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diff --git a/15322.txt b/15322.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7fca13b --- /dev/null +++ b/15322.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3427 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Architect and Building News, +Vol. 27, No. 733, January 11, 1890, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 27, No. 733, January 11, 1890 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 11, 2005 [EBook #15322] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Charles Aldarondo and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + +THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND BUILDING NEWS. + +VOL. XXVII. Copyright, 1890, by Ticknor & Company, Boston, Mass. No 733. + +Entered at the Post-Office at Boston as second-class matter. + + + + +JANUARY 11, 1890. + + +[Illustration: CONTENTS] + +SUMMARY:-- + + Our International Edition and the Support it would receive Abroad + and should receive Here.--The Influence of Architectural Journals + on the Reputations of Architects.--Probable Irregularity in + Publication.--Death of Mr. Charles Keely, Architect.--The Movement + to abolish the Tariff on Works of Art.--The Borrowing of Fire + Engines as it affects Insurance.--The Duke of Brunswick's Monument + at Geneva.--An Opening for Architects in Spanish America. 17 + +CIVIL AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.--I. 19 + +LETTER FROM PARIS. 21 + +LOSS OF POWER BY RADIATION OF HEAT. 22 + +THE COST OF A SMALL MUSEUM. 23 + +SANITARY ENTOMBMENT: THE IDEAL DISPOSITION OF THE DEAD. 24 + +THE VERPLANCK HOMESTEAD, FISHKILL, N.Y. 26 + +ELECTRICITY'S VICTIMS IN EUROPE. 27 + +ILLUSTRATIONS:-- + + House of G.M. Smith, Esq., Providence, R.I.--The Cathedral of St. + Machar, Aberdeen.--Monument in the South Transept of the Cathedral, + Aberdeen, Scotland.--The Hotel de Soto, Savannah, Ga.--Memorial + Church of the Angels, Los Angeles, Cal.--St. Augustine's Roman + Catholic Church Buildings, Brooklyn, N.Y.--Chateau de Josselin, + Morbihan, France: Facade on the Cour d'Honneur.--An Interior in the + Chateau de Josselin, Morbihan, France.--Two Views of the House of + Mrs. Consino, Santiago, Chili.--Design for Church of the Good + Shepherd, Gospel Oak, London, N.W., Eng.--Butler's Wood, + Chislehurst, Eng.--House at Pennsylvania, Exeter, Eng.--Design for + Board Schools. 27 + +METHODS OF REDUCING THE FIRE LOSS. 28 + +SOCIETIES. 30 + +COMMUNICATIONS.-- + + Agreement between Architect and Client.--Inspection of Buildings in + New York.--A seeming Attempt to defraud an Architect.--Ventilating + Wooden Columns.--Books on Water-color Painting. 30 + +NOTES AND CLIPPINGS. 31 + +TRADE SURVEYS. 32 + + * * * * * + +We wonder whether every one who receives these first issues of the +International Edition of the _American Architect_ comprehends the +significance of the step which we, with the kind support and +appreciation of our subscribers, have ventured to take. How many of +those who turn over our pages realize that this is by far the most +ambitious and costly architectural periodical in the world, and that it +has been reserved for America to try to present every week, with a due +proportion of the more valuable models from the past, an adequate view +of all the best architecture which modern civilization can show? +Strangely enough, in carrying out our plan of representing contemporary +architecture as it should be represented, it is to Americans that we +must most earnestly and urgently appeal for cooperation. We know where +we can get drawings, plans, photographs, descriptions and details of all +the best current work in North and South Germany, Italy, France and +England, and even in Russia, but to secure anything like a decent +representation of modern American architecture has hitherto been, +according to our experience, absolutely impossible. Not long ago a +discussion took place in England about architectural periodicals, and +one or two of the American journals were mentioned with commendation, on +account of the beautiful drawing and process-work in their +illustrations, as well as the value of their text. Not long afterwards, +a disparaging commentary on this discussion was made in one of the +English professional papers, to the effect that it was a great mistake +to value so highly the illustrations in the American journals, for the +reason that, although charmingly executed and fascinating, they rarely +represented architectural work of any importance. Our readers, +especially those faithful friends who have stood by us for years, will +understand that this was a sharp thrust, but it is, and not through our +fault, altogether too well deserved. While in all other countries where +architecture is practised, every important competition is regularly +illustrated from the competitive drawings themselves, which are, as a +matter of course, placed at the disposal of the professional journals; +and plans, elevations, sections and perspectives of all new buildings of +interest, and often photographs from the models for the sculptured +detail, and illustrations of the schemes for heating and ventilation are +gladly furnished by the architects, who understand perfectly that their +professional reputation depends in great part on the publicity which is +given to their work through the medium of the technical press: in this +country, on the contrary, the attitude toward technical journals of a +great many architects, and among them some who are constantly engaged +upon very important work, is one, apparently, of grave suspicion. The +most earnest appeals by letter on the part of the editors for permission +to publish plans or elevations of a successful building by one of them +meet with no response. Then the editor takes two or three days from his +abundant leisure, and calls personally upon the professional magnate. +The latter seems pleased to see him, shows him the drawings of the +building in question, appears to be gratified at his praises, and +readily agrees to allow the publication