The cover-slabs
+of the dolmens usually rest on single uprights,
+and never on built walls. Several of the graves
+excavated contained more than one body, one
+yielding as many as seven. It is remarkable that
+three of the skulls showed wounds, the dead having
+been apparently killed in battle. Several vases
+have been found and a few pieces of bronze.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that in some of the tombs of Bou
+Merzoug objects of iron were found. This makes
+it clear that some at least of the Algerian tombs
+belong to the iron age, i.e. that they are probably
+later than 1000 B.C., but beyond this we cannot go.
+The medal of Faustina sometimes quoted as
+evidence for a very late date proves nothing, as
+it is not stated to have been found in a tomb.
+There is no evidence to show how far back the
+graves go. It may be that, as MacIver and Wilkin
+suggest, the parts of the cemeteries excavated
+chance to be the latest. At Bou Merzoug the
+excavators worked chiefly among the graves on
+the plain and at the bottom of the hill. The more
+closely crowded graves which lie on the hill itself
+may well be older than these. In fact, all that
+may be said of the Algerian graves is that some
+are of the iron age, while others may be and
+probably are earlier.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>In Tunis the dolmen is not uncommon, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_096" id="Pg_096" title="Pg_096">[96]</a></span>several groups or cemeteries have been reported.
+Near Ellez occurs a type of corridor-tomb in which
+three dolmen-like chambers lie on either side of a
+central passage, and a seventh at the end opposite
+to the entrance. The whole is constructed of
+upright slabs of stone, and is surrounded by a
+circle formed in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>Morocco, too, has its dolmens, especially in the
+district of Kabylia, while near Tangier there is a
+stone circle.</p>
+
+<p>Off the north coast of Africa, and thus on the
+highway which leads from Africa to Europe, lie
+the Italian islands of Lampedusa and Linosa. The
+latter is volcanic in origin, and its surface presents
+no opportunity for the building of megalithic monuments.
+Lampedusa, on the other hand, consists
+of limestone, which lies about in great blocks on
+its surface. On the slopes of the south coast there
+are several remains of megalithic construction,
+but they are too damaged to show much of their
+original form. However, on the north side of the
+island there are megalithic huts in a very fair
+state of preservation. They are oval in form and
+have in many cases a base course of orthostatic slabs.</p>
+
+<p>Some miles to the north of Linosa lies the much
+larger volcanic island of Pantelleria, also a possession
+of Italy. Here megalithic remains both of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_097" id="Pg_097" title="Pg_097">[97]</a></span>dwellings and of tombs have been found. On the
+plateau of the Mursia are the remains of rectangular
+huts made of rough blocks of stone.
+These huts seemed to have formed a village,
+which was surrounded by a wall for purposes of
+defence. In the huts were found implements of
+obsidian and flat stones used for grinding.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 20 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_20" id="figure_20"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_20.png" width="600" height="527" alt="figure_20" title="Figure 20" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 20.</b></span>
+<b> Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria.<br />
+(Orsi, <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, IX.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The tombs of the people who inhabited this
+village are, unlike the houses, circular or elliptical
+in form. They are locally known as <i>sesi.</i> The
+smaller are of truncated conical shape, the circular
+chamber being entered by a low door and having
+a corbelled roof. In one of the <i>sesi</i> a skeleton was
+found buried in the contracted position. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_098" id="Pg_098" title="Pg_098">[98]</a></span>finest of the tombs, known as the Sese Grande,
+elliptical in form (Fig. 20), has a major diameter
+of more than 60 feet, and rises in ridges, being
+domed at the top. It contains not one chamber,
+but twelve, each of which has a separate entrance
+from the outside of the <i>sese.</i> To judge by the
+remains found in the <i>sesi</i> they belong entirely to
+the neolithic period.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The island of Malta as seen to-day is an almost
+treeless, though not unfertile, stretch of rock,
+with a harbour on the north coast which must
+always make the place a necessary possession to
+the first sea power of Europe. Much of its soil
+is of comparatively modern creation, and four
+thousand years ago the island may well have had a
+forbidding aspect. This is perhaps the reason
+why the first great inroads of neolithic man into
+the Mediterranean left it quite untouched, although
+it lay directly in the path of tribes immigrating
+into Europe from Africa. The earliest
+neolithic remains of Italy, Crete, and the &AElig;gean
+seem to have no parallel in Malta, and the first
+inhabitants of whom we find traces in the island
+were builders of megalithic monuments. Small
+as Malta is it contains some of the grandest and
+most important structures of this kind ever erected.
+The two greatest of these, the so-called "Phoenician
+temples" of Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra, were
+constructed on opposite sides of one of the southern</p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_099" id="Pg_099" title="Pg_099">[99]</a></span></div>
+
+<!-- Figure 21 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_21" id="figure_21"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_21.png" width="600" height="395" alt="figure_21" title="Figure 21" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 21.</b></span>
+<b>Plan of the megalithic sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta.<br />
+(After Albert Mayr's plan.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_100" id="Pg_100" title="Pg_100">[100]</a></span>valleys, each within sight of the other and of the
+little rocky island of Filfla.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>The temple of Mnaidra is the simpler of the
+two in plan (Fig. 21). It consists of two halves,
+the more northerly of which was almost certainly
+built later than the other. Each half consists of
+two elliptical chambers set one behind the other.
+The south half is the better preserved. It has a
+concave fa&ccedil;ade of large orthostatic slabs with
+horizontal blocks set in front of them to keep
+them in position. In the centre of this opens a
+short paved passage formed of fine upright slabs
+of stone, one of which is 13 feet in height. The
+first elliptical chamber (<i>E</i>) into which this passage
+leads us has a length of 45 feet. Its walls (Pl. III)
+consist of roughly squared orthostatic slabs over
+6 feet in height, above which are several courses
+of horizontal blocks which carry the walls in
+places up to a height of nearly 14 feet. This
+combination of vertical and horizontal masonry
+is typical of all the Maltese temples. To the left
+of the entrance is a rectangular niche in the wall
+containing one of the remarkable trilithons (<i>a</i>)
+which form so striking a feature of Mnaidra and
+Hagiar Kim. It consists of a horizontal slab of
+stone nearly 10 feet in length, supported at its
+ends by two vertical slabs about 5 feet high. To
+the right of the entrance is a window-like opening
+(<i>b</i>, behind the seated figure in Pl. III) in one of
+the slabs of the wall, preceded by two steps and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_101" id="Pg_101" title="Pg_101">[101]</a></span>giving access to an irregular triangular space (<i>F</i>).
+In the north-west angle of this triangle is fixed
+a trilithon table (<i>c</i>) of the usual type, 32 inches
+high; at a like height above the table is fixed
+another horizontal slab which serves as a roof to
+the corner. The south corner of the triangle is
+shut off by a vertical slab, in which is cut a window
+29 inches by 17. Through this is seen a shrine (?)
+consisting of a box (<i>d</i>) made of five well-cut slabs
+of stone, the front being open. The aperture by
+which <i>F</i> is entered was evidently intended to be
+closed with a slab of stone from the inside of <i>F</i>,
+for it was rebated on that side, and there are holes
+to be used in securing the slab. When the entrance
+was thus blocked <i>F</i> still communicated with <i>E</i>
+by means of a small rectangular window 16 inches
+by 12 in one of the adjacent slabs (visible in Pl. III).<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Plate 3 -->
+
+<div><a name="plate_3" id="plate_3"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/plate_03.jpg" width="600" height="375" alt="Plate_3" title="Plate 3" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Plate">
+<tr><td class="photo_text" colspan="2"><span class="smcap"><b>Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of Chief Room</b></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="photo_left"><b>Plate III</b></td><td class="photo_attribution">To face p. 100</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Returning to the area <i>E</i> we find in the south-west
+wall an elaborate doorway (Pl. II, Fig. I,
+p. 82) leading to a rectangular room <i>H</i>. The
+doorway consists of two tall pillars with a great
+lintel laid across the top. The space between
+the pillars is closed by a fixed vertical slab in
+which is a window-like aperture similar to that
+which gives access to Room <i>F</i>. All the stones
+in this doorway are ornamented with pit-marks.
+The rectangular room <i>H</i> has niches in its walls
+to the north, south, and west. Each niche is
+formed by a pair of uprights with a block laid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_102" id="Pg_102" title="Pg_102">[102]</a></span>across the top. The west niche is occupied by a
+horizontal table or slab (<i>e</i>) supported at its centre
+by a stone pillar 39 inches in height, of circular
+section narrowing in the centre (visible through
+the doorway in Pl. II, Fig. I). The southern
+niche contains an ordinary trilithon table (<i>f</i>):
+the northern niche is damaged, but apparently
+held a table like that of the western.</p>
+
+<p>The area <i>I</i> consists of only half an ellipse, the
+southern half being replaced by the area <i>H</i>, which
+we have already described. It has a rectangular
+niche to the west containing a fine trilithon with
+a cover-slab nearly 10 feet long.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the southern half of the Mnaidra
+temple is surrounded by a wall of huge rough
+blocks of stone, presenting a great contrast to
+the dressed slabs of which the inner walls are
+formed. They are placed alternately with their
+broad faces and their narrow edges outwards.
+The roughness of this enclosure wall gives the
+structure a remarkably wild and craggy appearance
+from a distance. The northern half of Mnaidra
+is clearly a later addition.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt as to the way in which the
+areas were roofed. In the apse-like ends of the
+elliptical rooms the horizontal courses are corbelled,
+i.e. each course projects slightly forward
+over the last. Thus the space narrows as the
+walls rise, until the aperture is small enough to
+be roofed by great slabs laid across. The corbelling
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_103" id="Pg_103" title="Pg_103">[103]</a></span>of the apse is just perceptible in Pl. III.
+Whether the roofing of the Mnaidra temple was
+ever complete it is impossible to say: in any case
+the system we have described could only be applied
+to the apsidal portions of the areas, and their
+centres must either have been open to the sky
+or roofed quite simply with slabs.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>In the still more famous temple of Hagiar Kim
+we have a complicated building, in which the
+original plan has been much altered and enlarged.
+The main portion doubtless consisted originally
+of a curved fa&ccedil;ade and a pair of elliptical areas,
+the inner of which has been fitted with a second
+entrance to the north-west and completely remodelled
+at its south-west end. Four elliptical
+chambers, one of which is at a much higher level
+than the rest of the building, have been added.
+Here, too, as at Mnaidra, we find niches containing
+trilithon tables. In the first elliptical area, in which
+the apsidal ends are divided from the central space
+by means of walls of vertical slabs, a remarkable
+group of objects was found. In front of a well-cut
+vertical block stood what must be an altar, cut
+in one piece of stone. It is square in section
+except for the top, which is circular. On the four
+vertical edges are pilasters in relief, and in the
+front between these is cut in relief what looks
+like a plant growing out of a pot or box. To the
+left of the altar and the vertical slab behind were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_104" id="Pg_104" title="Pg_104">[104]</a></span>an upright stone with two hanging spirals cut on
+it in relief, and at its foot a horizontal slab. Both
+the altar and the carved stone are covered with
+small pit-marks.</p>
+
+<p>In the outside wall of the building, quite unconnected
+with the interior, is a niche partly
+restored on old foundations, in which stands a
+rough stone pillar 6&frac12; feet high. In front of this
+pillar is a vertical slab nearly 3 feet high, narrowing
+towards the base, and covered with pit-markings.
+This pillar can hardly be anything but a baetyl,
+or sacred stone.</p>
+
+<p>The temple called the Gigantia, on the island
+of Gozo, is no less remarkable than the two which
+we have already described; in one place its wall
+is preserved up to a height of over 20 feet. The
+plan is similar to that of Mnaidra, though here
+the two halves seem to have been built at one and
+the same time. Several of the blocks show a
+design of spirals in relief, while on others there are
+the usual pit-markings. Another bears a figure
+of a fish or serpent. At the foot of one of the
+trilithons was found a baetyl 51 inches in height,
+now in the museum at Valletta.</p>
+
+<p>That these three buildings were sanctuaries of
+some kind seems almost certain from their form
+and arrangement. We do not, however, know
+what was the exact nature of the worship carried
+on in them, though there can be no doubt that
+the stone tables supported by single pillars and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_105" id="Pg_105" title="Pg_105">[105]</a></span>the trilithons found in the niches played an
+important part in the ritual. Sir Arthur Evans
+in his famous article <i>Mycen&aelig;an Tree and Pillar
+Cult</i> has suggested that in Malta we have a cult
+similar to that seen in the Mycen&aelig;an world.
+This latter was an aneiconic worship developed
+out of the cult of the dead; in it the deity or hero
+was represented by a baetyl, i.e. a tree or pillar
+sometimes standing free, sometimes placed in a
+'dolmen-like' cell or shrine, in which latter case
+the pillar often served to support the roof of the
+shrine. In Malta Sir Arthur Evans sees signs of
+a baetyl-worship very similar to this. Thus at
+Hagiar Kim we have a pillar still standing free
+in a niche, and another pillar, which, to judge
+from its shape, must have stood free, was found
+in the Gigantia. On the other hand, at Mnaidra
+we have pillars which support slabs in a cell or
+shrine, and at Cordin several small pillars were
+found which must originally have served a similar
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>There can hardly be any doubt that Sir Arthur
+Evans is right in seeing in the Maltese temples
+signs of a baetylic worship. But is he right in his
+further assertion that the cult was a cult of the
+dead? Albert Mayr assumes that he is, and
+endeavours to show that the 'dolmen-like' cells
+in the niches are not altars, but stereotyped
+representations of the dolmen-tombs of the
+heroes worshipped. He thinks that the slabs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_106" id="Pg_106" title="Pg_106">[106]</a></span>which cover them are too large for altar-tables,
+and that the niches in which they stand are too
+narrow and inaccessible to have been the scene
+of sacrificial rites. Neither of these arguments
+has much force, nor is it easy to see how the cells
+are derived from dolmens. The fact is that the
+word 'dolmen-like,' which has become current
+coin in arch&aelig;ological phraseology, is a question-begging
+epithet. The Maltese cells are not like
+dolmens at all, they are either trilithons or tables
+resting on a pillar. They are always open to the
+front, and instead of the rough unhewn block
+which should cover a dolmen they are roofed with
+a well-squared slab. If the pillar which supports
+the slab is, like the free-standing pillars, a baetyl,
+the slab is probably a mere roof to cover and
+protect it; if not, the slab is almost certainly a table.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, although we may not accept
+the hypothesis that the cell is derived from a
+dolmen, Sir Arthur Evans may still be right in
+supposing the worship to have originated in a
+cult of the dead. But he was almost certainly
+wrong, as recent excavation has shown, in supposing
+that the cells were the actual burial place
+of the deified heroes.</p>
+
+<p>A number of statuettes were found at Hagiar
+Kim, two of which are of pottery and the rest of
+limestone. One figure represents a woman
+standing, but in the rest she is seated on a rather
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_107" id="Pg_107" title="Pg_107">[107]</a></span>low stool with her feet tucked under her. There
+is no sign of clothing, except on one figure which
+shows a long shirt and a plain bodice with very
+low neck. All these statuettes are characterized
+by what is known as steatopygy, that is, the over-development
+of the fat which lies on and behind the hips and thighs.</p>
+
+<p>Steatopygous figures have been found in many
+places, viz. France, Malta, Crete, the Cyclades,
+Greece, Thessaly, Servia, Transylvania, Poland,
+Egypt, and the Italian colony of Eritrea on the
+Red Sea. The French examples are from caves
+of the pal&aelig;olithic period; the rest mainly belong
+to the neolithic and bronze ages. Various reasons
+have been given for the abnormal appearance of
+these figures. In the first place it has been suggested
+that they represent women of a steatopygous
+type, like the modern Bushwomen, and that this
+race was in early days widely diffused in the
+Mediterranean and in South Europe. Another
+hypothesis is that they represent not a truly
+steatopygous type of women, but only an abnormally
+fat type. A third suggestion is that they
+portray the generative aspect of nature in the
+form of a pregnant goddess.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally there are considerable local differences
+in the shapes of the figures from the various
+countries we have enumerated, and it may
+be that no single hypothesis will explain them all.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_108" id="Pg_108" title="Pg_108">[108]</a></span>There are other megalithic buildings in Malta
+besides the three which we have discussed, but
+none of them call for more than passing mention.
+On the heights of Cordin or Corradino, overlooking
+the Grand Harbour of Valletta, there are no less
+than three groups, all of which have been lately
+excavated. In all three we see signs of the typical
+arrangement of elliptical areas one behind another,
+and in the finest of the three the curved fa&ccedil;ade
+and the paved court which lies before it are still
+preserved.</p>
+
+<p>It was for a long time believed that there were
+no dolmens in Malta. Professor Tagliaferro has
+been able to upset this belief by discovering two,
+one near Musta and the other near Siggewi. It
+is hardly credible that these are the only two
+dolmens which ever existed in Malta. More will
+no doubt yet be found, especially in the wild
+north-west corner of the isle.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The megalithic builders of Malta did not confine
+their achievements to structures above ground,
+they could also work with equal facility below.
+In the village of Casal Paula, which lies about a
+mile from the head of the Grand Harbour of
+Valletta, is a wonderful complex of subterranean
+chambers known as the Hypogeum of Halsaflieni,
+which may justly be considered as one of the
+wonders of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The chambers, which seem to follow no definite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_109" id="Pg_109" title="Pg_109">[109]</a></span>plan, are excavated in the soft limestone and
+arranged in two storeys connected by a staircase,
+part of which still remains in place. The finest
+rooms are in the upper storey. The largest is
+circular, and contains in its walls a series of false
+doors and windows. It is in this room that the
+remarkable nature of the work in the hypogeum is
+most apparent. On entering it one sees at once
+that the intention of the original excavator was
+to produce in solid rock underground a copy of a
+megalithic structure above ground. Thus the
+walls curve slightly inwards towards the top as
+do those of the apses of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim,
+and the ceiling is cut to represent a roof of great
+blocks laid across from wall to wall with a space
+left open in the centre where the width would be
+too great for the length of the stones. The treatment
+of the doors and windows recalls at once that
+of the temples above ground. The mason was
+not content, when he needed a door, to cut a
+rectangular opening in the rock; he must represent
+in high relief the monolithic side-posts and
+lintel which were the great features of the megalithic
+'temples' of Malta. Nor has he failed in
+his intention, for, as one moves from room to
+room in the hypogeum, one certainly has the
+feeling of being in a building constructed of
+separate blocks and not merely cut in the solid
+rock. No description can do justice to the grace
+of the curves and the flow of the line in the circular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_110" id="Pg_110" title="Pg_110">[110]</a></span>chamber and in the passage beyond it, and we
+have here the work of an architect who felt the
+&aelig;sthetic effect of every line he traced.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the circular chamber and across the
+passage just referred to lies a small room which,
+rightly or wrongly, has been called the 'Holy of
+Holies,' the idea being that it formed a kind of
+inner sanctuary to the chamber. It contains a
+rough shelf cut in the wall, and in the centre of
+this a shallow circular pit. It has been suggested
+that this pit was made to hold the base of the
+cult-object, whether it was a baetyl or an idol.
+This, however, is a mere conjecture. In the
+passage just outside the door of this room are
+two small circular pits about 6 inches in diameter
+and the same distance apart. They connect with
+one another below, and are closed with tightly
+fitting limestone plugs. In one of them was found
+a cow's horn. Their purpose is unknown, but
+similar pairs of pits occur elsewhere at Halsaflieni.</p>
+
+<p>In two of the largest chambers in the hypogeum
+the roof and walls are still decorated with designs
+in red paint. The patterns consist of graceful
+combinations of curved lines and spirals. Many
+other rooms, including the circular chamber,
+were originally painted with designs in red, which
+have now almost wholly disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the chambers are extremely small,
+too small for an adult even to stand upright
+in them, and their entrances are merely windows,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_111" id="Pg_111" title="Pg_111">[111]</a></span>perhaps a foot square and well above the ground.</p>
+
+<p>What then was the purpose of this wonderful
+complex of rooms? Before attempting to answer
+this question we must consider what has been
+found in them. When the museum authorities
+first took over the hypogeum practically all the
+chambers were filled to within a short distance of
+their roofs with a mass of reddish soil, which proved
+to contain the remains of thousands of human
+skeletons. In other words, Halsaflieni was used as
+a burial place, though this may not have been its
+original purpose. The bones lay for the most part
+in disorder, and so thickly that in a space of about
+4 cubic yards lay the remains of no less than 120
+individuals. One skeleton, however, was found
+intact, lying on the right side in the crouched
+position, i.e. with arms and knees bent up.</p>
+
+<p>With the bones were found enormous quantities
+of pottery and other objects, buried with the dead
+as provision for the next world. The pottery is
+rough in comparison with the fine painted wares
+of Crete, but it is extremely varied in its decoration.
+One particularly fine bowl shows a series
+of animals which have been identified by Professor
+Tagliaferro as the long-horned buffalo, an
+animal which once existed on the northern coasts
+of Africa. Ornaments of all kinds were common,
+and include beads, pendants, and conical buttons
+of stone and shell. The most remarkable of all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_112" id="Pg_112" title="Pg_112">[112]</a></span>are a large number of model celts made of jadeite
+and other hard stones. These are of the same
+shape as the stone axes used by neolithic man,
+but they are far too small ever to have been used,
+and they must therefore have been models hung
+round the neck as amulets. Each is provided
+with a small hole for this purpose. The popularity
+of the axe-amulet makes it probable that the axe
+had some religious significance.</p>
+
+<p>Finally Halsaflieni has yielded several steatopygous
+figurines. Some of these resemble those of
+Hagiar Kim, but two are of rather different type.
+Each of these represents a female lying on a rather
+low couch. In the better preserved of the two
+she lies on her right side, her head on a small
+uncomfortable-looking pillow. The upper part
+of her body is naked, but from the waist downwards
+she is clad in a flounced skirt which reaches
+to the ankles. The other figurine is very similar,
+but the woman here is face downwards on the couch.</p>
+
+<p>The bodies themselves were so damaged with
+damp that only ten skulls could be saved whole.
+These, however, afford very valuable anthropological
+evidence. They have been carefully
+measured by Dr. Zammit, and they prove to
+belong to a long-headed (dolichocephalic) type
+usual among the neolithic races of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>We have still to discuss the purpose of this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_113" id="Pg_113" title="Pg_113">[113]</a></span>great complex of underground chambers and
+passages. It is quite clear that its eventual fate
+was to be used as a burial place for thousands of
+individuals, but it is far from certain that this
+was the purpose for which it was built. The
+existence of the central chamber, with its careful
+work and laborious imitation of an open-air
+'temple,' is against this interpretation. It has
+therefore been suggested that the hypogeum was
+meant for a burial place, and that the central
+chamber was the chapel or sanctuary in which
+the funeral rites were performed, after which the
+body was buried in one of the smaller rooms.
+This, however, does not explain the presence of
+burials in the chapel itself, and it is far more likely
+that it was only after Halsaflieni had ceased to be
+used for its original purpose that it was seized
+upon as a convenient place for burial.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the date of the Maltese megalithic
+buildings is a difficult one. It is true that
+no metal has been found in them, and that we
+can therefore speak of them as belonging to the
+neolithic age. But the neolithic age of Malta need
+not be parallel in date with that of Crete for
+example. It is extremely probable that Malta
+lay outside the main currents of civilization, and
+that flint continued to be used there long after
+copper had been adopted by her more fortunate
+neighbours.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_114" id="Pg_114" title="Pg_114">[114]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DOLMENS OF ASIA<br /><br /></h3>
+
+<p>In the south-east of Europe lie three groups
+of dolmens which are no doubt in origin
+more closely connected with those of Asia than
+with those of the rest of Europe. The first group
+lies in Bulgaria, where no less than sixty dolmens
+have been found north of Adrianople. The
+second consists of a few dolmens which still
+remain in the Crimea, and the third lies in the
+Caucasus in two divisions, one to the south-east
+and the other to the south-west of the town of
+Ekaterinodar. These last are made of slabby
+rock, and thus have a finished appearance. A
+dolmen near Tzarskaya has a small semicircular
+hole at the bottom of one of its end-slabs, while
+another in the valley of Pehada has sides consisting
+of single blocks, placed so as to slant inwards
+considerably, and a circular hole in the
+centre of the slab which closes one of its ends.</p>
+
+<p>In Asia megalithic monuments are not infrequent.
+We first find them in Syria, they have
+been reported from Persia, and in Central and
+South India they exist in large numbers. Corridor-tombs
+occur in Japan, but they are late in date,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_115" id="Pg_115" title="Pg_115">[115]</a></span>and there is no evidence to show whether they are
+connected with those of India or not.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<!-- Figure 22 -->
+
+<div><a name="figure_22" id="figure_22"></a></div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/fig_22.png" width="600" height="400" alt="figure_22" title="Figure 22" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="centered"><table border="0" width="600" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figure">
+<tr><td class="photo_text"><span class="smcap"><b>Fig. 22.</b></span>
+<b>Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat.<br />
+(After de Luynes.)</b>
+</td></tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Syria is comparatively rich in megalithic
+monuments, but it is remarkable that almost all
+of them lie to the east of the Jordan. Thus while
+there are hundreds of dolmens in the country of
+Pera and in Ammon and Moab, very few have been
+found in Galilee, and only one in Jud&aelig;a, despite
+careful search. There is, however, a circle of
+stones west of Tiberias, and an enclosure of
+menhirs between Tyre and Sidon. According to
+Perrot and Chipiez some of the Moabite monuments
+are very similar in type to the Giants'
+Tombs of Sardinia. Others are simple dolmens.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_116" id="Pg_116" title="Pg_116">[116]</a></span>In a good example at Ala Safat (Fig. 22) the floor
+of the tomb is formed by a single flat slab of
+stone. The great cover-slab rests on two long
+blocks, one on either side, placed on edge. The
+narrow ends are closed up with smaller slabs,
+one of which, that which faces north, has a small
+hole pierced in it. A similar closure slab with a
+hole is also found in certain rock-tombs quite
+close to this dolmen. Apparently none of these
+dolmens have been systematically excavated, and
+nothing is known of their date.</p>
+
+<p>Menhirs, too, are not wanting in Syria. Perrot
+and Chipiez figure an example from Gebel-Mousa
+in Moab which is quite unworked, except for a
+shallow furrow across the centre of the face. In
+many cases the menhir is surrounded by one or
+more rows of stones. Thus at Der Ghuzaleh a
+menhir about 3 feet in height is set in the centre
+of what when complete must have been a rectangle.
+In other cases the enclosure was elliptical
+or circular in form. In an example at Minieh the
+menhir stands in the centre of a double (in part
+triple) circle of stones, on which abuts an elliptical
+enclosure. In some cases the circle has no proper
+entrance, in others it has a door consisting of a
+large slab resting on two others. The largest of
+the circles attains a diameter of 600 feet, and has
+a double line of stones.</p>
+
+<p>Within these circles and near them are found
+large numbers of monuments consisting each of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_117" id="Pg_117" title="Pg_117">[117]</a></span>large flat slab resting on two others. On the upper
+surface of the top slab are often seen a number of
+basin-shaped holes, sometimes connected by furrows.
+Many of the slabs are slightly slanting,
+and it has been suggested that the series of holes
+and furrows was intended for the pouring a
+libation of some kind. In a monument of this
+type at Amm&acirc;n the cover-slab slopes considerably;
+the upper part of its surface is a network of small
+channels converging on a hole 11 inches deep
+about the centre of the slab. Here, again, no
+excavations have been carried out, and we do
+not even know what was the purpose of these
+structures. It is, however, probable that these
+trilithons were not, like the dolmens, tombs, but
+served some religious purpose, possibly connected
+with the worship of the menhirs.</p>
+
+<p>In the Jaul&acirc;n, where the rock consists of a
+slabby type of basalt, there are many dolmens
+of fine appearance. They often lie east and west,
+and are often broader at the west end. Many are
+surrounded by a double circle of stones. In one
+of them two copper rings were found. At Ain
+Dakkar more than 160 dolmen-tombs are visible
+from a single spot. They are built on circular
+terraces of earth and stones about 3 feet high.
+The Arabs call them Graves of the Children of
+Israel. Most of them lie east and west, and are
+broader at the west. In the eastern slab there is
+often a hole about 2 feet in diameter. Near Ts&icirc;l
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_118" id="Pg_118" title="Pg_118">[118]</a></span>are several corridor-tombs of simple type. Each
+consists of a long rectangular chamber with only
+one cover-slab, that being at the west end. In
+a well-known example of this type at Kosseir
+there is a hole in one of the two uprights which
+support the cover.</p>
+
+<p>These examples will serve to show the importance
+and variety of the Syrian monuments. They
+present analogies with those of many parts of the
+megalithic area, and we therefore await anxiously
+the publication of Mackenzie's promised article on
+his own explorations in this district.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The central and southern parts of India afford
+numerous examples of dolmens. They are to be
+found in almost all parts of Lower India from the
+Nerbudda River to Cape Comorin. In the Nilgiri
+hills there are stone circles and dolmens, and
+numbers of dolmens are said to exist in the
+Neermul jungle in Central India. In the collectorate
+of Bellary dolmens and other monuments
+to the number of 2129 have been recorded.
+Others occur in the principality of Sorapoor and
+near Vellore in the Madras presidency. These
+latter appear to be of two types, either with three
+supports only or with four supports, one of which
+is pierced with a circular hole. Of the 2200
+dolmens known in the Deccan, half are of this
+pierced type. They are known to the natives
+as "dwarfs' houses." One only had a pair of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_119" id="Pg_119" title="Pg_119">[119]</a></span>uprights outside the pierced stone, thus forming
+a sort of portico to the dolmen. Near Chittore in
+North Arcot there is said to be a square mile of
+ground covered with these monuments. In them
+were found human remains in sarcophagi, and
+fragments of black pottery. Several of the Indian
+dolmens are said to have contained objects of
+iron. Occasionally the dolmen is surrounded by
+a double circle of stones or covered with a cairn.
+The Deccan, in addition to its numerous dolmens,
+possesses also megalithic monuments of another
+type. They consist each of two rows, each of
+thirteen unworked stones set as close together as
+possible, in front of which is a row of three stones,
+each about 4 feet high, not let into the ground.
+The planted stones were whitewashed, and each
+was marked with a large spot of red paint with
+black in the centre. These stones seem to have
+been in use in modern times. Colonel Forbes
+Leslie thinks that a cock had been sacrificed on
+one of the three stones which lie in front of the
+double row, but there seems to be no certain
+evidence for this. It is, however, very probable
+that these <i>alignements</i> had some religious signification,
+and the same is no doubt true of certain
+small circles of small stones, also found in the Deccan.</p>
+
+<p>The modern inhabitants of the Khasi Hills in
+India still make use of megalithic monuments.
+They set up a group of an odd number of menhirs,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_120" id="Pg_120" title="Pg_120">[120]</a></span>3, 5, 7, 9, or 11, and in front of these two structures
+of dolmen form. These are raised in honour of
+some important member of the tribe who has
+died, and whose spirit is thought to have done
+some good to the tribe. If the benefits continue
+it is usual to increase the number of menhirs.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest burials in Japan are marked by
+simple mounds of earth. It was not until the
+beginning of the iron age that megalithic tombs
+came into use. The true dolmen is not found in
+Japan, and all the known graves are corridor-tombs
+covered with a mound. They are of four
+types. First, we have a simple corridor with no
+separate chamber; secondly, a corridor broadening
+out at one side near the end; thirdly, a true
+chamber with a corridor of access; and fourthly, a
+type in which the corridor is preceded by an antechamber.
+All four types occur in rough unworked
+stone, roofed with huge slabs, but a few examples
+of the third type are made of well-cut and dressed
+blocks. The mounds are usually conical, though
+some are of a complex form shortly to be described.
+Some of these contain stone sarcophagi. The
+bodies were never cremated, but the bones are so
+damaged that it is impossible to say what the
+most usual position was. Objects of bronze and
+iron together with pottery and ornaments were
+found in the tombs.</p>
+
+<p>The more important tombs are of a more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_121" id="Pg_121" title="Pg_121">[121]</a></span>complicated type. They seem to have contained
+the remains of emperors and their families. They
+consist each of a circular mound, to which is added
+on one side another mound of trapezoidal form.
+The megalithic tomb-chamber or the sarcophagus
+which sometimes replaces it lies in the circular
+part of the mound. The total axial length of the
+basis of the whole mound is in a typical case&mdash;that
+of Nara (Yamato)&mdash;674 feet, the diameter of
+the round end being 420 feet. The mounds have
+in most cases terraced sides, and are surrounded
+by a moat. In early times it seems to have
+been the custom to slay or bury alive the servants
+of the emperor on his mound, but this was
+given up about the beginning of the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>These imperial double mounds seem to begin
+about two centuries before the Christian era, and
+to continue for five or six centuries after it. Many
+of them can be definitely assigned to their owners,
+and others are attributed by tradition. Thus a
+rather small mound at the foot of Mount Unebi
+(Yamato) is considered to be the burial place of
+the Emperor Jimmu, the founder of the Imperial
+dynasty, and annual ceremonies are performed
+before it.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese Emperors are still buried in
+terraced mounds, and in the group of huge stone
+blocks which have been placed on the mound of
+the Emperor Komei, who died in 1866, we may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_122" id="Pg_122" title="Pg_122">[122]</a></span>tempted to see a survival of the ancient megalithic chamber.</p>
+
+<p>These early corridor-tombs are evidently not
+the work of the Ainu, the aborigines of Japan,
+but of the Japanese invaders who conquered
+them. These latter do not seem to have brought
+the idea of megalithic building with them, as
+their earlier tombs are simple mounds. As no
+dolmen has yet been found in Japan we cannot at
+present derive the corridor-tomb there from it.
+It is, however, worthy of mention that true dolmens
+occur as near as Corea, though none have
+been reported from China.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_123" id="Pg_123" title="Pg_123">[123]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS,<br />
+THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ETC.<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>With regard to the date of the megalithic
+monuments it only remains to sum up
+the evidence given in the previous chapters. It
+may be said that in Europe they never belong to
+the beginning of the neolithic age, but either to
+its end or to the period which followed it, i.e. to
+the age of copper and bronze. The majority date
+from the dawn of this latter period, though some
+of the chambered cairns of Ireland seem to belong
+to the iron age. Outside Europe there are certainly
+megalithic tombs which are late. In North
+Africa, for example, we know that the erection
+of dolmens continued into the early iron age;
+many of the Indian tombs are clearly late, and
+the corridor-tombs of Japan can be safely attributed
+in part at least to the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>With what purpose were the megalithic monuments
+erected? The most simple example, the
+menhir or upright stone, may have served many
+purposes. In discussing the temples of Malta
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_124" id="Pg_124" title="Pg_124">[124]</a></span>we saw reason for believing that the megalithic
+peoples were in the habit of worshipping great
+stones as such. Other stones, not actually worshipped,
+may mark the scene of some great event.
+Jacob commemorated a dream by setting up the
+stone which had served him as a pillow, and
+Samuel, victorious over the Philistines, set up
+twelve stones, and called the place "Stones of
+Deliverance." Others again perhaps stood in
+a spot devoted to some particular national or
+religious ceremony. Thus the Angami of the
+present day in Assam set up stones in commemoration
+of their village feasts. It seems clear
+from the excavations that the menhirs do not
+mark the place of burials, though they may in
+some cases have been raised in honour of the dead.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the purpose of stone circles
+has already been dealt with in connection with
+those of Great Britain. <i>Alignements</i> are more
+difficult to explain, for, from their form, they
+cannot have served as temples in the sense of
+meeting-places for worship. Yet they must
+surely have been connected with religion in some
+way or other. Possibly they were not constructed
+once and for all, but the stones were added gradually,
+each marking some event or the performance
+of some periodic ceremony, or even the death of
+some great chief. The so-called "Canaanite High
+Place" recently found at Gezer consists of a line
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_125" id="Pg_125" title="Pg_125">[125]</a></span>of ten menhirs running north and south, together
+with a large block in which was a socket for an
+idol or other object of worship. Several bodies
+of children found near it have suggested that the
+monument was a place of sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>Other megalithic structures can be definitely
+classed as dwellings or tombs, as we have seen
+in our separate treatment of them. It is not
+improbable that, if we are right in considering
+the dolmen as the most primitive form of megalithic
+monument, megalithic architecture was
+funerary in origin. Yet, as we find it in its great
+diffusion, it provides homes for the living as well
+as for the dead. In their original home, perhaps in
+Africa, the megalithic race may have lived in huts
+of wattle or skins, but after their migration the
+need of protection in a hostile country and the
+exigencies of a colder climate may have forced
+them to employ stone for their dwellings. In any
+case, in megalithic architecture as seen in Europe
+the tomb and the dwelling types are considerably
+intermixed, and may have reacted on one another.
+This, however, does not justify the assertion so
+often made that the megalithic tomb was a
+conscious imitation of the hut. It is true that
+some peoples make the home of their dead to
+resemble that of the living. Among certain
+tribes of Greenland it is usual to leave the dead
+man seated in his hut by way of burial. But such
+a conception does not exist among all peoples,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_126" id="Pg_126" title="Pg_126">[126]</a></span>and to say that the dolmen is an imitation in
+stone of a hut is the purest conjecture. Still
+more improbable is Montelius's idea that the
+corridor-tomb imitates a dwelling. It is true
+that the Eskimos have a type of hut which is
+entered by a low passage often 30 feet in length,
+but for one who believes as Montelius does that
+the corridor-tomb is southern or eastern in origin
+such a derivation is impossible, for this type of
+house is essentially northern, its aim being to
+exclude the icy winds. In the south it would be
+intolerably close, and its low passage besides
+serving no purpose would be inconvenient.</p>
+
+<p>There is really no reason to derive either the
+dolmen or the corridor-tomb from dwellings at
+all. Granted the use of huge stones, both are
+purely natural forms, and the presence of the
+corridor in the latter is dictated by necessity.
+The problem was how to cover a large tomb-chamber
+with a mound and to leave it still accessible
+for later interments, and the obvious solution
+was to add a covered passage leading out to the
+edge of the mound.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable feature of the megalithic tombs
+is the occurrence in many of them of a small round
+or rectangular hole in one of the walls, usually an
+end-wall, more rarely a partition-wall between
+two chambers. Occasionally the hole was formed
+by placing side by side two upright blocks each
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_127" id="Pg_127" title="Pg_127">[127]</a></span>with a semicircular notch in its edge. Tombs
+with a holed block or blocks occur in England,
+instances being the barrows of Avening and
+Rodmarton, King Orry's Grave in the Isle of Man,
+Lanyon Quoit in Cornwall, and Plas Newydd in
+Wales, which has two holes. There are also
+examples in Ireland, France, Belgium, Central
+Germany, and Scandinavia, where they are
+common. Passing further afield we find holes
+in the Giants' Graves of Sardinia, and in Syria,
+the Caucasus, and India, where half the dolmens
+in the Deccan are of this type. The holes are
+usually too small to allow of the passage of a
+human body. It has been suggested that they
+served as an outlet for the soul of the deceased,
+or in some cases as a means of passing in food to him.</p>
+
+<p>Attention has been frequently drawn to curious
+round pits so often found on the stones of dolmens
+and usually known as cup-markings. They vary
+in diameter from about two to four inches, and
+are occasionally connected by a series of narrow
+grooves in the stone. They vary considerably in
+number, sometimes there are few, sometimes
+many. They occur nearly always on the upper
+surface of the cover-slab, very rarely on its under
+surface or on the side-walls.</p>
+
+<p>Some have attempted to show that these pits
+are purely natural and not artificial. It has been
+suggested, for instance, that they are simply the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_128" id="Pg_128" title="Pg_128">[128]</a></span>casts of a species of fossil sea-urchin which has
+weathered out from the surface of the stone. This
+explanation may be true in some cases, but it
+will not serve in all, for the 'cups' are sometimes
+arranged in such regular order that their artificial
+origin is palpable. These markings are found on
+dolmens and corridor-tombs in Palestine, North
+Africa, Corsica, France, Germany, Scandinavia,
+and Great Britain. In Wales there is a fine example
+of a dolmen with pits at Clynnog Fawr,
+while in Cornwall we may instance the monument
+called "The Three Brothers of Grugith" near Meneage.</p>
+
+<p>There is no clue to the purpose of these pits.