of the plan and perspective. The +editor lays these drawings aside, and proposes to take them with him, +but the architect politely insists that he cannot allow him to burden +himself, and promises that he will send them immediately by express. The +editor returns to his desk, and arranges space for the expected drawings +in the next issue, but they do not arrive. Two or three weeks go by, and +he then writes to the distinguished architect, to remind him of his +promise. The letter brings neither the drawings nor any other response, +and, after a final entreaty, as unsuccessful as the rest, he abandons +his efforts, to begin them again with a fresh subject, who proves as +slippery as the other. + + * * * * * + +After a good many years of such struggles, we should be inclined to say +that we would trouble ourselves no further, and that American architects +who are capable of carrying out important work successfully, and do not +want other people to know it, may please themselves in the matter, were +it not that, in a journal which now intends to show what is done all +over the world, we most earnestly wish to have American, architecture +properly represented. We are sure that the best of it is equal to the +best anywhere, and we want to be able to prove it. The treatment of our +modern mercantile and business structures, particularly those ten or +twelve stories in height, is more successful than any other work of the +kind in the world; the planning of our office-buildings is unrivalled +anywhere, and some of our apartment-houses will bear comparison with the +best in Paris--which are the best anywhere--and are more interesting, on +account of the more complex character of the services which we must +provide for. Besides this, many details of American construction, such +as the encased iron framing-and isolated pier foundations of the Chicago +architects, and the heating and ventilating systems in use everywhere +here, are far in advance of foreign practice, and we want our foreign +readers to see this with their own eyes, and to give their American +brethren their proper rank in the profession. To do this we must have +the material, and we appeal once more to American architects who have it +to furnish it, and to those who do not have it themselves, but who know +where it is to be found, to get it for us, or to put us in the way of +getting it. Plans, elevations, perspectives, sketches, photographs, +negatives, descriptions, whatever is good, we want to show, for the +benefit and reputation of the profession in America far more than for +our own, for we know better than the profession how very valuable +publicity of the kind is to architects. The late Mr. Richardson, even to +a comparatively late period in his professional career, was afflicted +with the usual bashfulness about having his work published. We well +remember the solicitations, the refusals, the renewed appeals, and, +finally, the reluctant and conditional assent to have a single gelatine +print from one of his perspectives published. This was the drawing, we +think, of the Woburn Library, and was accompanied by a plan. Finding +that he had suffered no severe injury from this exposure of his design +to the gaze of the cold world, Mr. Richardson soon became one of our +kindest friends, and if reputation and employment are things to be +desired by an architect, we may say with all due modesty that what he +did for us was repaid to him a hundred-fold, for, great as was his +talent, it must, without the publicity given to his work through means +like ours, have had for years only a local influence. As it was, +however, every issue of ours with one of his designs was studied in a +thousand offices and imitated in hundreds; his name was in the mouths of +all architects throughout the Union; our plates were reproduced abroad; +the illustrated magazines, finding his reputation already made in the +profession, hastened to spread it among the public; and at his lamented +death, a few years later, he was the central figure of American +architecture. Now, although we do not say that all the architects who +send us their drawings will attain the fame of a Richardson, we do say +that Richardson would never have attained a fraction of his reputation +if he had not allowed his designs to be published, and we need hardly +say further that if any architect has done a good piece of work, and has +it published, more people will know about it than if he kept it to +himself; and the more people know about his good work, the more will +come to him to get some like it, the better will be his standing in the +profession here, and the more credit he will do his country abroad. + + * * * * * + +It may be as well to disarm criticism and complaint by stating that +there will be throughout the year more or less of irregularity in the +appearance of the additional illustrations in the International Edition, +owing partly to steamer delays, and partly, perhaps, to misunderstanding +of our instructions on the part of our correspondents. It will not be +proper, therefore, to compare one issue with another, and assert that we +are falling short of our promises. When the end of the year is reached, +the subscribers to that edition will find, on review, that our promises +have been fully kept, and that the edition has been what it professed to +be. Naturally, defects and deficiencies will be more apparent at the +outset, when the complicated details of supply have not been definitely +adjusted. + + * * * * * + +The profession in Brooklyn, N.Y., has to mourn the loss of Mr. Charles +Keely, son of Mr. Peter C. Keely, the architect of so many Catholic +churches all over the country, and associated with his father in +business. The practice of the office is enormous, fifty churches, it is +said, being sometimes in process of execution from the designs of the +father and son, and of the excellent work done there, no doubt much was +due to the younger man's talent. Mr. Keely was about thirty-five years +of age, active and popular. He died of pneumonia in Hartford, at the +house of the bishop, whom he was visiting on business. + + * * * * * + +A deputation was presented to the Ways and Means Committee of Congress +the other day from the Free Art League, which urged the abolition of the +present duty on foreign works of art. The deputation consisted of Mr. +Carroll Beckwith and Mr. Kenyon Cox, with Mr. William A. Coffin, who, +after mentioning some of the obvious reasons for abolishing the tax, +stated that, in response to a circular sent out by the League, fourteen +hundred and thirty-five communications were received from artists, +teachers of art and others whose opinion would be of value. Of these, +thirteen hundred and forty-five desired the immediate abolition of the +duty, eighty-three favored a moderate duty, ten per cent being mentioned +by twenty-eight out of the number and seven wished the present impost +retained. The Ways and Means Committee, according to the newspapers, +listened politely to the artists for a time, and then turned their +attention to the duty on carbonate of soda. Whether, in the presence of +practical matters like carbonate of soda, they will ever, think again of +the tax on mere works of art, remains to be seen. + + * * * * * + +_Fire and Water_ says, referring to some remarks of ours about the +policy of transferring the fire-extinguishing apparatus of small towns +to any neighboring large one in which a serious conflagration happens to +break out, that we were mistaken in "supposing" that the insurance +companies might refuse to pay losses in suburban towns occurring during +the temporary absence of the regular protective apparatus, and that as +the contract of insurance does not mention anything of the kind, the +companies would be compelled to pay losses, whatever happened to the +engines, so long as their policies remained uncancelled. Now, in the +first place, we did not "suppose" or "assert," as another paper says we +did, anything about the matter. We simply said we had been told that the +companies would not pay in such cases, which was true. We were told +that, and by an insurance agent, who ought to know something about it. +Moreover, this was not the first time we have heard the same thing. Not +long ago, in a discussion in the city government of a town near Boston, +one of the members protested against allowing the town engines to leave +the limits of the municipality, for the same reason, that the insurance +companies would not pay losses occurring while the engines were absent. +As to the contract in the policy, we have often seen clauses requiring +the insured to notify the company of any circumstances affecting the +risk, of which the absence of the town engines might be considered one, +so, in our ignorance, we, and, we imagine, a good many others, would be +glad to have an authoritative statement from the companies themselves on +the subject. + + * * * * * + +According to the _Wiener Bauindustrie Zeitung_, the splendid Brunswick +monument at Geneva is on the point of falling down. Every one remembers +the history of this structure, which was erected in 1879, at a cost of +six hundred thousand dollars, to the memory of Charles the Second of +Brunswick, the "Diamond Duke," as he was called by the Germans, who, +after his expulsion from his principality by his subjects, on account of +his extravagance and general worthlessness, took up his residence in +Geneva, and, on his death, in 1873, bequeathed all his property, about +four million dollars, to the city. The municipality was grateful enough +to carry out in a very sumptuous manner the last wishes of its +benefactor, who desired to be commemorated by a monument in the style of +the later Scaliger tomb at Verona, and from the designs of Frauel was +erected the hexagonal Gothic pavilion, surmounted by an equestrian +statue of the Duke, which is so well known to architects. The Veronese +prototype of the monument is a tolerably insecure affair, but the modern +imitation is still larger and heavier, and two years after its +completion the substructure began to come to pieces. It was then clamped +with metal, but water got into the joints, and further repairs were soon +necessary. In 1883, the Carrara marble of which it was built had so far +decayed that the rebuilding of the whole with more durable stone was +seriously proposed; and now, examination, having shown that the whole +affair is likely to collapse at any moment, the city authorities have +asked for authority to raise eight thousand dollars, by loan, to put it +in secure condition. To tell the truth, it would not be an irreparable +loss to the world to have the structure go to ruin. An imitation of an +existing monument is not likely to be a very inspiring work of art, and +this was not extremely successful, even as an imitation; while the +historical fact which it immortalized, that the last representative of +one of the six great German princely families, whose ancestors had been +reigning sovereigns for a thousand years, had been obliged to set up the +images of his haughty forefathers in a community of Republicans, because +his own people despised and hated him so much that they could endure him +no longer, was not of a character to arouse noble thoughts in the mind +of the beholder. + + * * * * * + +We have before called attention to the great and rapidly increasing +importance of the South American Republics, and, while there seems to be +no prospect that our proximity to them will be of any commercial +advantage to us, some of our young architects and skilled mechanics, who +speak Spanish, might perhaps find profitable employment there. At +present, the most prosperous city is Buenos Ayres, which, from one +hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants in 1870, increased to four +hundred and sixty thousand in 1888, and has gained very rapidly within +the last year. We must confess that our own ideas of Buenos Ayres still +retain a reminiscence of gauchos and lassoes and buffalo, but this grows +fainter as we find illustrations in the foreign papers of the newer +buildings going up in the city. The last we have seen is of an enormous +dry-goods store, after the model of the "Bon Marche" or the "Printemps" +in Paris, which is known as the "Bon Marche Argentin," and covers at +present ninety thousand square feet of land, while thirty-five thousand +feet adjoining have been secured, and are to be used for the enlargement +of the present building which will soon become necessary. There are said +to be a good many architects already in Buenos Ayres, but first-rate +mechanics are, or were not long ago, so scarce that the municipality +imported plumbers under contract from London to do work on public +buildings. + + + + +CIVIL AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.