+Some have thought that they were made to hold
+the blood of sacrifice which was poured over the
+slab, and from some such idea may have arisen
+some of the legends of human victims which still
+cling round the dolmens. Others have opposed
+to this the fact that the pits sometimes occur on
+vertical walls or under the cover-slabs, and have
+preferred to see in them some totemistic signification
+or some expression of star-worship. It is
+possible that we have to deal with a complex and
+not a simple phenomenon, and that the pits were
+not all made to serve a single purpose. Those
+which cover some of the finest stones at Mnaidra
+and Hagiar Kim are certainly meant to be ornamental,
+though there may be in them a reminiscence
+of some religious tradition. In any case, it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_129" id="Pg_129" title="Pg_129">[129]</a></span>worth while to remember that cup-markings also
+occur on natural rocks and boulders in Switzerland,
+Scandinavia, Great Britain (where there is a good
+example near Ilkley in Yorkshire), near Como in
+Italy, and in Germany, Russia, and India.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Of the builders of the megalithic monuments
+themselves we cannot expect to know very much,
+especially while their origin remains veiled in
+obscurity. Yet there are a few facts which stand
+out clearly. We even know something about their
+appearance, for the skulls found in the megalithic
+tombs have in many cases been subjected to
+careful examination and measurement. Into
+the detail of these measurements we cannot enter
+here; suffice it to say that the most important of
+them are the maximum length of the skull from
+front to back and its maximum breadth, both
+measures, of course, being taken in a straight
+line with a pair of callipers, and not round the
+contour of the skull. If we now divide the maximum
+breadth by the maximum length and multiply
+the result by 100 we get what is known as the
+cephalic index of the skull. Thus if a skull has
+a length of 180 millimetres and a breadth of 135,
+its cephalic index is 135/180 X 100, i.e. 75. It is clear
+that in a roundish type of head the breadth will
+be greater in proportion to the length than in a
+narrow elliptical type. Thus in a broad head the
+cephalic index is high, while in a narrow head it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_130" id="Pg_130" title="Pg_130">[130]</a></span>is low. The former is called brachycephalic
+(short-headed), and the latter dolichocephalic
+(long-headed).</p>
+
+<p>This index is now accepted by most anthropologists
+as a useful criterion of race, though, of course,
+there are other characteristics which must often
+be taken into account, such as the height and
+breadth of the face, the cubic capacity of the
+skull and its general contour. At any rate, if we
+can show that the skulls of the megalithic tombs
+conform to a single type in respect of their index
+we shall have a presumption, though not a certainty,
+that they belong to a single race.</p>
+
+<p>For Africa the evidence consists in a group of
+twenty skulls from dolmen-tombs giving cephalic
+indices which range from 70.5 to 84.4. The
+average index is 75.27, and the majority of the
+indices lay within a few units of that number.
+Ten skulls from Halsaflieni in Malta have cephalic
+indices running from 66 to 75.1, the average being
+71.84. Of a series of 44 skulls from the rock-tombs
+of the Petit Morin in France, 12 had an
+index of over 80, 22 were between 75 and 80, and
+10 were below 75. But in the dolmens of Loz&egrave;re
+distinctly broad skulls were frequent. A series
+of British neolithic skulls, mostly from barrows,
+ran from 67 to 77.</p>
+
+<p>The builders of the megalithic monuments
+thus belonged in the main to a fairly dolichocephalic
+race or races, for the large majority of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_131" id="Pg_131" title="Pg_131">[131]</a></span>the skulls measured are of a long-headed type.
+There are, however, in various localities, especially
+in France, occasional anomalous types of skull
+which are distinctly brachycephalic, and show
+that contamination of some kind was taking or
+had taken place.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Of the state of civilization to which the builders
+of the megalithic monuments had attained, and
+of the social condition in which they lived, there
+is something to be gathered. It is clear in the
+first place from the evidence of the Maltese
+buildings that they were a pastoral people who
+domesticated the ox, the sheep, the pig, and the
+goat, upon whose flesh they partly lived. Shellfish
+also formed a part of their diet, and the shells
+when emptied of their contents were occasionally
+pierced to be used as pendants or to form necklaces
+or bracelets.</p>
+
+<p>Whether these people were agricultural is a
+question more difficult to answer. It is true that
+flat stones have been found, on which some kind
+of cereal was ground up with the aid of round
+pebbles, but the grain for which these primitive
+mills were used may have been wild and not
+cultivated. No grain of any kind has been found
+in the Maltese settlements.</p>
+
+<p>The megalithic race do not seem to have been
+great traders. This is remarkably exemplified in
+Malta, where there is not a trace of connection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_132" id="Pg_132" title="Pg_132">[132]</a></span>with the wonderful civilization which must have
+been flourishing so near at hand in Crete and the
+&AElig;gean at the time when the megalithic temples
+were built. The island seems to have been entirely
+self-sufficing, except for the importation of
+obsidian, probably from the neighbouring island
+of Linosa. Of copper, which wide trade would
+have introduced, there is no sign.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers, however, have argued the existence
+of extensive trade-relations from the occurrence
+of a peculiar kind of turquoise called <i>calla&iuml;s</i>
+in some of the megalithic monuments of France
+and Portugal. The rarity of this stone has inclined
+some arch&aelig;ologists to attribute it to a single
+source, while some have gone so far as to consider
+it eastern in origin. For the last theory there is no
+evidence whatsoever. No natural deposit of
+<i>calla&iuml;s</i> is known, but it is highly probable that the
+sources of the megalithic examples lay in France
+or Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>It would of course be foolish to suppose that
+the megalithic people received none of the products
+of other countries, especially at a time when
+the discovery of copper was giving a great impetus
+to trade. No doubt they enjoyed the benefits of
+that kind of slow filtering trade which a primitive
+tribe, even if it had wished, could hardly have
+avoided, but they were not a great trading nation
+as were the Cretans of the Middle and Late
+Minoan Periods, or the Egyptians of the XIIth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_133" id="Pg_133" title="Pg_133">[133]</a></span>and XVIIIth Dynasties. We know nothing of
+their political conditions, of the groups into which
+they were divided, or the centres from which they
+were governed. That there were strong centres
+of government is, however, clear from the very
+existence of such huge monuments, many of which
+must have required the combined and organized
+labour of large armies of workers, in the gathering
+of which the state was doubtless strongly backed
+by religion.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the megalithic peoples
+frequently dwelt in huts of great stones. Yet in
+the majority of cases their huts must have been,
+like those of most primitive races, of perishable
+material, such as wood, wattle, skins, turf, and
+clay. As for their form there was probably a
+continual conflict between the round and the
+rectangular plan, just as there was in the stone
+examples. Which form prevailed in any particular
+district was probably determined almost by
+accident. Thus in Sardinia the round type was
+mostly kept for the huts and <i>nuraghi</i>, while the
+rectangular was reserved for the dolmens and
+Giants' Graves. Even here the confusion between
+the two types is shown by the fact that near
+Birori there are two dolmens with a round plan.
+Again, in Pantelleria the huts of the Mursia are
+rectangular, while the <i>sesi</i>, which are tombs, are
+roughly circular. It is therefore probable that
+the round and rectangular types of building were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_134" id="Pg_134" title="Pg_134">[134]</a></span>both in use among the megalithic people before
+they spread over Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Within their huts these people led a life of the
+simplest description. Their weapons and tools,
+though occasionally of copper, were for the most
+part of stone. Flint was the most usual material.
+In Scandinavia it was often polished, but elsewhere
+it was merely flaked. The implements
+made from it were of simple types, knives, borers,
+scrapers, lanceheads, and more rarely arrowheads.
+Many of these were quite roughly made, no more
+flaking being done than was absolutely necessary
+to produce the essential form, and the work being,
+when possible, confined to one face of the flint.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mediterranean obsidian, a volcanic rock,
+occasionally took the place of flint, especially in
+Sardinia and Pantelleria. Axes or celts were often
+made of flint in Scandinavia and North Germany,
+but elsewhere other stones, such as jade, jadeite,
+and diorite were commonly used.</p>
+
+<p>We can only guess at the way in which the
+megalithic people were clothed. No doubt the
+skins of the animals they domesticated and of
+those they hunted provided them with some form
+of covering, at any rate in countries where it was
+needed. Possibly they spun wool or flax into a
+thread, for at Halsaflieni two objects were found
+which look like spindle-whorls, and others occur
+on sites which are almost certainly to be attributed
+to the megalithic people. There is, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_135" id="Pg_135" title="Pg_135">[135]</a></span>nothing to show that they wove the thread into
+stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>The love of personal decoration was highly
+developed among them, and all branches of nature
+were called upon to minister to their desire for
+ornament. Shells, pierced and strung separately
+or in masses, were perhaps their favourite adornment,
+but close on these follow beads and pendants
+of almost every conceivable substance, bone, horn,
+stone, clay, nuts, beans, copper, and occasionally
+gold.</p>
+
+<p>One small object assumes a great importance
+on account of its wide distribution. This is the
+conical button with two converging holes in its
+base to pass the thread through. This little object,
+which may have served exactly the purpose of
+the modern button, occurs in several parts of the
+megalithic area. There are examples in Malta
+made of stone and shell. Elsewhere it is most
+usually of bone. It occurs in Sardinia, in France,
+in the rock-tombs of Gard, and in the corridor and
+rock-tombs of Loz&egrave;re and Ard&egrave;che, in Portugal
+in the <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i> of Monte Abraha&otilde;, in Bohusl&auml;n
+(Sweden), and at Carrowmore in Ireland. Outside
+the megalithic area it has been found in two of the
+Swiss lake-dwellings and in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of the megalithic people was of a
+simple type. It was all made by hand, the potter's
+wheel being still unknown to the makers. Pottery
+with painted designs does not occur outside Sicily,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_136" id="Pg_136" title="Pg_136">[136]</a></span>except for a few poor and late examples in Malta.
+The best vases were of fairly purified clay, moderately
+well fired, and having a polished surface,
+usually of a darkish colour. On this surface were
+often incised ornamental designs, varying both
+in type and in the skill with which they were
+engraved. As a rule the schemes were rectilinear,
+more rarely they were carried out in curves.
+Sardinia furnishes some fine examples of rectilinear
+work, while the best of the curved designs are
+found in Malta, where elaborate conventional
+and even naturalistic patterns are traced out with
+wonderful freedom and steadiness of hand.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery of the megalithic area is not all alike;
+it would be surprising if it were. Even supposing
+that the invaders brought with them a single
+definite style of pottery-making this would
+rapidly become modified by local conditions and
+by the already existing pottery industry of the
+country, often, no doubt, superior to that of the
+new-comers. Nevertheless, there are a few points
+of similarity between the pottery of various parts
+of the megalithic area. The most remarkable
+example is the bell-shaped cup, which occurs in
+Denmark, England, France, Spain, Sardinia, and
+possibly Malta (the specimen is too broken for
+certainty). Outside the area it is found in Bohemia,
+Hungary, and North Italy. Here, as in the case
+of the conical button, we cannot argue that the
+form was actually introduced by the megalithic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_137" id="Pg_137" title="Pg_137">[137]</a></span>race, though there is a certain possibility in favour
+of such a hypothesis.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>That the megalithic people possessed a religion
+of some kind will hardly be doubted. Their
+careful observance of the rites due to the dead,
+and their construction of buildings which can
+hardly have been anything but places of worship,
+is a strong testimony to this. We have seen that
+in the Maltese temples the worship of baetyls or
+pillars of stone seems to have been carried on.
+Several stone objects which can scarcely have
+been anything but baetyls were found in the
+megalithic structures of Los Millares in Spain,
+but none are known elsewhere in the megalithic area.</p>
+
+<p>There is some reason for thinking that among
+the megalithic race there existed a cult of the axe.
+In France, for instance, the sculptured rock-tombs
+of the valley of the Petit Morin show, some
+a human figure, some an axe, and some a combination
+of the two. This same juxtaposition of
+the two also occurs on a slab which closed the
+top of a corbelled chamber at Collorgues in Gard.
+A simple <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i> at G&ouml;hlitzsch in Saxony
+has on one of its blocks an axe and handle engraved
+and coloured red. There are further examples
+in the <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i> of Gavr'inis and the
+dolmen called La Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_138" id="Pg_138" title="Pg_138">[138]</a></span>These sculptured axes call to mind at once the
+numerous axe-shaped pendants of fine polished
+stone (jade, jadeite, etc.) found in Malta, Sicily,
+Sardinia, and France, and apparently used as
+amulets. The excavation of Crete has brought
+to light a remarkable worship of the double axe,
+and it has been argued with great probability
+that one of the early boat signs figured on the pre-dynastic
+painted vases of Egypt is a double axe,
+and that this was a cult object. It seems very
+probable that in the megalithic area, or at least
+in part of it, there was a somewhat similar worship,
+the object of cult, however, being not a double
+but a single axe, usually represented as fitted with
+a handle. It need not be assumed that the axe
+itself was worshipped, though this is not impossible;
+it is more likely that it was an attribute
+of some god or goddess.</p>
+
+<p>Among the rock-hewn tombs of the valley of
+the Petit Morin in the department of Marne,
+France, were seven which contained engravings
+on one of the walls. Several of these represent
+human figures (Fig. 13). The eyes are not marked,
+but the hair and nose are clear. In some the breasts
+are shown, in others they are omitted. On each
+figure is represented what appears to be a collar
+or necklace. Similar figures occur on the slabs
+of some of the <i>all&eacute;es couvertes</i> of Seine et Oise, and
+on certain blocks found in and near megalithic
+burials in the South of France. Moreover, in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_139" id="Pg_139" title="Pg_139">[139]</a></span>departments of Aveyron, Tarn, and H&eacute;rault have
+been found what are known as menhir-statues,
+upright pillars of stone roughly shaped into human
+semblance at the top; they are of two types, the
+one clearly female and the other with no breasts,
+but always with a collar or baldric.</p>
+
+<p>It has been argued that these figures represent
+a deity or deities of the megalithic people.
+D&eacute;chelette, comparing what are apparently tattoo
+marks on a menhir-statue at Saint Sermin (Aveyron)
+with similar marks on a figure cut on a
+schist plaque at Idanha a Nova (Portugal) and
+on a marble idol from the island of Seriphos in the
+&AElig;gean, seems inclined to argue that in France
+and Portugal we have the same deity as in the
+&AElig;gean. This seems rather a hazardous conjecture,
+for we know that many primitive peoples
+practised tattooing, and, moreover, it is not
+certain that the French figures represent deities
+at all. It is quite as likely, if not more so, that
+they represent the deceased, and take the place
+of a grave-stone: this would account for the
+occurrence of both male and female types. This
+was almost certainly the purpose of six stones
+that remain of a line that ran parallel to a now
+destroyed tomb at Tamuli (Sardinia). Three have
+breasts as if to distinguish the sex of three of those
+buried in the tomb. We must not therefore
+assume that any of the French figures represents
+a 'dolmen-deity.'</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_140" id="Pg_140" title="Pg_140">[140]</a></span>The method of burial observed in the megalithic
+tombs is almost universally inhumation. Cremation
+seems to occur only in France, but there it is
+beyond all doubt. The known examples are found
+in the departments of Finist&egrave;re, Marne, and
+Aisne, and in the neighbourhood of Paris. In Finist&egrave;re
+out of 92 megalithic burials examined 61
+were cremations, 26 were inhumations, and 5
+were uncertain. It is extremely curious that this
+small portion of France should be the only part
+of the megalithic area where cremation was practised.
+It is generally held that cremation was
+brought into Europe by the broad-headed 'Alpine'
+people, who seem to have invaded the centre of
+the continent at some period in the neolithic age.
+It is possible that in parts of France a mixture
+took place between the megalithic builders and
+the Alpine race. Intermarriage would no doubt
+lead to confusion in many cases between the two rites.</p>
+
+<p>In all other cases the builders of the megalithic
+monuments buried their dead unburned. Often
+the body was lying stretched out on its back, or
+was set in a sitting position against the side of the
+tomb; but most frequently it was placed in what
+is known as the contracted position, laid on one
+side, generally the left, with the knees bent and
+drawn up towards the chin, the arms bent at the
+elbow, and the hands placed close to the face.
+Many explanations of this position have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_141" id="Pg_141" title="Pg_141">[141]</a></span>suggested. Some see in it a natural posture of
+repose, some an attempt to crowd the body into
+as small a space as possible. Some have suggested
+that the corpse was tightly bound up with cords
+in order that the spirit might not escape and do
+harm to the living. Perhaps the most widely
+approved theory is that which considers this
+position to be embryonic, i.e. the position of the
+embryo previous to birth. None of these explanations
+is entirely convincing, but no better one has
+been put forward up to the present.</p>
+
+<p>This custom, it must be noted, was not limited
+to the megalithic peoples. It was the invariable
+practice of the pre-dynastic Egyptians and has
+been found further east in Persia. It occurs in the
+neolithic period in Crete and the &AElig;gean, in Italy,
+Switzerland, Germany, and other parts of Europe,
+and it is one of the facts which go to show that the
+builders of the megaliths were ethnologically connected,
+however remotely, with their predecessors in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>At Halsaflieni, in Malta, we have perhaps examples
+of the curious custom of secondary interment;
+the body is buried temporarily in some
+suitable place, and after the flesh has left the bones
+the latter are collected and thrown together into
+a common ossuary. That the bones at Halsaflieni
+were placed there when free from flesh is probable
+from the closeness with which they were packed
+together (see p. 111). There are also possible examples
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_142" id="Pg_142" title="Pg_142">[142]</a></span>in Sicily (see p. 79). The custom was not
+unknown in neolithic days, especially in Crete. It
+is still occasionally practised on the island and on
+the Greek mainland, where, after the dead have
+lain a few years in hallowed soil, their bones are
+dug up, roughly cleaned, and deposited in caves.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_143" id="Pg_143" title="Pg_143">[143]</a></span></div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h3>WHO WERE THE BUILDERS,<br />
+AND WHENCE DID THEY COME?<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<p>Modern discussion of the origin of the
+megalithic monuments may be said to
+date from Bertrand's publication of the French
+examples in 1864. In this work Bertrand upheld
+the thesis that "the dolmens and <i>all&eacute;es couvertes</i>
+are sepulchres; and their origin seems up to the
+present to be northern." In 1865 appeared Bonstetten's
+famous <i>Essai sur les dolmens</i>, in which he
+maintained that the dolmens were constructed by
+one and the same people spreading over Europe
+from north to south. At this time the dolmens of
+North Africa were still unstudied. In 1867 followed
+an important paper by Bertrand. In 1872 two
+events of importance to the subject occurred, the
+publication of Fergusson's <i>Rude Stone Monuments
+in All Countries</i>, and the discussion raised at the
+Brussels Congress by General Faidherbe's paper
+on the dolmens of Algeria. Faidherbe maintained
+the thesis that dolmens, whether in Europe or
+Africa, were the work of a single people moving
+southward from the Baltic Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The question thus raised has been keenly debated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_144" id="Pg_144" title="Pg_144">[144]</a></span>since. At the Stockholm Congress in 1874
+de Mortillet advanced the theory that megalithic
+monuments in different districts were due to
+different peoples, and that what spread was the
+custom of building such structures and not the
+builders themselves. This theory has been accepted
+by most arch&aelig;ologists, including Montelius,
+Salomon Reinach, Sophus M&uuml;ller, Hoernes, and
+D&eacute;chelette. But while the rest believe the influences
+which produced the megalithic monuments
+to have spread from east to west, i.e. from Asia to
+Europe, Salomon Reinach holds the contrary view,
+which he has supported in a remarkable paper
+called <i>Le Mirage Oriental</i>, published in 1893.</p>
+
+<p>The questions we have to discuss are, therefore,
+as follows: Are all the megalithic monuments
+due to a single race or to several? If to a single
+race, whence did that race come and in what
+direction did it move? If to several, did the idea
+of building megalithic structures arise among the
+several races independently, or did it spread from
+one to another?</p>
+
+<p>We shall consider first the theory that the idea
+of megalithic building was evolved among several
+races independently, i.e. that it was a phase of
+culture through which they separately passed.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, this idea has not found favour
+among arch&aelig;ologists. The use of stone for building
+might have arisen in many places independently.
+But megalithic architecture is something
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_145" id="Pg_145" title="Pg_145">[145]</a></span>much more than this. It is the use of great stones
+in certain definite and particular ways. We have
+already examined what may be called the style of
+megalithic architecture and found that the same
+features are noticeable in all countries where these
+buildings occur. In each case we see a type of
+construction based on the use of large orthostatic
+slabs, sometimes surmounted by courses of horizontal
+masonry, with either a roof of horizontal
+slabs or a corbelled vault. Associated with this
+we frequently find the hewing of underground
+chambers in the rock. In almost all countries
+where megalithic structures occur certain fixed
+types prevail; the dolmen is the most general of
+these, and it is clear that many of the other forms
+are simply developments of this. The occurrence
+of structures with a hole in one of the walls and
+of blocks with 'cup-markings' is usual over the
+whole of the megalithic area. There are even more
+remarkable resemblances in detail between structures
+in widely separated countries. Thus the
+Giants' Tombs of Sardinia all have a concave
+fa&ccedil;ade which forms a kind of semicircular court
+in front of the entrance to the tomb. This feature
+is seen also in the temples of Malta, in the tomb
+of Los Millares in Spain, in the <i>naus</i> of the Balearic
+Isles (where, however, the curve is slight), in
+the Giant's Grave of Annaclochmullin and the
+chambered cairn of Newbliss in Ireland, in the
+tomb of Cashtal-yn-Ard in the Isle of Man, in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_146" id="Pg_146" title="Pg_146">[146]</a></span>barrow of West Tump in Gloucestershire, and in
+the horned cairns of the north of Scotland. These
+parallels are due to something more than coincidence;
+in fact, it is clear that megalithic
+building is a widespread and homogeneous system,
+which, despite local differences, always preserves
+certain common features pointing to a single
+origin. It is thus difficult to accept the suggestion
+that it is merely a phase through which many races
+have passed. The phases which occur in many
+races alike are always those which are natural
+and necessary in the development of a people,
+such as the phase of using copper. But there is
+nothing either natural or necessary in the use of
+huge unwieldy blocks of stone where much smaller
+ones would have sufficed.</p>
+
+<p>There are further objections to this theory in
+the distribution of the megalithic buildings both
+in space and time. In space they occupy a very
+remarkable position along a vast sea-board which
+includes the Mediterranean coast of Africa and
+the Atlantic coast of Europe. In other words,
+they lie entirely along a natural sea route. It is
+more than accident that the many places in
+which, according to this theory, the megalithic
+phase independently arose all lie in most natural
+sea connection with each other, while not one is
+in the interior of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In time the vast majority of the megalithic
+monuments of Europe seem to begin near the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_147" id="Pg_147" title="Pg_147">[147]</a></span>end of the neolithic period and cover the copper
+age, the later forms continuing occasionally into
+that of bronze. Here again it is curious that
+megalithic building, if merely an independent
+phase in many countries, should arise in so many
+at about the same time, and with no apparent
+reason. Had it been the use of <i>worked</i> stones that
+arose, and had this followed the appearance of
+copper tools, the advocates of this theory would
+have had a stronger case, but there seems to be
+no reason why huge unworked stones should
+<i>simultaneously</i> begin to be employed for tombs
+in many different countries unless this use spread
+from a single source.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons it is impossible to consider
+megalithic building as a mere phase through
+which many nations passed, and it must therefore
+have been a system originating with one race,
+and spreading far and wide, owing either to trade
+influence or migration. But can we determine which?</p>
+
+<p>Great movements of races by sea were not by
+any means unusual in primitive days, in fact, the
+sea has always been less of an obstacle to early
+man than the land with its deserts, mountains,
+and unfordable rivers. There is nothing inherently
+impossible or even improbable in the suggestion
+that a great immigration brought the megalithic
+monuments from Sweden to India or vice versa.
+History is full of instances of such migrations.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_148" id="Pg_148" title="Pg_148">[148]</a></span>According to the most widely accepted modern
+theory the whole or at least the greater part of
+the neolithic population of Europe moved in from
+some part of Africa at the opening of the neolithic
+age. In medieval history we have the example
+of the Arabs, who in their movement covered a
+considerable portion of the very megalithic area
+which we are discussing.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, many find it preferable to
+suppose that over this same distance there extended
+a vast trade route or a series of trade
+routes, along which travelled the influences which
+account for the presence of precisely similar
+dolmens in Denmark, Spain, and the Caucasus.
+Yet although much has been written about
+neolithic trade routes little has been proved, and
+the fact that early man occasionally crossed large
+tracts of land and sea in the great movements
+of migration does not show that he also did so by
+way of trade, nor does it prove the existence of
+such steady and extensive commercial relations
+as such a theory of the megalithic monuments
+would seem to require. Immigration is often
+forced on a race. Change of climate or the diverting
+of the course of a great river may make their
+country unfit for habitation, or they may be
+expelled by a stronger race. In either case they
+must migrate, and we know from history that
+they often covered long distances in their attempt
+to follow the line of least resistance. Thus there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_149" id="Pg_149" title="Pg_149">[149]</a></span>is nothing a priori improbable in the idea that the
+megalithic monuments were built by a single invading race.</p>
+
+<p>There are other considerations which support
+such a theory. It will be readily admitted that
+the commonest and most widely distributed form
+of the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both
+this and its obvious derivatives, the Giant's Grave,
+the <i>all&eacute;e couverte</i>, and others, are known to have
+been tombs, while other types of structure, such
+as the Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech,
+almost certainly had a religious purpose.
+It is difficult to believe that these types of building,
+so closely connected with religion and burial, were
+introduced into all these regions simply by the
+influence of trade relations. Religious customs
+and the burial rites connected with them are
+perhaps the most precious possession of a primitive
+people, and they are those in which they most
+oppose and resent change of any kind, even when
+it only involves detail and not principle. Thus
+it is almost incredible that the people, for instance,
+of Spain, because they were told by traders that
+the people of North Africa buried in dolmens,
+gave up, even in isolated instances, their habit
+of interment in trench graves in favour of burial
+in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe
+that this unnatural event happened in one country
+after another. It is true that the use of metal
+was spread by means of commerce, but here there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_150" id="Pg_150" title="Pg_150">[150]</a></span>was something to be gained by adopting the new
+discovery, and there was no sacrifice of religious
+custom or principle. An exchange of products
+between one country and another is not unnatural,
+but a traffic in burial customs is unthinkable.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the
+dolmen which was brought by commerce, but
+simply the art of architecture in general, and this
+was adapted to burial purposes. To this there are
+serious objections. In the first place it does not
+explain why exactly the same types of building
+(e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities
+of peculiar detail, occur in countries so far apart;
+and in the second place, if what was carried by
+trade was the art of building alone, why should
+the learners go out of their way to use huge stones
+when smaller ones would have suited their purpose
+equally well? That the megalithic builders knew
+how to employ smaller stones we know from their
+work; that they preferred to use large ones for
+certain purposes was not due to ignorance or
+chance, it was because the large stone as such had
+some particular meaning and association for them.
+We cannot definitely say that large stones were
+themselves actually worshipped, but there can
+be no possible doubt that for some reason or other
+they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used
+in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead.
+It is impossible that the men who possessed the
+skill to lay the horizontal upper courses of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_151" id="Pg_151" title="Pg_151">[151]</a></span>Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble
+to haul to the spot and use vast blocks over 20
+feet in length where far smaller ones would have
+been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated
+prejudice in favour of great stones.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the main difficulties involved by the
+influence theory. On the other hand, objections
+have been urged against the idea that the monuments
+were all built by one and the same race.
+Thus Dr. Montelius in his excellent <i>Orient und
+Europa</i> says, "In Europe at this time dwelt
+Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be
+Aryans," the inference being, of course, that the
+European dolmens were built by a different race
+from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan.
+Unfortunately, however, the major premise is
+not completely true, for though it is true that
+Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were
+also people in Europe who were not Aryans, and
+it is precisely among them that megalithic buildings
+occur.</p>
+
+<p>The French arch&aelig;ologist D&eacute;chelette also condemns
+the idea of a single race. "Anthropological
+observations," he says, "have long since
+ruined this adventurous hypothesis." He does
+not tell us what these observations are, but we
+presume that he refers to the occurrence of varying
+skull types among the people buried in the megalithic
+tombs. Nothing is more natural than that
+some variation should occur. We are dealing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_152" id="Pg_152" title="Pg_152">[152]</a></span>with a race which made enormous journeys, and
+thus became contaminated by the various other
+races with which it came in contact. It may even
+have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even
+if we found skulls of very different types in the
+dolmens this would not in the least disprove the
+idea that dolmen building was introduced into
+various countries by one and the same race. It
+would be simply a case of the common anthropological
+fact that a race immigrating into an already
+inhabited country becomes to some extent modified
+by intermarriage with the earlier inhabitants.
+The measurements given in the last chapter would
+seem to show that despite local variation there
+is an underlying homogeneity in the skulls of the
+megalithic people.</p>
+
+<p>It thus seems that the most probable theory
+of the origin of the megalithic monuments is that
+this style of building was brought to the various
+countries in which we find it by a single race in an
+immense migration or series of migrations. It is
+significant that this theory has been accepted by
+Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first
+authority on the megalithic structures of the
+Mediterranean basin.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>One question still remains to be discussed. From
+what direction did megalithic architecture come,
+and what was its original home? This is clearly
+a point which is not altogether dependent on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_153" id="Pg_153" title="Pg_153">[153]</a></span>means by which this architecture was diffused.
+Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic origin.
+He considers that caves, and tombs accessible
+from above, i.e. simple pits dug in the earth, were
+native in Europe, while tombs reached from the
+side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were
+introduced into Europe from the east. Salomon
+Reinach, arguing mainly from the early appearance
+of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia
+and the rarity of the simpler types of monument,
+such as the dolmen, in Germany and South
+Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first
+appeared in North Europe and spread southwards.
+Mackenzie is more inclined to believe in an African
+origin. If he is right it may be that some climatic
+change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what
+is now the Sahara desert, caused a migration
+from Africa to Europe very similar to that which
+many believe to have given to Europe its early
+neolithic population. The megalithic people may
+even have been a branch of the same vast race
+as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that
+both inhumed their dead in the contracted position.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the problem will never be
+solved. The only way to attempt a solution
+would be to show that in some part of the megalithic
+area the structures were definitely earlier
+than in any other, and that as we move away from
+that part in any direction they become later and
+later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_154" id="Pg_154" title="Pg_154">[154]</a></span>for the earliest form of structure, the dolmen,
+occurs in all parts of the area, and if we attempt
+to date by objects we are met by the difficulty
+that a dolmen in one place which contained copper
+might be earlier than one in another place which
+contained none, copper having been known in
+the former place earlier than in the latter.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>It still remains to consider the question of the
+origin of the rock-hewn sepulchre and its relation
+to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb
+occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus,
+Crete, South Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa,
+the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and
+France. In all these places there are examples
+which are certainly early, i.e. belong to the
+neolithic or early metal age, with the exception of
+Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two
+types are common, the chamber cut in the vertical
+face of rock and thus entered from the side,
+sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the
+chamber cut underground and entered from a
+vertical or sloping shaft placed not directly over
+the chamber, but immediately to one side of it.
+It is unlikely that these two types have a separate
+origin, for they are clearly determined by geological
+reasons. A piece of country where vertical
+cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the
+first type, while the other alone was possible when
+the ground consisted of a flat horizontal surface
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_155" id="Pg_155" title="Pg_155">[155]</a></span>of rock. We frequently find the two side by side
+and containing identically the same type of remains.
+In South-East Sicily we have the horizontal
+entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge
+of Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule
+in the tombs of the Plemmirio, only a few miles distant.</p>
+
+<p>Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to
+the distribution of the rock-hewn tombs. In the
+first place they are all in the vicinity of the Mediterranean,
+and in the second some occur in the
+megalithic area, while others do not. The examples
+of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that this type
+of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean.
+Was it from here that the type was introduced
+into the megalithic area, or did the megalithic
+people bring with them a tradition of building
+rock-tombs totally distinct from that which is
+represented by the tombs of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete?</p>
+
+<p>The question is difficult to answer. One thing
+alone is clear, that in certain places, such as Malta
+and Sardinia, the megalithic people were not
+averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms
+which they more usually erected with large stones
+above ground. The finest instance of this is the
+Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid
+rock is hewn out with infinite care to imitate the
+form and even the details of surface building.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_156" id="Pg_156" title="Pg_156">[156]</a></span>and in France the same forms of tomb were
+rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost
+indifferently.</p>
+
+<p>There can therefore be no doubt that the
+hewing out of rock was practised by the megalithic
+people, and that they were no mean exponents
+of the art. We have no proof that they brought
+this art along with them from their original
+centre of dispersion, though if they did it is
+curious that they did not carry it into other
+countries where they penetrated besides those of
+the Mediterranean. It may be that early rock-tombs
+will yet be found in North Africa, but it
+seems improbable that, had they existed in the
+British Isles, in North Germany, or in Scandinavia,
+not a single example should have been found.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, if the megalithic people
+did not bring the idea of the rock-tomb with
+them we must suppose either that it evolved
+among them after their migration, or that they
+adopted it from the Eastern Mediterranean. The
+last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it
+would involve the modification of a burial custom
+by foreign influence.</p>
+
+<p>We have, in fact, no evidence on which to
+judge the question. Perhaps it is least unreasonable
+to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb
+was brought into the megalithic area by the same
+people who introduced the megalithic monuments,
+and did not result from contact with the Eastern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_157" id="Pg_157" title="Pg_157">[157]</a></span>Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to
+disclaim any direct connection between the corridor-tombs
+of the megalithic area and the great
+<i>tholoi</i> of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first
+sight there is a considerable similarity between
+them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycen&aelig; with
+its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular
+corridor seems very little removed, except in size
+and finish, from the tombs of Gavr' Inis and Lough
+Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference.
+The two last are tombs built partly with upright
+slabs on the surface of the ground, entered by
+horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds.
+The Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated
+rock-tomb cut underground with a sloping shaft;
+as the ground consisted only of loose soil a coating
+of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance
+to a megalithic monument.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_158" id="Pg_158" title="Pg_158">[158]</a></span><br /></div>
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_159" id="Pg_159" title="Pg_159">[159]</a></span></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
+
+<h3>OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS<br /><br /></h3>
+
+
+<h4>GENERAL</h4>
+
+<p>
+Fergusson, <i>Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries</i> (London 1872).<br />
+Bonstetten, <i>Essai sur les dolmens</i> (Geneva 1865).<br />
+Mortillet, <i>Compte rendu du congr&egrave;s d'arch&eacute;ologie pr&eacute;historique</i>, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff.<br />
+Reinach, <i>Le mirage oriental</i>, in <i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1893, pp. 557 ff.<br />
+Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa</i>.<br />
+Borlase, <i>The Dolmens of Ireland</i>, Vols. II and III.<br />
+Reinach, <i>Terminologie des monuments m&eacute;galithiques in Revue arch&eacute;ologique</i>, 3^{e} s&eacute;r., XXII, 1893.<br />
+Westropp, <i>Prehistoric Phases</i> (London 1872).
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>ENGLAND AND WALES</h4>
+
+<p>
+Fergusson, <i>op. cit.</i> <i>Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Arch&aelig;ologia</i>, LVIII, pp. 37 ff.<br />
+Flinders Petrie, <i>Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and Theories</i> (London 1880).<br />
+Windle, <i>Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England.</i><br />
+James, Sir Henry, <i>Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan in the Island of Lewis</i> (Southampton 1867).<br />
+Evans, Sir A., <i>Arch&aelig;ological Review</i>, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff.<br />
+Lockyer, Sir N., <i>Nature</i>, November 21st, 1901.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_160" id="Pg_160" title="Pg_160">[160]</a></span><br />
+Hinks, <i>XIXth Century</i>, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff.<br />
+Lockyer, Sir N., <i>Nature</i>, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff., 345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff.<br />
+Lewis, A. A., <i>Stone Circles in Britain, Arch&aelig;ological Journal</i>, XLIX, pp. 136 ff.<br />
+Thurnam, <i>Ancient British Barrows, Arch&aelig;ologia</i>, XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff.<br />
+Lewis, A. A., <i>Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the Anthrop. Inst.,</i> XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905.<br />
+Kermode and Herdman, <i>Illustrated Notes on Manks Antiquities</i> (Liverpool 1904).
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>SCOTLAND</h4>
+
+<p>
+Wilson, <i>The Arch&aelig;ological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.</i><br />
+Forbes Leslie, <i>Early Races of Scotland.</i><br />
+Spence, Magnus, <i>Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness.</i>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>IRELAND</h4>
+
+<p>
+Borlase, <i>Dolmens of Ireland.</i><br />
+Lewis, A. A., <i>Some Stone Circles in Ireland</i>, in <i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.,</i> XXXIX, pp. 517 ff.<br />
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>SWEDEN</h4>
+
+<p>
+Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa.</i><br />
+Montelius, <i>Kulturgeschichte Schwedens.</i><br />
+Montelius, <i>Dolmens en France et en Su&egrave;de</i> (Le Mans 1907).<br />
+Montelius, Graf fr&aring;n sten&aring;ldern, uppt&auml;ckt vid &Ouml;ringe i Ekeby socken, 1907.<br />
+Nilsson, <i>Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des Scandinavischen Nordens</i> (Hamburg 1865).
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_161" id="Pg_161" title="Pg_161">[161]</a></span></div>
+
+
+
+<h4>DENMARK</h4>
+
+<p>
+Montelius, <i>Orient und Europa.</i><br />
+Sophus M&uuml;ller, <i>L'Europe pr&eacute;historique.</i><br />
+Sophus M&uuml;ller, <i>Nordische Alterthumskunde.</i>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>HOLLAND</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Arch&aelig;ological Journal</i>, 1870, pp. 53 ff.<br />
+<i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, VI, 1876, p. 158.<br />
+<i>Compte rendu du congr&egrave;s d'arch. pr&eacute;hist.</i>, Stockholm, 1874.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>BELGIUM</h4>
+
+<p>
+Engelhardt, <i>Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse</i>, in <i>Aarb&ouml;ger f. nord. Oldkynd.</i>, 1870, pp. 177 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>GERMANY</h4>
+
+<p>
+Krause und Schoetensack in <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1893 (Altmark only).<br />
+Morlot, <i>L'arch&eacute;ologie du Meclenbourg</i> (Zurich 1868).<br />
+von Estorff, <i>Heidnische Altert&uuml;mer der Gegend von Aelzen</i> (Hanover 1846).
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>SWITZERLAND</h4>
+
+<p>
+Keller, <i>Pfahlbauten</i>, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101; Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>FRANCE</h4>
+
+<p>
+Cartailhac, <i>La France pr&eacute;historique.</i><br />
+Bertrand in <i>Revue arch&eacute;ologique</i>, 1864 (List of monuments).<br />
+Bertrand, <i>Arch&eacute;ologie celtique et gauloise</i>, 2nd edit., 1889.<br />
+D&eacute;chelette, <i>Manuel d'arch&eacute;ologie pr&eacute;historique celtique et gallo-romaine</i>, Vol. I.<br />
+Lewis, <i>Alignements at Autun</i> in <i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_162" id="Pg_162" title="Pg_162">[162]</a></span><br />
+Lewis, <i>On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit.</i>, XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff.<br />
+de Baye, <i>L'arch&eacute;ologie pr&eacute;historique</i> (Petit-Morin tombs).<br />
+Reinach, S., <i>La Sculpture en Europe</i> (Angers 1896. Figures of the 'dolmen deity').
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h4>SPAIN</h4>
+
+<p>
+Cartailhac, <i>&Acirc;ges pr&eacute;historique de l'Espagne</i>.<br />
+Cartailhac, <i>Monuments primitifs des &icirc;les bal&eacute;ares</i>.<br />
+Bezzenberger in <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, XXXIX, 1907, pp. 567 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>ITALY</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana</i>, XXV, pp. 178 ff.<br />
+Nicolucci, <i>Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di Terra d'Otranto</i>, 1893.<br />
+<i>Bull. Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXXVII, pp. 6 ff.<br />
+Mosso and Samarelli, <i>Il dolmen di Bisceglie</i>, in <i>Bull. Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>SICILY</h4>
+
+<p>
+Orsi in <i>Bull. Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello).<br />
+Orsi in <i>Ausonia</i>, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro).<br />
+Orsi in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro).
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>SARDINIA</h4>
+
+<p>
+La Marmora, <i>Voyage en Sardaigne</i>.<br />
+Pinza in <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, Vol. VIII.<br />
+Nissardi in <i>Atti del Congresso Internazionale</i>, Roma, 1903, sezione preistorica.<br />
+Nissardi and Taramelli in <i>Mon. Ant.</i>, Vol. XVII.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_163" id="Pg_163" title="Pg_163">[163]</a></span><br />
+Taramelli in <i>Memnon</i>, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35.<br />
+Pr&eacute;chac in <i>M&eacute;langes d'arch&eacute;ologie et d'histoire</i>, XXVIII.<br />
+Mackenzie in <i>Ausonia</i>, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff.<br />
+Mackenzie in <i>Memnon</i>, Vol. II, fasc. 3.<br />
+Mackenzie in <i>Papers of the British School of Rome</i>, V, pp. 89 ff.<br />
+Taramelli, <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju).<br />
+Colini in <i>Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana</i>, XXIV, pp. 252 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>CORSICA</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques</i>, Vol. III, 1892, pp. 49 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>PIANOSA</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Bullettino di Paletn. Ital.</i>, XXIV, pp. 281 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>MALTA</h4>
+
+<p>
+Mayr, A., <i>Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkm&auml;ler von Malta</i>.<br />
+Mayr, A., <i>Die Insel Malta</i>.<br />
+Zammit, <i>First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum</i>.<br />
+Tagliaferro, <i>The Prehistoric Pottery found in the Hypogeum at Halsaflieni</i>, in <i>Annals of Arch&aelig;ology and Anthropology</i>, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff.<br />
+Zammit and Peet, <i>Report on the small objects found at Halsaflieni</i> (Valletta, in the Press).<br />
+Magri, <i>Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo</i>.<br />
+Ashby, T., and others, <i>Report on Excavations at Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim</i>, appearing in Vol. VI of <i>Papers of the British School of Rome</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_164" id="Pg_164" title="Pg_164">[164]</a></span><br />
+Peet, <i>Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of Rome</i>, V, pp. 141 ff.<br />
+Tagliaferro, <i>Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez</i>, in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>NORTH AFRICA</h4>
+
+<p>
+Faidherbe in <i>Compte rendu du congr&egrave;s d'arch&eacute;ologie pr&eacute;historique</i>, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff.<br />
+Flower in <i>Transactions of the International Congress of Prehistoric Arch&aelig;ology</i>, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff.<br />
+MacIver and Wilkin, <i>Libyan Notes</i>.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>MOROCCO</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Mat&eacute;riaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, V, p. 342; VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>TUNIS</h4>
+
+<p>
+Cartailhac in <i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1903, pp. 620 ff.<br />
+Carton in <i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1891, pp. 1 ff.<br />
+<i>Mat&eacute;riaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, XXI, Pl. VI; XXII, pp. 373 and 416.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>EGYPT AND THE SUDAN</h4>
+
+<p>
+Wilson and Felkin, <i>Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan</i>, Vol. II, p. 123.<br />
+de Morgan, <i>Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte</i>, p. 239, Fig. 398.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>PANTELLERIA</h4>
+
+<p>
+Orsi in <i>Monumenti Antichi</i>, IX, pp. 449 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>LAMPEDUSA</h4>
+
+<p>
+Ashby in <i>Annals of Arch&aelig;ology and Anthropology</i>, Vol. IV.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_165" id="Pg_165" title="Pg_165">[165]</a></span></div>
+
+
+
+<h4>BULGARIA</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien</i>, 1888, pp. 285 ff.<br />
+<i>L'Anthropologie</i>, 1890, p. 110.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>CRIMEA</h4>
+
+<p>
+Borlase, <i>Dolmens of Ireland</i>, III, p. 722.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA</h4>
+
+<p>
+Chantre, <i>Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase</i>, Vol. I, pp. 50 ff.<br />
+Chantre in <i>Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft</i>, 1882, p. 344.<br />
+<i>Mat&eacute;riaux pour l'histoire de l'homme</i>, 1885, pp. 545 ff.<br />
+Borlase, <i>Dolmens of Ireland</i>, III, p. 722.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>SYRIA AND PALESTINE</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports</i> for 1882; <i>Annual</i>, 1911, pp. 1 ff.<br />
+Conder, <i>Heth and Moab</i>, pp. 190, 293.<br />
+Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h4>PERSIA</h4>
+
+<p>
+de Morgan in <i>Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie de Paris</i>, 1902, p. 187.<br />
+de Morgan, <i>La d&eacute;l&eacute;gation en Perse</i>, 1902.<br />
+de Morgan, <i>L'histoire d'Elam</i>, Paris, 1902.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>INDIA</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, XXIV, 1865.<br />
+Westropp, <i>Prehistoric Phases</i>.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_166" id="Pg_166" title="Pg_166">[166]</a></span></div>
+
+
+
+<h4>COREA</h4>
+
+<p>
+<i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, XXIV, p. 330.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h4>JAPAN</h4>
+
+<p>
+Gowland in <i>Arch&aelig;ologia</i>, LV, pp. 439 ff.<br />
+Gowland in <i>Journal Anthrop. Inst.</i>, 1907, pp. 10 ff.
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_167" id="Pg_167" title="Pg_167">[167]</a></span></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abbameiga, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Aberdeen, circles near, <a href="#Pg_038">38</a></li>
+<li>Adrianople, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Africa, <a href="#Pg_090">90-6</a></li>
+<li>Aiga, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Ain Dakkar, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Ainu, the, <a href="#Pg_122">122</a></li>
+<li>Ala Safat, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Alemtejo, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a></li>
+<li>Algeria, <a href="#Pg_091">91-5</a></li>
+<li><i>Alignements</i>, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_059">59-60,</a> <a href="#Pg_089">89</a>, <a href="#Pg_119">119-20,</a> <a href="#Pg_124">124</a>, <a href="#Pg_154">154-7</a></li>
+<li><i>All&eacute;es couvertes</i>, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_061">61</a>, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Altar Stone at Stonehenge, <a href="#Pg_018">18</a></li>
+<li>Altmark, <a href="#Pg_057">57</a></li>
+<li>Amm&acirc;n, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Ammon, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+<li>Anghelu Ruju, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Anglesey, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Annaclochmullin, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li>
+<li>Antequera, <a href="#Pg_070">70</a></li>
+<li>Arbor Low, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Arcturus, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a>, <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li>
+<li>Arles, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Arles, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li>
+<li>Arran, circles on, <a href="#Pg_035">35-6</a></li>
+<li>Arthur, King, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Arthur's Quoit, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Asia, <a href="#Pg_114">114-22</a></li>
+<li>Atreus, Treasury of, <a href="#Pg_157">157</a></li>
+<li>Aurelius Ambrosius, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li>
+<li>Avebury, <a href="#Pg_023">23-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_027">27-8</a></li>
+<li>Avening, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li>
+<li>Axe, cult of, <a href="#Pg_137">137-8</a></li>
+<li>Axe-shaped pendants, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Axevalla Heath, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Baetyls, <a href="#Pg_104">104</a>, <a href="#Pg_105">105-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li>
+<li>Balearic Isles, <a href="#Pg_071">71-5</a></li>
+<li>Barnstone, the, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li>
+<li>Barrows, long, <a href="#Pg_030">30-3</a></li>
+<li>Barth, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Belgium, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a></li>
+<li>Bellary, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Bell-shaped cup, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a>, <a href="#Pg_136">136</a></li>
+<li>Beltane festival, <a href="#Pg_037">37</a></li>
+<li>Benigaus Nou, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a></li>
+<li>Bertrand, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Birori, <a href="#Pg_082">82</a>, <a href="#Pg_133">133</a></li>
+<li>Bisceglie, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li>
+<li>Bonstetten, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Borreby, <a href="#Pg_054">54-5</a></li>
+<li>Boscawen-un, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Bou Merzoug, <a href="#Pg_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Bou Nouara, <a href="#Pg_091">91</a></li>
+<li>Boyle Somerville, Captain, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a></li>
+<li>Brittany, <a href="#Pg_059">59-60</a></li>
+<li>Brogar, Ring of, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li>
+<li>Broholm, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li>
+<li>Bulgaria, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Button, conical, <a href="#Pg_042">42</a>, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a>, <a href="#Pg_111">111</a>, <a href="#Pg_135">135</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>C&aelig;sar, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Cairns, horned, <a href="#Pg_038">38-9</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_168" id="Pg_168" title="Pg_168">[168]</a></span></li>
+<li>Caithness, cairns of, <a href="#Pg_038">38-9</a></li>
+<li><i>Calla&iuml;s</i>, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a>, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_066">66</a>, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a>, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a>, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Callernish Circle, <a href="#Pg_034">34</a></li>
+<li>Calvados, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Camster, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li>
+<li>Can de Ceyrac, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li>
+<li>Caouria, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li>
+<li>Capella, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a>, <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li>
+<li>Carnac, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a>, <a href="#Pg_059">59-60</a></li>
+<li>Carrick-a-Dhirra, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li>
+<li>Carrickard, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a></li>
+<li>Carrickglass, <a href="#Pg_041">41</a></li>
+<li>Carrigalla, <a href="#Pg_049">49</a></li>
+<li>Carrowmore, <a href="#Pg_041">41-2</a></li>
+<li>Cashtal-yn-Ard, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li>
+<li>Cassibile, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a></li>
+<li>Castelluccio, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Castor, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a></li>
+<li>Caucasus, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Cava Lavinaro, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a></li>
+<li>Cava Lazzaro, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a></li>
+<li>Cave burial, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a>, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Chagford, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Champ Dolent, menhir of, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Channel Isles, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a></li>
+<li>Charlemagne, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li>
+<li>Charlton's Abbott, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a></li>
+<li>China, <a href="#Pg_122">122</a></li>
+<li>Chittore, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li>
+<li>Chun Quoit, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Circles, stone, <a href="#Pg_015">15-28,</a> <a href="#Pg_034">34-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_048">48-51,</a> <a href="#Pg_060">60</a>, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+<li>Cirta, <a href="#Pg_092">92</a></li>
+<li>Clava, <a href="#Pg_037">37</a></li>
+<li>Clynnog Fawr, <a href="#Pg_128">128</a></li>
+<li>Collorgues, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li>
+<li>Constantine, <a href="#Pg_091">91</a></li>
+<li>Contracted burials, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a>, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a>, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a>, <a href="#Pg_093">93</a>, <a href="#Pg_097">97</a>, <a href="#Pg_111">111</a>, <a href="#Pg_140">140-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_153">153</a></li>
+<li>Coolback, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li>
+<li>Corbelled roofs, <a href="#Pg_006">6</a>, <a href="#Pg_032">32</a>, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a>, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a>, <a href="#Pg_069">69</a>, <a href="#Pg_073">73</a>, <a href="#Pg_084">84</a>, <a href="#Pg_086">86</a>, <a href="#Pg_087">87</a>, <a href="#Pg_102">102-3</a></li>
+<li>Cordin, <a href="#Pg_105">105</a>, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li>
+<li>Corea, <a href="#Pg_122">122</a></li>
+<li>Cornwall, dolmens in, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;monuments of, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Corridor-tombs, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_043">43-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_052">52-5,</a> <a href="#Pg_056">56-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_062">62-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_067">67-71,</a> <a href="#Pg_076">76-7,</a> <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a>, <a href="#Pg_120">120-2</a></li>
+<li>Corse, Cape, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li>
+<li>Corsica, <a href="#Pg_088">88-9</a></li>
+<li>Coursed masonry, use of, <a href="#Pg_005">5</a>, <a href="#Pg_073">73</a>, <a href="#Pg_082">82</a></li>
+<li>Cove, the, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Cremation, <a href="#Pg_035">35</a>, <a href="#Pg_042">42</a>, <a href="#Pg_066">66</a>, <a href="#Pg_140">140</a></li>
+<li>Crete, <a href="#Pg_113">113</a>, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a>, <a href="#Pg_142">142</a>, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a>, <a href="#Pg_157">157</a></li>
+<li>Crickstone, the, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li>
+<li>Crimea, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Cromlechs, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a></li>
+<li>Cumberland, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Cup-markings, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127-8</a></li>
+<li>Cyprus, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Cyrenaica, <a href="#Pg_091">91</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Dance Maen Circle, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Date of megaliths, <a href="#Pg_123">123</a></li>
+<li>Dax, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Deccan, <a href="#Pg_118">118-9</a></li>
+<li>D&eacute;chelette, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a>, <a href="#Pg_151">151</a></li>
+<li>de Morgan, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Denmark, <a href="#Pg_053">53-5</a></li>
+<li>Dennis, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li>
+<li>Der Ghuzaleh, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Dolmens, <a href="#Pg_002">2</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_040">40-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_052">52-3,</a> <a href="#Pg_056">56</a>, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a>, <a href="#Pg_061">61</a>, <a href="#Pg_067">67-8,</a> <a href="#Pg_082">82</a>, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a>, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a>, <a href="#Pg_091">91-6,</a>, <a href="#Pg_114">114-9</a></li>
+<li>Drawings on stones, <a href="#Pg_046">46</a>, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a>, <a href="#Pg_055">55</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a>, <a href="#Pg_110">110</a></li>
+<li>Drewsteignton, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Druids, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_027">27-8</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Edfu, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_169" id="Pg_169" title="Pg_169">[169]</a></span></li>
+<li>Eguilaz, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li>
+<li>Egypt, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Ellez, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li>
+<li>England, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_015">15-33</a></li>
+<li>Erdeven, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li>
+<li>Er-Lanic, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li>
+<li>Eskimos, <a href="#Pg_126">126</a></li>
+<li>Es Tudons, <i>nau</i> of, <a href="#Pg_073">73-4</a></li>
+<li>Evans, Sir Arthur, <a href="#Pg_020">20</a>, <a href="#Pg_105">105</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Fa&ccedil;ades, curved, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a>, <a href="#Pg_145">145-6</a></li>
+<li>Faidherbe, General, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Faustina, medal of, <a href="#Pg_095">95</a></li>
+<li>F&eacute;raud, M., <a href="#Pg_092">92-3</a></li>
+<li>Fergusson, <a href="#Pg_028">28</a>, <a href="#Pg_143">143</a></li>
+<li>Fibrolite, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a></li>
+<li>Finist&egrave;re, dolmens of, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Fontanaccia, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li>
+<li>Fonte Coberta, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li>
+<li>Forbes Leslie, Colonel, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li>
+<li>France, <a href="#Pg_059">59-67</a></li>
+<li>Friar's Heel, <a href="#Pg_018">18</a>, <a href="#Pg_021">21</a></li></ul>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Galilee, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+<li>Gargantua, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a></li>
+<li>Gaulstown, <a href="#Pg_041">41</a></li>
+<li>Gavr'inis, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a>, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li>
+<li>Gebel Mousa, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Geoffrey of Monmouth, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Ger, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li>
+<li>Germany, <a href="#Pg_056">56-7</a></li>
+<li>Get, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li>
+<li>Gezer, <a href="#Pg_124">124</a></li>
+<li>Giant's Bed, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Giant's Tombs, <a href="#Pg_087">87-8</a></li>
+<li>Gigantia, <a href="#Pg_104">104</a></li>
+<li>Giraldus Cambrensis, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li>
+<li>G&ouml;hlitzsch, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li>
+<li>Gozo, Is., <a href="#Pg_104">104</a></li>
+<li>Greenland, <a href="#Pg_125">125</a></li>
+<li>Grewism&uuml;hlen, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Grotte des F&eacute;es, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a>, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a></li>
+<li>Grotte du Castellet, <a href="#Pg_064">64</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Hagiar Kim, <a href="#Pg_006">6</a>, <a href="#Pg_103">103-4</a></li>
+<li>Hakpen Hill, <a href="#Pg_024">24</a>, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Halsaflieni, <a href="#Pg_108">108-13,</a> <a href="#Pg_130">130</a></li>
+<li>Hauptville's Quoit, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Hengist, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li>
+<li>Herrestrup, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li>
+<li>Highwood, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a></li>
+<li>Hinks, Mr., <a href="#Pg_022">22</a></li>
+<li>Hirdmane Stone, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Holed tombs, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a>, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a>, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a>, <a href="#Pg_126">126-7</a></li>
+<li>Holland, <a href="#Pg_057">57-8</a></li>
+<li>Horned cairns, <a href="#Pg_146">146</a></li>
+<li><i>H&uuml;nenbetter</i>, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a>, <a href="#Pg_056">56-8</a></li>
+<li>Hurlers, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Idanha a Nova, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li>
+<li>India, <a href="#Pg_118">118-20</a></li>
+<li>Inigo Jones, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Inverness, circles in, <a href="#Pg_037">37-8</a></li>
+<li>Ireland, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_040">40-51</a></li>
+<li>Iron, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a>, <a href="#Pg_046">46</a>, <a href="#Pg_093">93</a>, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li>
+<li>Italy, <a href="#Pg_076">76-7</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Jadeite, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a></li>
+<li>James I, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Japan, <a href="#Pg_120">120-2</a></li>
+<li>Jaul&acirc;n, <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Jimmu, <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li>
+<li>Jud&aelig;a, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Karleby, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li>
+<li>Karnak (Egypt), <a href="#Pg_022">22</a></li>
+<li>Keamcorravooly, <a href="#Pg_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Keller, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Kennet Avenue, <a href="#Pg_024">24</a></li>
+<li>Kerlescan, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li>
+<li>Kermario, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li>
+<li>Keswick Circle, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Khasi Hills, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_170" id="Pg_170" title="Pg_170">[170]</a></span></li>
+<li>Kingarth, circle at, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li>
+<li>Kirkabrost, circle at, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li>
+<li>Kit's Coty House, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Knyttk&auml;rr, <a href="#Pg_055">55</a></li>
+<li>Komei, <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li>
+<li>Kosseir, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Labbamologa, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li>
+<li>Lad&ograve;, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Lampedusa, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Lanyon Quoit, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li>
+<li>La Perotte, <a href="#Pg_007">7</a></li>
+<li>Leaba Callighe, <a href="#Pg_043">43</a></li>
+<li>Lecce, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li>
+<li>Lewis, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_034">34</a></li>
+<li>Linosa, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_132">132</a></li>
+<li>Lockyer, Sir Norman, <a href="#Pg_021">21-2,</a> <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li>
+<li>Long Meg and her daughters, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Losa, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Los Millares, <a href="#Pg_070">70</a>, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a>, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li>
+<li>Lough Crew, <a href="#Pg_045">45</a>, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Lough Gur, <a href="#Pg_048">48-51</a></li>
+<li>Loz&egrave;re, <a href="#Pg_130">130</a></li>
+<li>Lundh&ouml;j, <a href="#Pg_055">55</a></li>
+<li>L&uuml;ttich, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>MacIver, D.R., <a href="#Pg_093">93-4</a></li>
+<li>Mackenzie, Duncan, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a>, <a href="#Pg_152">152</a>, <a href="#Pg_153">153</a></li>
+<li>Maeshowe, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li>
+<li>Malta, <a href="#Pg_098">98-113</a></li>
+<li>Man, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li>
+<li>Man&eacute;-er-Hroeck, <a href="#Pg_062">62-3</a></li>
+<li>Marcella, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li>
+<li>Matera, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a></li>
+<li>Maughold, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li>
+<li>Mayborough Circle, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a></li>
+<li>Mayr, Albert, <a href="#Pg_105">105</a></li>
+<li>Meayll Hill, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li>
+<li>Melilli, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a></li>
+<li>Men-an-tol, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a></li>
+<li>M&eacute;nec, <a href="#Pg_059">59</a></li>
+<li>Menhirs, <a href="#Pg_002">2</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_059">59</a>, <a href="#Pg_115">115-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_123">123-4</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cult of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a>, <a href="#Pg_123">123-4</a></li>
+<li>Merivale, circle at, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Merlin, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li>
+<li>Merry Maidens, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Messa, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Minieh, <a href="#Pg_116">116</a></li>
+<li>Mnaidra, <a href="#Pg_100">100-3</a></li>
+<li>Moab, <a href="#Pg_115">115-7</a></li>
+<li>Molaf&agrave;, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Monte Abraha&otilde;, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a></li>
+<li>Montelius, O., <a href="#Pg_126">126</a>, <a href="#Pg_151">151</a>, <a href="#Pg_153">153</a></li>
+<li>Monteracello, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a></li>
+<li>Morocco, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Mortillet, de, <a href="#Pg_059">59</a>, <a href="#Pg_144">144</a></li>
+<li>Mourzouk, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Msila, <a href="#Pg_093">93</a></li>
+<li>Munster, tombs of, <a href="#Pg_044">44</a></li>
+<li>Mursia, <a href="#Pg_097">97</a></li>
+<li>Musta, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li>
+<li>Mycenean vases, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Naas, <a href="#Pg_015">15</a></li>
+<li>Nantes, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li>
+<li>Nara, <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li>
+<li><i>Naus</i>, <a href="#Pg_073">73-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li>
+<li><i>Navetas</i>, see <i>Naus</i></li>
+<li>Neermul jungle, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Newbliss, <a href="#Pg_145">145</a></li>
+<li>New Grange, <a href="#Pg_046">46</a>, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Nile valley, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li>
+<li>Nilgiri Hills, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Nine Maidens, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Nissardi, <a href="#Pg_084">84</a></li>
+<li>Norway, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li>
+<li>Nossiu, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a>, <a href="#Pg_087">87</a></li>
+<li><i>Nuraghi</i>, <a href="#Pg_082">82-7</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Obsidian, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_134">134</a></li>
+<li>Odin's Stone, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_171" id="Pg_171" title="Pg_171">[171]</a></span></li>
+<li>Orkney Isles, cairns of, <a href="#Pg_038">38-9</a></li>
+<li>Orry's Grave, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li>
+<li>Orsi, Paolo, <a href="#Pg_078">78</a>, <a href="#Pg_079">79</a></li>
+<li>Orthostatic slabs, use of, <a href="#Pg_004">4</a>, <a href="#Pg_069">69</a>, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a>, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a>, <a href="#Pg_100">100</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Palmella, <a href="#Pg_071">71</a></li>
+<li>Pantalica, <a href="#Pg_080">80</a>, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Pantelleria, Isle of, <a href="#Pg_096">96-8</a></li>
+<li>Papa-Westra, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li>
+<li>Pehada, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Penrith Circle, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a></li>
+<li>Pentre Ifan, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Pera, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+<li>P&eacute;rigord, <a href="#Pg_013">13</a></li>
+<li>Persia, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+<li>Petit Morin, <a href="#Pg_066">66-7,</a> <a href="#Pg_130">130</a></li>
+<li>Pf&auml;ffikon, Lake, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Phoenicia, <a href="#Pg_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Pianosa, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li>
+<li>Picardt, John, <a href="#Pg_057">57</a></li>
+<li>Pierre du Diable, La, <a href="#Pg_058">58</a></li>
+<li>Pierres Plates, Les, <a href="#Pg_061">61</a></li>
+<li>Piper, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Plas Newydd, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li>
+<li>Plemmirio, <a href="#Pg_155">155</a></li>
+<li>Pliny, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Portico-dolmens, <a href="#Pg_040">40-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_052">52</a>, <a href="#Pg_119">119</a></li>
+<li>Portugal, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a></li>
+<li>Pottery, <a href="#Pg_135">135-6</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Reinach, Salomon, <a href="#Pg_144">144</a></li>
+<li>Religion, megalithic, <a href="#Pg_105">105-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_137">137-9</a></li>
+<li>Rhodes, <a href="#Pg_154">154</a></li>
+<li>Rinaiou, <a href="#Pg_089">89</a></li>
+<li>Rock-tombs, <a href="#Pg_003">3</a>, <a href="#Pg_066">66-7,</a> <a href="#Pg_071">71</a>, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a>, <a href="#Pg_079">79-81,</a> <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Rockbarton, <a href="#Pg_048">48</a></li>
+<li>Rodmarton, <a href="#Pg_033">33</a>, <a href="#Pg_127">127</a></li>
+<li>Roknia, <a href="#Pg_094">94</a></li>
+<li>Rollright Circle, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a>, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a>, <a href="#Pg_050">50</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Saint George, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li>
+<li>Saint Michel, Mont, <a href="#Pg_063">63</a></li>
+<li>Saint Pantal&eacute;on, <a href="#Pg_060">60</a></li>
+<li>Saint Sermin, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li>
+<li>Saint Vincent, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a></li>
+<li>Sant' Elia, Cape, <a href="#Pg_088">88</a></li>
+<li>Sardinia, <a href="#Pg_082">82-8</a></li>
+<li>S'Aspru, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li>
+<li>Scandinavia, <a href="#Pg_052">52-5</a></li>
+<li>Scotland, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_034">34-9</a></li>
+<li>Sculptures, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a>, <a href="#Pg_138">138</a></li>
+<li>Secondary burial, <a href="#Pg_079">79</a>, <a href="#Pg_141">141-2</a></li>
+<li>Sen&acirc;m, the, <a href="#Pg_093">93-4</a></li>
+<li>Seriphos, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li>
+<li>Serucci, <a href="#Pg_085">85</a></li>
+<li><i>Sesi</i>, the, <a href="#Pg_097">97-8</a></li>
+<li>Shap, circle at, <a href="#Pg_023">23</a></li>
+<li>Sicily, <a href="#Pg_077">77-82</a></li>
+<li>Sidbury Hill, <a href="#Pg_021">21</a></li>
+<li>Sidon, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+<li>Siggewi, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a></li>
+<li>Silbury Hill, <a href="#Pg_024">24</a>, <a href="#Pg_028">28</a></li>
+<li>Siret, Messieurs, <a href="#Pg_068">68</a></li>
+<li>Sj&ouml;bol, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li>
+<li>Skulls, <a href="#Pg_077">77</a>, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a>, <a href="#Pg_129">129-31</a></li>
+<li>Sorapoor, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Spain, <a href="#Pg_067">67-71</a></li>
+<li>Spence, Magnus, <a href="#Pg_037">37</a></li>
+<li>Stanton Drew, <a href="#Pg_025">25</a>, <a href="#Pg_049">49</a></li>
+<li>Star-worship, <a href="#Pg_023">23</a>, <a href="#Pg_050">50-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_128">128</a></li>
+<li>Steatopygous figures, <a href="#Pg_107">107</a>, <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li>
+<li>Stenness, Ring of, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li>
+<li>Stonehenge, <a href="#Pg_015">15-23</a></li>
+<li>Stoney-Littleton, <a href="#Pg_032">32</a></li>
+<li>Stripple Stones, the, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Stromness, circle at, <a href="#Pg_036">36</a></li>
+<li>Stukeley, Dr., <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Su Cadalanu, <a href="#Pg_084">84</a></li>
+<li>Sudan, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Pg_172" id="Pg_172" title="Pg_172">[172]</a></span></div>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Suetonius, <a href="#Pg_027">27</a></li>
+<li>Sun-worship, <a href="#Pg_021">21-3,</a> <a href="#Pg_028">28-9,</a> <a href="#Pg_037">37</a>, <a href="#Pg_051">51</a></li>
+<li>Sweden, <a href="#Pg_052">52-5</a></li>
+<li>Switzerland, <a href="#Pg_056">56</a></li>
+<li>Syria, <a href="#Pg_115">115-8</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Table des Marchands, La, <a href="#Pg_016">16</a>, <a href="#Pg_137">137</a></li>
+<li>Tagliaferro, Professor, <a href="#Pg_108">108</a>, <a href="#Pg_111">111</a></li>
+<li>Tahutihotep, tomb of, <a href="#Pg_008">8</a></li>
+<li><i>Talayots</i>, <a href="#Pg_071">71-3</a></li>
+<li>Tamuli, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li>
+<li>Tangier, <a href="#Pg_096">96</a></li>
+<li>Tarentum, <a href="#Pg_076">76</a></li>
+<li>Tattooing, <a href="#Pg_139">139</a></li>
+<li>"Three Brothers of Grugith," the, <a href="#Pg_128">128</a></li>
+<li>Tiberias, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+<li>Tinaarloo, <a href="#Pg_057">57</a></li>
+<li>Toledo, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li>
+<li>Torebo, <a href="#Pg_053">53</a></li>
+<li>Tours, Council of, <a href="#Pg_012">12</a></li>
+<li>Trade relations, <a href="#Pg_131">131-3</a></li>
+<li>Tregeseal, circles near, <a href="#Pg_026">26</a></li>
+<li>Trepanned skulls, <a href="#Pg_062">62</a></li>
+<li>Trilithons, <a href="#Pg_002">2</a>, <a href="#Pg_017">17</a>, <a href="#Pg_090">90</a>, <a href="#Pg_100">100-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_103">103-4,</a> <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Tripoli, <a href="#Pg_090">90-1</a></li>
+<li><i>Truddhi</i>, <a href="#Pg_086">86</a></li>
+<li>Ts&icirc;l, <a href="#Pg_117">117-8</a></li>
+<li>Tunis, <a href="#Pg_095">95-6</a></li>
+<li>Tyfta, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li>
+<li>Tyre, <a href="#Pg_115">115</a></li>
+<li>Tzarskaya, <a href="#Pg_114">114</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Unebi, Mt., <a href="#Pg_121">121</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul>
+<li>Vail Gorguina, <a href="#Pg_067">67</a></li>
+<li>Vellore, <a href="#Pg_118">118</a></li>
+<li>Villafrati, <a href="#Pg_081">81</a></li>
+<li>Villages, megalithic, <a href="#Pg_074">74</a>, <a href="#Pg_085">85-6,</a> <a href="#Pg_097">97</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Wales, monuments of, <a href="#Pg_029">29</a></li>
+<li>Watchstone, the, <a href="#Pg_036">36-7</a></li>
+<li>Wayland the Smith's Cave, <a href="#Pg_011">11</a>, <a href="#Pg_014">14</a>, <a href="#Pg_030">30</a>, <a href="#Pg_032">32</a></li>
+<li>Wedge-shaped tomb, <a href="#Pg_044">44-5,</a> <a href="#Pg_055">55</a>, <a href="#Pg_070">70-1,</a> <a href="#Pg_117">117</a></li>
+<li>Westgothland, <a href="#Pg_054">54</a></li>
+<li>West Tump, <a href="#Pg_146">146</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Yarhouse, <a href="#Pg_039">39</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Zammit, Dr. T., <a href="#Pg_112">112</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="return"><a href="#contents">[TABLE OF CONTENTS]</a></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><small>WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.</small><br />
+<small>PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH</small>
+<br /><br /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<!-- Closing ads -->
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 1 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h2>HARPER'S LIBRARY OF<br />
+LIVING THOUGHT</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Foolscap 8vo, gilt tops, decorative covers, richly gilt backs<br />
+Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather 3s. 6d. net.</i></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D.</big><br />
+<small>(Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons)</small></p>
+
+<h2>ANCIENT TYPES<br />
+OF MAN</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Illustrated</i><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>
+From discoveries of ancient human remains
+made within the last half-century, anthropologists
+are now able to place in order changes
+that have taken place in the posture, gait,
+height, and to some extent the habits of man
+during a period of at least a half-million years.
+Prof. Keith, who is one of the foremost investigators
+in this field, tells the story of the various
+forms which the body of the man has assumed,
+in a lucid and attractive way.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"The kind of book that only a master of his
+subject could write. It must interest every thinking
+person."&mdash;<i>British Medical Journal.</i>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 2 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE</big><br /><br /></p>
+
+<h2>PERSONAL<br />
+RELIGION IN EGYPT<br />
+BEFORE CHRISTIANITY</h2>
+
+<p>
+"The author gauges what ideas were already
+part of the religious thought in the first century,
+and what were the terms and ideas in Christianity
+which were new to mankind. The current
+literature of the time was as naturally taken for
+granted by Christians as were the books of the
+Old Testament which were familiar to them.
+The separation of the new ideas in the teaching
+of Christ and of the Apostles from the general
+terms of religion at the time, is the only road
+to understanding what Christianity meant to
+those who actually heard the teaching."
+</p>
+
+<p class="ad_sig"><i>Notts Guardian.</i></p>
+
+
+<p>"A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a real
+contribution to the study of comparative religion."</p>
+
+<p class="ad_sig"><i>Methodist Recorder.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 3 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER</big></p>
+
+<h2>RELIGION AND ART IN<br />
+ANCIENT GREECE</h2>
+
+<p>
+"Anything from such an authority on
+Greek art is welcome. This subject in
+the hands of Professor Gardner becomes
+a profoundly interesting study in the
+philosophy of religion. He has dealt with
+the religion of Greece as it affected the
+art of sculpture, and with the reaction of
+that art upon the ideals and aspirations
+of the people and its influence upon the
+popular and the educated conceptions
+of the gods. It is well worth the trouble
+to study the religious art of such a people,
+and this is an epitome of the subject
+such as readers can get nowhere else."
+</p>
+
+<p class="ad_sig"><i>Scotsman.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 4 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE</big></p>
+
+
+
+<h2>THE REVOLUTIONS OF<br />
+CIVILISATION</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Illustrated</i><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>
+In the light of history&mdash;so enormously
+extended in recent years&mdash;the author surveys
+the waxing and waning of civilisation
+as evidenced in sculpture, painting, literature,
+mechanics, and wealth. In tracing
+the various forces at work in this fluctuation
+he arrives at most significant conclusions,
+notably in connection with race mixture
+and forms of government.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+"We know nothing that exhibits in so brief
+a compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of
+human progress and retrogression since the
+dawn of history."&mdash;<i>Birmingham Post.</i>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 5 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and<br />
+HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<h2>CRETE, THE FORERUNNER<br />
+OF GREECE</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Map, Plans, etc.</i><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<p>
+"The wondrous story of a great civilisation
+which flourished before Abraham
+was born, and left behind a memory of
+itself in the Arts of Ancient Greece and
+in the traditions of a golden age and a
+'Lost Atlantis.'"&mdash;<i>Evening Standard.</i>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+"We have now the material for forming
+a very fair conception of the fruitful contribution
+made by Crete to Grecian and
+European civilisation. What was long
+accounted fable&mdash;statements of Herodotus
+and Thucydides&mdash;have been turned
+into established fact. The book supplies
+material for forming judgments on some
+of the most interesting and still highly
+debated problems of early Greek history."
+</p>
+
+<p class="ad_sig"><i>Glasgow Herald.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 6 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><big>By Prof. G. ELLIOT SMITH</big></p>
+
+
+<h2>THE<br />
+ANCIENT EGYPTIANS</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Illustrated</i><br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>
+An account of the Egyptians of the
+unrecorded past as revealed by the investigations
+of the anthropologist. The author
+traces to their source the various streams
+of alien immigrants which made their way
+into the Nile valley, and correlates his facts
+with the great racial movements in the
+neighbouring continents. He shows how
+the Egyptians inaugurated a higher civilisation&mdash;particularly
+in bringing the Stone
+Age to a close and introducing the use of
+metals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+"This is a brilliant little book, illuminating
+the whole subject of the history of
+the human race since man assumed his
+proper shape."&mdash;<i>Manchester Guardian.</i>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 7 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+
+<p><big>Algernon Charles Swinburne</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Leo Tolstoy</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE TEACHING OF JESUS</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE CHRISTIANITY</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ETHER OF SPACE. Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. William Wrede (University of Breslau)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. C.H. Becker (Colonial Institute, Hamburg)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Svante Arrhenius</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(Nobel Institute, Stockholm)</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE. 2 vols. Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>JESUS OR PAUL?</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. D.A. Bertholet (University of Basle)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Reinhold Seeberg (University of Berlin)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>REVELATION AND INSPIRATION</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Johannes Weiss (University of Heidelberg)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>PAUL AND JESUS</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Rudolph Eucken (University of Jena)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ROMAN LAW IN MEDI&AElig;VAL EUROPE</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., LL.D.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>DIAMONDS. Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>PLEASE WRITE FOR PROSPECTUS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div><br /><br /><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+
+<!-- Ad Number 8 -->
+
+
+<div class="closing_ad">
+<h3>Harper's Library of Living Thought</h3>
+<hr style="width: 100%;" />
+
+
+<p><big>C.H. Hawes, M.A., and Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CRETE THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE. Maps, etc.</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Sir William A. Tilden, F.R.S.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ELEMENTS: Speculations as to their Nature and Origin.</small></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Ernest A. Gardner (University of London)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. F.W. Mott, F.R.S., M.D.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND SONG.</small></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. G. Elliott Smith (University of Manchester)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, and their</small></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Influence upon the Civilisation of Europe. Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Frederick Czapek (University of Prague)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>CHEMICAL PHENOMENA IN LIFE</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION. Copiously Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>The Very Rev. the Hon. W.H. Fremantle, D.D. (Dean of Ripon)</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>NATURAL CHRISTIANITY</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. A.W. Bickerton</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE BIRTH OF WORLDS AND SYSTEMS. Illustrated.</small></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>Preface by Prof. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S.</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Prof. Arthur Keith, M.D.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN. Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONS. Diagrams</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>Arthur Holmes, B.Sc.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>THE AGE OF THE EARTH. Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+<p><big>T. Eric Peet, M.A.</big><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS</small></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>AND THEIR BUILDERS. Illustrated</small></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>:: HARPER AND BROTHERS ::</h2>
+<p class="center">45 Albemarle St: London, W.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Franklin Sq. New York</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div><br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rough Stone Monuments and Their
+Builders, by T. Eric Peet
+
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+</body>
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+Project Gutenberg's Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders, by T. Eric Peet
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Rough Stone Monuments and Their Builders
+
+Author: T. Eric Peet
+
+Release Date: April 8, 2005 [EBook #15590]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Peter Barozzi and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST]
+
+
+
+
+                              ROUGH STONE
+                               MONUMENTS
+                               AND THEIR
+                               BUILDERS
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                             T. ERIC PEET
+
+              FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE, OXFORD;
+                 LATELY CRAVEN FELLOW IN THE UNIVERSITY
+                    OF OXFORD AND PELHAM STUDENT AT
+                      THE BRITISH SCHOOL OF ROME
+
+
+
+
+                          HARPER & BROTHERS
+                         LONDON AND NEW YORK
+                       45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W.
+                                 1912
+
+
+
+                      _Published October, 1912_.
+
+
+
+
+                               PREFACE
+
+The aim of this volume is to enable those who are interested in
+Stonehenge and other great stone monuments of England to learn something
+of the similar buildings which exist in different parts of the world, of
+the men who constructed them, and of the great archaeological system of
+which they form a part. It is hoped that to the archaeologist it may be
+useful as a complete though brief sketch of our present knowledge of the
+megalithic monuments, and as a short treatment of the problems which
+arise in connection with them.
+
+To British readers it is unnecessary to give any justification for the
+comparatively full treatment accorded to the monuments of Great Britain
+and Ireland. Malta and Sardinia may perhaps seem to occupy more than
+their due share of space, but the usurpation is justified by the
+magnificence and the intrinsic interest of their megalithic buildings.
+Being of singularly complicated types and remarkably well preserved they
+naturally tell us much more of their builders than do the simpler
+monuments of other larger and now more important countries. In these two
+islands, moreover, research has in the last few years been extremely
+active, and it is felt that the accounts here given of them will contain
+some material new even to the archaeologist.
+
+In order to assist those readers who may wish to follow out the subject
+in greater detail a short bibliography has been added to the book.