--I.[1] + + +The term Civil and Domestic Architecture includes all public and private +edifices, that is to say: honorary monuments, such as triumphal arches +and tombs; buildings for the instruction of the public, such as museums, +libraries and schools; houses for public amusements, as theatres, +amphitheatres and circuses; structures for public service, as +city-halls, court-houses, prisons, hospitals, thermae, markets, +warehouses, slaughter-houses, railway-stations, light-houses, bridges +and aqueducts; finally, private dwellings, as palaces, mansions, city +and country residences, chateaux and villas. + +[Illustration: Memorial to the Heroes of the Franco Prussian War, +Berlin.] + +The first care of all social organizations, at their inception, must +have been to provide shelter against inclement weather. In primitive +times society was composed of shepherds, or agriculturists, or hunters, +and it is presumable that each of these groups adopted a shelter suited +to its nomadic or sedentary tastes. For this reason to shepherds is +attributed the invention of the tent, a portable habitation which they +could take with them from valley to valley, wherever they led their +flocks to pasture; agriculturists fixed to the soil which they tilled, +dwelling in the plains and along the river banks, must have found the +hut better adapted to their wants, while the hunters, stealing through +the forests, ambushed in the mountains, or stationed on the seashore, +naturally took safety in caves, or dug holes for themselves in the +earth, or hollowed out grottos in the rocks. + +An imitation of the tent is found later on in the form of the Chinese +and Japanese structures; the principle of the cave appears developed in +the subterranean dwellings of the people of India and Nubia; while the +hut is the point of departure for all Greek and Roman architecture. + +As soon as man had contrived a shelter for himself, before considering +improvements that might be made in it, he turned his thoughts toward the +divine being of his worship, and the first steps in art were taken in +the monuments which he raised to his gods. Then, confounding kings with +deities, he reared palaces like unto temples. But civil architecture, +properly so called, came into existence only with an already advanced +state of civilization, when cities were forming and peoples were +organizing. After having satisfied the demands of the moral nature, +after having erected temples to their gods and palaces to their kings, +the people began to group together and surround themselves with +fortifications. Next the material needs of society made themselves felt; +aqueducts were constructed to supply water; bridges established +communication between the opposite banks of streams; dikes confined the +rivers within certain bounds; streets were laid out along which houses +were built in orderly fashion, public squares were marked off where the +products of industry could be exchanged, where justice was dispensed and +where the great affairs of State were treated; then came mental and +physical demands, a felt need for the training of body and mind, and out +of this want grew theatres, stadia, gymnasia and thermae. In time we find +the history of a single people developing; and with this development a +necessity arising for lasting monuments to commemorate its various +stages; public services rendered by certain illustrious men called for +some enduring memorial; and relatives and friends, with whom one had +lived and whom the dread enemy had snatched away could not be left +without sepulture. Is there nothing after death? And so honorary +monuments, triumphal columns, statues and tombs sprang into being. +Again, with the growth of a people, wealth increases, and every new +victory assuring an added degree of ease introduces at the same time +extravagant tastes; a people after enduring suffering cries out for its +portion of pleasure; it was to satisfy this demand that circuses were +built, and amphitheatres where the eyes could feast on imposing +spectacles; private houses became more comfortable, they were improved +in arrangement, they were enlarged and embellished; at length an +extraordinary display of sumptuousness began to appear in the dwellings +of the great,--that luxury of decadence which marks the close of ancient +civilization. + +With the advent of Christ came new ideas which caused new departures, +not only in religious and monastic architecture, but in civil +architecture, as well. Christianity, in proclaiming a new virtue, love, +created retreats for the unfortunate, asylums for their reception and +hospitals for their care. Monkish orders, in their efforts to prevent +the destruction of old manuscripts, spread knowledge around them, and +following the example set by them in their monasteries, outside colleges +were founded. With the dissemination of knowledge, cities roused out of +their long sleep; their independent spirit began to shake off the yoke +of their oppressors; they formed themselves into communes and various +privileges were granted them. Under certain conditions, and in +consideration of the discharge of certain obligations, the commune is +seen at length assuming the administration of its own affairs. From this +moment an assembling-place is needed where communal interests can