+
+For the figures and photographs with which this volume is illustrated I
+have to thank many archaeological societies and individual scholars.
+Plate III and part of Plate II I owe to the kindness of Dr. Zammit,
+Director of the Museum of Valletta, while the other part of Plate II is
+from a photograph kindly lent to me by Dr. Ashby. I have to thank the
+Society of Antiquaries for Figures 1 and 3, the Reale Accademia dei
+Lincei for Figures 17 and 20, and the Societe prehistorique de France,
+through Dr. Marcel Baudouin, for Figure 10. I am indebted to the Royal
+Irish Academy for Figure 8, to the Committee of the British School of
+Rome for Figure 18, and to Dr. Albert Mayr and the Akademie der
+Wissenschaften in Munich for the plan of Mnaidra. Professors Montelius,
+Siret and Cartailhac I have to thank not only for permission to
+reproduce illustrations from their works, but also for their kind
+interest in my volume. Figure 19 I owe to my friend Dr. Randall MacIver.
+The frontispiece and Plate I are fine photographs by Messrs. The
+Graphotone Co., Ltd.
+
+In conclusion, I must not forget to thank Canon F.F. Grensted for much
+help with regard to the astronomical problems connected with Stonehenge.
+
+                                                     T. ERIC PEET.
+
+LIVERPOOL,
+  _August 10th,_ 1912.
+
+
+
+
+                                CONTENTS
+
+    CHAPTER                                                 PAGE
+
+       I. INTRODUCTION                                         1
+
+      II. STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE
+          MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES                      15
+
+     III. MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND
+          AND IRELAND                                         34
+
+      IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA                    52
+
+       V. FRANCE, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL                          59
+
+      VI. ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS                               76
+
+     VII. AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER.
+          MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS                               90
+
+    VIII. THE DOLMENS OF ASIA                                114
+
+      IX. THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC
+          MONUMENTS, THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS,
+          RELIGION, ETC                                      123
+
+       X. WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE
+          DID THEY COME?                                     143
+
+          BIBLIOGRAPHY                                       159
+
+          INDEX                                              167
+
+
+
+
+                             LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                    PLATES
+
+     Stonehenge from the south-east                 _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                     FACING PAGE
+  I. Stonehenge from the south-west                           17
+ II. Mnaidra, doorway of Room H. The _Nuraghe_ of
+       Madrone in Sardinia                                    82
+III. Temple of Mnaidra, Malta. Apse of chief room            100
+
+FIGURE                                                      PAGE
+  1. Plan of Stonehenge                                       16
+  2. Avebury and Kennet Avenue                                23
+  3. Plans of English Long Barrows                            31
+  4. Horned tumulus, Caithness                                39
+  5. Plans of three dolmen-types                              40
+  6. Type-plan of simple corridor-tomb                        42
+  7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb                           44
+  8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland                     47
+  9. Corridor-tomb at Ottagarden, Sweden                      53
+ 10. Plan of La Pierre aux Fees, Oise, France                 61
+ 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion, Normandy         63
+ 12. Plan of La Grotte des Fees, Arles, France                65
+ 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, Petit Morin, France          66
+ 14. Plan of corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain             69
+ 15. Section and plan of a _talayot_, Majorca                 72
+ 16. Section and plan of the _nau_ d'Es Tudons                73
+ 17. Elevation, section and plan of a Sardinian _nuraghe_     83
+ 18. Plan of Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia              87
+ 19. Plan of stone circle at the Senam, Algeria               94
+ 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria                     97
+ 21. Plan of the Sanctuary of Mnaidra, Malta                  99
+ 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat                    115
+
+
+
+
+
+                           ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+                               INTRODUCTION
+
+
+To the south of Salisbury Plain, about two miles west of the small
+country town of Amesbury, lies the great stone circle of Stonehenge. For
+centuries it has been an object of wonder and admiration, and even
+to-day it is one of the sights of our country. Perhaps, however, few of
+those who have heard of Stonehenge or even of those who have visited it
+are aware that it is but a unit in a vast crowd of megalithic monuments
+which, in space, extends from the west of Europe to India, and, in time,
+covers possibly more than a thousand years.
+
+What exactly is a megalithic monument? Strictly speaking, it is a
+building made of very large stones. This definition would, of course,
+include numbers of buildings of the present day and of the medieval and
+classical periods, while many of the Egyptian pyramids and temples would
+at once suggest themselves as excellent examples of this type of
+building. The archaeologist, however, uses the term in a much more
+limited sense. He confines it to a series of tombs and buildings
+constructed in Western Asia, in North Africa, and in certain parts of
+Europe, towards the end of the neolithic period and during part of the
+copper and bronze ages which followed it. The structures are usually,
+though not quite invariably, made of large blocks of unworked or
+slightly worked stone, and they conform to certain definite types. The
+best known of these types are as follows: Firstly, the menhir, which is
+a tall, rough pillar of stone with its base fixed into the earth.
+Secondly, the trilithon, which consists of a pair of tall stones set at
+a short distance apart supporting a third stone laid across the top.
+Thirdly, the dolmen, which is a single slab of stone supported by
+several others arranged in such a way as to enclose a space or chamber
+beneath it. Some English writers apply the term cromlech to such a
+structure, quite incorrectly. Both menhir and dolmen are Breton words,
+these two types of megalithic monument being particularly frequent in
+Brittany. Menhir is derived from the Breton _men_, a stone, and _hir_,
+long; similarly dolmen is from _dol_, a table, and _men_, a stone. Some
+archaeologists also apply the word dolmen to rectangular chambers roofed
+with more than one slab. We have carefully avoided this practice, always
+classing such chambers as corridor-tombs of an elementary type.
+Fourthly, we have the corridor-tomb (_Ganggrab_), which usually consists
+of a chamber entered by a gallery or corridor. In cases where the
+chamber is no wider than, and hence indistinguishable from the corridor,
+the tomb becomes a long rectangular gallery, and answers to the French
+_allee couverte_ in the strict sense. Fifthly, we come to the
+_alignement_, in which a series of menhirs is arranged in open lines on
+some definite system. We shall find a famous example of this at Morbihan
+in Brittany. Sixthly, there is the cromlech (from _crom_, curve, and
+_lec'h_, a stone), which consists of a number of menhirs arranged to
+enclose a space, circular, elliptical or, in rare cases, rectangular.
+
+These are the chief types of megalithic monument, but there are others
+which, though clearly belonging to the same class of structure, show
+special forms and are more complicated. They are in many cases
+developments of one or more of the simple types, and will be treated
+specially in their proper places. Such monuments are the _nuraghi_ of
+Sardinia and the 'temples' of Malta and Gozo.
+
+Finally, the rock-hewn sepulchre is often classed with the megalithic
+monuments, and it is therefore frequently mentioned in the following
+pages. This is justified by the fact that it generally occurs in
+connection with megalithic structures. The exact relation in which it
+stands to them will be fully discussed in the last chapter.
+
+
+We have now to consider what may be called the architectural methods of
+the megalithic builders, for although in dealing with such primitive
+monuments it would perhaps be exaggeration to speak of a style, yet
+there were certain principles which were as carefully and as invariably
+observed as were in later days those of the Doric or the Gothic styles
+in the countries where they took root.
+
+The first and most important principle, that on which the whole of the
+megalithic construction may be said to be based, is the use of the
+orthostatic block, i.e. the block set up on its edge. It is clear that
+in this way each block or slab is made to provide the maximum of wall
+area at the expense of the thickness of the wall. Naturally, in
+districts where the rock is of a slabby nature blocks of a more or less
+uniform thickness lay ready to the builders' hand, and the appearance of
+the structure was much more finished than it would be in places where
+the rock had a less regular fracture or where shapeless boulders had to
+be relied on. The orthostatic slabs were often deeply sunk into the
+ground where this consisted of earth or soft rock; of the latter case
+there are good examples at Stonehenge, where the rock is a soft chalk.
+When the ground had an uneven surface of hard rock, the slabs were set
+upright on it and small stones wedged in beneath them to make them stand
+firm. Occasionally, as at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, a course of horizontal
+blocks set at the foot of the uprights served to keep them more securely
+in position. With the upright block technique went hand in hand the
+roofing of narrow spaces by means of horizontal slabs laid across the
+top of the uprights.
+
+The second principle of megalithic architecture was the use of more or
+less coursed masonry set without mortar, each block lying on its side
+and not on its edge. It is quite possible that this principle is less
+ancient in origin than that of the orthostatic slab, for it usually
+occurs in structures of a more advanced type. Thus in simple and
+primitive types of building such as the dolmen it is most rare to find
+dry masonry, but in the advanced corridor-tombs of Ireland, the Giants'
+Graves and _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, and in the 'temples' of Malta this
+technique is largely used, often in combination with the upright slab
+system. Indeed, this combination is quite typical of the best megalithic
+work: a series of uprights is first set in position, and over this are
+laid several horizontal courses of rather smaller stones. We must note
+that the dry masonry which we are describing is still strictly
+megalithic, as the blocks used are never small and often of enormous
+size.
+
+Buildings in which this system is used are occasionally roofed with
+slabs, but more often corbelling is employed. At a certain height each
+succeeding course in the wall begins to project inwards over the last,
+so that the walls, as it were, lean together and finally meet to form a
+false barrel-vault or a false dome, according as the structure is
+rectangular or round. Occasionally, when the building was wide, it was
+impossible to corbel the walls sufficiently to make them meet. In this
+case they were corbelled as far as possible and the open space still
+left was covered with long flat slabs.
+
+It has often been commented on as a matter of wonder that a people
+living in the stone age, or at the best possessing a few simple tools of
+metal, should have been able to move and place in position such enormous
+blocks of stone. With modern cranes and traction engines all would be
+simple, but it might have been thought that in the stone age such
+building would be impossible. Thus, for instance, in the 'temple' of
+Hagiar Kim in Malta, there is one block of stone which measures 21 feet
+by 9, and must weigh many tons. In reality there is little that is
+marvellous in the moving and setting up of these blocks, for the tools
+needed are ready to the hand of every savage; but there is something to
+wonder at and to admire in the patience displayed and in the
+organization necessary to carry out such vast pieces of labour. Great,
+indeed, must have been the power of the cult which could combine the
+force of hundreds and even thousands of individuals for long periods of
+time in the construction of the great megalithic temples. Perhaps slave
+labour played a part in the work, but in any case it is clear that we
+are in the presence of strongly organized governments backed by a
+powerful religion which required the building of temples for the gods
+and vast tombs for the dead.
+
+Let us consider for a moment what was the procedure in building a simple
+megalithic monument. It was fourfold, for it involved the finding and
+possibly the quarrying of the stones, the moving of them to the desired
+spot, the erection of the uprights in their places, and the placing of
+the cover-slab or slabs on top of them.
+
+With regard to the first step it is probable that in most cases the
+place chosen for a tomb or cemetery was one in which numbers of great
+stones lay on the surface ready to hand. By this means labour was
+greatly economized. On the other hand, there are certainly cases where
+the stones were brought long distances in order to be used. Thus, in
+Charente in France there is at La Perotte a block weighing nearly 40
+tons which must have travelled over 18 miles. We have no evidence as to
+whether stones were ever actually quarried. If they were, the means used
+must have been the stone axe, fire, and water. It was not usual in the
+older and simpler dolmens to dress the stones in any way, though in the
+later and more complicated structures well-worked blocks were often
+used.
+
+The required stones having been found it was now necessary to move them
+to the spot. This could be done in two ways. The first and simpler is
+that which we see pictured on Egyptian monuments, such as the tomb of
+Tahutihotep at El Bersheh. A rough road of beams is laid in the required
+direction, and wooden rollers are placed under the stone on this road.
+Large numbers of men or oxen then drag the stone along by means of ropes
+attached to it. Other labourers assist the work from behind with levers,
+and replace the rollers in front of the stone as fast as they pass out
+behind. Those who have seen the modern Arabs in excavation work move
+huge blocks with wooden levers and palm-leaf rope will realize that for
+the building of the dolmens little was needed except numbers and time.
+
+The other method of moving the stones is as follows: a gentle slope of
+hard earth covered with wet clay is built with its higher extremity
+close beside the block to be moved. As many men as there is room for
+stand on each side of the block, and with levers resting on beams or
+stones as fulcra, raise the stone vertically as far as possible. Other
+men then fill up the space beneath it with earth and stones. The process
+is next repeated with higher fulcra, until the stone is level with the
+top of the clay slope, on to which it is then slipped. With a little
+help it now slides down the inclined plane to the bottom. Here a fresh
+slope is built, and the whole procedure is gone through again. The
+method can even be used on a slight uphill gradient. It requires less
+dragging and more vertical raising than the other, and would thus be
+more useful where oxen were unobtainable.
+
+When the stones were once on the spot it is not hard to imagine how they
+were set upright with levers and ropes. The placing of the cover-slab
+was, however, a more complicated matter. The method employed was
+probably to build a slope of earth leading up from one side to the
+already erected uprights and almost covering them. Up this the slab
+could be moved by means of rollers, ropes, and levers, until it was in
+position over the uprights. The slope could then be removed. If the
+dolmen was to be partly or wholly covered with a mound, as some
+certainly were, it would not even be necessary to remove the slope.
+
+Roughly speaking, the extension of megalithic monuments is from Spain to
+Japan and from Sweden to Algeria. These are naturally merely limits, and
+it must not be supposed that the regions which lie between them all
+contain megalithic monuments. More exactly, we find them in Asia, in
+Japan, Corea, India, Persia, Syria, and Palestine. In Africa we have
+them along the whole of the north coast, from Tripoli to Morocco; inland
+they are not recorded, except for one possible example in Egypt and
+several in the Soudan. In Europe the distribution of dolmens and other
+megalithic monuments is wide. They occur in the Caucasus and the Crimea,
+and quite lately examples have been recorded in Bulgaria. There are none
+in Greece, and only a few in Italy, in the extreme south-east corner.
+The islands, however, which lie around and to the south of Italy afford
+many examples: Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, Gozo, Pantelleria, and
+Lampedusa are strongholds of the megalithic civilization, and it is
+possible that Sicily should be included in the list. Moving westward we
+find innumerable examples in the Spanish Peninsula and in France. To the
+north we find them frequent in the British Isles, Sweden, Denmark, and
+North Germany; they are rarer in Holland and Belgium. Two examples have
+been reported from Switzerland.
+
+It is only to be expected that these great megalithic monuments of a
+prehistoric age should excite the wonder and stimulate the imagination
+of those who see them. In all countries and at all times they have been
+centres of story and legend, and even at the present day many strange
+beliefs concerning them are to be found among the peasantry who live
+around them. Salomon Reinach has written a remarkable essay on this
+question, and the following examples are mainly drawn from the
+collection he has there made. The names given to the monuments often
+show clearly the ideas with which they are associated in the minds of
+the peasants. Thus the Penrith circle is locally known as "Meg and her
+Daughters," a dolmen in Berkshire is called "Wayland the Smith's Cave,"
+while in one of the Orkney Isles is a menhir named "Odin's Stone." In
+France many are connected with Gargantua, whose name, the origin of
+which is doubtful, stands clearly for a giant. Thus we find a rock
+called the "Chair of Gargantua," a menhir called "Gargantua's Little
+Finger," and an _allee couverte_ called "Gargantua's Tomb." Names
+indicating connections with fairies, virgins, witches, dwarfs, devils,
+saints, druids, and even historical persons are frequent. Dolmens are
+often "houses of dwarfs," a name perhaps suggested or at least helped by
+the small holes cut in some of them; they are "huts" or "caves of
+fairies," they are "kitchens" or "forges of the devil," while menhirs
+are called his arrows, and cromlechs his cauldrons. In France we have
+stones of various saints, while in England many monuments are connected
+with King Arthur. A dolmen in Wales is his quoit; the circle at Penrith
+is his round table, and that of Caermarthen is his park. Both in England
+and France we find stones and altars "of the druids"; in the Pyrenees,
+in Spain, and in Africa there are "graves of the Gentiles" or "tombs of
+idolaters"; in Arles (France) the _allees couvertes_ are called
+"prisons" or "shops of the Saracens," and the dolmens of the Eastern
+Pyrenees are locally known as "huts of the Moors." Dolmens in India are
+often "stones of the monkeys," and in France there are "wolves' altars,"
+"wolves' houses," and "wolves' tables."
+
+Passing now to more definite beliefs connected with megalithic
+monuments, we may notice that from quite early times they have been--as
+indeed they often are still--regarded with fear and respect, and even
+worshipped. In certain parts of France peasants are afraid to shelter
+under the dolmens, and never think of approaching them by night. In
+early Christian days there must have been a cult of the menhir, for the
+councils of Arles (A.D. 452), of Tours (A.D. 567), and of Nantes (A.D.
+658) all condemn the cult of trees, springs, and _stones_. In A.D. 789
+Charlemagne attempted to suppress stone-worship, and to destroy the
+stones themselves. In Spain, where, as in France, megalithic monuments
+are common, the councils of Toledo in A.D. 681 and 682 condemned the
+"Worshippers of Stones." Moreover there are many cases in which a
+monument itself bears traces of having been the centre of a cult in
+early or medieval times. The best example is perhaps the dolmen of
+Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, which was transformed into a chapel about the
+twelfth century. Similar transformations have been made in Spain. In
+many cases, too, crosses have been placed or engraved on menhirs in
+order to "Christianize" them.
+
+Remarkable powers and virtues have been attributed to many of the
+monuments. One of the dolmens of Finistere is said to cure rheumatism in
+anyone who rubs against the loftiest of its stones, and another heals
+fever patients who sleep under it. Stones with holes pierced in them are
+believed to be peculiarly effective, and it suffices to pass the
+diseased limb or, when possible, the invalid himself through the hole.
+
+Oaths sworn in or near a megalithic monument have a peculiar sanctity.
+In Scotland as late as the year A.D. 1438 "John off Erwyne and Will
+Bernardson swor on the Hirdmane Stein before oure Lorde ye Erie off
+Orknay and the gentiless off the cuntre."
+
+Many of the monuments are endowed by the credulous with life. The menhir
+du Champ Dolent sinks an inch every hundred years. Others say that a
+piece of it is eaten by the moon each night, and that when it is
+completely devoured the Last Judgment will take place. The stones of
+Carnac bathe in the sea once a year, and many of those of the Perigord
+leap three times each day at noon.
+
+We have already remarked on the connection of the monuments with dwarfs,
+giants, and mythical personages. There is an excellent example in our
+own country in Berkshire. Here when a horse has cast a shoe the rider
+must leave it in front of the dolmen called "The Cave of Wayland the
+Smith," placing at the same time a coin on the cover-stone. He must then
+retire for a suitable period, after which he returns to find the horse
+shod and the money gone.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                    STONEHENGE AND OTHER GREAT STONE
+                     MONUMENTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES
+
+
+Stonehenge, the most famous of our English megalithic monuments, has
+excited the attention of the historian and the legend-lover since early
+times. According to some of the medieval historians it was erected by
+Aurelius Ambrosius to the memory of a number of British chiefs whom
+Hengist and his Saxons treacherously murdered in A.D. 462. Others add
+that Ambrosius himself was buried there. Giraldus Cambrensis, who wrote
+in the twelfth century, mingles these accounts with myth. He says,
+"There was in Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of stones worthy of
+admiration called the Giants' Dance, because giants from the remotest
+part of Africa brought them to Ireland, and in the plains of Kildare,
+not far from the castle of Naas, miraculously set them up.... These
+stones (according to the British history) Aurelius Ambrosius, King of
+the Britons, procured Merlin by supernatural means to bring from Ireland
+to Britain."
+
+From the present ruined state of Stonehenge it is not possible to state
+with certainty what was the original arrangement, but it is probable
+that it was approximately as follows (see frontispiece):
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. Plan of Stonehenge in 1901. (After
+_Archaeologia_.) The dotted stones are of porphyritic diabase.]
+
+There was an outer circle of about thirty worked upright stones of
+square section (Fig. I). On each pair of these rested a horizontal
+block, but only five now remain in position. These 'lintels' probably
+formed a continuous architrave (Pl. I). The diameter of this outer
+circle is about 97-1/2 feet, inner measurement. The stones used are
+sarsens or blocks of sandstone, such as are to be found lying about in
+many parts of the district round Stonehenge.
+
+[Illustration: Plate I. STONEHENGE FROM THE SOUTH-WEST
+               Photo Graphotone Co.     To face p. 17]
+
+Well within this circle stood the five huge trilithons (_a-e_), arranged
+in the form of a horseshoe with its open side to the north-east. Each
+trilithon, as the name implies, consists of three stones, two of which
+are uprights, the third being laid horizontally across the top. The
+height of the trilithons varies from 16 to 21-1/2 feet, the lowest being
+the two that stand at the open end of the horseshoe, and the highest
+that which is at the apex. Here again all the stones are sarsens and all
+are carefully worked. On the top end of each upright of the trilithons
+is an accurately cut tenon which dovetails into two mortices cut one at
+each end of the lower surface of the horizontal block. Each upright of
+the outer circle had a double tenon, and the lintels, besides being
+morticed to take these tenons, were also dovetailed each into its two
+neighbours.
+
+Within the horseshoe and close up to it stand the famous blue-stones,
+now twelve in number, but originally perhaps more. These stones are not
+so high as the trilithons, the tallest reaching only 7-1/2 feet. They
+are nearly all of porphyritic diabase. It has often been asserted that
+these blue-stones must have been brought to Stonehenge from a distance,
+as they do not occur anywhere in the district. Some have suggested that
+they came from Wales or Cornwall, or even by sea from Ireland. Now, the
+recent excavations have shown that the blue-stones were brought to
+Stonehenge in a rough state, and that all the trimming was done on the
+spot where they were erected. It seems unlikely that if they had been
+brought from a distance the rough trimming should not have been done on
+the spot where they were found, in order to decrease their weight for
+transport. It is therefore possible that the stones were erratic blocks
+found near Stonehenge.
+
+Within the horseshoe, and near its apex, lies the famous "Altar Stone"
+(A), a block measuring about 16 feet by 4. Between the horseshoe and the
+outer circle another circle of diabase stones is sometimes said to have
+existed, but very little of it now remains.
+
+The whole building is surrounded by a rampart of earth several feet
+high, forming a circle about 300 feet in diameter. An avenue still 1200
+feet in length, bordered by two walls of earth, leads up to the rampart
+from the north-east. On the axis of this avenue and nearly at its
+extremity stands the upright stone known as the Friar's Heel.
+
+In 1901, in the course of repairing the central trilithon, careful
+excavations were carried out over a small area at Stonehenge. More than
+a hundred stone implements were found, of which the majority were flint
+axes, probably used for dressing the softer of the sandstone blocks, and
+also for excavating the chalk into which the uprights were set. About
+thirty hammer-stones suitable for holding in the hand were found. These
+were doubtless used for dressing the surface of the blocks. Most
+remarkable of all were the 'mauls,' large boulders weighing from 36 to
+64 pounds, used for smashing blocks and also for removing large chips
+from the surfaces. Several antlers of deer were found, one of which had
+been worn down by use as a pickaxe.
+
+These excavations made it clear that the blue-stones had been shaped on
+the spot, whereas the sarsens had been roughly prepared at the place
+where they were found, and only finished off on the spot where they were
+erected.
+
+
+What is the date of the erection of Stonehenge? The finding of so many
+implements of flint in the excavations of 1901 shows that the structure
+belongs to a period when flint was still largely used. The occurrence of
+a stain of oxide of copper on a worked block of stone at a depth of 7
+feet does not necessarily prove that the stones were erected in the
+bronze age, for the stain may have been caused by the disintegration of
+malachite and not of metallic copper. At the same time, we must not
+infer from the frequency of the flint implements that metal was unknown,
+for flint continued to be used far on into the early metal age.
+Moreover, flint tools when worn out were simply thrown aside on the
+spot, while those of metal were carefully set apart for sharpening or
+re-casting, and are thus seldom found in large numbers in an excavation.
+We have, therefore, no means of accurately determining the date of
+Stonehenge; all that can be said is that the occurrence of flint in such
+large quantities points either to the neolithic age or to a
+comparatively early date in the copper or bronze period. It is unlikely
+that stone tools would play such a considerable role in the late bronze
+or the iron age.
+
+At the same time it must not be forgotten that Sir Arthur Evans has
+spoken in favour of a date in the first half of the third century B.C.
+He believes that the great circles are religious monuments which in form
+developed out of the round barrows, and that Stonehenge is therefore
+much later than some at least of the round barrows around it. That it is
+earlier than others is clear from the occurrence in some of them of
+chips from the sarsen stones. He therefore places its building late in
+the round barrow period, and sees confirmation of this in the fact that
+the round barrows which surround the monument are not grouped in regular
+fashion around it, as they should have been had they been later in
+date.
+
+Many attempts have been made to date the monuments by means of
+astronomy. All these start from the assumption that it was erected in
+connection with the worship of the sun, or at least in order to take
+certain observations with regard to the sun. Sir Norman Lockyer noticed
+that the avenue at Stonehenge pointed approximately to the spot where
+the sun rises at the midsummer solstice, and therefore thought that
+Stonehenge was erected to observe this midsummer rising. If he could
+find the exact direction of the avenue he would know where the sun rose
+at midsummer in the year when the circle was built. From this he could
+easily fix the date, for, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the
+point of the midsummer rising is continually altering, and the position
+for any year being known the date of that year can be found
+astronomically. But how was the precise direction of this very irregular
+avenue to be fixed? The line from the altar stone to the Friar's Heel,
+which is popularly supposed to point to the midsummer rising, has
+certainly never done so in the last ten thousand years, and therefore
+could not be used as the direction of the avenue. Eventually Sir Norman
+decided to use a line from the centre of the circle to a modern
+benchmark on Sidbury Hill, eight miles north-east of Stonehenge. On this
+line the sun rose in 1680 B.C. with a possible error of two hundred
+years each way: this Sir Norman takes to be the date of Stonehenge.
+
+Sir Norman's reasoning has been severely handled by his
+fellow-astronomer Mr. Hinks, who points out that the direction chosen
+for the avenue is purely arbitrary, since Sidbury Hill has no connection
+with Stonehenge at all. Moreover, Sir Norman determines sunrise for
+Stonehenge as being the instant when the edge of the sun's disk first
+appears, while in his attempts to date the Egyptian temple of Karnak he
+defined it as the moment when the sun's centre reached the horizon. We
+cannot say which alternative the builders would have chosen, and
+therefore we cannot determine the date of building.
+
+Sir Norman Lockyer has since modified his views. He now argues that the
+trilithons and outer circle are later additions to an earlier temple to
+which the blue-stones belong. This earlier temple was made to observe
+"primarily but not exclusively the May year," while the later temple
+"represented a change of cult, and was dedicated primarily to the
+solstitial year." This view seems to be disproved by the excavations of
+1901, which made it clear that the trilithons were erected before and
+not after the blue-stones.
+
+Nothing is more likely than that the builders of the megaliths had some
+knowledge of the movements of the sun in connection with the seasons,
+and that their priests or wise men determined for them, by observing the
+sun, the times of sowing, reaping, etc., as they do among many savage
+tribes at the present day. They may have been worshippers of the sun,
+and their temples may have contained 'observation lines' for determining
+certain of his movements. But the attempt to date the monuments from
+such lines involves so many assumptions and is affected by so many
+disturbing elements that it can never have a serious value for the
+archaeologist. The uncertainty is even greater in the case of temples
+supposed to be oriented by some star, for in this case there is almost
+always a choice of two or more bright stars, giving the most divergent
+results.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Avebury and the Kennet Avenue.
+               (After Sir R. Colt Hoare.)]
+
+Next in importance to Stonehenge comes the huge but now almost destroyed
+circle of Avebury (Fig. 2). Its area is five times as great as that of
+St. Peter's in Rome, and a quarter of a million people could stand
+within it. It consists in the first place of a rampart of earth roughly
+circular in form and with a diameter of about 1200 feet. Within this is
+a ditch, and close on the inner edge of this was a circle of about a
+hundred upright stones. Within this circle were two pairs of concentric
+circles with their centres slightly east of the north-and-south diameter
+of the great circle. The diameters of the outer circles of these two
+pairs are 350 and 325 feet respectively. In the centre of the northern
+pair was a cover-slab supported by three uprights, and in the centre of
+the southern a single menhir. All the stones used are sarsens, such as
+are strewn everywhere over the district.
+
+An avenue flanked by two rows of stones ran in a south-easterly
+direction from the rampart towards the village of Kennet for a distance
+of about 1430 yards in a straight line.
+
+At a distance of 1200 yards due south from Avebury Circle stands the
+famous artificial mound called Silbury Hill. It is 552 feet in diameter,
+130 in height, and has a flat top 102 feet across. A pit was driven down
+into its centre in 1777, and in 1849 a trench was cut into it from the
+south side to the centre, but neither gave any result. It is quite
+possible that there are burials in the mound, whether in megalithic
+chambers or not.
+
+South-west of Avebury is Hakpen Hill, where there once stood two
+concentric ellipses of stones. A straight avenue is said to have run
+from these in a north-westerly direction. Whether these three monuments
+near Avebury have any connection with one another and, if so, what this
+connection is, is unknown.
+
+
+There are many other circles in England, but we have only space to
+mention briefly some of the more important. At Rollright, in
+Oxfordshire, there is a circle 100 feet in diameter with a tall menhir
+50 yards to the north-east. Derbyshire possesses a famous monument, that
+of Arbor Low, where a circle is surrounded by a rampart and ditch, while
+that of Stanton Drew in Somerset consists of a great circle A and two
+smaller circles B and C. The line joining the centres of B and A passes
+through a menhir called Hauptville's Quoit away to the north-east, while
+that which joins the centres of C and A cuts a group of three menhirs
+called The Cove, lying to the south-west.
+
+In Cumberland there are several circles. One of these, 330 feet in
+diameter with an outstanding menhir, is known as "Long Meg and her
+Daughters." Another, the Mayborough Circle, is of much the same size,
+but consists of a tall monolith in the centre of a rampart formed
+entirely of rather small water-worn stones. A similar circle not far
+from this is known as King Arthur's Round Table; here, however, there is
+no monolith. Near Keswick there is a finely preserved circle, and at
+Shap there seems to have existed a large circle with an avenue of stones
+running for over a mile to the north.
+
+Cornwall possesses a number of fine monuments. The most celebrated is
+the Dance Maen Circle, which is 76 feet in diameter and has two
+monoliths to the north-east, out of sight of the circle, but stated to
+be in a straight line with its centre. Local tradition calls the circle
+"The Merry Maidens," and has it that the stones are girls turned into
+stones for dancing on Sunday: the two monoliths are called the Pipers.
+The three circles known as the Hurlers lie close together with their
+centres nearly in a straight line in the direction N.N.E. by S.S.W. At
+Boscawen-un, near Penzance, is a circle called the Nine Maidens, and two
+circles near Tregeseal have the same name. Another well-known circle in
+Cornwall is called the Stripple Stones: the circle stands on a platform
+of earth surrounded by a ditch, outside which is a rampart. In the
+centre is a menhir 12 feet in height.
+
+At Merivale, in Somersetshire, there are the remains of a small circle,
+to the north of which lie two almost parallel double lines of menhirs,
+running about E.N.E. by W.S.W., the more southerly of the two lines
+overlapping the other at both extremities.
+
+
+With what purpose were these great circles erected? We have already
+mentioned the curious belief of Geoffrey of Monmouth with regard to
+Stonehenge, and we may pass on to more modern theories. James I was
+once taken to see Stonehenge when on a visit to the Earl of Pembroke at
+Wilton. He was so interested that he ordered his architect Inigo Jones
+to enquire into its date and purpose. The architect's conclusion was
+that it was a Roman temple "dedicated to the god Caelus and built after
+the Tuscan order."
+
+Many years later Dr. Stukeley started a theory which has not entirely
+been abandoned at the present day. For him Stonehenge and other stone
+circles were temples of the druids. This was in itself by no means a
+ridiculous theory, but Stukeley went further than this. Relying on a
+quaint story in Pliny wherein the druids of Gaul are said to use as a
+charm a certain magic egg manufactured by snakes, he imagined that the
+druids were serpent-worshippers, and essayed to see serpents even in the
+forms of their temples. Thus in the Avebury group the circle on Hakpen
+Hill was for him the head of a snake and its avenue part of the body.
+The Avebury circles were coils in the body, which was completed by the
+addition of imaginary stones and avenues. He also attempted with even
+less success to see the form of a serpent in other British circle
+groups.
+
+The druids, as we gather from the rather scanty references in Caesar and
+other Roman authors, were priests of the Celts in Gaul. Suetonius
+further speaks of druids in Anglesey, and tradition has it that in Wales
+and Ireland there were druids in pre-Christian times. But that druids
+ever existed in England or in a tithe of the places in which megalithic
+circles and other monuments occur is unlikely. At the same time, it is
+not impossible that some of the circles of Ireland, Wales, and France
+were afterwards used by the druids as suitable places for meeting and
+preaching.
+
+Fergusson in his great work _Rude Stone Monuments_ held a remarkable
+view as to the purpose of the British stone circles. He believed that
+they were partly Roman in date, and that some of them at least marked
+the scene of battles fought by King Arthur against the Saxons. Thus, for
+example, he says with regard to Avebury, "I feel it will come eventually
+to be acknowledged that those who fell in Arthur's twelfth and greatest
+battle were buried in the ring at Avebury, and that those who survived
+raised these stones and the mound of Silbury in the vain hope that they
+would convey to their latest posterity the memory of their prowess." It
+is hardly necessary to take this view seriously nowadays. Stonehenge,
+which Fergusson attributes to the same late era, has been proved by
+excavation to be prehistoric in origin, and with it naturally go the
+rest of the megalithic circles of England, except where there is any
+certain proof to the contrary.
+
+The most probable theory is that the circles are religious monuments of
+some kind. What the nature of the worship carried on in them was it is
+quite impossible to determine. It may be that some at least were built
+near the graves of deified heroes to whose worship they were
+consecrated. On the other hand, it is possible that they were temples
+dedicated to the sun or to others of the heavenly bodies. Whether they
+served for the taking of astronomical observations or not is a question
+which cannot be decided with certainty, though the frequency with which
+menhirs occur in directions roughly north-east of the circles is
+considered by some as a sign of connection with the watching of solar
+phenomena.
+
+
+Dolmens of simple type are not common in England, though they occur with
+comparative frequency in Wales, where the best known are the so-called
+Arthur's Quoit near Swansea, the dolmen of Pentre Ifan in Pembrokeshire,
+and that of Plas Newydd on the Menai Strait: in Anglesey they are quite
+common. In England we have numerous examples in Cornwall, especially
+west of Falmouth, among which are Chun Quoit and Lanyon Quoit. There are
+dolmens at Chagford and Drewsteignton in Devonshire, and there is one
+near the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire.
+
+Many of the so-called cromlechs of England are not true dolmens, but the
+remains of tombs of more complicated types. Thus the famous Kit's Coty
+House in Kent was certainly not a dolmen, though it is now impossible to
+say what its form was. Wayland the Smith's Cave was probably a
+three-chambered corridor-tomb covered with a mound. The famous
+Men-an-tol in Cornwall may well be all that is left of a chamber-tomb of
+some kind. It is a slab about 3-1/2 feet square, in which is a hole
+1-1/2 feet in diameter. There are other stones standing or lying around
+it. It is known to the peasants as the Crickstone, for it was said to
+cure sufferers from rickets or crick in the back if they passed nine
+times through the hole in a direction against the sun. The Isle of Man
+possesses a fine sepulchral monument on Meayll Hill. It consist of six
+T-shaped chamber-tombs arranged in a circle with entrances to the north
+and south. There is also a corridor-tomb, known as King Orry's Grave, at
+Laxey, and another with a semicircular facade at Maughold.
+
+
+Among the megalithic monuments of our islands the chambered barrows hold
+an important place. It is well known that in the neolithic period the
+dead in certain parts of England were buried under mounds of not
+circular but elongated shape. These graves are commonest in Wiltshire
+and the surrounding counties of Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, and
+Gloucestershire. A few exist in other counties. Some contain no chamber,
+while others contain a structure of the megalithic type. It is with
+these latter that we have here to deal. Chambered long barrows are most
+frequent in Wiltshire, though they do occur in other counties, as, for
+example, Buckinghamshire, where the famous Cave of Wayland the Smith is
+certainly the remains of a barrow of this kind. In Derbyshire and
+Staffordshire a type of chambered mound does occur, but it seems
+uncertain from the description given whether it is round or elongated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. (_a_)--Barrow at Stoney Littleton, Somersetshire.
+               (_b_)--Barrow at Rodmarton, Gloucestershire.
+               (_c_)--Chambers of barrow at Uley, Gloucestershire.
+               (After Thurnam, _Archaeologia,_ XLII.)]
+
+Turning first to the Wiltshire and Gloucestershire group of barrows we
+find that they are usually from 120 to 200 feet in length and from 30 to
+60 in breadth. In some cases there is a wall of dry stone-masonry around
+the foot of the mound and outside this a ditch. The megalithic chambers
+within the mound are of three types. In the first there is a central
+gallery entering the mound at its thicker end and leading to a chamber
+or series of chambers (Fig. 3, _a_ and _c_). Where this gallery enters
+the mound there is a cusp-shaped break in the outline of the mound as
+marked by the dry walling, and the entrance is closed by a stone block.
+The chambers are formed of large slabs set up on edge. Occasionally
+there are spaces between successive slabs, and these are filled up with
+dry masonry. The roof is made either by laying large slabs across the
+tops of the sides or by corbelling with smaller slabs as at Stoney
+Littleton.
+
+In the second type of chambered barrow there is no central corridor, but
+chambers are built in opposite pairs on the outside edge of the mound
+and opening outwards (Fig. 3, _b_). The two best known examples of this
+are the tumuli of Avening and of Rodmarton.
+
+In the third type of barrow there is no chamber connected with the
+outside, but its place is taken by several dolmens--so small as to be
+mere cists--within the mound.
+
+The burials in these barrows seem to have been without exception
+inhumations. The body was placed in the crouched position, either
+sitting up or reclining. In an untouched chamber at Rodmarton were found
+as many as thirteen bodies, and in the eastern chamber at Charlton's
+Abbott there were twelve. With the bodies lay pottery, vases, and
+implements of flint and bone.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III
+
+              MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND
+
+
+The stone circles of Scotland have been divided into three types--the
+Western Scottish, consisting of a rather irregular ring or pair of
+concentric rings; the Inverness type, in which a chamber entered by a
+straight passage is covered by a round tumulus with a retaining wall of
+stone, the whole being surrounded by a regular stone circle; and the
+Aberdeen type, which is similar to the last, but has a 'recumbent' stone
+between two of the uprights of its outer circle.
+
+The first type occurs in the southern counties, in the islands of the
+west and north coasts, and also extends into Argyll and Perthshire. The
+most famous example is the Callernish Circle in the Isle of Lewis. The
+circle is formed by thirteen stones from 12 to 15 feet high, and its
+centre is marked by an upright 17 feet high. From the circle extends a
+line of four stones to the east and another to the west. To the south
+runs a line of five uprights and several fallen stones, and to the
+N.N.E. runs a double line, forming as it were an avenue with nine
+stones on one side and ten on the other, but having no entrance to the
+circle. Inside the circle, between the central stone and the east side
+of the ring, is what is described as a cruciform grave with three cells
+under a low tumulus. In this tomb were found fragments of human bone
+apparently burnt. It has been suggested that the tomb is not part of the
+original structure, but was added later.
+
+The native tradition about this circle as repeated by Martin in 1700 was
+that it was a druidical place of worship, and that the chief druid stood
+near the central stone to address the assembled people. This tradition
+seems to have now disappeared.
+
+In the island of Arran, between Brodick and Lamlash, is a damaged circle
+21 feet in diameter. At a distance of 60 feet from its circumference in
+a direction 35 deg. east of south is a stone 4 feet high. In the centre of
+the circle was found a cist cut in the underlying rock containing bluish
+earth and pieces of bone. Above were an implement and some fragments of
+flint.
+
+On the other side of the island there were still in 1860 remains of
+eight circles, five of sandstone and three of granite, quite close to
+one another. The diameter of the largest was 63 feet, and the highest
+stone reached 18 feet. One of them was a double ring. In four of them
+were found cists containing pottery, flint arrow-heads, a piece of a
+bronze pin, and some fragments of bone. Others appear to contain no
+cists.
+
+In the other islands of the west coast few circles seem to remain; there
+are, however, one at Kirkabrost in Skye, and another at Kingarth in
+Bute.
+
+At Stromness in Orkney is the famous circle called the Ring of Brogar.
+It originally consisted of sixty stones forming a circle 340 feet in
+diameter, outside which was a ditch 29 feet wide. In a direction 60 deg.
+east of south from the centre, and at a distance of 63 chains, is a
+standing stone called the Watchstone, 18 feet high, and 42 or 43 chains
+further on in the same line is a second stone, the Barnstone, 15 feet
+high. To the left of this line are two stones apparently placed at
+random, and to the right are the few remaining blocks of the Ring of
+Stenness, somewhere to the north of which was the celebrated pierced
+block called the "Stone of Odin," destroyed early in the last century.
+At a distance of 42 or 43 chains to the north-east of the Barnstone lies
+the tumulus of Maeshowe. This tumulus conceals a long gallery leading
+into a rectangular chamber. The walls of this latter are built of
+horizontal courses of stones, except at the corners, where there are
+tall, vertically-placed slabs. The chamber has three niches or recesses,
+one on each of its closed sides. The roof is formed by corbelling the
+walls and finishing off with slabs laid across. If one sits within the
+chamber and looks in a direct line along the passage one sees the
+Barnstone.
+
+A series of measurements and alignments have been taken to connect the
+Maeshowe tumulus with the Ring of Brogar. Thus we have already seen that
+the distance from the Barnstone to the Watchstone is the same as from
+the Barnstone to the tumulus. Moreover, the Watchstone is equidistant
+from the ring and from the tumulus. Again, a line from the Barnstone to
+the tumulus passes through the point of the midsummer sunrise and also,
+on the other horizon, through the point of the setting sun ten days
+before the winter solstice; the line from the Watchstone to the Brogar
+Ring marks the setting of the sun at the Beltane festival in May and its
+rising ten days before the winter solstice, while the line from Maeshowe
+to the Watchstone is in the line of the equinoctial rising and setting.
+These alignments are the work of Mr. Magnus Spence; readers must choose
+what importance they will assign to them.
+
+The Inverness type of circle is entirely different from that of which we
+have been speaking. The finest examples were at Clava, seven miles from
+Inverness, where fifty years ago there were eight still in existence.
+One of these is still partly preserved. It consists of a circle 100 feet
+in diameter consisting of twelve stones. Within this is a cairn of
+stones with a circular retaining wall of stone blocks 2 or 3 feet high.
+The cairn originally covered a circular stone chamber 12-1/2 feet in
+diameter entered by a straight passage on its south-west side. In other
+words, the Inverness monuments are simply chamber-tombs covered with a
+cairn and surrounded by a circle.
+
+Around Aberdeen we find the third type of circle. It consists of a
+cist-tomb covered by a low mound, often with a retaining wall of small
+blocks, but there is no entrance passage leading into the cist. Outside
+the whole is a circle of large upright blocks with this peculiarity,
+that between the two highest--generally to the south or slightly east of
+south--lies a long block on its side, occupying the whole interval
+between them. The uprights nearest this 'recumbent' block are the
+tallest in the circle, and the size of the rest decreases towards the
+north. Of thirty circles known near Aberdeen twenty-six still possess
+the 'recumbent' stone, and in others it may originally have existed.
+
+
+Passing now to monuments of more definitely sepulchral type we find that
+the dolmen is not frequent in Scotland, though several are known in the
+lowlands and in part of Argyllshire.
+
+To the long barrows of England answer in part at least the chambered
+cairns of Caithness and the Orkneys. The best known type is a long
+rectangular horned cairn (Fig. 4), of which there are two fine examples
+near Yarhouse. The largest is 240 feet in length. The chamber is
+circular, and roofed partly by corbelling and partly by a large slab. In
+the cairn of Get we have a shorter and wider example of the horned type.
+Another type is circular or elliptical. In a cairn of this sort at
+Canister an iron knife was found. On the Holm of Papa-Westra in the
+Orkneys there is an elliptical cairn of this kind containing a long
+rectangular chamber running along its major axis with seven small
+circular niches opening off it. The entrance passage lies on the minor
+axis of the barrow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Horned tumulus at Garrywhin, Caithness.
+               (After Montelius.)]
+
+The megalithic monuments of Ireland are extremely numerous, and are
+found in almost every part of the country. They offer a particular
+interest from the fact that though they are of few different types they
+display all the stages by which the more complex were developed from the
+more simple. It must be remembered that most if not all the monuments we
+shall describe were originally covered by mounds of earth, though in
+most cases these have disappeared.
+
+The simple dolmen is found in almost all parts of the country. Its
+single cover-slab is supported by a varying number of uprights,
+sometimes as few as three, oftener four or more. It is of great
+importance to notice the fact that here in Ireland, as elsewhere in the
+megalithic area, e.g. Sardinia, we have the round and rectangular
+dolmens in juxtaposition (Fig. 5, _a_ and _c_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. Type-plans of _(a)_ the round dolmen;
+               _(b)_ the dolmen with portico;
+               _(c)_ the rectangular dolmen.]
+
+Occasionally one of the end-blocks of the dolmen instead of just
+closing up the space between the two nearest side-blocks is pushed back
+between them so as to form with them a small three-sided portico outside
+the chamber, but still under the shelter of the cover-slab (Fig. 5,
+_b_). A good example of this exists at Gaulstown, Waterford, where a
+table-stone weighing 6 tons rests on six uprights, three of which form
+the little portico just described. The famous dolmen of Carrickglass,
+Sligo, is a still more developed example of this type. Here the chamber
+is an accurate rectangle, and the portico is formed by adding two
+side-slabs outside one of the end-slabs, but still under the cover. This
+last is a remarkable block of limestone weighing about 70 tons. This
+form of tomb is without doubt a link between the simple dolmen and the
+corridor-tomb. The portico was at first built under the slab by pushing
+an end-stone inwards. Then external side-stones formed the portico,
+though still under the slab. The next move was to construct the portico
+outside the slab. The portico then needed a roof, and the addition of a
+second cover to provide it completed the transition to the simpler
+corridor-tomb. In many cases the Irish simple dolmens were surrounded by
+a circle of upright stones. At Carrowmore, Sligo, there seems to have
+been a veritable cemetery of dolmen-tombs, each of which has one or more
+circles around it, the outermost being 120 feet in diameter. The tombs
+in these Carrowmore circles were not always simple dolmens, but often
+corridor-tombs of more or less complicated types. Their excavation has
+not given very definite results. In many cases human bones have been
+found in considerable quantities, sometimes in a calcined condition; but
+there is no real evidence to show that cremation was the burial rite
+practised. The calcination of human bones may well have been caused by
+the lighting of fires in the tomb, either at some funeral ceremony, or
+in even later days, when the place was used as a shelter for peasants. A
+few poor flints were found and a little pottery, together with many
+bones of animals and some pins and borers of bone. The most important
+find made, however, was a small conical button made of bone with two
+holes pierced in its flat side and meeting in the middle. It is a type
+which occurs in Europe only at the period of transition from the age of
+stone to that of bronze, and usually in connection with megalithic
+monuments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. Type-plan of the simple rectangular corridor-tomb
+               or _allee couverte_.]
+
+We pass on now to consider the simplest form of corridor-tomb, that in
+which there are several cover-slabs, but no separate chamber (Fig. 6).
+These tombs occur in most parts of Ireland. At Carrick-a-Dhirra, County
+Waterford, there is a perfect example of the most simple type. The tomb
+is exactly rectangular and lies east and west, with a length of 19 feet
+and a breadth of 7-1/2. At each end is a single upright, and each long
+side consists of seven. The chamber thus formed is roofed by five slabs.
+The whole was surrounded by a circle of about twenty-six stones, and no
+doubt the chamber was originally covered by a mound. In a somewhat
+similar example at Coolback, Fermanagh, the remains of the elliptical
+cairn are still visible.
+
+But in most cases the plan of the corridor-tomb is complicated by a kind
+of outer lining of blocks which was added to it. Most of the monuments
+are so damaged that it is difficult to see what the exact form of this
+lining was. Whether it merely consisted of a line of upright blocks
+close around the sides of the chamber or whether these supported some
+further structure which covered up the whole chamber it is difficult to
+say. In some cases the roof-slab actually covers the outer line of
+blocks, and here it seems certain that this outer line served simply to
+reinforce the chamber walls, the space between being filled with earth
+or rubble. However, at Labbamologa, County Cork, is a tomb called Leaba
+Callighe, in which this was certainly not the case. The length of the
+whole monument is about 42 feet. The slabs cover the inner walls of the
+chamber, but not the outer lining: this last forms a kind of outer shell
+to the whole monument. It is shaped roughly like a ship, and runs to a
+point at the east end, thus representing the bow. The west end is
+damaged, but may have been pointed like the east. The whole reminds one
+very forcibly of the _naus_ of the Balearic Isles and the Giants' Graves
+of Sardinia. Occasionally the corridor-tomb has a kind of portico at its
+west end.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Type-plan of wedge-shaped tomb. The roof slabs
+               are two or more in number.]
+
+In Munster the corridor-tomb takes a peculiar form (Fig. 7). It lies
+roughly east and west, and its two long sides are placed at a slight
+angle to one another in such a way that the west end is broader than the
+east. In a good example of this at Keamcorravooly, County Cork, there
+are two large capstones and the walls consist of double rows of slabs,
+the outer being still beneath the cover-slabs. On the upper surface of
+the covers are several small cup-shaped hollows, some of which at least
+have been produced artificially.
+
+These wedge-shaped structures are of remarkable interest, for exactly
+the same broadening of the west end is found in Scandinavia, in the
+_Huenenbetter_ of Holland, in the corridor-tombs of Portugal, and in the
+dolmens of the Deccan in India.
+
+In some Irish tombs the corridor leads to a well-defined chamber. In a
+curious tomb at Carrickard, Sligo, the chamber was rectangular and lay
+across the end of the corridor in such a way as to form a T. The whole
+seems to have been covered with an oval mound. In another at Highwood in
+the same county a long corridor joins two small circular chambers, the
+total length being 44 feet. The corridor was once divided into four
+sections by cross-slabs. The cairn which covered this tomb was
+triangular in form.
+
+In the county of Meath, in the parish of Lough Crew, is a remarkable
+series of stone cairns extending for three miles along the
+Slieve-na-Callighe Hills. These cairns conceal chamber-tombs. The cairns
+themselves are roughly circular, and the largest have a circle of
+upright blocks round the base. The chambers are built of upright slabs
+and are roofed by corbelling. Cairn H covered a corridor leading to a
+chamber and opening off on each side into a side-chamber, the whole
+group thus being cruciform. In these chambers were found human remains
+and objects of flint, bone, earthenware, amber, glass, bronze, and iron.
+Cairn L had a central corridor from which opened off seven chambers in a
+very irregular fashion. Cairn T consisted of a corridor leading to a
+fine octagonal chamber with small chambers off it on three sides.
+
+The chief interest of these tombs lies in the remarkable designs
+engraved on some of the stones of the passages and chambers. They are
+fairly deeply cut with a rather sharp implement, probably a metal
+chisel. They are arranged in the most arbitrary way on the stones and
+are often crowded together in masses. There is no attempt to depict
+scenes of any kind, nor is there, indeed, any example of animal life. In
+fact, the designs seem to be purely ornamental. The most frequent
+elements of design are cup-shaped hollows, concentric circles or ovals,
+star-shaped figures, circles with emanating rays, spirals, chevrons,
+reticulated figures, parallel straight or curved lines. There seems to
+be no clue as to the meaning of these designs. They may have been merely
+ornamental, though this is hardly likely.
+
+At New Grange, near Drogheda, there is a similar series of tumuli, one
+of which has become famous (Fig. 8). It consists of a huge mound of
+stones 280 feet in diameter surrounded by a circle of upright blocks.
+Access to the corridor is gained from the south-east side. This corridor
+leads to a chamber with three divisions, so that corridor and chambers
+together form a cross with a long shaft. The walls are formed of rough
+slabs set upright. In the passage the roof is of slabs laid right
+across, but the roof of the chamber is formed by corbelling. On the
+floor of each division of the chamber was found a stone basin.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8. Corridor-tomb at New Grange, Ireland (Coffey,
+               _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, 1892.)]
+
+Around the edge of the mound runs an enclosure wall of stones lying on
+the ground edge to edge. A few of these are sculptured. The finest is a
+great stone which lies in front of the entrance and shows a
+well-arranged design of spirals and lozenges. There are also engravings
+on one of the stones of the chambers. These designs are in general more
+skilful than those of Lough Crew. They consist mainly of chevrons,
+lozenges, spirals, and triangles.
+
+
+The monuments we have so far described are all tombs. Ireland also
+possesses several stone circles. The largest are situated round Lough
+Gur, 10 or 12 miles south of Limerick. There was at one time a fine
+circle west of Lough Gur at Rockbarton, but it is now destroyed. On the
+eastern edge of the lough is a double concentric ring of stones, the
+diameter of the inner circle being about 100 feet. The rings are 6 feet
+apart, and the space between them is filled up with earth. In 1869 an
+excavation was made within the circle and revealed some human remains,
+mostly those of children from six to eight years old.
+
+Further north is a remarkable group of monuments known as the
+Carrigalla circles. The first is a plain circle (L) 33 or 34 feet in
+diameter, composed of twenty-eight stones. The space within them is
+filled up with earth to form a raised platform. At a distance of 75 feet
+are two concentric circles, diameters 155 and 184 feet respectively,
+made of stones 5 or 6 feet high. The space between the two circles is
+filled with earth. Within these is a third concentric circle about 48
+feet in diameter made of stones of the same size. This group of three
+concentric circles we will call M. The line joining the centres of L and
+M runs in a direction of 29 deg. or 30 deg. west of north and passes through a
+stone (N) 8 feet high standing on the top of a ridge 2500 feet away.
+There are two other stones more to the west (O and P) in such a position
+that the line joining them (41 deg. west of north) passes through the centre
+of M, from which they are distant 860 and 1450 feet respectively.
+Further, a line through the centre of L and a great standing stone (Q)
+2480 feet from it in a direction 10 deg. east of south passes through the
+highest point in the district, 1615 feet away and 492 feet in height.
+
+Mr. Lewis compares this group of monuments with that of Stanton Drew in
+Somersetshire. In both a line joining the centre of two circles passes
+through a single stone in a northerly direction, and there is in both a
+fixed line from the centre of the larger circle. Captain Boyle
+Somerville, R.N., finds that the line 29 deg. or 30 deg. west of north would
+mark the setting of Capella in B.C. 1600, or Arcturus 500 B.C.; he adds
+that the direction 41 deg. west of north would suit Capella in 2500 B.C. or
+Castor in 2000 B.C.
+
+On the west side of Lough Gur is another group of monuments. There is in
+the first place a circle 55 feet in diameter. On a line 35 deg. east of
+north from this is a stone 10 feet high, and the same line produced
+strikes a prominent hill-top. Somewhere to the south-west of this
+circle, perhaps with its centre in the line just described, lay a second
+circle between 150 and 170 feet in diameter, destroyed in 1870. Three
+other stones mentioned by early writers as being near the circles have
+now disappeared. The direction 35 deg. east of north is the same as that of
+the King-stone with regard to the Rollright Circle in Oxfordshire. This
+line, allowing a height of 3 deg. for the horizon, would, according to Sir
+Norman Lockyer, have struck the rising points of Capella in 1700 B.C.
+and Arcturus in 500 B.C.
+
+To the south of the destroyed circle is another about 150 to 155 feet in
+diameter, with stones of over 5 feet in height set close together. Earth
+is piled up outside them to form a bank 30 feet wide. There is an
+entrance 3 feet wide in a direction 59 deg. east of north from the centre of
+the circle. There is said to have been at one time a cromlech 100 feet
+wide due south of the circle and connected with it by a paved way. Sir
+Norman Lockyer thinks that the position of the doorway is connected with
+observation of the sun's rising in May. Moreover, the tallest stone of
+the circle, 9 feet high, is 30 deg. east of north from the centre, a
+direction which according to him points to the rising of Capella in 1950
+B.C. and Arcturus in 280 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+                    THE SCANDINAVIAN MEGALITHIC AREA
+
+
+In Scandinavia megalithic monuments abound. They have been studied with
+unusual care from quite an early date in the history of archaeology, and
+classified in the order of their development. The earliest type appears
+to be the simple dolmen with either four or five sides and a very rough
+cover-slab. This and the upper part of the sides remained uncovered by
+the mound of earth which was always heaped round the tomb. In later
+times the dolmen became more regularly rectangular in shape, and only
+its roof-block appeared above the mound. Contemporary with this later
+form of dolmen were several other types of tomb. One was simply the
+earlier dolmen with one side open and in front of it a sort of portico
+or elementary corridor formed by two upright slabs with no roofing (cf.
+the Irish type, Fig. 5, _b_). This quickly developed into the true
+corridor-tomb, which had at first a small round chamber with one or two
+cover-slabs, a short corridor, and a round or rectangular mound. Later
+types have an oval chamber (Fig. 9) with from one to four cover-slabs or
+a rectangular chamber with a long corridor and a circular mound.
+Finally we reach a type where thin slabs are used in the construction,
+and the mound completely covers the cap-stones: here the corridor leads
+out from one of the short ends of the rectangular chamber.
+
+The earliest of these types in point of view of development, the true
+dolmen, is common both in Denmark and in South Sweden; only one example
+exists in Norway. In Sweden it is never found far from the sea-coast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Corridor-tomb, Ottagarden, Sweden.
+               (Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)]
+
+The corridor-tomb is also frequent in Denmark and Sweden, though it is
+unknown in Norway. In Sweden it is, like all megalithic monuments,
+confined to the south of the country. Of the early transition type with
+elementary corridor there are fine examples at Herrestrup in Denmark and
+Torebo in Sweden. A tomb at Sjoebol in Sweden where the corridor,
+consisting of only two uprights, is covered in with two roof-slabs
+instead of being left open, shows very clearly the transition to the
+corridor-tomb proper, in which the entrance passage consists of at least
+four uprights, two on each side. Of this there are numerous fine
+examples. A tomb of this type at Broholm in Denmark has a roughly
+circular chamber separated from the corridor by a kind of
+threshold-stone. Another at Tyfta in Sweden is remarkable for its
+curious construction, the uprights being set rather apart from one
+another and the spaces between filled up with dry masonry of small
+stones. Possibly there were not sufficient large blocks at hand to
+construct a tomb of the required size.
+
+The still later type consisting of a rectangular chamber with a long
+corridor leading out of one of its long sides often attains to very
+imposing dimensions. In Westgothland, a province of Sweden, there are
+fine examples with walls of limestone and often roofs of granite visible
+above the surface of the mound. The largest of these tombs is that of
+Karleby near Falkoeping. In another at Axevalla Heath were found nineteen
+bodies seated round the wall of the chamber, each in a separate small
+cist of stone slabs. The position of the bodies in the Scandinavian
+graves is rather variable, both the outstretched and the contracted
+posture being used. It is usual to find many bodies in the same tomb,
+often as many as twenty or thirty: in that of Borreby on the island of
+Seeland were found seventy skeletons, all of children of from two to
+eighteen years of age.
+
+In Denmark these rectangular tombs occasionally have one or more small
+round niches. In 1837 a large tomb was excavated at Lundhoej on Juetland,
+which had a circular niche opposite to the entrance. The niche had a
+threshold-stone, and the two uprights of the main chamber which lay on
+either side of this had been crudely engraved with designs, among which
+were a man, an animal, and a circle with a pair of diameters marked.
+Little was found in the chamber, and only some bones and a pot in the
+niche.
+
+In Denmark often occur mounds which contain two or more tombs, usually
+of the same form, each with its separate entrance passage. At the
+entrance of the chamber there is sometimes a well-worked framework into
+which fitted a door of stone or wood.
+
+The late type in which the corridor leads out of one of the narrow ends
+of the chamber is represented in both Sweden and Denmark. From this may
+be derived the rather unusual types in which the corridor has become
+indistinguishable from the chamber or forms a sort of antechamber to it.
+An example of the former type at Knyttkaerr in Sweden is wider at one end
+than at the other, and has an outer coating of stone slabs. It resembles
+very closely the wedge-shaped tombs of Munster (cf. Fig. 7):
+
+In Germany megalithic monuments are not infrequent, but they are
+practically confined to the northern part of the country. They extend as
+far east as Koenigsberg and as far west as the borders of Holland. They
+are very frequent in Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Hanover. There are even
+examples in Prussian Saxony, but in South Germany they cease entirely.
+Keller in one edition of his _Lake Dwellings_ figures two supposed
+dolmens north of Lake Pfaeffikon in Switzerland, but we have no details
+with regard to them.
+
+The true dolmen is extremely rare in Germany, and only occurs in small
+groups in particular localities. The corridor-tomb with a distinct
+chamber is also very exceptional, especially east of the Elbe. The most
+usual type of megalithic tomb is that known as the _Huenenbett_ or
+_Riesenbett_. The latter name means Giants' Bed, and it seems probable
+that the former should be similarly translated, despite the suggested
+connection with the Huns, for a word _Huenen_ has been in use in North
+Germany for several centuries with the meaning of giants. A _Huenenbett_
+consists of a rectangular (rarely oval or round) hill of earth covering
+a megalithic tomb. This is a simple elongated rectangle in shape, made
+of upright blocks and roofed with two or more cover-slabs. The great
+_Huenenbett_ or Grewismuehlen in Mecklenburg has a mound measuring 150
+feet by 36 with a height of 5 feet. On the edge of the mound are
+arranged forty-eight tall upright blocks of stone.
+
+The _Huenenbetter_ of the Altmark are among the best known and explored.
+Here the corridors are usually about 20 feet long, though in rare cases
+they reach a length of 40 feet. Each is filled with clean sand up to
+two-thirds of its height, and on this lie the bodies and their funeral
+deposit. The bodies must have been laid flat, though not necessarily in
+an extended position, as there was not room above the sand for them to
+have been seated upright. Various implements of flint have been found in
+the tombs together with stone hammers and vases of pottery. There is no
+certain instance of the finding of metal.
+
+
+A book printed by John Picardt at Amsterdam in 1660 contains quaint
+pictures of giants and dwarfs engaged in the building of a megalithic
+monument which is clearly a _Huenenbett_. According to tradition the
+giants, after employing the labour of the dwarfs, proceeded to devour
+them. _Huenenbetter_ similar to those shown in Picardt's illustrations
+are still to be seen in Holland, but only in the north, where over fifty
+are known. They are of elongated rectangular form, built of upright
+blocks, and roofed with from two to ten cover-slabs. They all widen
+slightly towards the west end. The most perfect example still remaining
+is that of Tinaarloo, and the largest is that of Borger, which contains
+forty-five blocks, of which ten are cap-stones. Several _Huenenbetter_
+have been excavated. In them are found pottery vases, flint celts, axes
+and hammers of grey granite, basalt, and jade.
+
+Belgium possesses several true dolmens, of which the best known is that
+called La Pierre du Diable on the right bank of the Meuse. Near Luettich
+are two simple corridor-tombs, each with a round hole in one of the
+end-slabs and a small portico outside it.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER V
+
+                      FRANCE, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL
+
+
+France contains large numbers of megalithic monuments. Of dolmens and
+corridor-tombs no less than 4458 have been recorded. In the east and
+south-east they are rare, but they abound over a wide strip running from
+the Breton coasts of the English Channel to the Mediterranean shores of
+Herault and Card. In 1901 Mortillef counted 6192 menhirs, including
+those which formed parts of _alignements_ and cromlechs. Several of
+these attain to a great size. That to Locmariaquer (Morbihan), now
+unfortunately fallen and broken, measured over 60 feet in height, being
+thus not much shorter than the Egyptian obelisk which stands in the
+Place de la Concorde in Paris.
+
+Passing now to combinations of menhirs in groups, we must first mention
+the remarkable _alignements_ of Brittany, of which the most famous are
+those of Carnac. They run east and west over a distance of 3300 yards,
+but the line is broken at two points in such a way that the whole forms
+three groups. The most westerly, that of Menec, consists of eleven lines
+of menhirs and a cromlech, the total number of stones standing being
+1169, the tallest of which is 13 feet in height. The central group, that
+of Kermario, consists of 982 stones arranged in ten straight lines,
+while the most easterly, that of Kerlescan, is formed by 579 menhirs, 39
+of which form a rectangular enclosure.
+
+There are other _alignements_ in Brittany, of which the most important
+is that of Erdeven, comprising 1129 stones arranged in ten lines.
+Outside Brittany _alignements_ are unusual, but a fine example, now
+ruined, is said to have existed at Saint Pantaleon north of Autun. In
+the fields around it are found large quantities of polished stone axes
+with knives, scrapers, and arrow-heads of flint.
+
+We have already noticed the cromlechs which form part of the
+_alignements_ of Brittany. There are other examples in France. At
+Er-Lanic are two circles touching one another, the lower of which is
+covered by the sea even at low tide. Excavations carried out within the
+circles brought to light rough pottery and axes of polished stone. Two
+fine circles at Can de Ceyrac (Gard) have diameters of about 100 yards,
+and are formed of stones about 3 feet high. Each has a short entrance
+avenue which narrows as it approaches the circle, and in the centre of
+each rises a trilithon of rough stones.
+
+Of the definitely sepulchral monuments the dolmen is common in all
+parts of the French megalithic area. It will suffice to mention the
+magnificent example known as the Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer.
+Perhaps the most typical structure in France is the corridor-tomb in
+which the chamber is indistinguishable from the passage, and the whole
+forms a long rectangular area. This is the _allee couverte_ in the
+narrower sense. In the department of Oise occurs a special type of this
+in which one of the end-slabs has a hole pierced in its centre and is
+preceded by a small portico consisting of two uprights supporting a
+roof-slab (Fig 10). A remarkable example in Brittany known as Les
+Pierres Plates turns at a sharp angle in the middle, and is thus
+elbow-shaped.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. _Allee couverte_, called La Pierre aux Fees,
+               Oise, France. (_Compte rendu du Congres Prehistorique
+               de France_.)]
+
+In the north of France the _allee_ is often merely cut out in the
+surface of the ground and has no roof at all. It is sometimes paved
+with slabs and divided into two partitions by an upright with a hole in
+its centre. Tombs of this kind often contain from forty to eighty
+skeletons, some of which are in the contracted position. The skulls are
+in some cases trepanned, i.e. small round pieces of the bone have been
+cut out of them; such pieces are sometimes found separate in the graves.
+No objects of metal occur in these North French tombs.
+
+There are many fine examples in Brittany of the corridor-tomb with
+distinct chamber. The best known lies on the island of Gavr'inis
+(Morbihan). It is covered by a tumulus nearly 200 feet in diameter. The
+circular chamber, 6 feet in height, is roofed by a huge block measuring
+13 feet by 10. The corridor which leads out to the edge of the mound is
+40 feet in length. Twenty-two of the upright blocks used in this tomb
+are almost entirely covered with engraved designs. These are massed
+together with very little order, the main object having been apparently
+to cover the whole surface of the stone with ornament. The designs
+consist of spirals, concentric circles and semicircles, chevrons, rows
+of strokes, and triangles, and bear a considerable resemblance to those
+of Lough Crew and New Grange in Ireland.
+
+Another tomb in the same district, that of Mane-er-Hroeck, was intact
+when discovered in 1863. It contained within its chamber a hoard of 101
+axes of fibrolite and jadeite, 50 pebbles of a kind of turquoise known
+as _callais_, pieces of pottery, flints, and a peculiarly fine celt of
+jadeite together with a flat ring-shaped club-head of the same stone.
+The tomb was concealed by a huge oval mound more than 100 yards in
+length. The famous Mont S. Michel is an artificial mound containing a
+central megalithic chamber and several smaller cists, some of which held
+cremated bodies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. Chambered mound at Fontenay-le-Marmion,
+               Normandy. (After Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.)]
+
+A very remarkable mound in Calvados (Fig. 11) was found to contain no
+less than twelve circular corbelled chambers, each with a separate
+entrance passage. The megalithic tombs of Brittany all belong to the
+late neolithic period, and contain tools and arrow-heads of flint, small
+ornaments of gold, _callais_, and pottery which includes among its forms
+the bell-shaped cup.
+
+In Central and South France the _allees couvertes_ are mostly of a
+semi-subterranean type, i.e. they are cut in the ground and merely
+roofed with slabs of stone. The most famous is that of the Grotte des
+Fees near Arles (Fig. 12), in which a passage (_a_) with a staircase at
+one end and two niches (_b b_) in its sides leads into a narrow
+rectangular chamber (_c_). The total length is nearly 80 feet. Another
+tomb of the same type, La Grotte du Castellet, contained over a hundred
+skeletons, together with thirty-three flint arrow or spear-heads, one of
+which was stuck fast in a human vertebra, a bell-shaped cup, axes of
+polished stone, beads and pendants of various materials, 114 pieces of
+_callais_, and a small plaque of gold.
+
+On the plateau of Ger near the town of Dax are large numbers of mounds,
+some of which contain cremated bodies in urns and others megalithic
+tombs. Bertrand saw in this a cemetery of two different peoples living
+side by side. But it has since been shown that the cremation mounds
+belong to a much later period than those which contain megalithic
+graves. In these last the skeletons were found seated around the walls
+of the chamber accompanied by objects of flint and other stone, beads of
+_callais_, and small gold ornaments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Plan and section of La Grotte des Fees, Arles,
+               France (_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1873).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. The so-called dolmen-deity, from the tombs of
+               the Petit Morin. (After de Baye.)]
+
+France has also its rock-hewn tombs, for in the valley of the
+Petit-Morin is a series of such graves. A trench leads down to the
+entrance, which is closed by a slab. The chamber itself is completely
+underground. In the shallower tombs were either two rows of bodies with
+a passage between or separate layers parted by slabs or strata of sand.
+In the deeper were seldom more than eight bodies, in the extended or
+contracted position, with tools and weapons of flint, pots, and beads
+of amber and of _callais_. On the walls were rough sculptures of human
+figures (Fig. 13), to which we shall have to return later.
+
+The Channel Islands possess megalithic monuments not unlike those of
+Brittany. They are corridor-tombs covered with a mound and often
+surrounded by a circle of stones. Within the chamber, which is usually
+round, lies, under a layer of shells, a mass of mingled human and animal
+bones. The bodies had been buried in the sitting position, and with them
+lay objects of stone and bone, but none of metal.
+
+
+The Spanish Peninsula abounds in megalithic monuments. With the
+exception of a few menhirs, whose purpose is uncertain, all are
+sepulchral. Dolmens and corridor-tombs are numerous in many parts,
+especially in the north-east provinces, in Galicia, in Andalusia, and,
+above all, in Portugal. There is a fine dolmen in the Vall Gorguina in
+North-East Spain. The cover-slab, measuring 10 feet by 8, is supported
+by seven rough uprights with considerable spaces between them. In the
+same region is a ruined dolmen surrounded by a circle nearly 90 feet in
+circumference, consisting of seven large stones, some of which appear to
+be partly worked. Circles are also found round dolmens in Andalusia.
+Portugal abounds in fine dolmens both of the round and rectangular
+types. At Fonte Coberta on the Douro stands a magnificent dolmen known
+locally as the Moors' House. In the name of the field, Fonte Coberta,
+there is doubtless an allusion to the belief that the dolmens conceal
+springs of water, a belief also held in parts of Ireland.
+
+At Eguilaz in the Basque provinces is a fine corridor-tomb, in which a
+passage 20 feet long, roofed with flat slabs, leads to a rectangular
+chamber 13 feet by 15 with an immense cover-slab nearly 20 feet in
+length: the whole was covered with a mound of earth. The chamber
+contained human bones and "lanceheads of stone and bronze." A famous
+tomb of a similar type exists at Marcella in Algarve. The chamber is a
+fine circle of upright slabs. It is paved with stones, and part of its
+area is divided into two or perhaps three rectangular compartments. A
+couple of orthostatic slabs form a sort of neck joining the circle to
+the passage, which narrows as it leads away from the circle, and was
+probably divided into two sections by a doorway whose side-posts still
+remain.
+
+In South-East Spain the brothers Siret have found corridor-tombs in
+which the chamber is cut in the rock surface and roofed with slabs; the
+entrance passage becomes a slope or a staircase. Here we have a parallel
+to the Giants' Graves of Sardinia, which are built usually of stone
+blocks on the surface, but occasionally are cut in the solid rock.
+Other tombs in the same district show the common megalithic construction
+consisting of a base course of upright slabs surmounted by several
+courses of horizontal masonry (Fig. 14). The chamber is usually round,
+and may have two or more niches in its circumference. It is roofed by
+the successive overlapping or corbelling of the upper courses. The vault
+thus formed is further supported by a pillar of wood or stone set in
+the centre of the chamber. On the walls of some of the chambers there
+are traces of rough painting in red. The whole tomb is covered with a
+circular mound. In the best known example at Los Millares there are
+remains of a semicircular facade in front of the entrance, as in many
+other megalithic monuments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. Corridor-tomb at Los Millares, Spain.
+               (After Siret.)]
+
+The finest, however, of all the Spanish monuments is the corridor-tomb
+of Antequera in Andalusia. It consists of a short passage leading into a
+long rectangular chamber roofed with four slabs. Within it on its axial
+line are three stone pillars placed directly under the three
+meeting-points of the four slabs, but quite unnecessary for their
+support. The whole tomb is covered with a low mound of earth. In the
+great upright slab which forms the inner end of the chamber is a
+circular hole rather above the centre.
+
+It is not the plan of this tomb, but the size, that compels the
+admiration of the beholder. He stands, as it were, within a vast cave
+lighted only from its narrow end, the roof far above his head. The rough
+surface of the blocks lends colour to the feeling that this is the work
+of Nature and not of man. Here, even if not in Stonehenge, he will pause
+to marvel at the patient energy of the men of old who put together such
+colossal masses of stone.
+
+Among the corridor-tombs of Spain must be mentioned a wedge-shaped type
+which bears a close resemblance to those of Munster in Ireland (cf.
+Fig. 7). In Alemtejo, south of Cape de Sines, are several of these,
+usually about 6 feet in length, with a slight portico at one end.
+
+A further point of similarity with the Irish monuments is seen in the
+corridor-tombs of Monte Abrahao in Portugal, where the chamber walls
+seem to have been reinforced by an outer lining of slabs. Remains of
+eighty human bodies were found in this tomb, together with objects of
+stone and bone, including a small conical button similar to that of
+Carrowmore in Ireland.
+
+The Spanish Peninsula also possesses rock-hewn tombs. At Palmella, near
+Lisbon, is a circular example about 12 feet in diameter preceded by a
+bell-shaped passage which slopes slightly downwards. Another circular
+chamber in the same group has a much longer passage, which bulges out
+into two small rounded antechambers. These tombs have been excavated and
+yielded some pottery vases, together with objects of copper and beads of
+a peculiar precious stone called _callais_. All the finds made in the
+megalithic remains of Spain and Portugal point to the period of
+transition from the age of stone to that of metal.
+
+The Balearic Islands contain remarkable megalithic monuments. Those
+known as the _talayots_ are towers having a circular or rarely a square
+base and sloping slightly inwards as they rise. The largest is 50 feet
+in diameter. The stones, which are rather large and occasionally
+trimmed, are laid flat, not on edge. A doorway just large enough to be
+entered with comfort leads through the thickness of the wall into a
+round chamber roofed by corbelling, with the assistance sometimes of one
+or more pillars. From analogy with the _nuraghi_ of Sardinia, which they
+resemble rather closely, it seems probable that the _talayots_ are
+fortified dwellings, perhaps only used in time of danger (Fig. 15).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Section and plan of the Talayot of Sa Aquila,
+               Majorca. (After Cartailhac.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Nau d'Es Tudons, plan and section.
+               (After Cartailhac.)]
+
+The _naus_ or _navetas_ are so named from their resemblance to ships.
+The construction is similar to that of the _talayots_. The outer wall
+has a considerable batter. The famous Nau d'Es Tudons is about 36 feet
+in length. The facade is slightly concave. A low door (_a_) gives access
+through a narrow slab-roofed passage (_b_) to a long rectangular chamber
+(_c_), the method of whose roofing is uncertain. All the _naus_ are
+built with their facades to the south or south-east, with the exception
+of that of Benigaus Nou, the inner end of which is cut in the rock,
+while the outer part is built up of blocks as usual. The abnormal
+orientation was here clearly determined by the desire to make use of the
+face of rock in the construction. The _naus_ seem to have been tombs, as
+human remains have been found in them.
+
+Rock-tombs also occur in the islands. The most remarkable are those of
+S. Vincent in Majorca. One of these has a kind of open antechamber cut
+in the rock, and is exactly similar in plan to the Grotte des Fees in
+France (cf. Fig. 12).
+
+Prehistoric villages surrounded by great stone walls can still be traced
+in the Balearic Isles. The houses were of two types, built either above
+ground or below. The first are square or rectangular with rounded
+corners, the base course occasionally consisting of orthostatic slabs.
+The subterranean dwellings are faced with stone and roofed with flat
+slabs supported by columns. In each village was one building of a
+different type. It stood above ground and was semicircular in plan. In
+its centre stood a horizontal slab laid across the top of an upright,
+forming a T-shaped structure which helped to support the roof-slabs, but
+which may also have had some religious significance. The stones which
+composed it were always carefully worked, and the lower was let into a
+socket on the under side of the upper.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+                         ITALY AND ITS ISLANDS
+
+
+Italy cannot be called a country of megalithic monuments. In the centre
+and north they do not occur, the supposed examples mentioned by Dennis
+in his _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ having been proved
+non-existent by the Italian Ministry of Education. It is only in the
+extreme south-west that megalithic structures appear. They are dolmens
+of ordinary type, except that in some cases the walls are formed not of
+upright slabs, but of stones roughly superposed one upon another. On the
+farm of the Grassi, near Lecce, are what appear to be two small dolmens
+at a distance of only 4 feet apart; they are perhaps parts of a single
+corridor-tomb. In the neighbourhood of Tarentum there is a dolmen-tomb
+approached by a short passage, and at Bisceglie, near Ruvo, there is an
+even finer example, the discovery of which is one of the most important
+events which have occurred in Italian prehistoric archaeology during the
+last few years. The tomb is a simple rectangular corridor 36 feet in
+length, lying east and west. Only one cover-slab, that at the west end,
+remains, and the exact disposition of the rest of the tomb is
+uncertain. In one of the side uprights which supports this slab is a
+circular hole, which, however, seems to be the work of Nature, though
+its presence may have led to the choice of the stone. The tomb was
+carefully excavated, and the remains of several skeletons were found,
+one of which lay in the contracted position on the right side. Three of
+the skulls were observed by an expert to be dolichocephalic, but their
+fragile condition prevented the taking of actual measurements. Burnt
+bones of animals, fragments of pottery, a terra-cotta bead, and a stone
+pendant were also found, together with flint knives and a fragment of
+obsidian.
+
+These discoveries show that the heel of Italy fell under the influence
+which caused the spread of the megalithic monuments, whatever that
+influence may have been. The same influence may also have been
+responsible for the bronze age rock-hewn tombs of Matera in the
+Basilicata, each of which is surrounded by a circle of fairly large
+stones.
+
+Geographical considerations would lead one to suppose that the same
+conditions existed in Sicily, and it is possible that this was the case.
+Yet it is an affirmation which must be made with great reserve.