be +discussed and where questions can be put to vote. The town-hall, with +its belfry from which could be proclaimed afar all immunities won, +supplied the want. Around this centre markets sprang up, and exchanges +where merchants could negotiate and transact business. Finally, the less +exclusive modern spirit made itself felt, and, soaring beyond the city +bounds, it projected works of a genuinely public nature, not for the +benefit of this or that city, but for the entire country. Political +centralization, governmental unity, later on, made it possible to run +canals through different provinces, to establish barracks for troops +over broad stretches of territory, to build court-houses and prisons, to +reconstruct hospitals on new plans, and to open more extensive +exchanges, markets, warehouses and slaughter-houses. Public instruction +also had its imperious demands, and States were forced to sprinkle their +lands with school-houses of every grade, from the simplest asylums and +primary and secondary schools to special government institutions; +libraries and museums were founded to satisfy still other claims of +education. Then with the ever-increasing wants of a civilization, eager +for progress, in the presence of the important discoveries of science, +before the invasions of finance and the extension of governmental +machinery, architectural designs are indefinitely multiplied to supply +suitable departmental buildings, banking-houses, houses of commerce, +quarters for public officers and public boards, railway-stations, inns, +custom-houses and toll-houses; to say nothing of private residences and +play-houses, bathing establishments, casinos and villas, whose designs +change from time to time with the manners and customs of the period or +people. + +Civil architecture, in the proper sense of the term, originated with the +Greeks and was extended in a surprising degree among the Romans. All the +other peoples of antiquity devoted themselves to the rearing of +religious and sepulchral monuments, and to the construction of palaces +for their sovereigns. Their political organization did not lend itself +to development in other directions. So long as a people is not +considered as an individual there can be no thought of erecting for its +comfort or education structures of any considerable importance; so long +as it has no existence as a civil body there can be no call for the +building of edifices wherein to discuss its own affairs or the affairs +of State. Nevertheless, aside from temples and palaces, there are +certain works of public utility which are forced upon all civilizations, +and among all organized peoples a domestic architecture exists which +answers to their needs and which we cannot pass over in silence. + +The sacred books of the Hindoos give us the plans on which their cities +were built. There were forty different kinds of cities, distinguished +one from the other by their extent and form. The streets crossed at +right angles. The centre of the city was reserved for sacred uses and +was inhabited by the Brahmins; around them dwelt the people, and the +angles were occupied by the exchanges, markets, colleges and other +public structures. The city was always walled, with a gate on each of +the four sides and one at each corner. + +Private dwellings varied in height according to the rank of the owners. +Those of the inferior classes could have only one story above the +ground-floor, and in most cases they were limited to the ground-floor +itself. The door was never placed in the centre of the facade. Its +position, as well as its height and breadth, was fixed by rule; the same +was true of the windows. The streets were supplied with running water, +and adorned with avenues of trees; they were bordered by rich shops and +houses set close together, with no intervening spaces. The palaces, +which were composed of separate buildings, approached by porches, were +usually erected around small courts, and these courts were almost always +planted with trees. The roofs were flat, and the narrow, rude staircases +were made in the thickness of the walls. The Hindoos also constructed +huge reservoirs, and reared columns and square triumphal arches in honor +of their heroic victors; they are also known to have built bridges, the +piles of which, formed of enormous blocks, were connected by stones of a +single piece. + +Passing into China we encounter a civilization whose antiquity rivals +that of India. However, there are no very ancient remains there. But +there is documentary evidence that the Chinese, several centuries before +the Christian era, built from the same designs that they use to-day. +Architecture being the expression of the needs, instincts, character and +traditions of a people, and the Chinese having in no way modified their +manner of living or their traditions, we can easily understand why their +architecture has undergone no modifications. + +The Great Wall, running along the north of China proper, with a length +of fifteen hundred to eighteen hundred miles, is the only Chinese work +that can boast of its antiquity. It is attributed to the emperor Tsin +Hoang Ti [Che Hoang-te], who reigned in the third century before our +era, and who is said to have employed in its construction five or six +million men. The foundations are of hewn stone, the rest is of brick +faced with smoothly-joined stones. The wall is battlemented, flanked +with towers, and is provided at certain intervals with fortified gates. +It is broad enough for six horsemen to ride abreast on it. + +Among the great works of the Chinese, mention is also made of the bridge +of Loyau at Sueno chou Fou; it is built over the point of an arm of the +sea and comprises two hundred and fifty piles made of material of +enormous bulk. The roadway is formed with single blocks of granite, and +is guarded on each side by a balustrade. + +There are other bridges raised on vaulted arches. Others, still, are +decorated with triumphal arches, such as that of the Province of +Kiang-Nan; and again there are