+Megalithic monuments in the ordinary sense of the term are unknown in
+Sicily. There are, however, four tombs in the south-east of the island
+which show some affinity to megalithic work. Two of these were found by
+Orsi at Monteracello. They were rectangular chambers built of squared
+slabs of limestone set on edge. At one end of the finer of the two was a
+small opening or window cut in the upright slab. This same grave
+contained a skeleton lying on the right side with the legs slightly
+contracted. These two tombs can hardly be described as dolmens; they
+seem to have had no cover-slabs, and the blocks, which were small, were
+let into the earth, scarcely appearing above the surface. Taken by
+themselves the Monteracello tombs would hardly prove the presence of the
+megalithic civilization in Sicily. However, in the valley called Cava
+Lazzaro there is a rock-hewn tomb where the vertical face of the rock in
+which the tomb is cut has been shaped into a curved facade, a very usual
+feature of megalithic architecture. This is ornamented on each side of
+the entrance of the tomb with four pilasters cut in relief in the solid
+rock, each pair being connected by a semicircular arch also in relief.
+On the pilasters is incised a pattern of circles and V-shaped signs. A
+somewhat similar arrangement of pilasters is seen in two rock-tombs at
+Cava Lavinaro in the same district. This work forcibly recalls the work
+of the megalithic builders in the hypogeum of Halsaflieni in Malta (see
+Chap. VII), and on the facades of the Giants' Tombs in Sardinia (see
+below). It affords, at any rate, a presumption that in all three
+islands we have to deal with the same civilization if not the same
+people.
+
+Such a presumption is not weakened by the fact that in Sicily the usual
+form of tomb was the rock-hewn sepulchre, which, as will be seen later,
+is very often a concomitant of the megalithic monument, and in many
+cases is proved to be the work of the same people. In the early
+neolithic period in Sicily, called by Orsi the Sicanian Period,
+rock-hewn tombs seem not to have been used. It is only at the beginning
+of the metal age that they begin to appear. In this period, the
+so-called First Siculan, the tomb-chamber was almost always circular or
+elliptical, entered by a small door or window in the face of the rock.
+The dead were often seated round the wall of the chamber, evidently
+engaged in a funerary feast, as is clear from the great vase set in
+their midst with small cups for ladling out the liquid. A single tomb
+often contained many bodies, especially in cases where the banquet
+arrangement was not observed; one chamber held more than a hundred
+skeletons, and it has been suggested that the bodies were only laid in
+the tomb after the flesh had been removed from the bones, either
+artificially or as the result of a temporary burial elsewhere. Such a
+custom is not unknown in other parts of the megalithic area. With these
+bodies were found large quantities of painted pottery, a few implements
+of copper and many of flint. Among the ornaments which the dead
+carried--for they seem to have been buried in complete costume--were
+several axe-shaped pendants of polished stone, precisely similar to
+those of Sardinia, Malta, and France. The most important cemeteries of
+this period are those of Castelluccio, Melilli, and Monteracello. Near
+this last site was also found a round hut based on a course of
+orthostatic slabs of typically megalithic appearance.
+
+In the full bronze age, called the Second Siculan Period, burial in
+rock-tombs still remained the rule. The tomb-form had developed
+considerably. The circular type was still usual, though beside it a
+rectangular form was fast coming into favour. The main chamber often had
+side-niches, and was usually preceded by a corridor which sometimes
+passed through an antechamber. Occasionally we find an elaborate
+open-air court outside the facade of the tomb, built very much after the
+megalithic style. Large vertical surfaces of rock were carefully sought
+after for tombs, and the almost inaccessible cliffs of Pantalica and
+Cassibile are literally honeycombed with them. Where such surfaces of
+rock were unobtainable a vertical shaft was sunk in the level rock and a
+chamber was opened off the bottom of it. The tradition of the banquet of
+the dead is still kept up, but the number of the skeletons in each tomb
+steadily decreases. The sitting posture is still frequent, though
+occasionally the body lies flat on one side with the legs slightly
+contracted. Flint is now rare, but objects of bronze are plentiful. The
+local painted pottery has almost entirely given place to simpler yet
+better wares with occasional Mycenean importations.
+
+It is impossible to decide whether this Sicilian civilization ought to
+be included under the term megalithic. If, as seems probable, the idea
+of megalithic building was brought to Europe by the immigration of a new
+race it is possible that a branch of this race entered Sicily. In that
+case I should prefer to think that they came not at the beginning of the
+First Siculan Period as we know it, but rather earlier. Certain vases
+found with neolithic burials in a cave at Villafrati and elsewhere in
+Sicily resemble the pottery usually found in megalithic tombs; one of
+them is in fact a bell-shaped cup, a form typical of megalithic pottery.
+It is thus possible that an immigration of megalithic people into Sicily
+took place during the stone age, definitely later than the period of the
+earliest neolithic remains on the island, but earlier than that of such
+sites as the Castelluccio cemetery. This, however, is and will perhaps
+remain a mere conjecture, though it is quite possible that there are in
+the interior of Sicily dolmens which have not yet come to the notice of
+the archaeologist; in this connection it is worth while to remember that
+up to five years ago the existence of dolmens in both Sardinia and Malta
+passed unnoticed.
+
+
+If the inclusion of Sicily in the megalithic area is doubtful there is
+fortunately no question about the island of Sardinia. Here we have one
+of the chief strongholds of the megalithic civilization, where the
+architecture displays its greatest variety and flexibility. The simplest
+manifestation of megalithic building, the dolmen, was up till lately
+thought to be absent from Sardinia, but the researches of the last few
+years have brought to light several examples, of which the best known
+are those of Birori, where the chamber is approximately circular in
+plan.
+
+The monuments, however, for which Sardinia is most famous are the
+_nuraghi._ A _nuraghe_ is a tower-like structure of truncated conical
+form, built of large stones laid in comparatively regular courses (Pl.
+II, Fig. 2). The stones are often artificially squared, and set with a
+clay mortar. The plan and arrangement of a simple _nuraghe_ are usually
+as follows (Fig. 17): The diameter of the building is generally under 30
+feet. A door of barely comfortable height even for an average man and
+surmounted by a single lintel-block gives access to a narrow passage cut
+through the thickness of the wall. In this passage are, to the right, a
+small niche (_c_) just large enough to hold a man, and, on the left,
+a winding staircase in the wall (_d_) leading to an upper storey. The
+passage itself leads into the chamber (_a_), which is circular, often
+with two or three side-niches (_b b_), and roofed by corbelling, i.e. by
+making each of the upper courses of stones in its wall project inwards
+over the last. The upper chamber, which is rarely preserved, is similar
+in form to the lower.
+
+[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 1. MNAIDRA, DOORWAY OF ROOM H]
+
+[Illustration: Plate II Fig. 2. THE NURAGHE OF MADRONE IN SARDINIA
+               To face p. 82]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Elevation, section and plan of a _nuraghe_.
+               (Pinza, _Monumenti Antichi_.)]
+
+Considerable speculation has been indulged in concerning the purpose of
+the _nuraghi_. For many years they were regarded as tombs, a view which
+was first combated by Nissardi at the International Congress in Rome in
+1903. Further exploration since that time has placed it beyond all doubt
+that the _nuraghi_ were fortified dwellings. The form of the building
+itself is almost conclusive. The lowness of the door would at once put
+an enemy at a disadvantage in attempting to enter; it is significant
+that in the _nuraghe_ of Su Cadalanu, where the doorway was over 6 feet
+in height, its breadth was so much reduced that it was necessary to
+enter sideways. Arrangements were made for the closing of the entrance
+from inside by a heavy slab of stone, often fitted into grooves. The
+niche on the right of the passage clearly served to hold a man, who
+would command the passage itself and the staircase to the upper floor;
+he would, moreover, be able to attack the undefended flank of an enemy
+entering with his shield on his left arm. To the same effort at
+impregnability we may safely ascribe the fact that the staircase leading
+to the upper room did not begin on the floor-level of the passage, but
+was reached through a hole high up in the wall. Many of the _nuraghi_
+are surrounded by elaborate fortifications consisting of walls, towers,
+and bastions, sometimes built at the same time as the dwelling itself,
+sometimes added later. Those of Aiga, Losa, and s'Aspru are among the
+most famous of this type. All the _nuraghi_ stand in commanding
+situations overlooking large tracts of country, and the more important a
+position is from the strategical point of view the stronger will be the
+_nuraghe_ which defends it. All are situated close to streams and
+springs of good water, and some, as for instance that of Abbameiga, are
+actually built over a natural spring. At Nossiu is a building which can
+only be described as a fortress. It consists of a rhomboidal enclosure
+with _nuraghe_-like towers at its corners and four narrow gateways in
+its walls. It is surrounded by the ruins of a village of stone huts.
+There cannot be the least doubt that in time of danger the inhabitants
+drove their cattle into the fortified enclosure, entered it themselves,
+and then closed the gates.
+
+Each _nuraghe_ formed the centre of a group of stone huts. Mackenzie has
+described such a village at Serucci, where the circular plan of the
+huts was still visible. The walls in one case stood high enough to
+show, from the corbelling of their upper courses, that the huts were
+roofed in the same fashion as the _nuraghi_ themselves. Another village,
+that which surrounds the _nuraghe_ of Su Chiai, was protected by a wall
+of huge stones.
+
+It is thus clear that the _nuraghi_ were the fortified centres of the
+various villages of Sardinia. Probably each formed the residence of the
+local chieftain; that they were actually inhabited is clear from the
+remains of everyday life found in them, and from the polish which
+continual use has set on the side-walls of some of the staircases. In
+general appearance and design the _nuraghi_ recall the modern _truddhi_,
+hundreds of which dot the surface of Apulia and help to beguile the
+tedium of the railway journey from Brindisi to Foggia. The _truddhi_,
+however, are built in steps or terraces and have no upper chamber.
+
+Who were the foes against whom such elaborate preparations for defence
+were made? Two alternatives are possible. Either Sardinia was a
+continual prey to some piratical Mediterranean people, or she was
+divided against herself through the rivalry of the local chieftains.
+
+The second explanation is perhaps the more probable. Mackenzie seems to
+adopt it, and fancies that in the growth of the largest _nuraghi_ we may
+trace the rise to power of some of these local dynasts at the expense of
+their neighbours. He suggests that the existence of the fortified
+enclosure of Nossiu, where there is no sign of a true _nuraghe_, may
+mean that there were certain communities which succeeded in maintaining
+their independence in the face of these powerful rulers. But here, as he
+himself is the first to admit, we are in the realm of pure conjecture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Giant's Tomb at Muraguada, Sardinia. (Mackenzie,
+_Papers of the British School of Rome_, V.)]
+
+It is now established that in the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia we are to
+see the graves of the inhabitants of the _nuraghe_ villages. Every
+Giant's Tomb lies close to such a village, and almost every village has
+its Giants' Tombs, one or more in number according to its size. A
+Giant's Tomb consists of a long rectangular chamber of upright slabs
+roofed by corbelled masonry (Fig. 18). The slab which closes one end of
+the tomb is of great size, and consists of a lower rectangular half with
+a small hole at the base and an upper part shaped like a rounded gable.
+There is a raised border to the whole slab, and a similar band in relief
+marks out the two halves. This front slab forms the centre-piece in a
+curved facade of upright slabs. The chamber is covered with a coating of
+ashlar masonry, which is shaped into an apsidal form at the end opposite
+to the facade. Occasionally more than 50 feet in length, the Giants'
+Tombs served as graves for whole families, or even for whole villages.
+Mackenzie has shown that the form is derived from the simple dolmen, and
+has pointed out several of the intermediate stages.
+
+The inhabitants of Sardinia in the megalithic period also buried their
+dead in rock-hewn sepulchres, of which there are numerous examples at
+Anghelu Ruju. The contents of these graves make it clear that they are
+the work of the same people as the Giants' Graves. Were further proof
+needed it could be afforded by a grave at Molafa, where a Giant's Grave
+with its facade and gabled slab has been faithfully imitated in the
+solid rock. There is a similar tomb at St. George. Two natural caves in
+Cape Sant' Elia on the south of the island contain burials of this same
+period.
+
+The neighbouring island of Corsica also contains important megalithic
+remains. They consist of thirteen dolmens, forty-one menhirs, two
+_alignements_, and a cromlech. They fall geographically into two groups,
+one in the extreme north and the other in the extreme south of the
+island.
+
+The stones used are chiefly granite and gneiss. The dolmens, which are
+of carefully chosen flat blocks showing no trace of work, are all
+rectangular in plan, and usually consist of four side-walls and a
+cover-slab. The finest of all, however, the dolmen of Fontanaccia, has
+seven blocks supporting the cover, one at each short end, three in one
+of the long sides, and two in the other. None of the dolmens are covered
+by mounds.
+
+Of the _alignements_, that of Caouria seems to consist, in part at
+least, of two parallel lines of menhirs, the rest of the plan being
+uncertain. There are still thirty-two blocks, of which six have fallen.
+The other _alignement_, that of Rinaiou, consists of seven menhirs set
+in a straight line. The cromlech is circular and stands on Cape Corse.
+
+On the small island of Pianosa, near Elba, are several rock-hewn tombs
+of the aeneolithic period which ought perhaps to be classed with the
+megalithic monuments of Sardinia and Corsica.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII
+
+                    AFRICA, MALTA, AND THE SMALLER
+                         MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS
+
+
+North Africa is a great stronghold of the megalithic civilization,
+indeed it is thought by some that it is the area in which megalithic
+building originated. Morocco, Tunis, Algeria, and Tripoli all abound in
+dolmens and other monuments. Even in the Nile Valley they occur, for
+what looks like a dolmen surrounded by a circle was discovered by de
+Morgan in the desert near Edfu, and Wilson and Felkin describe a number
+of simple dolmens which exist near Lado in the Sudan. Tripoli remains as
+yet comparatively unexplored. The traveller Barth speaks of stone
+circles near Mourzouk and near the town of Tripoli. The great trilithons
+(_senams_) with holes pierced in their uprights and 'altar tables' at
+their base, which Barth, followed by Cooper in his _Hill of the Graces_,
+described as megalithic monuments, have been shown to be nothing more
+than olive-presses, the 'altar tables' being the slabs over which the
+oil ran off as it descended. True dolmens do, however, occur in Tripoli,
+and Cooper figures a fine monument at Messa in the Cyrenaica, which
+appears to consist of a single straight line of tall uprights with a
+continuous entablature of blocks similar to that of the outer circle at
+Stonehenge.
+
+Algeria has been far more completely explored, and possesses a
+remarkable number of megalithic monuments. Many of the finest are
+situated near the town of Constantine. Thus at Bou Nouara there is a
+hill about a mile in length which is a regular necropolis of
+dolmen-tombs. Each grave consists of a dolmen within a circle of stones.
+The blocks are all natural and completely unworked. The circle consists
+of a wall of stone blocks so built as to neutralize the slope of the
+hill and to form a level platform for the dolmen. Thus on the lower side
+there are three courses of carefully laid stones rising to about five
+feet, while on the upper side there is only one course. The diameter of
+the circles varies from 22 to 33 feet. In the centre of the circle lies
+the dolmen with its single long cover-slab. This usually rests on two
+entire side-slabs, the ends being filled up either with entire slabs or
+with masonry of small stones. In rare cases the side-slabs are replaced
+by masonry walls. The average size of the cover-slab is 6-1/2 by 5 feet.
+The dolmen itself is, of course, built directly on to the platform, and
+the space between it and the circle is filled up with rough stones. The
+orientation of the dolmens varied considerably, but the cover-slab was
+never placed in such a way that its length ran up the hill-slope,
+probably because in moving the slab into place this would have been an
+awkward position.
+
+Another equally fine site is that of Bou Merzoug, near Oulad Rahmoun,
+about an hour's railway journey from Constantine. The place is naturally
+adapted for a settlement as there is a spring of water there. This
+spring was later utilized by the Romans to provide water for the city of
+Cirta. The dolmen-graves lie in great numbers on the hill at the foot of
+which the spring rises, and extend down into the valley. Each dolmen
+lies in the centre of a stone circle. This last is in some cases formed
+by very large slabs set on edge, but more often by two or three courses
+of rough oblong blocks. Many of the graves are badly damaged. One of the
+finest had an outer circle about 27 feet in diameter, and an inner
+circle 14 feet in diameter. Between these two a third circle, much more
+irregular and of small stones, could just be distinguished. But in most
+cases it was impossible to make out clearly more than the one outer
+circle and the dolmen within it. The dolmen itself consisted of a large
+slab resting on walls formed of several large blocks, the spaces between
+which were filled up with smaller stones. None of the stones used were
+worked. The dolmens were not oriented according to any fixed system. M.
+Feraud states that the separate graves were united together by open
+corridors formed by double or triple rows of large stones, but no traces
+of such a system could be found by the later visitors to the site,
+Messrs. MacIver and Wilkin.
+
+Fortunately we have some record of what these graves contained, for
+thirteen were opened by Mr. Christy and M. Feraud. One contained a human
+skeleton in good condition, buried in the contracted position with the
+knees to chin and arms crossed. With this were two whole vases,
+fragments of others, and pieces of cedar wood. At the feet of the
+skeleton were two human heads, and as the graves would not have
+accommodated more than one whole body M. Feraud suggests that these
+belong to decapitated victims. Another grave contained, in addition to
+human bones, those of a horse, together with three objects of copper,
+viz. a ring, an earring, and a buckle. In another were found the teeth
+and bones of a horse and an iron bit.
+
+An entirely different type of monument is found near Msila, south-west
+of Algiers. Here is a long low hill called the Senam, covered with large
+numbers of stone circles. These consist of large slabs of natural
+limestone set up on edge and not very closely fitted. The height of the
+slabs varies from 2 to 3 feet, and the diameters of the three still
+perfect circles are 23-1/2, 26-3/4, and 34-1/3 feet respectively. At a
+point roughly south-east there is a break in the circumference, filled
+by a rectangular niche (Fig. 19) consisting of three large slabs, and
+varying in width from 2 ft. 6 in. to 6 feet. There is a possibility that
+the niches were originally roofed, but the evidence on this point is far
+from conclusive. The interior of the circle is filled with blocks of
+stone, apparently heaped up without any definite plan. There seems to be
+no clue as to the meaning of these circles, as none have as yet been
+explored. MacIver and Wilkin are probably right in classing them as
+graves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 19. Stone circle at the Senam, Algeria.
+               (After MacIver and Wilkin).]
+
+The most famous, however, of the Algerian sites is unquestionably that
+of Roknia. Here the tombs lie on the side of a steep hill. They consist
+of dolmens often surrounded by stone circles from 25 to 33 feet in
+diameter. The cover-slabs of the dolmens usually rest on single
+uprights, and never on built walls. Several of the graves excavated
+contained more than one body, one yielding as many as seven. It is
+remarkable that three of the skulls showed wounds, the dead having been
+apparently killed in battle. Several vases have been found and a few
+pieces of bronze.
+
+We have seen that in some of the tombs of Bou Merzoug objects of iron
+were found. This makes it clear that some at least of the Algerian tombs
+belong to the iron age, i.e. that they are probably later than 1000
+B.C., but beyond this we cannot go. The medal of Faustina sometimes
+quoted as evidence for a very late date proves nothing, as it is not
+stated to have been found in a tomb. There is no evidence to show how
+far back the graves go. It may be that, as MacIver and Wilkin suggest,
+the parts of the cemeteries excavated chance to be the latest. At Bou
+Merzoug the excavators worked chiefly among the graves on the plain and
+at the bottom of the hill. The more closely crowded graves which lie on
+the hill itself may well be older than these. In fact, all that may be
+said of the Algerian graves is that some are of the iron age, while
+others may be and probably are earlier.
+
+
+In Tunis the dolmen is not uncommon, and several groups or cemeteries
+have been reported. Near Ellez occurs a type of corridor-tomb in which
+three dolmen-like chambers lie on either side of a central passage, and
+a seventh at the end opposite to the entrance. The whole is constructed
+of upright slabs of stone, and is surrounded by a circle formed in the
+same way.
+
+Morocco, too, has its dolmens, especially in the district of Kabylia,
+while near Tangier there is a stone circle.
+
+Off the north coast of Africa, and thus on the highway which leads from
+Africa to Europe, lie the Italian islands of Lampedusa and Linosa. The
+latter is volcanic in origin, and its surface presents no opportunity
+for the building of megalithic monuments. Lampedusa, on the other hand,
+consists of limestone, which lies about in great blocks on its surface.
+On the slopes of the south coast there are several remains of megalithic
+construction, but they are too damaged to show much of their original
+form. However, on the north side of the island there are megalithic huts
+in a very fair state of preservation. They are oval in form and have in
+many cases a base course of orthostatic slabs.
+
+Some miles to the north of Linosa lies the much larger volcanic island
+of Pantelleria, also a possession of Italy. Here megalithic remains both
+of dwellings and of tombs have been found. On the plateau of the Mursia
+are the remains of rectangular huts made of rough blocks of stone. These
+huts seemed to have formed a village, which was surrounded by a wall for
+purposes of defence. In the huts were found implements of obsidian and
+flat stones used for grinding.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. Plan of the Sese Grande, Pantelleria.
+               (Orsi, _Monumenti Antichi_, IX.)]
+
+The tombs of the people who inhabited this village are, unlike the
+houses, circular or elliptical in form. They are locally known as
+_sesi._ The smaller are of truncated conical shape, the circular chamber
+being entered by a low door and having a corbelled roof. In one of the
+_sesi_ a skeleton was found buried in the contracted position. The
+finest of the tombs, known as the Sese Grande, elliptical in form (Fig.
+20), has a major diameter of more than 60 feet, and rises in ridges,
+being domed at the top. It contains not one chamber, but twelve, each of
+which has a separate entrance from the outside of the _sese._ To judge
+by the remains found in the _sesi_ they belong entirely to the neolithic
+period.
+
+
+The island of Malta as seen to-day is an almost treeless, though not
+unfertile, stretch of rock, with a harbour on the north coast which must
+always make the place a necessary possession to the first sea power of
+Europe. Much of its soil is of comparatively modern creation, and four
+thousand years ago the island may well have had a forbidding aspect.
+This is perhaps the reason why the first great inroads of neolithic man
+into the Mediterranean left it quite untouched, although it lay directly
+in the path of tribes immigrating into Europe from Africa. The earliest
+neolithic remains of Italy, Crete, and the AEgean seem to have no
+parallel in Malta, and the first inhabitants of whom we find traces in
+the island were builders of megalithic monuments. Small as Malta is it
+contains some of the grandest and most important structures of this kind
+ever erected. The two greatest of these, the so-called "Phoenician
+temples" of Hagiar Kim and Mnaidra, were constructed on opposite sides
+of one of the southern valleys, each within sight of the other and of
+the little rocky island of Filfla.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. Plan of the megalithic sanctuary of Mnaidra,
+               Malta. (After Albert Mayr's plan.)]
+
+The temple of Mnaidra is the simpler of the two in plan (Fig. 21). It
+consists of two halves, the more northerly of which was almost certainly
+built later than the other. Each half consists of two elliptical
+chambers set one behind the other. The south half is the better
+preserved. It has a concave facade of large orthostatic slabs with
+horizontal blocks set in front of them to keep them in position. In the
+centre of this opens a short paved passage formed of fine upright slabs
+of stone, one of which is 13 feet in height. The first elliptical
+chamber (_E_) into which this passage leads us has a length of 45 feet.
+Its walls (Pl. III) consist of roughly squared orthostatic slabs over 6
+feet in height, above which are several courses of horizontal blocks
+which carry the walls in places up to a height of nearly 14 feet. This
+combination of vertical and horizontal masonry is typical of all the
+Maltese temples. To the left of the entrance is a rectangular niche in
+the wall containing one of the remarkable trilithons (_a_) which form so
+striking a feature of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim. It consists of a
+horizontal slab of stone nearly 10 feet in length, supported at its ends
+by two vertical slabs about 5 feet high. To the right of the entrance is
+a window-like opening (_b_, behind the seated figure in Pl. III) in one
+of the slabs of the wall, preceded by two steps and giving access to
+an irregular triangular space (_F_). In the north-west angle of this
+triangle is fixed a trilithon table (_c_) of the usual type, 32 inches
+high; at a like height above the table is fixed another horizontal slab
+which serves as a roof to the corner. The south corner of the triangle
+is shut off by a vertical slab, in which is cut a window 29 inches by
+17. Through this is seen a shrine (?) consisting of a box (_d_) made of
+five well-cut slabs of stone, the front being open. The aperture by
+which _F_ is entered was evidently intended to be closed with a slab of
+stone from the inside of _F_, for it was rebated on that side, and there
+are holes to be used in securing the slab. When the entrance was thus
+blocked _F_ still communicated with _E_ by means of a small rectangular
+window 16 inches by 12 in one of the adjacent slabs (visible in Pl.
+III).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III TEMPLE OF MNAIDRA, MALTA. APSE OF CHIEF ROOM
+               To face p. 100]
+
+Returning to the area _E_ we find in the south-west wall an elaborate
+doorway (Pl. II, Fig. I, p. 82) leading to a rectangular room _H_. The
+doorway consists of two tall pillars with a great lintel laid across the
+top. The space between the pillars is closed by a fixed vertical slab in
+which is a window-like aperture similar to that which gives access to
+Room _F_. All the stones in this doorway are ornamented with pit-marks.
+The rectangular room _H_ has niches in its walls to the north, south,
+and west. Each niche is formed by a pair of uprights with a block laid
+across the top. The west niche is occupied by a horizontal table or
+slab (_e_) supported at its centre by a stone pillar 39 inches in
+height, of circular section narrowing in the centre (visible through the
+doorway in Pl. II, Fig. I). The southern niche contains an ordinary
+trilithon table (_f_): the northern niche is damaged, but apparently
+held a table like that of the western.
+
+The area _I_ consists of only half an ellipse, the southern half being
+replaced by the area _H_, which we have already described. It has a
+rectangular niche to the west containing a fine trilithon with a
+cover-slab nearly 10 feet long.
+
+The whole of the southern half of the Mnaidra temple is surrounded by a
+wall of huge rough blocks of stone, presenting a great contrast to the
+dressed slabs of which the inner walls are formed. They are placed
+alternately with their broad faces and their narrow edges outwards. The
+roughness of this enclosure wall gives the structure a remarkably wild
+and craggy appearance from a distance. The northern half of Mnaidra is
+clearly a later addition.
+
+There is no doubt as to the way in which the areas were roofed. In the
+apse-like ends of the elliptical rooms the horizontal courses are
+corbelled, i.e. each course projects slightly forward over the last.
+Thus the space narrows as the walls rise, until the aperture is small
+enough to be roofed by great slabs laid across. The corbelling of the
+apse is just perceptible in Pl. III. Whether the roofing of the Mnaidra
+temple was ever complete it is impossible to say: in any case the system
+we have described could only be applied to the apsidal portions of the
+areas, and their centres must either have been open to the sky or roofed
+quite simply with slabs.
+
+
+In the still more famous temple of Hagiar Kim we have a complicated
+building, in which the original plan has been much altered and enlarged.
+The main portion doubtless consisted originally of a curved facade and a
+pair of elliptical areas, the inner of which has been fitted with a
+second entrance to the north-west and completely remodelled at its
+south-west end. Four elliptical chambers, one of which is at a much
+higher level than the rest of the building, have been added. Here, too,
+as at Mnaidra, we find niches containing trilithon tables. In the first
+elliptical area, in which the apsidal ends are divided from the central
+space by means of walls of vertical slabs, a remarkable group of objects
+was found. In front of a well-cut vertical block stood what must be an
+altar, cut in one piece of stone. It is square in section except for the
+top, which is circular. On the four vertical edges are pilasters in
+relief, and in the front between these is cut in relief what looks like
+a plant growing out of a pot or box. To the left of the altar and the
+vertical slab behind were an upright stone with two hanging spirals cut
+on it in relief, and at its foot a horizontal slab. Both the altar and
+the carved stone are covered with small pit-marks.
+
+In the outside wall of the building, quite unconnected with the
+interior, is a niche partly restored on old foundations, in which stands
+a rough stone pillar 6-1/2 feet high. In front of this pillar is a
+vertical slab nearly 3 feet high, narrowing towards the base, and
+covered with pit-markings. This pillar can hardly be anything but a
+baetyl, or sacred stone.
+
+The temple called the Gigantia, on the island of Gozo, is no less
+remarkable than the two which we have already described; in one place
+its wall is preserved up to a height of over 20 feet. The plan is
+similar to that of Mnaidra, though here the two halves seem to have been
+built at one and the same time. Several of the blocks show a design of
+spirals in relief, while on others there are the usual pit-markings.
+Another bears a figure of a fish or serpent. At the foot of one of the
+trilithons was found a baetyl 51 inches in height, now in the museum at
+Valletta.
+
+That these three buildings were sanctuaries of some kind seems almost
+certain from their form and arrangement. We do not, however, know what
+was the exact nature of the worship carried on in them, though there can
+be no doubt that the stone tables supported by single pillars and the
+trilithons found in the niches played an important part in the ritual.
+Sir Arthur Evans in his famous article _Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult_
+has suggested that in Malta we have a cult similar to that seen in the
+Mycenaean world. This latter was an aneiconic worship developed out of
+the cult of the dead; in it the deity or hero was represented by a
+baetyl, i.e. a tree or pillar sometimes standing free, sometimes placed
+in a 'dolmen-like' cell or shrine, in which latter case the pillar often
+served to support the roof of the shrine. In Malta Sir Arthur Evans sees
+signs of a baetyl-worship very similar to this. Thus at Hagiar Kim we
+have a pillar still standing free in a niche, and another pillar, which,
+to judge from its shape, must have stood free, was found in the
+Gigantia. On the other hand, at Mnaidra we have pillars which support
+slabs in a cell or shrine, and at Cordin several small pillars were
+found which must originally have served a similar purpose.
+
+There can hardly be any doubt that Sir Arthur Evans is right in seeing
+in the Maltese temples signs of a baetylic worship. But is he right in
+his further assertion that the cult was a cult of the dead? Albert Mayr
+assumes that he is, and endeavours to show that the 'dolmen-like' cells
+in the niches are not altars, but stereotyped representations of the
+dolmen-tombs of the heroes worshipped. He thinks that the slabs which
+cover them are too large for altar-tables, and that the niches in which
+they stand are too narrow and inaccessible to have been the scene of
+sacrificial rites. Neither of these arguments has much force, nor is it
+easy to see how the cells are derived from dolmens. The fact is that the
+word 'dolmen-like,' which has become current coin in archaeological
+phraseology, is a question-begging epithet. The Maltese cells are not
+like dolmens at all, they are either trilithons or tables resting on a
+pillar. They are always open to the front, and instead of the rough
+unhewn block which should cover a dolmen they are roofed with a
+well-squared slab. If the pillar which supports the slab is, like the
+free-standing pillars, a baetyl, the slab is probably a mere roof to
+cover and protect it; if not, the slab is almost certainly a table.
+
+At the same time, although we may not accept the hypothesis that the
+cell is derived from a dolmen, Sir Arthur Evans may still be right in
+supposing the worship to have originated in a cult of the dead. But he
+was almost certainly wrong, as recent excavation has shown, in supposing
+that the cells were the actual burial place of the deified heroes.
+
+A number of statuettes were found at Hagiar Kim, two of which are of
+pottery and the rest of limestone. One figure represents a woman
+standing, but in the rest she is seated on a rather low stool with her
+feet tucked under her. There is no sign of clothing, except on one
+figure which shows a long shirt and a plain bodice with very low neck.
+All these statuettes are characterized by what is known as steatopygy,
+that is, the over-development of the fat which lies on and behind the
+hips and thighs.
+
+Steatopygous figures have been found in many places, viz. France, Malta,
+Crete, the Cyclades, Greece, Thessaly, Servia, Transylvania, Poland,
+Egypt, and the Italian colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea. The French
+examples are from caves of the palaeolithic period; the rest mainly
+belong to the neolithic and bronze ages. Various reasons have been given
+for the abnormal appearance of these figures. In the first place it has
+been suggested that they represent women of a steatopygous type, like
+the modern Bushwomen, and that this race was in early days widely
+diffused in the Mediterranean and in South Europe. Another hypothesis is
+that they represent not a truly steatopygous type of women, but only an
+abnormally fat type. A third suggestion is that they portray the
+generative aspect of nature in the form of a pregnant goddess.
+
+Naturally there are considerable local differences in the shapes of the
+figures from the various countries we have enumerated, and it may be
+that no single hypothesis will explain them all.
+
+There are other megalithic buildings in Malta besides the three which
+we have discussed, but none of them call for more than passing mention.
+On the heights of Cordin or Corradino, overlooking the Grand Harbour of
+Valletta, there are no less than three groups, all of which have been
+lately excavated. In all three we see signs of the typical arrangement
+of elliptical areas one behind another, and in the finest of the three
+the curved facade and the paved court which lies before it are still
+preserved.
+
+It was for a long time believed that there were no dolmens in Malta.
+Professor Tagliaferro has been able to upset this belief by discovering
+two, one near Musta and the other near Siggewi. It is hardly credible
+that these are the only two dolmens which ever existed in Malta. More
+will no doubt yet be found, especially in the wild north-west corner of
+the isle.
+
+
+The megalithic builders of Malta did not confine their achievements to
+structures above ground, they could also work with equal facility below.
+In the village of Casal Paula, which lies about a mile from the head of
+the Grand Harbour of Valletta, is a wonderful complex of subterranean
+chambers known as the Hypogeum of Halsaflieni, which may justly be
+considered as one of the wonders of the world.
+
+The chambers, which seem to follow no definite plan, are excavated in
+the soft limestone and arranged in two storeys connected by a staircase,
+part of which still remains in place. The finest rooms are in the upper
+storey. The largest is circular, and contains in its walls a series of
+false doors and windows. It is in this room that the remarkable nature
+of the work in the hypogeum is most apparent. On entering it one sees at
+once that the intention of the original excavator was to produce in
+solid rock underground a copy of a megalithic structure above ground.
+Thus the walls curve slightly inwards towards the top as do those of the
+apses of Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim, and the ceiling is cut to represent a
+roof of great blocks laid across from wall to wall with a space left
+open in the centre where the width would be too great for the length of
+the stones. The treatment of the doors and windows recalls at once that
+of the temples above ground. The mason was not content, when he needed a
+door, to cut a rectangular opening in the rock; he must represent in
+high relief the monolithic side-posts and lintel which were the great
+features of the megalithic 'temples' of Malta. Nor has he failed in his
+intention, for, as one moves from room to room in the hypogeum, one
+certainly has the feeling of being in a building constructed of separate
+blocks and not merely cut in the solid rock. No description can do
+justice to the grace of the curves and the flow of the line in the
+circular chamber and in the passage beyond it, and we have here the
+work of an architect who felt the aesthetic effect of every line he
+traced.
+
+Behind the circular chamber and across the passage just referred to lies
+a small room which, rightly or wrongly, has been called the 'Holy of
+Holies,' the idea being that it formed a kind of inner sanctuary to the
+chamber. It contains a rough shelf cut in the wall, and in the centre of
+this a shallow circular pit. It has been suggested that this pit was
+made to hold the base of the cult-object, whether it was a baetyl or an
+idol. This, however, is a mere conjecture. In the passage just outside
+the door of this room are two small circular pits about 6 inches in
+diameter and the same distance apart. They connect with one another
+below, and are closed with tightly fitting limestone plugs. In one of
+them was found a cow's horn. Their purpose is unknown, but similar pairs
+of pits occur elsewhere at Halsaflieni.
+
+In two of the largest chambers in the hypogeum the roof and walls are
+still decorated with designs in red paint. The patterns consist of
+graceful combinations of curved lines and spirals. Many other rooms,
+including the circular chamber, were originally painted with designs in
+red, which have now almost wholly disappeared.
+
+Many of the chambers are extremely small, too small for an adult even to
+stand upright in them, and their entrances are merely windows, perhaps
+a foot square and well above the ground.
+
+What then was the purpose of this wonderful complex of rooms? Before
+attempting to answer this question we must consider what has been found
+in them. When the museum authorities first took over the hypogeum
+practically all the chambers were filled to within a short distance of
+their roofs with a mass of reddish soil, which proved to contain the
+remains of thousands of human skeletons. In other words, Halsaflieni was
+used as a burial place, though this may not have been its original
+purpose. The bones lay for the most part in disorder, and so thickly
+that in a space of about 4 cubic yards lay the remains of no less than
+120 individuals. One skeleton, however, was found intact, lying on the
+right side in the crouched position, i.e. with arms and knees bent up.
+
+With the bones were found enormous quantities of pottery and other
+objects, buried with the dead as provision for the next world. The
+pottery is rough in comparison with the fine painted wares of Crete, but
+it is extremely varied in its decoration. One particularly fine bowl
+shows a series of animals which have been identified by Professor
+Tagliaferro as the long-horned buffalo, an animal which once existed on
+the northern coasts of Africa. Ornaments of all kinds were common, and
+include beads, pendants, and conical buttons of stone and shell. The
+most remarkable of all are a large number of model celts made of
+jadeite and other hard stones. These are of the same shape as the stone
+axes used by neolithic man, but they are far too small ever to have been
+used, and they must therefore have been models hung round the neck as
+amulets. Each is provided with a small hole for this purpose. The
+popularity of the axe-amulet makes it probable that the axe had some
+religious significance.
+
+Finally Halsaflieni has yielded several steatopygous figurines. Some of
+these resemble those of Hagiar Kim, but two are of rather different
+type. Each of these represents a female lying on a rather low couch. In
+the better preserved of the two she lies on her right side, her head on
+a small uncomfortable-looking pillow. The upper part of her body is
+naked, but from the waist downwards she is clad in a flounced skirt
+which reaches to the ankles. The other figurine is very similar, but the
+woman here is face downwards on the couch.
+
+The bodies themselves were so damaged with damp that only ten skulls
+could be saved whole. These, however, afford very valuable
+anthropological evidence. They have been carefully measured by Dr.
+Zammit, and they prove to belong to a long-headed (dolichocephalic) type
+usual among the neolithic races of the Mediterranean.
+
+We have still to discuss the purpose of this great complex of
+underground chambers and passages. It is quite clear that its eventual
+fate was to be used as a burial place for thousands of individuals, but
+it is far from certain that this was the purpose for which it was built.
+The existence of the central chamber, with its careful work and
+laborious imitation of an open-air 'temple,' is against this
+interpretation. It has therefore been suggested that the hypogeum was
+meant for a burial place, and that the central chamber was the chapel or
+sanctuary in which the funeral rites were performed, after which the
+body was buried in one of the smaller rooms. This, however, does not
+explain the presence of burials in the chapel itself, and it is far more
+likely that it was only after Halsaflieni had ceased to be used for its
+original purpose that it was seized upon as a convenient place for
+burial.
+
+The question of the date of the Maltese megalithic buildings is a
+difficult one. It is true that no metal has been found in them, and that
+we can therefore speak of them as belonging to the neolithic age. But
+the neolithic age of Malta need not be parallel in date with that of
+Crete for example. It is extremely probable that Malta lay outside the
+main currents of civilization, and that flint continued to be used there
+long after copper had been adopted by her more fortunate neighbours.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+                          THE DOLMENS OF ASIA
+
+
+In the south-east of Europe lie three groups of dolmens which are no
+doubt in origin more closely connected with those of Asia than with
+those of the rest of Europe. The first group lies in Bulgaria, where no
+less than sixty dolmens have been found north of Adrianople. The second
+consists of a few dolmens which still remain in the Crimea, and the
+third lies in the Caucasus in two divisions, one to the south-east and
+the other to the south-west of the town of Ekaterinodar. These last are
+made of slabby rock, and thus have a finished appearance. A dolmen near
+Tzarskaya has a small semicircular hole at the bottom of one of its
+end-slabs, while another in the valley of Pehada has sides consisting of
+single blocks, placed so as to slant inwards considerably, and a
+circular hole in the centre of the slab which closes one of its ends.
+
+In Asia megalithic monuments are not infrequent. We first find them in
+Syria, they have been reported from Persia, and in Central and South
+India they exist in large numbers. Corridor-tombs occur in Japan, but
+they are late in date, and there is no evidence to show whether they
+are connected with those of India or not.
+
+Syria is comparatively rich in megalithic monuments, but it is
+remarkable that almost all of them lie to the east of the Jordan. Thus
+while there are hundreds of dolmens in the country of Pera and in Ammon
+and Moab, very few have been found in Galilee, and only one in Judaea,
+despite careful search. There is, however, a circle of stones west of
+Tiberias, and an enclosure of menhirs between Tyre and Sidon. According
+to Perrot and Chipiez some of the Moabite monuments are very similar in
+type to the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia. Others are simple dolmens. In a
+good example at Ala Safat (Fig. 22) the floor of the tomb is formed by a
+single flat slab of stone. The great cover-slab rests on two long
+blocks, one on either side, placed on edge. The narrow ends are closed
+up with smaller slabs, one of which, that which faces north, has a small
+hole pierced in it. A similar closure slab with a hole is also found in
+certain rock-tombs quite close to this dolmen. Apparently none of these
+dolmens have been systematically excavated, and nothing is known of
+their date.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. Dolmen with holed stone at Ala Safat. (After de
+Luynes.)]
+
+Menhirs, too, are not wanting in Syria. Perrot and Chipiez figure an
+example from Gebel-Mousa in Moab which is quite unworked, except for a
+shallow furrow across the centre of the face. In many cases the menhir
+is surrounded by one or more rows of stones. Thus at Der Ghuzaleh a
+menhir about 3 feet in height is set in the centre of what when complete
+must have been a rectangle. In other cases the enclosure was elliptical
+or circular in form. In an example at Minieh the menhir stands in the
+centre of a double (in part triple) circle of stones, on which abuts an
+elliptical enclosure. In some cases the circle has no proper entrance,
+in others it has a door consisting of a large slab resting on two
+others. The largest of the circles attains a diameter of 600 feet, and
+has a double line of stones.
+
+Within these circles and near them are found large numbers of monuments
+consisting each of a large flat slab resting on two others. On the
+upper surface of the top slab are often seen a number of basin-shaped
+holes, sometimes connected by furrows. Many of the slabs are slightly
+slanting, and it has been suggested that the series of holes and furrows
+was intended for the pouring a libation of some kind. In a monument of
+this type at Amman the cover-slab slopes considerably; the upper part of
+its surface is a network of small channels converging on a hole 11
+inches deep about the centre of the slab. Here, again, no excavations
+have been carried out, and we do not even know what was the purpose of
+these structures. It is, however, probable that these trilithons were
+not, like the dolmens, tombs, but served some religious purpose,
+possibly connected with the worship of the menhirs.
+
+In the Jaulan, where the rock consists of a slabby type of basalt, there
+are many dolmens of fine appearance. They often lie east and west, and
+are often broader at the west end. Many are surrounded by a double
+circle of stones. In one of them two copper rings were found. At Ain
+Dakkar more than 160 dolmen-tombs are visible from a single spot. They
+are built on circular terraces of earth and stones about 3 feet high.
+The Arabs call them Graves of the Children of Israel. Most of them lie
+east and west, and are broader at the west. In the eastern slab there is
+often a hole about 2 feet in diameter. Near Tsil are several
+corridor-tombs of simple type. Each consists of a long rectangular
+chamber with only one cover-slab, that being at the west end. In a
+well-known example of this type at Kosseir there is a hole in one of the
+two uprights which support the cover.
+
+These examples will serve to show the importance and variety of the
+Syrian monuments. They present analogies with those of many parts of the
+megalithic area, and we therefore await anxiously the publication of
+Mackenzie's promised article on his own explorations in this district.
+
+
+The central and southern parts of India afford numerous examples of
+dolmens. They are to be found in almost all parts of Lower India from
+the Nerbudda River to Cape Comorin. In the Nilgiri hills there are stone
+circles and dolmens, and numbers of dolmens are said to exist in the
+Neermul jungle in Central India. In the collectorate of Bellary dolmens
+and other monuments to the number of 2129 have been recorded. Others
+occur in the principality of Sorapoor and near Vellore in the Madras
+presidency. These latter appear to be of two types, either with three
+supports only or with four supports, one of which is pierced with a
+circular hole. Of the 2200 dolmens known in the Deccan, half are of this
+pierced type. They are known to the natives as "dwarfs' houses." One
+only had a pair of uprights outside the pierced stone, thus forming a
+sort of portico to the dolmen. Near Chittore in North Arcot there is
+said to be a square mile of ground covered with these monuments. In them
+were found human remains in sarcophagi, and fragments of black pottery.
+Several of the Indian dolmens are said to have contained objects of
+iron. Occasionally the dolmen is surrounded by a double circle of stones
+or covered with a cairn. The Deccan, in addition to its numerous
+dolmens, possesses also megalithic monuments of another type. They
+consist each of two rows, each of thirteen unworked stones set as close
+together as possible, in front of which is a row of three stones, each
+about 4 feet high, not let into the ground. The planted stones were
+whitewashed, and each was marked with a large spot of red paint with
+black in the centre. These stones seem to have been in use in modern
+times. Colonel Forbes Leslie thinks that a cock had been sacrificed on
+one of the three stones which lie in front of the double row, but there
+seems to be no certain evidence for this. It is, however, very probable
+that these _alignements_ had some religious signification, and the same
+is no doubt true of certain small circles of small stones, also found in
+the Deccan.
+
+The modern inhabitants of the Khasi Hills in India still make use of
+megalithic monuments. They set up a group of an odd number of menhirs,
+3, 5, 7, 9, or 11, and in front of these two structures of dolmen form.
+These are raised in honour of some important member of the tribe who has
+died, and whose spirit is thought to have done some good to the tribe.
+If the benefits continue it is usual to increase the number of menhirs.
+
+The earliest burials in Japan are marked by simple mounds of earth. It
+was not until the beginning of the iron age that megalithic tombs came
+into use. The true dolmen is not found in Japan, and all the known
+graves are corridor-tombs covered with a mound. They are of four types.
+First, we have a simple corridor with no separate chamber; secondly, a
+corridor broadening out at one side near the end; thirdly, a true
+chamber with a corridor of access; and fourthly, a type in which the
+corridor is preceded by an antechamber. All four types occur in rough
+unworked stone, roofed with huge slabs, but a few examples of the third
+type are made of well-cut and dressed blocks. The mounds are usually
+conical, though some are of a complex form shortly to be described. Some
+of these contain stone sarcophagi. The bodies were never cremated, but
+the bones are so damaged that it is impossible to say what the most
+usual position was. Objects of bronze and iron together with pottery and
+ornaments were found in the tombs.
+
+The more important tombs are of a more complicated type. They seem to
+have contained the remains of emperors and their families. They consist
+each of a circular mound, to which is added on one side another mound of
+trapezoidal form. The megalithic tomb-chamber or the sarcophagus which
+sometimes replaces it lies in the circular part of the mound. The total
+axial length of the basis of the whole mound is in a typical case--that
+of Nara (Yamato)--674 feet, the diameter of the round end being 420
+feet. The mounds have in most cases terraced sides, and are surrounded
+by a moat. In early times it seems to have been the custom to slay or
+bury alive the servants of the emperor on his mound, but this was given
+up about the beginning of the Christian era.
+
+These imperial double mounds seem to begin about two centuries before
+the Christian era, and to continue for five or six centuries after it.
+Many of them can be definitely assigned to their owners, and others are
+attributed by tradition. Thus a rather small mound at the foot of Mount
+Unebi (Yamato) is considered to be the burial place of the Emperor
+Jimmu, the founder of the Imperial dynasty, and annual ceremonies are
+performed before it.
+
+The Japanese Emperors are still buried in terraced mounds, and in the
+group of huge stone blocks which have been placed on the mound of the
+Emperor Komei, who died in 1866, we may be tempted to see a survival of
+the ancient megalithic chamber.
+
+These early corridor-tombs are evidently not the work of the Ainu, the
+aborigines of Japan, but of the Japanese invaders who conquered them.
+These latter do not seem to have brought the idea of megalithic building
+with them, as their earlier tombs are simple mounds. As no dolmen has
+yet been found in Japan we cannot at present derive the corridor-tomb
+there from it. It is, however, worthy of mention that true dolmens occur
+as near as Corea, though none have been reported from China.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+               THE BUILDERS OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS,
+                 THEIR HABITS, CUSTOMS, RELIGION, ETC.
+
+
+With regard to the date of the megalithic monuments it only remains to
+sum up the evidence given in the previous chapters. It may be said that
+in Europe they never belong to the beginning of the neolithic age, but
+either to its end or to the period which followed it, i.e. to the age of
+copper and bronze. The majority date from the dawn of this latter
+period, though some of the chambered cairns of Ireland seem to belong to
+the iron age. Outside Europe there are certainly megalithic tombs which
+are late. In North Africa, for example, we know that the erection of
+dolmens continued into the early iron age; many of the Indian tombs are
+clearly late, and the corridor-tombs of Japan can be safely attributed
+in part at least to the Christian era.
+
+With what purpose were the megalithic monuments erected? The most simple
+example, the menhir or upright stone, may have served many purposes. In
+discussing the temples of Malta we saw reason for believing that the
+megalithic peoples were in the habit of worshipping great stones as
+such. Other stones, not actually worshipped, may mark the scene of some
+great event. Jacob commemorated a dream by setting up the stone which
+had served him as a pillow, and Samuel, victorious over the Philistines,
+set up twelve stones, and called the place "Stones of Deliverance."
+Others again perhaps stood in a spot devoted to some particular national
+or religious ceremony. Thus the Angami of the present day in Assam set
+up stones in commemoration of their village feasts. It seems clear from
+the excavations that the menhirs do not mark the place of burials,
+though they may in some cases have been raised in honour of the dead.
+
+The question of the purpose of stone circles has already been dealt with
+in connection with those of Great Britain. _Alignements_ are more
+difficult to explain, for, from their form, they cannot have served as
+temples in the sense of meeting-places for worship. Yet they must surely
+have been connected with religion in some way or other. Possibly they
+were not constructed once and for all, but the stones were added
+gradually, each marking some event or the performance of some periodic
+ceremony, or even the death of some great chief. The so-called
+"Canaanite High Place" recently found at Gezer consists of a line of
+ten menhirs running north and south, together with a large block in
+which was a socket for an idol or other object of worship. Several
+bodies of children found near it have suggested that the monument was a
+place of sacrifice.
+
+Other megalithic structures can be definitely classed as dwellings or
+tombs, as we have seen in our separate treatment of them. It is not
+improbable that, if we are right in considering the dolmen as the most
+primitive form of megalithic monument, megalithic architecture was
+funerary in origin. Yet, as we find it in its great diffusion, it
+provides homes for the living as well as for the dead. In their original
+home, perhaps in Africa, the megalithic race may have lived in huts of
+wattle or skins, but after their migration the need of protection in a
+hostile country and the exigencies of a colder climate may have forced
+them to employ stone for their dwellings. In any case, in megalithic
+architecture as seen in Europe the tomb and the dwelling types are
+considerably intermixed, and may have reacted on one another. This,
+however, does not justify the assertion so often made that the
+megalithic tomb was a conscious imitation of the hut. It is true that
+some peoples make the home of their dead to resemble that of the living.
+Among certain tribes of Greenland it is usual to leave the dead man
+seated in his hut by way of burial. But such a conception does not exist
+among all peoples, and to say that the dolmen is an imitation in stone
+of a hut is the purest conjecture. Still more improbable is Montelius's
+idea that the corridor-tomb imitates a dwelling. It is true that the
+Eskimos have a type of hut which is entered by a low passage often 30
+feet in length, but for one who believes as Montelius does that the
+corridor-tomb is southern or eastern in origin such a derivation is
+impossible, for this type of house is essentially northern, its aim
+being to exclude the icy winds. In the south it would be intolerably
+close, and its low passage besides serving no purpose would be
+inconvenient.
+
+There is really no reason to derive either the dolmen or the
+corridor-tomb from dwellings at all. Granted the use of huge stones,
+both are purely natural forms, and the presence of the corridor in the
+latter is dictated by necessity. The problem was how to cover a large
+tomb-chamber with a mound and to leave it still accessible for later
+interments, and the obvious solution was to add a covered passage
+leading out to the edge of the mound.
+
+A remarkable feature of the megalithic tombs is the occurrence in many
+of them of a small round or rectangular hole in one of the walls,
+usually an end-wall, more rarely a partition-wall between two chambers.
+Occasionally the hole was formed by placing side by side two upright
+blocks each with a semicircular notch in its edge. Tombs with a holed
+block or blocks occur in England, instances being the barrows of Avening
+and Rodmarton, King Orry's Grave in the Isle of Man, Lanyon Quoit in
+Cornwall, and Plas Newydd in Wales, which has two holes. There are also
+examples in Ireland, France, Belgium, Central Germany, and Scandinavia,
+where they are common. Passing further afield we find holes in the
+Giants' Graves of Sardinia, and in Syria, the Caucasus, and India, where
+half the dolmens in the Deccan are of this type. The holes are usually
+too small to allow of the passage of a human body. It has been suggested
+that they served as an outlet for the soul of the deceased, or in some
+cases as a means of passing in food to him.
+
+Attention has been frequently drawn to curious round pits so often found
+on the stones of dolmens and usually known as cup-markings. They vary in
+diameter from about two to four inches, and are occasionally connected
+by a series of narrow grooves in the stone. They vary considerably in
+number, sometimes there are few, sometimes many. They occur nearly
+always on the upper surface of the cover-slab, very rarely on its under
+surface or on the side-walls.
+
+Some have attempted to show that these pits are purely natural and not
+artificial. It has been suggested, for instance, that they are simply
+the casts of a species of fossil sea-urchin which has weathered out
+from the surface of the stone. This explanation may be true in some
+cases, but it will not serve in all, for the 'cups' are sometimes
+arranged in such regular order that their artificial origin is palpable.
+These markings are found on dolmens and corridor-tombs in Palestine,
+North Africa, Corsica, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Great Britain.
+In Wales there is a fine example of a dolmen with pits at Clynnog Fawr,
+while in Cornwall we may instance the monument called "The Three
+Brothers of Grugith" near Meneage.
+
+There is no clue to the purpose of these pits. Some have thought that
+they were made to hold the blood of sacrifice which was poured over the
+slab, and from some such idea may have arisen some of the legends of
+human victims which still cling round the dolmens. Others have opposed
+to this the fact that the pits sometimes occur on vertical walls or
+under the cover-slabs, and have preferred to see in them some totemistic
+signification or some expression of star-worship. It is possible that we
+have to deal with a complex and not a simple phenomenon, and that the
+pits were not all made to serve a single purpose. Those which cover some
+of the finest stones at Mnaidra and Hagiar Kim are certainly meant to be
+ornamental, though there may be in them a reminiscence of some religious
+tradition. In any case, it is worth while to remember that cup-markings
+also occur on natural rocks and boulders in Switzerland, Scandinavia,
+Great Britain (where there is a good example near Ilkley in Yorkshire),
+near Como in Italy, and in Germany, Russia, and India.
+
+
+Of the builders of the megalithic monuments themselves we cannot expect
+to know very much, especially while their origin remains veiled in
+obscurity. Yet there are a few facts which stand out clearly. We even
+know something about their appearance, for the skulls found in the
+megalithic tombs have in many cases been subjected to careful
+examination and measurement. Into the detail of these measurements we
+cannot enter here; suffice it to say that the most important of them are
+the maximum length of the skull from front to back and its maximum
+breadth, both measures, of course, being taken in a straight line with a
+pair of callipers, and not round the contour of the skull. If we now
+divide the maximum breadth by the maximum length and multiply the result
+by 100 we get what is known as the cephalic index of the skull. Thus if
+a skull has a length of 180 millimetres and a breadth of 135, its
+cephalic index is 135/180 X 100, i.e. 75. It is clear that in a roundish
+type of head the breadth will be greater in proportion to the length
+than in a narrow elliptical type. Thus in a broad head the cephalic
+index is high, while in a narrow head it is low. The former is called
+brachycephalic (short-headed), and the latter dolichocephalic
+(long-headed).
+
+This index is now accepted by most anthropologists as a useful criterion
+of race, though, of course, there are other characteristics which must
+often be taken into account, such as the height and breadth of the face,
+the cubic capacity of the skull and its general contour. At any rate, if
+we can show that the skulls of the megalithic tombs conform to a single
+type in respect of their index we shall have a presumption, though not a
+certainty, that they belong to a single race.
+
+For Africa the evidence consists in a group of twenty skulls from
+dolmen-tombs giving cephalic indices which range from 70.5 to 84.4. The
+average index is 75.27, and the majority of the indices lay within a few
+units of that number. Ten skulls from Halsaflieni in Malta have cephalic
+indices running from 66 to 75.1, the average being 71.84. Of a series of
+44 skulls from the rock-tombs of the Petit Morin in France, 12 had an
+index of over 80, 22 were between 75 and 80, and 10 were below 75. But
+in the dolmens of Lozere distinctly broad skulls were frequent. A series
+of British neolithic skulls, mostly from barrows, ran from 67 to 77.
+
+The builders of the megalithic monuments thus belonged in the main to a
+fairly dolichocephalic race or races, for the large majority of the
+skulls measured are of a long-headed type. There are, however, in
+various localities, especially in France, occasional anomalous types of
+skull which are distinctly brachycephalic, and show that contamination
+of some kind was taking or had taken place.
+
+
+Of the state of civilization to which the builders of the megalithic
+monuments had attained, and of the social condition in which they lived,
+there is something to be gathered. It is clear in the first place from
+the evidence of the Maltese buildings that they were a pastoral people
+who domesticated the ox, the sheep, the pig, and the goat, upon whose
+flesh they partly lived. Shellfish also formed a part of their diet, and
+the shells when emptied of their contents were occasionally pierced to
+be used as pendants or to form necklaces or bracelets.
+
+Whether these people were agricultural is a question more difficult to
+answer. It is true that flat stones have been found, on which some kind
+of cereal was ground up with the aid of round pebbles, but the grain for
+which these primitive mills were used may have been wild and not
+cultivated. No grain of any kind has been found in the Maltese
+settlements.
+
+The megalithic race do not seem to have been great traders. This is
+remarkably exemplified in Malta, where there is not a trace of
+connection with the wonderful civilization which must have been
+flourishing so near at hand in Crete and the AEgean at the time when the
+megalithic temples were built. The island seems to have been entirely
+self-sufficing, except for the importation of obsidian, probably from
+the neighbouring island of Linosa. Of copper, which wide trade would
+have introduced, there is no sign.
+
+Some writers, however, have argued the existence of extensive
+trade-relations from the occurrence of a peculiar kind of turquoise
+called _callais_ in some of the megalithic monuments of France and
+Portugal. The rarity of this stone has inclined some archaeologists to
+attribute it to a single source, while some have gone so far as to
+consider it eastern in origin. For the last theory there is no evidence
+whatsoever. No natural deposit of _callais_ is known, but it is highly
+probable that the sources of the megalithic examples lay in France or
+Portugal.
+
+It would of course be foolish to suppose that the megalithic people
+received none of the products of other countries, especially at a time
+when the discovery of copper was giving a great impetus to trade. No
+doubt they enjoyed the benefits of that kind of slow filtering trade
+which a primitive tribe, even if it had wished, could hardly have
+avoided, but they were not a great trading nation as were the Cretans of
+the Middle and Late Minoan Periods, or the Egyptians of the XIIth and
+XVIIIth Dynasties. We know nothing of their political conditions, of the
+groups into which they were divided, or the centres from which they were
+governed. That there were strong centres of government is, however,
+clear from the very existence of such huge monuments, many of which must
+have required the combined and organized labour of large armies of
+workers, in the gathering of which the state was doubtless strongly
+backed by religion.
+
+We have seen that the megalithic peoples frequently dwelt in huts of
+great stones. Yet in the majority of cases their huts must have been,
+like those of most primitive races, of perishable material, such as
+wood, wattle, skins, turf, and clay. As for their form there was
+probably a continual conflict between the round and the rectangular
+plan, just as there was in the stone examples. Which form prevailed in
+any particular district was probably determined almost by accident. Thus
+in Sardinia the round type was mostly kept for the huts and _nuraghi_,
+while the rectangular was reserved for the dolmens and Giants' Graves.
+Even here the confusion between the two types is shown by the fact that
+near Birori there are two dolmens with a round plan. Again, in
+Pantelleria the huts of the Mursia are rectangular, while the _sesi_,
+which are tombs, are roughly circular. It is therefore probable that the
+round and rectangular types of building were both in use among the
+megalithic people before they spread over Europe.
+
+Within their huts these people led a life of the simplest description.
+Their weapons and tools, though occasionally of copper, were for the
+most part of stone. Flint was the most usual material. In Scandinavia it
+was often polished, but elsewhere it was merely flaked. The implements
+made from it were of simple types, knives, borers, scrapers, lanceheads,
+and more rarely arrowheads. Many of these were quite roughly made, no
+more flaking being done than was absolutely necessary to produce the
+essential form, and the work being, when possible, confined to one face
+of the flint.
+
+In the Mediterranean obsidian, a volcanic rock, occasionally took the
+place of flint, especially in Sardinia and Pantelleria. Axes or celts
+were often made of flint in Scandinavia and North Germany, but elsewhere
+other stones, such as jade, jadeite, and diorite were commonly used.
+
+We can only guess at the way in which the megalithic people were
+clothed. No doubt the skins of the animals they domesticated and of
+those they hunted provided them with some form of covering, at any rate
+in countries where it was needed. Possibly they spun wool or flax into a
+thread, for at Halsaflieni two objects were found which look like
+spindle-whorls, and others occur on sites which are almost certainly to
+be attributed to the megalithic people. There is, however, nothing to
+show that they wove the thread into stuffs.
+
+The love of personal decoration was highly developed among them, and all
+branches of nature were called upon to minister to their desire for
+ornament. Shells, pierced and strung separately or in masses, were
+perhaps their favourite adornment, but close on these follow beads and
+pendants of almost every conceivable substance, bone, horn, stone, clay,
+nuts, beans, copper, and occasionally gold.
+
+One small object assumes a great importance on account of its wide
+distribution. This is the conical button with two converging holes in
+its base to pass the thread through. This little object, which may have
+served exactly the purpose of the modern button, occurs in several parts
+of the megalithic area. There are examples in Malta made of stone and
+shell. Elsewhere it is most usually of bone. It occurs in Sardinia, in
+France, in the rock-tombs of Gard, and in the corridor and rock-tombs of
+Lozere and Ardeche, in Portugal in the _allee couverte_ of Monte
+Abrahao, in Bohuslaen (Sweden), and at Carrowmore in Ireland. Outside the
+megalithic area it has been found in two of the Swiss lake-dwellings and
+in Italy.
+
+The pottery of the megalithic people was of a simple type. It was all
+made by hand, the potter's wheel being still unknown to the makers.
+Pottery with painted designs does not occur outside Sicily, except for
+a few poor and late examples in Malta. The best vases were of fairly
+purified clay, moderately well fired, and having a polished surface,
+usually of a darkish colour. On this surface were often incised
+ornamental designs, varying both in type and in the skill with which
+they were engraved. As a rule the schemes were rectilinear, more rarely
+they were carried out in curves. Sardinia furnishes some fine examples
+of rectilinear work, while the best of the curved designs are found in
+Malta, where elaborate conventional and even naturalistic patterns are
+traced out with wonderful freedom and steadiness of hand.
+
+The pottery of the megalithic area is not all alike; it would be
+surprising if it were. Even supposing that the invaders brought with
+them a single definite style of pottery-making this would rapidly become
+modified by local conditions and by the already existing pottery
+industry of the country, often, no doubt, superior to that of the
+new-comers. Nevertheless, there are a few points of similarity between
+the pottery of various parts of the megalithic area. The most remarkable
+example is the bell-shaped cup, which occurs in Denmark, England,
+France, Spain, Sardinia, and possibly Malta (the specimen is too broken
+for certainty). Outside the area it is found in Bohemia, Hungary, and
+North Italy. Here, as in the case of the conical button, we cannot argue
+that the form was actually introduced by the megalithic race, though
+there is a certain possibility in favour of such a hypothesis.
+
+
+That the megalithic people possessed a religion of some kind will hardly
+be doubted. Their careful observance of the rites due to the dead, and
+their construction of buildings which can hardly have been anything but
+places of worship, is a strong testimony to this. We have seen that in
+the Maltese temples the worship of baetyls or pillars of stone seems to
+have been carried on. Several stone objects which can scarcely have been
+anything but baetyls were found in the megalithic structures of Los
+Millares in Spain, but none are known elsewhere in the megalithic area.
+
+There is some reason for thinking that among the megalithic race there
+existed a cult of the axe. In France, for instance, the sculptured
+rock-tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin show, some a human figure,
+some an axe, and some a combination of the two. This same juxtaposition
+of the two also occurs on a slab which closed the top of a corbelled
+chamber at Collorgues in Gard. A simple _allee couverte_ at Goehlitzsch
+in Saxony has on one of its blocks an axe and handle engraved and
+coloured red. There are further examples in the _allee couverte_ of
+Gavr'inis and the dolmen called La Table des Marchands at Locmariaquer.
+
+These sculptured axes call to mind at once the numerous axe-shaped
+pendants of fine polished stone (jade, jadeite, etc.) found in Malta,
+Sicily, Sardinia, and France, and apparently used as amulets. The
+excavation of Crete has brought to light a remarkable worship of the
+double axe, and it has been argued with great probability that one of
+the early boat signs figured on the pre-dynastic painted vases of Egypt
+is a double axe, and that this was a cult object. It seems very probable
+that in the megalithic area, or at least in part of it, there was a
+somewhat similar worship, the object of cult, however, being not a
+double but a single axe, usually represented as fitted with a handle. It
+need not be assumed that the axe itself was worshipped, though this is
+not impossible; it is more likely that it was an attribute of some god
+or goddess.
+
+Among the rock-hewn tombs of the valley of the Petit Morin in the
+department of Marne, France, were seven which contained engravings on
+one of the walls. Several of these represent human figures (Fig. 13).
+The eyes are not marked, but the hair and nose are clear. In some the
+breasts are shown, in others they are omitted. On each figure is
+represented what appears to be a collar or necklace. Similar figures
+occur on the slabs of some of the _allees couvertes_ of Seine et Oise,
+and on certain blocks found in and near megalithic burials in the South
+of France. Moreover, in the departments of Aveyron, Tarn, and Herault
+have been found what are known as menhir-statues, upright pillars of
+stone roughly shaped into human semblance at the top; they are of two
+types, the one clearly female and the other with no breasts, but always
+with a collar or baldric.
+
+It has been argued that these figures represent a deity or deities of
+the megalithic people. Dechelette, comparing what are apparently tattoo
+marks on a menhir-statue at Saint Sermin (Aveyron) with similar marks on
+a figure cut on a schist plaque at Idanha a Nova (Portugal) and on a
+marble idol from the island of Seriphos in the AEgean, seems inclined to
+argue that in France and Portugal we have the same deity as in the
+AEgean. This seems rather a hazardous conjecture, for we know that many
+primitive peoples practised tattooing, and, moreover, it is not certain
+that the French figures represent deities at all. It is quite as likely,
+if not more so, that they represent the deceased, and take the place of
+a grave-stone: this would account for the occurrence of both male and
+female types. This was almost certainly the purpose of six stones that
+remain of a line that ran parallel to a now destroyed tomb at Tamuli
+(Sardinia). Three have breasts as if to distinguish the sex of three of
+those buried in the tomb. We must not therefore assume that any of the
+French figures represents a 'dolmen-deity.'
+
+The method of burial observed in the megalithic tombs is almost
+universally inhumation. Cremation seems to occur only in France, but
+there it is beyond all doubt. The known examples are found in the
+departments of Finistere, Marne, and Aisne, and in the neighbourhood of
+Paris. In Finistere out of 92 megalithic burials examined 61 were
+cremations, 26 were inhumations, and 5 were uncertain. It is extremely
+curious that this small portion of France should be the only part of the
+megalithic area where cremation was practised. It is generally held that
+cremation was brought into Europe by the broad-headed 'Alpine' people,
+who seem to have invaded the centre of the continent at some period in
+the neolithic age. It is possible that in parts of France a mixture took
+place between the megalithic builders and the Alpine race. Intermarriage
+would no doubt lead to confusion in many cases between the two rites.
+
+In all other cases the builders of the megalithic monuments buried their
+dead unburned. Often the body was lying stretched out on its back, or
+was set in a sitting position against the side of the tomb; but most
+frequently it was placed in what is known as the contracted position,
+laid on one side, generally the left, with the knees bent and drawn up
+towards the chin, the arms bent at the elbow, and the hands placed close
+to the face. Many explanations of this position have been suggested.
+Some see in it a natural posture of repose, some an attempt to crowd the
+body into as small a space as possible. Some have suggested that the
+corpse was tightly bound up with cords in order that the spirit might
+not escape and do harm to the living. Perhaps the most widely approved
+theory is that which considers this position to be embryonic, i.e. the
+position of the embryo previous to birth. None of these explanations is
+entirely convincing, but no better one has been put forward up to the
+present.
+
+This custom, it must be noted, was not limited to the megalithic
+peoples. It was the invariable practice of the pre-dynastic Egyptians
+and has been found further east in Persia. It occurs in the neolithic
+period in Crete and the AEgean, in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and other
+parts of Europe, and it is one of the facts which go to show that the
+builders of the megaliths were ethnologically connected, however
+remotely, with their predecessors in Europe.
+
+At Halsaflieni, in Malta, we have perhaps examples of the curious custom
+of secondary interment; the body is buried temporarily in some suitable
+place, and after the flesh has left the bones the latter are collected
+and thrown together into a common ossuary. That the bones at Halsaflieni
+were placed there when free from flesh is probable from the closeness
+with which they were packed together (see p. 111). There are also
+possible examples in Sicily (see p. 79). The custom was not unknown in
+neolithic days, especially in Crete. It is still occasionally practised
+on the island and on the Greek mainland, where, after the dead have lain
+a few years in hallowed soil, their bones are dug up, roughly cleaned,
+and deposited in caves.
+
+
+
+
+                               CHAPTER X
+
+            WHO WERE THE BUILDERS, AND WHENCE DID THEY COME?
+
+
+Modern discussion of the origin of the megalithic monuments may be said
+to date from Bertrand's publication of the French examples in 1864. In
+this work Bertrand upheld the thesis that "the dolmens and _allees
+couvertes_ are sepulchres; and their origin seems up to the present to
+be northern." In 1865 appeared Bonstetten's famous _Essai sur les
+dolmens_, in which he maintained that the dolmens were constructed by
+one and the same people spreading over Europe from north to south. At
+this time the dolmens of North Africa were still unstudied. In 1867
+followed an important paper by Bertrand. In 1872 two events of
+importance to the subject occurred, the publication of Fergusson's _Rude
+Stone Monuments in All Countries_, and the discussion raised at the
+Brussels Congress by General Faidherbe's paper on the dolmens of
+Algeria. Faidherbe maintained the thesis that dolmens, whether in Europe
+or Africa, were the work of a single people moving southward from the
+Baltic Sea.
+
+The question thus raised has been keenly debated since. At the
+Stockholm Congress in 1874 de Mortillet advanced the theory that
+megalithic monuments in different districts were due to different
+peoples, and that what spread was the custom of building such structures
+and not the builders themselves. This theory has been accepted by most
+archaeologists, including Montelius, Salomon Reinach, Sophus Mueller,
+Hoernes, and Dechelette. But while the rest believe the influences which
+produced the megalithic monuments to have spread from east to west, i.e.
+from Asia to Europe, Salomon Reinach holds the contrary view, which he
+has supported in a remarkable paper called _Le Mirage Oriental_,
+published in 1893.
+
+The questions we have to discuss are, therefore, as follows: Are all the
+megalithic monuments due to a single race or to several? If to a single
+race, whence did that race come and in what direction did it move? If to
+several, did the idea of building megalithic structures arise among the
+several races independently, or did it spread from one to another?
+
+We shall consider first the theory that the idea of megalithic building
+was evolved among several races independently, i.e. that it was a phase
+of culture through which they separately passed.
+
+On the whole, this idea has not found favour among archaeologists. The
+use of stone for building might have arisen in many places
+independently. But megalithic architecture is something much more than
+this. It is the use of great stones in certain definite and particular
+ways. We have already examined what may be called the style of
+megalithic architecture and found that the same features are noticeable
+in all countries where these buildings occur. In each case we see a type
+of construction based on the use of large orthostatic slabs, sometimes
+surmounted by courses of horizontal masonry, with either a roof of
+horizontal slabs or a corbelled vault. Associated with this we
+frequently find the hewing of underground chambers in the rock. In
+almost all countries where megalithic structures occur certain fixed
+types prevail; the dolmen is the most general of these, and it is clear
+that many of the other forms are simply developments of this. The
+occurrence of structures with a hole in one of the walls and of blocks
+with 'cup-markings' is usual over the whole of the megalithic area.
+There are even more remarkable resemblances in detail between structures
+in widely separated countries. Thus the Giants' Tombs of Sardinia all
+have a concave facade which forms a kind of semicircular court in front
+of the entrance to the tomb. This feature is seen also in the temples of
+Malta, in the tomb of Los Millares in Spain, in the _naus_ of the
+Balearic Isles (where, however, the curve is slight), in the Giant's
+Grave of Annaclochmullin and the chambered cairn of Newbliss in Ireland,
+in the tomb of Cashtal-yn-Ard in the Isle of Man, in the barrow of West
+Tump in Gloucestershire, and in the horned cairns of the north of
+Scotland. These parallels are due to something more than coincidence; in
+fact, it is clear that megalithic building is a widespread and
+homogeneous system, which, despite local differences, always preserves
+certain common features pointing to a single origin. It is thus
+difficult to accept the suggestion that it is merely a phase through
+which many races have passed. The phases which occur in many races alike
+are always those which are natural and necessary in the development of a
+people, such as the phase of using copper. But there is nothing either
+natural or necessary in the use of huge unwieldy blocks of stone where
+much smaller ones would have sufficed.
+
+There are further objections to this theory in the distribution of the
+megalithic buildings both in space and time. In space they occupy a very
+remarkable position along a vast sea-board which includes the
+Mediterranean coast of Africa and the Atlantic coast of Europe. In other
+words, they lie entirely along a natural sea route. It is more than
+accident that the many places in which, according to this theory, the
+megalithic phase independently arose all lie in most natural sea
+connection with each other, while not one is in the interior of Europe.
+
+In time the vast majority of the megalithic monuments of Europe seem to
+begin near the end of the neolithic period and cover the copper age,
+the later forms continuing occasionally into that of bronze. Here again
+it is curious that megalithic building, if merely an independent phase
+in many countries, should arise in so many at about the same time, and
+with no apparent reason. Had it been the use of _worked_ stones that
+arose, and had this followed the appearance of copper tools, the
+advocates of this theory would have had a stronger case, but there seems
+to be no reason why huge unworked stones should _simultaneously_ begin
+to be employed for tombs in many different countries unless this use
+spread from a single source.
+
+For these reasons it is impossible to consider megalithic building as a
+mere phase through which many nations passed, and it must therefore have
+been a system originating with one race, and spreading far and wide,
+owing either to trade influence or migration. But can we determine
+which?
+
+Great movements of races by sea were not by any means unusual in
+primitive days, in fact, the sea has always been less of an obstacle to
+early man than the land with its deserts, mountains, and unfordable
+rivers. There is nothing inherently impossible or even improbable in the
+suggestion that a great immigration brought the megalithic monuments
+from Sweden to India or vice versa. History is full of instances of such
+migrations. According to the most widely accepted modern theory the
+whole or at least the greater part of the neolithic population of Europe
+moved in from some part of Africa at the opening of the neolithic age.
+In medieval history we have the example of the Arabs, who in their
+movement covered a considerable portion of the very megalithic area
+which we are discussing.
+
+On the other hand, many find it preferable to suppose that over this
+same distance there extended a vast trade route or a series of trade
+routes, along which travelled the influences which account for the
+presence of precisely similar dolmens in Denmark, Spain, and the
+Caucasus. Yet although much has been written about neolithic trade
+routes little has been proved, and the fact that early man occasionally
+crossed large tracts of land and sea in the great movements of migration
+does not show that he also did so by way of trade, nor does it prove the
+existence of such steady and extensive commercial relations as such a
+theory of the megalithic monuments would seem to require. Immigration is
+often forced on a race. Change of climate or the diverting of the course
+of a great river may make their country unfit for habitation, or they
+may be expelled by a stronger race. In either case they must migrate,
+and we know from history that they often covered long distances in their
+attempt to follow the line of least resistance. Thus there is nothing a
+priori improbable in the idea that the megalithic monuments were built
+by a single invading race.
+
+There are other considerations which support such a theory. It will be
+readily admitted that the commonest and most widely distributed form of
+the megalithic monument is the dolmen. Both this and its obvious
+derivatives, the Giant's Grave, the _allee couverte_, and others, are
+known to have been tombs, while other types of structure, such as the
+Maltese temple, the menhir, and the cromlech, almost certainly had a
+religious purpose. It is difficult to believe that these types of
+building, so closely connected with religion and burial, were introduced
+into all these regions simply by the influence of trade relations.
+Religious customs and the burial rites connected with them are perhaps
+the most precious possession of a primitive people, and they are those
+in which they most oppose and resent change of any kind, even when it
+only involves detail and not principle. Thus it is almost incredible
+that the people, for instance, of Spain, because they were told by
+traders that the people of North Africa buried in dolmens, gave up, even
+in isolated instances, their habit of interment in trench graves in
+favour of burial in dolmens. It is still more impossible to believe that
+this unnatural event happened in one country after another. It is true
+that the use of metal was spread by means of commerce, but here there
+was something to be gained by adopting the new discovery, and there was
+no sacrifice of religious custom or principle. An exchange of products
+between one country and another is not unnatural, but a traffic in
+burial customs is unthinkable.
+
+Perhaps, however, it was not the form of the dolmen which was brought by
+commerce, but simply the art of architecture in general, and this was
+adapted to burial purposes. To this there are serious objections. In the
+first place it does not explain why exactly the same types of building
+(e.g. the dolmen), showing so many similarities of peculiar detail,
+occur in countries so far apart; and in the second place, if what was
+carried by trade was the art of building alone, why should the learners
+go out of their way to use huge stones when smaller ones would have
+suited their purpose equally well? That the megalithic builders knew how
+to employ smaller stones we know from their work; that they preferred to
+use large ones for certain purposes was not due to ignorance or chance,
+it was because the large stone as such had some particular meaning and
+association for them. We cannot definitely say that large stones were
+themselves actually worshipped, but there can be no possible doubt that
+for some reason or other they were regarded as peculiarly fit to be used
+in sanctified places such as the tombs of the dead. It is impossible
+that the men who possessed the skill to lay the horizontal upper courses
+of the Hagiar Kim temple should have taken the trouble to haul to the
+spot and use vast blocks over 20 feet in length where far smaller ones
+would have been more convenient, unless they had some deep-seated
+prejudice in favour of great stones.
+
+Such are the main difficulties involved by the influence theory. On the
+other hand, objections have been urged against the idea that the
+monuments were all built by one and the same race. Thus Dr. Montelius in
+his excellent _Orient und Europa_ says, "In Europe at this time dwelt
+Aryans, but the Syrians and Sudanese cannot be Aryans," the inference
+being, of course, that the European dolmens were built by a different
+race from that which built those of Syria and the Sudan. Unfortunately,
+however, the major premise is not completely true, for though it is true
+that Aryans did live in Europe at this time, there were also people in
+Europe who were not Aryans, and it is precisely among them that
+megalithic buildings occur.
+
+The French archaeologist Dechelette also condemns the idea of a single
+race. "Anthropological observations," he says, "have long since ruined
+this adventurous hypothesis." He does not tell us what these
+observations are, but we presume that he refers to the occurrence of
+varying skull types among the people buried in the megalithic tombs.