others built of wood, like the bridge of +King-Chou-Fou, with the flooring supported by iron chains fastened to +rocks. + +The cities are generally laid out on a square plan with the angles +directed as far as possible toward the four cardinal points, and the +predominance of a single architectural type imparts a certain monotony +to the streets. The enclosing walls are flanked with towers and their +gates are surmounted by lofty structures which include an arsenal and a +guard-room. Besides the temples and commemorative monuments erected on +the same plan as the temples, at the entrance to certain streets and +before certain edifices monuments in the form of gates are to be seen. +These structures, called _pai leou_, are nothing else than triumphal +arches raised to the memory of emperors, generals, mandarins and all +those who have rendered important services to the country. The bases of +these arches are of stone, the rest is made of wood; they have a single +bay, or one principal bay with two smaller ones, and the top is in the +form of a Chinese roof. + +The palaces present a succession of spacious courts surrounded by +buildings and are entered through gates in the form of triumphal arches. +Each separate portion of the structure is destined to a special use. The +women and children are usually relegated to the rear court. + +The houses have one or two stories; their dimensions are regulated by +law, according to the rank and condition of the owner, and, as in all +Oriental dwellings, there are but few openings on the street. + +While the Hindoos built with enduring materials, the Chinese generally +used brick and wood. The explanation of this fact is to be sought not so +much in their fear of the earthquakes with which they are constantly +threatened as in their narrow-mindedness and lack of ambition; they saw +no reason why an edifice should outlast the generation for which it was +constructed. + +Judging from the ruins of Persepolis, the Medes and Persians must have +attained to a high degree of civilization in the time of Cyrus, but we +have no authentic records concerning their civil architecture. Their art +is derived from the Babylonians and Assyrians, from whom they must have +largely borrowed their customs. + +The Assyrian palaces consisted of three wholly distinct groups of +buildings, three divisions which we find exactly reproduced to-day in +the seigneurial and princely dwellings of Persia, India and Turkey. +First, there was the seraglio, or the palace properly so-called, which +comprised the reception-halls and the men's apartments, and which is +known now throughout the East under the name of _selamlik_; then came +the harem containing the private rooms where the master saw his wives +and children with their guards of eunuchs and their throngs of +attendants; and lastly, there was the _khan_, a cluster of dependent +structures including servants' quarters and out-buildings. In princely +palaces each of these divisions included several courts, and the whole +was disposed around a principal court, the court of honor. The entire +assemblage of edifices was nothing more than one vast ground-floor. "The +design followed in the arrangement of these composite dwellings," it has +been said, is almost naive in its simplicity: the plan is merely divided +into as many right parallelograms as there are services to be provided +for, and these rectangles are so disposed as to touch along one side or +at one of the angles, but they never interfere with or command one +another; they are contiguous or adjacent but always independent. Thus +each of the three divisions (seraglio, harem and khan) presents a +rectangular figure, and each borders one side of the principal court, +which is neutral ground,--the common centre around which all are +grouped. The same principle of arrangement is applied to the +subdivisions of the great quarters; the latter are composed of smaller +rectangles distributed about an uncovered space, on which each apartment +opens, with no direct communication between adjoining rooms through +partition-walls. In this way all the sections of an edifice were +clustered together and at the same time isolated; and each of these +sections had its special use and its pre-assigned occupants.[2] + +Drains were contrived under the palaces, and certain square rooms were +covered with dome-shaped vaults. + +The houses, built of brick, were of two different types; some were +covered with hemispherical or parabolical calottes, others had flat +roofs with a tower in the fashion of a belvedere. They were generally +quite low, except in large cities like Babylon, where they were +sometimes three or four stories high. + +The towns were regularly laid out; the streets ran at right-angles to +each other; quays were built along the streams, and bridges established +communication between their banks. The large cities were protected by a +fortified wall. The gates were arched and flanked each by two towers +which were separated by only the width of the entrance. Some of the +gates were ornamented, others were plain, but each one was in itself an +edifice of quite complicated structure. + +The city gate played then, as it still does all through the East, an +important role in the life of the urban populations. It was an agora for +the Greeks, a forum for the Romans. The people gathered there to chat, +and learn the news, and there the old men acted as arbitrators in case +of quarrels. In the same way it was at the palace-gates, which were +always constructed on the model of the city-gates, that the court +attendants assembled, and that petitioners stood in waiting. + +The Phoenician cities also were surrounded by fortified walls, and +dwellings were burrowed into the very body of the ramparts. In order not +to extend the limits of the city too much, the houses in the central +portions were built very high. In the chief quarters of Carthage some of +them had as many as six stories; they were covered with flat roofs, and, +as is the case of all warm countries, the streets were