+Nothing is more natural than that some variation should occur. We are
+dealing with a race which made enormous journeys, and thus became
+contaminated by the various other races with which it came in contact.
+It may even have been a mixed race to start with. Thus even if we found
+skulls of very different types in the dolmens this would not in the
+least disprove the idea that dolmen building was introduced into various
+countries by one and the same race. It would be simply a case of the
+common anthropological fact that a race immigrating into an already
+inhabited country becomes to some extent modified by intermarriage with
+the earlier inhabitants. The measurements given in the last chapter
+would seem to show that despite local variation there is an underlying
+homogeneity in the skulls of the megalithic people.
+
+It thus seems that the most probable theory of the origin of the
+megalithic monuments is that this style of building was brought to the
+various countries in which we find it by a single race in an immense
+migration or series of migrations. It is significant that this theory
+has been accepted by Dr. Duncan Mackenzie, who is perhaps the first
+authority on the megalithic structures of the Mediterranean basin.
+
+
+One question still remains to be discussed. From what direction did
+megalithic architecture come, and what was its original home? This is
+clearly a point which is not altogether dependent on the means by which
+this architecture was diffused. Montelius speaks in favour of an Asiatic
+origin. He considers that caves, and tombs accessible from above, i.e.
+simple pits dug in the earth, were native in Europe, while tombs reached
+from the side, such as dolmens and corridor-tombs, were introduced into
+Europe from the east. Salomon Reinach, arguing mainly from the early
+appearance of the objects found in the tombs of Scandinavia and the
+rarity of the simpler types of monument, such as the dolmen, in Germany
+and South Europe, suggests that megalithic monuments first appeared in
+North Europe and spread southwards. Mackenzie is more inclined to
+believe in an African origin. If he is right it may be that some
+climatic change, possibly the decrease of rainfall in what is now the
+Sahara desert, caused a migration from Africa to Europe very similar to
+that which many believe to have given to Europe its early neolithic
+population. The megalithic people may even have been a branch of the
+same vast race as the neolithic: this would explain the fact that both
+inhumed their dead in the contracted position.
+
+It is probable that the problem will never be solved. The only way to
+attempt a solution would be to show that in some part of the megalithic
+area the structures were definitely earlier than in any other, and that
+as we move away from that part in any direction they become later and
+later. Such a means of solution is not hopeful, for the earliest form
+of structure, the dolmen, occurs in all parts of the area, and if we
+attempt to date by objects we are met by the difficulty that a dolmen in
+one place which contained copper might be earlier than one in another
+place which contained none, copper having been known in the former place
+earlier than in the latter.
+
+
+It still remains to consider the question of the origin of the rock-hewn
+sepulchre and its relation to the megalithic monument. The rock-tomb
+occurs in Egypt, Phoenicia, Rhodes, Cyprus, Crete, South Italy, Sicily,
+Sardinia, Malta, Pianosa, the Iberian Peninsula, the Balearic Isles, and
+France. In all these places there are examples which are certainly
+early, i.e. belong to the neolithic or early metal age, with the
+exception of Malta and perhaps Rhodes and Phoenicia. Two types are
+common, the chamber cut in the vertical face of rock and thus entered
+from the side, sometimes by a horizontal passage, and the chamber cut
+underground and entered from a vertical or sloping shaft placed not
+directly over the chamber, but immediately to one side of it. It is
+unlikely that these two types have a separate origin, for they are
+clearly determined by geological reasons. A piece of country where
+vertical cliffs or faces of rock abounded was suited to the first type,
+while the other alone was possible when the ground consisted of a flat
+horizontal surface of rock. We frequently find the two side by side and
+containing identically the same type of remains. In South-East Sicily we
+have the horizontal entrance in the tombs of the rocky gorge of
+Pantalica, while the vertical shaft is the rule in the tombs of the
+Plemmirio, only a few miles distant.
+
+Two curious facts are noticeable with regard to the distribution of the
+rock-hewn tombs. In the first place they are all in the vicinity of the
+Mediterranean, and in the second some occur in the megalithic area,
+while others do not. The examples of Egypt, Cyprus, and Crete show that
+this type of tomb flourished in the Eastern Mediterranean. Was it from
+here that the type was introduced into the megalithic area, or did the
+megalithic people bring with them a tradition of building rock-tombs
+totally distinct from that which is represented by the tombs of Egypt,
+Cyprus, and Crete?
+
+The question is difficult to answer. One thing alone is clear, that in
+certain places, such as Malta and Sardinia, the megalithic people were
+not averse to reproducing in the solid rock the forms which they more
+usually erected with large stones above ground. The finest instance of
+this is the Halsaflieni hypogeum in Malta, where the solid rock is hewn
+out with infinite care to imitate the form and even the details of
+surface building.
+
+Similarly we have seen that both in Sardinia and in France the same
+forms of tomb were rendered in great stones or in solid rock almost
+indifferently.
+
+There can therefore be no doubt that the hewing out of rock was
+practised by the megalithic people, and that they were no mean exponents
+of the art. We have no proof that they brought this art along with them
+from their original centre of dispersion, though if they did it is
+curious that they did not carry it into other countries where they
+penetrated besides those of the Mediterranean. It may be that early
+rock-tombs will yet be found in North Africa, but it seems improbable
+that, had they existed in the British Isles, in North Germany, or in
+Scandinavia, not a single example should have been found.
+
+On the other hand, if the megalithic people did not bring the idea of
+the rock-tomb with them we must suppose either that it evolved among
+them after their migration, or that they adopted it from the Eastern
+Mediterranean. The last supposition is particularly unlikely, as it
+would involve the modification of a burial custom by foreign influence.
+
+We have, in fact, no evidence on which to judge the question. Perhaps it
+is least unreasonable to suppose that the idea of the rock-tomb was
+brought into the megalithic area by the same people who introduced the
+megalithic monuments, and did not result from contact with the Eastern
+Mediterranean. Similarly we ought perhaps to disclaim any direct
+connection between the corridor-tombs of the megalithic area and the
+great _tholoi_ of Crete and the Greek mainland. At first sight there is
+a considerable similarity between them. The Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae
+with its corbelled circular chamber and long rectangular corridor seems
+very little removed, except in size and finish, from the tombs of Gavr'
+Inis and Lough Crew. Yet there are vital points of difference. The two
+last are tombs built partly with upright slabs on the surface of the
+ground, entered by horizontal corridors, and covered with mounds. The
+Treasury of Atreus is simply an elaborated rock-tomb cut underground
+with a sloping shaft; as the ground consisted only of loose soil a
+coating of stone was a necessity, and hence the resemblance to a
+megalithic monument.
+
+
+
+
+                             BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+                     OF THE MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS
+
+
+                               GENERAL
+
+Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries_ (London 1872).
+Bonstetten, _Essai sur les dolmens_ (Geneva 1865).
+Mortillet, _Compte rendu du congres d'archeologie
+    prehistorique_, Stockholm, 1874, pp. 267 ff.
+Reinach, _Le mirage oriental_, in _L'Anthropologie_, 1893, pp. 557 ff.
+Montelius, _Orient und Europa_.
+Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_, Vols. II and III.
+Reinach, _Terminologie des monuments megalithiques
+     in Revue archeologique_, 3^{e} ser., XXII, 1893.
+Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_ (London 1872).
+
+
+                           ENGLAND AND WALES
+
+Fergusson, _op. cit._
+_Recent Excavations at Stonehenge, Archaeologia_, LVIII, pp. 37 ff.
+Flinders Petrie, _Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and
+     Theories_ (London 1880).
+Windle, _Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England._
+James, Sir Henry, _Plans and Photos of Stonehenge and of Turnsuchan
+     in the Island of Lewis_ (Southampton 1867).
+Evans, Sir A., _Archaeological Review_, II, 1889, pp. 313 ff.
+Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, November 21st, 1901.
+Hinks, _XIXth Century_, June, 1903, pp. 1002 ff.
+Lockyer, Sir N., _Nature_, LXXI, 1904-5, pp. 297 ff.,
+     345 ff., 367 ff., 391 ff., 535 ff.
+Lewis, A. A., _Stone Circles in Britain, Archaeological
+     Journal_, XLIX, pp. 136 ff.
+Thurnam, _Ancient British Barrows, Archaeologia_,
+     XLII, pp. 161 ff., XLIII, pp. 285 ff.
+Lewis, A. A., _Prehistoric Remains in Cornwall, Journal of the
+     Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXV, 1895, and XXXV, 1905.
+Kermode and Herdman, _Illustrated Notes on Manks
+     Antiquities_ (Liverpool 1904).
+
+
+                               SCOTLAND
+
+Wilson, _The Archaeological and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland._
+Forbes Leslie, _Early Races of Scotland._
+Spence, Magnus, _Standing Stones and Maeshowe of Stenness._
+
+
+                                IRELAND
+
+Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland._
+Lewis, A. A., _Some Stone Circles in Ireland_, in
+  _Journal Anthrop. Inst.,_ XXXIX, pp. 517 ff.
+
+
+                                SWEDEN
+
+Montelius, _Orient und Europa._
+Montelius, _Kulturgeschichte Schwedens._
+Montelius, _Dolmens en France et en Suede_ (Le Mans 1907).
+Montelius, Graf fran stenaldern, upptaeckt vid
+    Oeringe i Ekeby socken, 1907.
+Nilsson, _Das Steinalter, oder die Ureinwohner des
+    Scandinavischen Nordens_ (Hamburg 1865).
+
+
+                               DENMARK
+
+Montelius, _Orient und Europa._
+Sophus Mueller, _L'Europe prehistorique._
+Sophus Mueller, _Nordische Alterthumskunde._
+
+
+                               HOLLAND
+
+_Archaeological Journal_, 1870, pp. 53 ff.
+_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, VI, 1876, p. 158.
+_Compte rendu du congres d'arch. prehist._, Stockholm, 1874.
+
+
+                                BELGIUM
+
+Engelhardt, _Om stendysser og deres geografiske udbredelse_,
+    in _Aarboeger f. nord. Oldkynd._, 1870, pp. 177 ff.
+
+
+                                GERMANY
+
+Krause und Schoetensack in _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_,
+   1893 (Altmark only).
+Morlot, _L'archeologie du Meclenbourg_ (Zurich 1868).
+von Estorff, _Heidnische Altertuemer der Gegend von
+   Aelzen_ (Hanover 1846).
+
+
+                              SWITZERLAND
+
+Keller, _Pfahlbauten_, 3 Bericht (Zurich, 1860), p. 101;
+    Pl. XI, Figs. 8 and 9.
+
+
+                                FRANCE
+
+Cartailhac, _La France prehistorique._
+Bertrand in _Revue archeologique_, 1864 (List of monuments).
+Bertrand, _Archeologie celtique et gauloise_, 2nd edit., 1889.
+Dechelette, _Manuel d'archeologie prehistorique celtique
+    et gallo-romaine_, Vol. I.
+Lewis, _Alignements at Autun_ in _Journal Anthrop.
+    Inst._, XXXVIII, 1908, pp. 380 ff.
+Lewis, _On some dolmens of peculiar form, op. cit._,
+    XL, 1910, pp. 336 ff.
+de Baye, _L'archeologie prehistorique_ (Petit-Morin tombs).
+Reinach, S., _La Sculpture en Europe_ (Angers 1896.
+    Figures of the 'dolmen deity').
+
+
+                                SPAIN
+
+Cartailhac, _Ages prehistorique de l'Espagne_.
+Cartailhac, _Monuments primitifs des iles baleares_.
+Bezzenberger in _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, XXXIX,
+    1907, pp. 567 ff.
+
+
+                                ITALY
+
+_Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXV, pp. 178 ff.
+Nicolucci, _Brevi note sui monumenti megalitici di
+    Terra d'Otranto_, 1893.
+_Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXXVII, pp. 6 ff.
+Mosso and Samarelli, _Il dolmen di Bisceglie_, in _Bull.
+    Paletn. Ital._, XXXVI, pp. 26 ff. and 86 ff.
+
+
+                               SICILY
+
+Orsi in _Bull. Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 202-3 (Monteracello).
+Orsi in _Ausonia_, 1907, pp. 1 ff. (Cava Lazzaro).
+Orsi in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1905, p. 432, Fig. 18 (Cava Lavinaro).
+
+
+                               SARDINIA
+
+La Marmora, _Voyage en Sardaigne_.
+Pinza in _Monumenti Antichi_, Vol. VIII.
+Nissardi in _Atti del Congresso Internazionale_, Roma,
+    1903, sezione preistorica.
+Nissardi and Taramelli in _Mon. Ant._, Vol. XVII.
+Taramelli in _Memnon_, Band II, Mai, 1908, pp. 1-35.
+Prechac in _Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire_, XXVIII.
+Mackenzie in _Ausonia_, III, 1908, pp. 18 ff.
+Mackenzie in _Memnon_, Vol. II, fasc. 3.
+Mackenzie in _Papers of the British School of Rome_, V, pp. 89 ff.
+Taramelli, _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1904, pp. 301 ff. (Anghelu Ruju).
+Colini in _Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana_, XXIV, pp. 252 ff.
+
+
+                                CORSICA
+
+_Nouvelles archives des missions scientifiques_, Vol. III,
+1892, pp. 49 ff.
+
+
+                                PIANOSA
+_Bullettino di Paletn. Ital._, XXIV, pp. 281 ff.
+
+
+                                 MALTA
+
+Mayr, A., _Die vorgeschichtlichen Denkmaeler von Malta_.
+Mayr, A., _Die Insel Malta_.
+Zammit, _First Report on the Halsaflieni Hypogeum_.
+Tagliaferro, _The Prehistoric Pottery found in the
+    Hypogeum at Halsaflieni_, in _Annals of Archaeology
+    and Anthropology_, Vol. III, pp. 1 ff.
+Zammit and Peet, _Report on the small objects found
+    at Halsaflieni_ (Valletta, in the Press).
+Magri, _Ruins of a Megalithic Temple at Xeuchia, Gozo_.
+Ashby, T., and others, _Report on Excavations at
+    Corradino, Mnaidra, and Hagiar Kim_, appearing
+    in Vol. VI of _Papers of the British School of Rome_.
+Peet, _Contributions to the Study of the Prehistoric
+    Period in Malta, Papers of the British School of
+    Rome_, V, pp. 141 ff.
+Tagliaferro, _Prehistoric Burials in a Cave at Burmeghez_,
+    in Man, 1911, pp. 147 ff.
+
+
+                             NORTH AFRICA
+
+Faidherbe in _Compte rendu du congres d'archeologie
+    prehistorique_, Bruxelles, 1872, pp. 406 ff.
+Flower in _Transactions of the International Congress
+of Prehistoric Archaeology_, Norwich, 1868, pp. 194 ff.
+MacIver and Wilkin, _Libyan Notes_.
+
+
+                                MOROCCO
+
+_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, V, p. 342;
+    VIII, p. 57; XX, p. 112.
+
+
+                                 TUNIS
+
+Cartailhac in _L'Anthropologie_, 1903, pp. 620 ff.
+Carton in _L'Anthropologie_, 1891, pp. 1 ff.
+_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, XXI, Pl. VI;
+    XXII, pp. 373 and 416.
+
+
+                           EGYPT AND THE SUDAN
+
+Wilson and Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan_,
+    Vol. II, p. 123.
+de Morgan, _Recherches sur l'origine de l'Egypte_, p. 239, Fig. 398.
+
+
+                               PANTELLERIA
+
+Orsi in _Monumenti Antichi_, IX, pp. 449 ff.
+
+
+                                LAMPEDUSA
+
+Ashby in _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, Vol. IV.
+
+
+                                 BULGARIA
+
+_Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in
+    Wien_, 1888, pp. 285 ff.
+_L'Anthropologie_, 1890, p. 110.
+
+
+                                  CRIMEA
+
+Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722.
+
+
+                            CAUCASUS AND CRIMEA
+
+Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_,
+    Vol. I, pp. 50 ff.
+Chantre in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen
+     Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 344.
+_Materiaux pour l'histoire de l'homme_, 1885, pp. 545 ff.
+Borlase, _Dolmens of Ireland_, III, p. 722.
+
+
+                            SYRIA AND PALESTINE
+
+_Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Reports_ for
+    1882; _Annual_, 1911, pp. 1 ff.
+Conder, _Heth and Moab_, pp. 190, 293.
+Perrot and Chipiez, IV, pp. 341, 378-9.
+
+
+                                  PERSIA
+
+de Morgan in _Revue mensuelle de l'Ecole d'anthropologie
+    de Paris_, 1902, p. 187.
+de Morgan, _La delegation en Perse_, 1902.
+de Morgan, _L'histoire d'Elam_, Paris, 1902.
+
+
+                                  INDIA
+
+_Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, XXIV, 1865.
+Westropp, _Prehistoric Phases_.
+
+
+                                  COREA
+
+_Journal Anthrop. Inst._, XXIV, p. 330.
+
+
+                                  JAPAN
+
+Gowland in _Archaeologia_, LV, pp. 439 ff.
+Gowland in _Journal Anthrop. Inst._, 1907, pp. 10 ff.
+
+
+
+
+                                  INDEX
+
+Abbameiga, 85
+Aberdeen, circles near, 38
+Adrianople, 114
+Africa, 90-6
+Aiga, 85
+Ain Dakkar, 117
+Ainu, the, 122
+Ala Safat, 116
+Alemtejo, 71
+Algeria, 91-5
+_Alignements_, 3, 59-60, 89,
+   119-20, 124, 154-7
+_Allees couvertes_, 3, 61, 64
+Altar Stone at Stonehenge, 18
+Altmark, 57
+Amman, 117
+Ammon, 115
+Anghelu Ruju, 88
+Anglesey, 27, 29
+Annaclochmullin, 145
+Antequera, 70
+Arbor Low, 25
+Arcturus, 50, 51
+Arles, 64
+Arles, Council of, 12
+Arran, circles on, 35-6
+Arthur, King, 11, 25
+Arthur's Quoit, 29
+Asia, 114-22
+Atreus, Treasury of, 157
+Aurelius Ambrosius, 15
+Avebury, 23-4, 27-8
+Avening, 33, 127
+Axe, cult of, 137-8
+Axe-shaped pendants, 80, 112
+Axevalla Heath, 54
+
+
+Baetyls, 104, 105-6, 137
+Balearic Isles, 71-5
+Barnstone, the, 36-7
+Barrows, long, 30-3
+Barth, 90
+Belgium, 58
+Bellary, 118
+Bell-shaped cup, 64, 81, 136
+Beltane festival, 37
+Benigaus Nou, 74
+Bertrand, 64, 143
+Birori, 82, 133
+Bisceglie, 76
+Bonstetten, 143
+Borreby, 54-5
+Boscawen-un, 26
+Bou Merzoug, 92
+Bou Nouara, 91
+Boyle Somerville, Captain, 50
+Brittany, 59-60
+Brogar, Ring of, 36-7
+Broholm, 54
+Bulgaria, 114
+Button, conical, 42, 71, 111, 135
+
+
+Caesar, 27
+Cairns, horned, 38-9
+Caithness, cairns of, 38-9
+_Callais_, 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 132
+Callernish Circle, 34
+Calvados, 64
+Camster, 39
+Can de Ceyrac, 60
+Caouria, 89
+Capella, 50, 51
+Carnac, 13, 59-60
+Carrick-a-Dhirra, 43
+Carrickard, 45
+Carrickglass, 41
+Carrigalla, 49
+Carrowmore, 41-2
+Cashtal-yn-Ard, 145
+Cassibile, 80
+Castelluccio, 80, 81
+Castor, 50
+Caucasus, 114
+Cava Lavinaro, 78
+Cava Lazzaro, 78
+Cave burial, 81, 88
+Chagford, 29
+Champ Dolent, menhir of, 13
+Channel Isles, 67
+Charlemagne, 12
+Charlton's Abbott, 33
+China, 122
+Chittore, 119
+Chun Quoit, 29
+Circles, stone, 15-28, 34-8, 48-51,
+   60, 96, 115
+Cirta, 92
+Clava, 37
+Clynnog Fawr, 128
+Collorgues, 137
+Constantine, 91
+Contracted burials, 33, 54, 62, 77, 80,
+  81, 93, 97, 111, 140-1, 153
+Coolback, 43
+Corbelled roofs, 6, 32, 45, 48,
+  69, 73, 84, 86, 87, 102-3
+Cordin, 105, 108
+Corea, 122
+Cornwall, dolmens in, 29
+  monuments of, 26
+Corridor-tombs, 3, 43-8, 52-5, 56-8,
+  62-4, 67-71, 76-7, 96, 118, 120-2
+Corse, Cape, 89
+Corsica, 88-9
+Coursed masonry, use of, 5, 73, 82
+Cove, the, 25
+Cremation, 35, 42, 66, 140
+Crete, 113, 132, 142, 155, 157
+Crickstone, the, 30
+Crimea, 114
+Cromlechs, 3
+Cumberland, monuments of, 25
+Cup-markings, 117, 127-8
+Cyprus, 155
+Cyrenaica, 91
+
+
+Dance Maen Circle, 26
+Date of megaliths, 123
+Dax, 64
+Deccan, 118-9
+Dechelette, 139, 151
+de Morgan, 90
+Denmark, 53-5
+Dennis, 76
+Der Ghuzaleh, 116
+Dolmens, 2, 29, 40-1, 52-3, 56, 58, 61, 67-8,
+    82, 89, 90, 91-6, 108, 114-9
+Drawings on stones, 46, 48, 55, 62, 110
+Drewsteignton, 29
+Druids, 11, 27-8
+
+
+Edfu, 90
+Eguilaz, 68
+Egypt, 155
+Ellez, 96
+England, monuments of, 15-33
+Erdeven, 60
+Er-Lanic, 60
+Eskimos, 126
+Es Tudons, _nau_ of, 73-4
+Evans, Sir Arthur, 20, 105
+
+
+Facades, curved, 78, 145-6
+Faidherbe, General, 143
+Faustina, medal of, 95
+Feraud, M., 92-3
+Fergusson, 28, 143
+Fibrolite, 63
+Finistere, dolmens of, 13
+Fontanaccia, 89
+Fonte Coberta, 68
+Forbes Leslie, Colonel, 119
+France, 59-67
+Friar's Heel, 18, 21
+
+
+Galilee, 115
+Gargantua, 11
+Gaulstown, 41
+Gavr'inis, 62, 137
+Gebel Mousa, 116
+Geoffrey of Monmouth, 26
+Ger, 64
+Germany, 56-7
+Get, 39
+Gezer, 124
+Giant's Bed, 56
+Giant's Tombs, 87-8
+Gigantia, 104
+
+Giraldus Cambrensis, 15
+Goehlitzsch, 137
+Gozo, Is., 104
+Greenland, 125
+Grewismuehlen, 56
+Grotte des Fees, 64, 74
+Grotte du Castellet, 64
+
+
+Hagiar Kim, 6, 103-4
+Hakpen Hill, 24, 27
+Halsaflieni, 108-13, 130
+Hauptville's Quoit, 25
+Hengist, 15
+Herrestrup, 53
+Highwood, 45
+Hinks, Mr., 22
+Hirdmane Stone, 13
+Holed tombs, 77, 114, 116, 117, 126-7
+Holland, 57-8
+Horned cairns, 146
+_Huenenbetter_, 45, 56-8
+Hurlers, the, 26
+
+
+Idanha a Nova, 139
+India, 118-20
+Inigo Jones, 27
+Inverness, circles in, 37-8
+Ireland, monuments of, 40-51
+Iron, 39, 46, 93, 119
+Italy, 76-7
+
+
+Jadeite, 63
+James I, 27
+Japan, 120-2
+Jaulan, 117
+Jimmu, 121
+Judaea, 115
+
+
+Karleby, 54
+Karnak (Egypt), 22
+Keamcorravooly, 44
+Keller, 56
+Kennet Avenue, 24
+Kerlescan, 60
+Kermario, 60
+Keswick Circle, 25
+Khasi Hills, 119
+Kingarth, circle at, 36
+Kirkabrost, circle at, 36
+Kit's Coty House, 29
+Knyttkaerr, 55
+Komei, 121
+Kosseir, 118
+
+
+Labbamologa, 43
+Lado, 90
+Lampedusa, Isle of, 96
+Lanyon Quoit, 29, 127
+La Perotte, 7
+Leaba Callighe, 43
+Lecce, 76
+Lewis, Isle of, 34
+Linosa, Isle of, 96, 132
+Lockyer, Sir Norman, 21-2, 51
+Long Meg and her daughters, 25
+Losa, 85
+Los Millares, 70, 137, 145
+Lough Crew, 45, 48, 62
+Lough Gur, 48-51
+Lozere, 130
+Lundhoej, 55
+Luettich, 58
+
+
+MacIver, D.R., 93-4
+Mackenzie, Duncan, 85, 152, 153
+Maeshowe, 36-7
+Malta, 98-113
+Man, Isle of, 30
+Mane-er-Hroeck, 62-3
+Marcella, 68
+Matera, 77
+Maughold, 30
+Mayborough Circle, 25
+Mayr, Albert, 105
+Meayll Hill, 30
+Melilli, 80
+Men-an-tol, 30
+Menec, 59
+Menhirs, 2, 29, 59, 115-6, 123-4
+  cult of, 12, 123-4
+Merivale, circle at, 26
+Merlin, 15
+Merry Maidens, the, 26
+Messa, 90
+Minieh, 116
+Mnaidra, 100-3
+Moab, 115-7
+Molafa, 88
+Monte Abrahao, 71
+Montelius, O., 126, 151, 153
+Monteracello, 78
+Morocco, 96
+Mortillet, de, 59, 144
+Mourzouk, 90
+Msila, 93
+Munster, tombs of, 44
+Mursia, 97
+Musta, 108
+Mycenean vases, 81
+
+
+Naas, 15
+Nantes, Council of, 12
+Nara, 121
+_Naus_, 73-4, 145
+_Navetas_, see _Naus_
+Neermul jungle, 118
+Newbliss, 145
+New Grange, 46, 62
+Nile valley, 90
+Nilgiri Hills, 118
+Nine Maidens, the, 26
+Nissardi, 84
+Norway, 53
+Nossiu, 85, 87
+_Nuraghi_, 82-7
+
+
+Obsidian, 77, 134
+Odin's Stone, 11, 36
+Orkney Isles, cairns of, 38-9
+Orry's Grave, 30, 127
+Orsi, Paolo, 78, 79
+Orthostatic slabs, use of, 4, 69, 74,
+   80, 96, 100
+
+
+Palmella, 71
+Pantalica, 80, 155
+Pantelleria, Isle of, 96-8
+Papa-Westra, 39
+Pehada, 114
+Penrith Circle, 11
+Pentre Ifan, 29
+Pera, 115
+Perigord, 13
+Persia, 114
+Petit Morin, 66-7, 130
+Pfaeffikon, Lake, 56
+Phoenicia, 154
+Pianosa, 89
+Picardt, John, 57
+Pierre du Diable, La, 58
+Pierres Plates, Les, 61
+Piper, the, 26
+Plas Newydd, 29, 127
+Plemmirio, 155
+Pliny, 27
+Portico-dolmens, 40-1, 52, 119
+Portugal, 67
+Pottery, 135-6
+
+
+Reinach, Salomon, 144
+Religion, megalithic, 105-6, 137-9
+Rhodes, 154
+Rinaiou, 89
+Rock-tombs, 3, 66-7, 71, 74, 79-81, 88
+Rockbarton, 48
+Rodmarton, 33, 127
+Roknia, 94
+Rollright Circle, 25, 29, 50
+
+
+Saint George, 88
+Saint-Germain-sur-Vienne, 12
+Saint Michel, Mont, 63
+Saint Pantaleon, 60
+Saint Sermin, 139
+Saint Vincent, 74
+Sant' Elia, Cape, 88
+Sardinia, 82-8
+S'Aspru, 85
+Scandinavia, 52-5
+Scotland, monuments of, 34-9
+Sculptures, 67, 138
+Secondary burial, 79, 141-2
+Senam, the, 93-4
+Seriphos, 139
+Serucci, 85
+_Sesi_, the, 97-8
+Shap, circle at, 23
+Sicily, 77-82
+Sidbury Hill, 21
+Sidon, 115
+Siggewi, 108
+Silbury Hill, 24, 28
+Siret, Messieurs, 68
+Sjoebol, 53
+Skulls, 77, 112, 129-31
+Sorapoor, 118
+Spain, 67-71
+Spence, Magnus, 37
+Stanton Drew, 25, 49
+Star-worship, 23, 50-1, 128
+Steatopygous figures, 107, 112
+Stenness, Ring of, 36
+Stonehenge, 15-23
+Stoney-Littleton, 32
+Stripple Stones, the, 26
+Stromness, circle at, 36
+Stukeley, Dr., 27
+Su Cadalanu, 84
+Sudan, 90
+Suetonius, 27
+Sun-worship, 21-3, 28-9, 37, 51
+Sweden, 52-5
+Switzerland, 56
+Syria, 115-8
+
+
+Table des Marchands, La, 16, 137
+Tagliaferro, Professor, 108, 111
+Tahutihotep, tomb of, 8
+_Talayots_, 71-3
+Tamuli, 139
+Tangier, 96
+Tarentum, 76
+Tattooing, 139
+"Three Brothers of Grugith," the, 128
+Tiberias, 115
+Tinaarloo, 57
+Toledo, Council of, 12
+Torebo, 53
+Tours, Council of, 12
+Trade relations, 131-3
+Tregeseal, circles near, 26
+Trepanned skulls, 62
+Trilithons, 2, 17, 90, 100-1, 103-4, 117
+Tripoli, 90-1
+_Truddhi_, 86
+Tsil, 117-8
+Tunis, 95-6
+Tyfta, 54
+Tyre, 115
+Tzarskaya, 114
+
+
+Unebi, Mt., 121
+
+
+Vail Gorguina, 67
+Vellore, 118
+Villafrati, 81
+Villages, megalithic, 74, 85-6, 97
+
+
+Wales, monuments of, 29
+Watchstone, the, 36-7
+Wayland the Smith's Cave, 11, 14, 30, 32
+Wedge-shaped tomb, 44-5, 55, 70-1, 117
+Westgothland, 54
+West Tump, 146
+
+
+Yarhouse, 39
+
+
+Zammit, Dr. T., 112
+
+
+
+
+                     WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LTD.
+                         PRINTERS, PLYMOUTH
+
+
+
+
+           ------------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |      HARPER'S LIBRARY OF LIVING THOUGHT       |
+           |                                               |
+           | _Foolscap 8vo, gilt tops, decorative covers,  |
+           |              richly gilt backs                |
+           |                                               |
+           |    Per Volume: Cloth 2s. 6d. net, Leather     |
+           |                 3s. 6d. net._                 |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |           By Prof. ARTHUR KEITH, M.D.         |
+           |(Hunterian Professor Royal College of Surgeons)|
+           |                                               |
+           |             ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                _Illustrated_                  |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | From discoveries of ancient human remains     |
+           | made within the last half-century,            |
+           | anthropologists are now able to place in      |
+           | order changes that have taken place in the    |
+           | posture, gait, height, and to some extent     |
+           | the habits of man during a period of at       |
+           | least a half-million years. Prof. Keith, who  |
+           | is one of the foremost investigators in this  |
+           | field, tells the story of the various forms   |
+           | which the body of the man has assumed, in a   |
+           | lucid and attractive way.                     |
+           |                                               |
+           | "The kind of book that only a master of his   |
+           | subject could write. It must interest every   |
+           | thinking person."--_British Medical           |
+           | Journal._                                     |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |         By Prof W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE          |
+           |                                               |
+           |          PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT           |
+           |              BEFORE CHRISTIANITY              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | "The author gauges what ideas were already    |
+           | part of the religious thought in the first    |
+           | century, and what were the terms and ideas    |
+           | in Christianity which were new to mankind.    |
+           | The current literature of the time was as     |
+           | naturally taken for granted by Christians as  |
+           | were the books of the Old Testament which     |
+           | were familiar to them. The separation of the  |
+           | new ideas in the teaching of Christ and of    |
+           | the Apostles from the general terms of        |
+           | religion at the time, is the only road to     |
+           | understanding what Christianity meant to      |
+           | those who actually heard the teaching."       |
+           |                                               |
+           |                           _Notts Guardian._   |
+           |                                               |
+           | "A suggestive and thought-provoking book, a   |
+           | real contribution to the study of             |
+           | comparative religion."                        |
+           |                                               |
+           |                        _Methodist Recorder._  |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+            -----------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |          By Prof. ERNEST A. GARDNER           |
+           |                                               |
+           |       RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE      |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | "Anything from such an authority on Greek     |
+           | art is welcome. This subject in the hands of  |
+           | Professor Gardner becomes a profoundly        |
+           | interesting study in the philosophy of        |
+           | religion. He has dealt with the religion of   |
+           | Greece as it affected the art of sculpture,   |
+           | and with the reaction of that art upon the    |
+           | ideals and aspirations of the people and its  |
+           | influence upon the popular and the educated   |
+           | conceptions of the gods. It is well worth     |
+           | the trouble to study the religious art of     |
+           | such a people, and this is an epitome of the  |
+           | subject such as readers can get nowhere       |
+           | else."                                        |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                 _Scotsman._   |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |      Harper's Library of Living Thought       |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |         By Prof. W.M. FLINDERS PETRIE         |
+           |                                               |
+           |        THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION        |
+           |                                               |
+           |                 _Illustrated_                 |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | In the light of history--so enormously        |
+           | extended in recent years--the author surveys  |
+           | the waxing and waning of civilisation as      |
+           | evidenced in sculpture, painting,             |
+           | literature, mechanics, and wealth. In         |
+           | tracing the various forces at work in this    |
+           | fluctuation he arrives at most significant    |
+           | conclusions, notably in connection with race  |
+           | mixture and forms of government.              |
+           |                                               |
+           | "We know nothing that exhibits in so brief a  |
+           | compass the extraordinary vicissitudes of     |
+           | human progress and retrogression since the    |
+           | dawn of history."--_Birmingham Post._         |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+           ------------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |         By CHARLES H. HAWES, M.A., and        |
+           |         HARRIET B. HAWES, M.A., L.H.D.        |
+           |                                               |
+           |        CRETE, THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE        |
+           |                                               |
+           |               _Map, Plans, etc._              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | "The wondrous story of a great civilisation   |
+           | which flourished before Abraham was born,     |
+           | and left behind a memory of itself in the     |
+           | Arts of Ancient Greece and in the traditions  |
+           | of a golden age and a 'Lost                   |
+           | Atlantis.'"--_Evening Standard._              |
+           |                                               |
+           | "We have now the material for forming a very  |
+           | fair conception of the fruitful contribution  |
+           | made by Crete to Grecian and European         |
+           | civilisation. What was long accounted         |
+           | fable--statements of Herodotus and            |
+           | Thucydides--have been turned into             |
+           | established fact. The book supplies material  |
+           | for forming judgments on some of the most     |
+           | interesting and still highly debated          |
+           | problems of early Greek history."             |
+           |                             _Glasgow Herald._ |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+
+           -------------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |           By Prof. G. ELLIOT SMITH            |
+           |                                               |
+           |            THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS              |
+           |                                               |
+           |                _Illustrated_                  |
+           |                                               |
+           |                                               |
+           | An account of the Egyptians of the            |
+           | unrecorded past as revealed by the            |
+           | investigations of the anthropologist. The     |
+           | author traces to their source the various     |
+           | streams of alien immigrants which made their  |
+           | way into the Nile valley, and correlates his  |
+           | facts with the great racial movements in the  |
+           | neighbouring continents. He shows how the     |
+           | Egyptians inaugurated a higher                |
+           | civilisation--particularly in bringing the    |
+           | Stone Age to a close and introducing the use  |
+           | of metals.                                    |
+           |                                               |
+           | "This is a brilliant little book,             |
+           | illuminating the whole subject of the         |
+           | history of the human race since man assumed   |
+           | his proper shape."--_Manchester Guardian._    |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |  Algernon Charles Swinburne                   |
+           |     THREE PLAYS OF SHAKESPEARE                |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Leo Tolstoy                                  |
+           |      THE TEACHING OF JESUS                    |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie                   |
+           |      PERSONAL RELIGION IN EGYPT BEFORE        |
+           |        CHRISTIANITY                           |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.                     |
+           |      THE ETHER OF SPACE.  Illustrated         |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. William Wrede                          |
+           |   (University of Breslau)                     |
+           |      THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. C.H. Becker                            |
+           |   (Colonial Institute, Hamburg)               |
+           |      CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM                   |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Svante Arrhenius                       |
+           |   (Nobel Institute, Stockholm)                |
+           |      THE LIFE OF THE UNIVERSE.                |
+           |        2 vols. Illustrated                    |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Arnold Meyer (University of Zurich)    |
+           |       JESUS OR PAUL?                          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. D.A. Bertholet (University of Basle)   |
+           |      THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS              |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Reinhold Seeberg                       |
+           |    (University of Berlin)                     |
+           |      REVELATION AND INSPIRATION               |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Johannes Weiss                         |
+           |   (University of Heidelberg)                  |
+           |       PAUL AND JESUS                          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Rudolph Eucken (University of Jena)    |
+           |       CHRISTIANITY AND THE NEW IDEALISM       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. P. Vinogradoff (Oxford University)     |
+           |       ROMAN LAW IN MEDIAEVAL EUROPE            |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., LL.D.     |
+           |      DIAMONDS. Illustrated                    |
+           |                                               |
+           |       _PLEASE WRITE FOR PROSPECTUS            |
+           |            AND ANNOUNCEMENTS_                 |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+            -----------------------------------------------
+           |                                               |
+           |       Harper's Library of Living Thought      |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |  C.H. Hawes, M.A., and                        |
+           |  Harriet Boyd Hawes, M.A.                     |
+           |    CRETE THE FORERUNNER OF GREECE. Maps, etc. |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir William A. Tilden, F.R.S.                |
+           |    THE ELEMENTS: Speculations as to their     |
+           |      Nature and Origin.  Illustrated          |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Ernest A. Gardner                      |
+           |   (University of London)                      |
+           |     RELIGION AND ART IN ANCIENT GREECE        |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. F.W. Mott, F.R.S., M.D.                |
+           |    THE BRAIN AND THE VOICE IN SPEECH AND      |
+           |      SONG.  Illustrated                       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. G. Elliott Smith                       |
+           |   (University of Manchester)                  |
+           |     THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, and their          |
+           |       Influence upon the Civilisation         |
+           |       of Europe.  Illustrated                 |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Frederick Czapek                       |
+           |   (University of Prague)                      |
+           |     CHEMICAL PHENOMENA IN LIFE                |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. W.M. Flinders Petrie                   |
+           |     THE REVOLUTIONS OF CIVILISATION.          |
+           |       Copiously Illustrated                   |
+           |                                               |
+           |  The Very Rev. the Hon. W.H. Fremantle, D.D.  |
+           |    (Dean of Ripon)                            |
+           |      NATURAL CHRISTIANITY                     |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. A.W. Bickerton                         |
+           |      THE BIRTH OF WORLDS AND SYSTEMS.         |
+           |        Illustrated.                           |
+           |        Preface by Prof. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S. |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Prof. Arthur Keith, M.D.                     |
+           |      ANCIENT TYPES OF MAN.  Illustrated       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Sir William Ramsay, F.R.S.                   |
+           |      ELEMENTS AND ELECTRONS.  Diagrams        |
+           |                                               |
+           |  Arthur Holmes, B.Sc.                         |
+           |      THE AGE OF THE EARTH.  Illustrated       |
+           |                                               |
+           |  T. Eric Peet, M.A.                           |
+           |      ROUGH STONE MONUMENTS AND                |
+           |        THEIR BUILDERS.  Illustrated           |
+           |                                               |
+           |-----------------------------------------------|
+           |                                               |
+           |           :: HARPER AND BROTHERS ::           |
+           |          45 Albemarle St: London, W.          |
+           |             Franklin Sq. New York             |
+           |                                               |
+           -------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rough Stone Monuments and Their
+Builders, by T. Eric Peet
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