narrow. The +residences of the rich merchants were of a marked character and were +easily distinguished; they were all provided with cisterns; they had +inner courts adorned with porches, and with open galleries along the +upper stories. The streets, squares and courts were paved with broad +flags, probably for the purpose of saving every drop of water that fell. +There were also public cisterns, and ports for shipping. As their +country abounded in stone that could be easily cut, the Phoenicians used +no artificial building material: they are not known to have built of +brick before the Roman period. + +In Judea, while enormous, rough blocks were used in huge structures, the +houses were made of unburned brick, with ceilings of palm or sycamore +beams covered with a layer of hard earth. In order that the variations +in temperature should not be felt in the interior, the outer walls and +the roof had to be quite thick. All the dwellings were covered with flat +roofs surrounded by a parapet, and here people passed the night in +certain seasons. Most houses had only a ground-floor; but the residences +of the wealthy sometimes boasted of an upper story, and certain windows, +doubtless those lighting the women's apartments, were provided with +lattices similar to the _moucharabiehs_ of the Arab houses of the +present day. + +The villages were generally built on the hill-tops, and the more +important of them were surrounded with fortifications. Jerusalem was the +seat of royalty. It was there that David reared his palace, to which +Solomon added numerous edifices that occupied thirteen years in +construction. Other great works were undertaken by the Hebrews, with the +view of carrying to a distance the precious water of the springs; and +they were compelled to supplement their scant supply of water by digging +wells and making cisterns. + +In Egypt, the attention of archaeologists was so long riveted on the +temples and tombs that it is only recently that a study has been made of +private dwellings. To-day, however, something is known of these. + +The streets of Egyptian cities were usually laid out regularly, but they +were so narrow that, except in the principal ones, two chariots could +scarcely pass. This narrowness of the streets, which is frequently +observed in the ancient Arab cities, and which has been so long +maintained in all hot countries, had the advantage of securing shade at +all times on one side of the street. The buildings along the street were +ordinarily separated from each other by alleys; they were rarely more +than two stories high, except in such large cities as Thebes, where they +sometimes reached four and even five stories. The houses were so +arranged as to meet the demands of the climate. A court often preceded +the apartments which were disposed along both sides of a long corridor. +In other cases the rooms occupied three sides of the court; or oftener +still the court was surrounded on all sides by the different structures. +The ground-floor was reserved for the stables; it was used also for +storing the corn, and it contained the kitchen and the cellar. The +family occupied the upper stories. Above the whole was a terrace where +they could enjoy the cool air and even pass the night, when the heat was +excessive. Sometimes the terrace was protected by a light roof supported +by slender wooden columns. There were but few windows, so as to keep the +sun out as far as possible, and such as there were were placed nearly at +the top of the rooms. + +The houses were built of unburned brick, made from a heavy clay, mixed +with a little sand and chopped straw; this was shaped into oblong slabs +which were dried in the sun. Bricks of ordinary size measured 8-2/3 in. +x 4-1/3 in. x 5-1/2 in., the large ones were 15 in. x 7 in. x 5-1/2 in. +There were special marks to indicate where they were manufactured; some +came from the royal works, some from private shops. The foundations of +the buildings were not deep; the walls were whitewashed, or painted in +bright colors; the floors were of brick or flagging, or simply of +hardened earth; the roof was flat, with a framework of palm branches +covered with a coating of earth sufficiently thick to prevent the +infiltration of the rain. The dwellings of the wealthy lords were +usually erected in the centre of a garden, or of a cultivated court, and +occupied a considerable space. The entrance was announced by a colonaded +porch or a pylon, and the interior was like a small city,--the dwelling +in the background, with the granaries, stables, servants' quarters and +out-buildings disposed here and there about the enclosure. + +In the more important palaces, the dwelling of the master stood in the +centre of a rectangular court, the sides of which, on the right and +left, were occupied by the storehouses. + +Like all other peoples of antiquity, the Egyptians were obliged to +protect their towns from the incursions of enemies. The greater part of +their cities, and even the principal villages, were therefore walled. +Man will never cease to fortify his cities until these fortifications +have been proved unavailing before the power of new engines of +destruction. + +In this rapid review of the civil architecture of the ancient peoples of +Asia and Egypt, we have discovered no traces of structures whose +destination indicated any care for the development of the lower classes +of society, no remains which implied their participation in any +municipal life whatever, no edifice erected for the purpose of national +education. Such institutions had no place under a theocractic government +which absorbed into itself the entire nation. When it had made provision +for the defence of its cities, erected temples to its gods, reared +palaces for the earthly abode of its monarchs and tombs for their future +life, when it had satisfied the simple material needs of the people, +what more could be asked? + +[To be continued.] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: From the French of G. Guicestre, in "_Encyclopedie de +l'Architecture et de la Construction_."] + +[Footnote 2: Perrot and Chipiez. "_Histoire de l'art dans +l'antiquite_."] + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: PARIS] + +THE PAVILIONS OF THE CITY OF PARIS.--DOMESTIC AND URBAN +SANITATION.--VIEWS OF OLD PARIS.--PALACES OF THE LIBERAL ARTS AND THE +FINE ARTS.--RETROSPECTIVE EXHIBITION OF LABOR. + + +The City of Paris desired to have in the Champ de Mars a serious and +useful exhibition, so it began by paying no sort of attention to the +decorative and architectural side of its two pavilions, placed in the +centre of the upper garden between the monumental fountain and the +central dome. It was not afraid, in spite of its surroundings, to +shelter itself within the simplest of buildings in plaster, with a +decoration meagre and accentuated by the needs of construction. In fact, +the large entrance doors, all of wood, were made afterwards and applied +to the plaster, and the same may be said of all the visible woodwork; +but this lack of ingenuousness in the construction is not to be too +severely blamed, since it is a question of pavilions which are to +disappear after an existence of six months. Economical reasons are +always worthy of respect, and the modesty of the Municipal Council on +this occasion ought to be praised. But what one has a right to criticise +is the unhappy idea which placed these pavilions in such a manner as to +completely obstruct the view of the exterior porticos of the palaces and +industrial sections when one stands before the central dome in the +centre of the garden. This criticism once made, there only remains to +give expression to praise of the exhibit made by the city of Paris. Very +well arranged inside, very well considered, it possesses enormous +interest principally from the point-of-view of hygiene and the +sanitation of the city. This is a question much studied for a long time +back, and is one which marches towards a solution which promises to be +perfectly satisfactory in view of the progress already made. Wide +streets have replaced narrow alleys, air circulates freely everywhere, +trees and enormous gardens have been planted on every side, and the +salubrity of the house is assured by a severe inspection, one which will +become yet more severe, it is to be hoped, in the case of those owners +who are inclined to despise regulations. It would be so simple in place +of continuing the ancient ways, whose inconveniences are so well +demonstrated in the large model of an unhealthy house exhibited in the +pavilion of the city of Paris, to adopt all the new systems of +sanitation which, on their part, are shown in application in the model +of a sanitarily perfect house which has been placed opposite to it. To +establish this comparison two very simple models of construction have +been selected, proving that healthfulness is not merely an attribute of +luxury, but that the most modest houses can present all possible +guaranties from this point of view. The healthfulness of houses, and +consequently of cities, depends amongst other multiple but relatively +simple causes on two preeminent conditions,--that of the removal of +excrement, and the purity of the water-supply. In a large degree the +first condition is subordinated to the second. "Everything to the sewer" +is recognized by the most competent hygienists as the best system, but +only on the condition that water shall be abundant and that no +stagnation of the material shall be allowed. These problems, which were +for a long time studied by M. Durand-Claye, and to which he devoted +himself until his premature death unfortunately took him from us, have +received the attention of his devoted successors, who have already +brought to fruition interesting solutions which prompt us to hope for a +completely satisfactory system in the near future. + +Three glass reservoirs, containing water from the Seine, from the Ourcq +and the Vanne, allow us to perceive the difference of quality which +exists between these three sources of supply, the first of which, with +its yellow color, is anything but appetizing, and the second is not much +less doubtful, while the third, alone, presents the limpidity and +transparency which one has a right to demand in potable water. +Nevertheless, one should not believe, as many persons do, that the water +that we see in this reservoir, and which has been taken within the +limits of Paris, is the same that is distributed from time to time +through each quarter. The water there used is taken up-stream and before +it has been soiled by its passage through the suburbs and city. + +In the same pavilion the Administration has exhibited the plans and the +comparative views of the city taken at different epochs since 1789 up to +the last months of 1889. We here see the march of progress in this +immense city, expanding without cessation like a drop of oil, and as it +enlarges crossed by great arteries which establish across its mass +conduits for aeration, and at the same time suppress the agglomerations +of former days. + +For artists and archaeologists and lovers of old Paris, whom these new +transformations displease and who regret the picturesque past, the +authorities have had the forethought to paint or photograph before +demolition the quarters which to-day have disappeared, or are on the +point of disappearing; and as a consolation such persons have very +pretty pictures by M. Pansyer, representing St. Julien le Pauvre, the +Rue Galande, the Place Maubert, the ruins of the Opera Comique, the +flower-covered relics of the Cour de Comptes; and there has even been +evoked for them the manor-houses of Clichy and Monceau such as they were +in 1789, and also the quarter of the Bastile, which can thus be compared +with their present aspect. Not far from these antiquities the City of +Paris has exhibited some decorative paintings executed for its various +_mairies_, the "Abreuvoir" and the "Lavoir" of M. D. A. Baudoin, and for +the _Mairie_ d' Arcueil-cachan "L' Automne et l'Ete," by M. A. Seon; +"The Marriage," by M. Glaize, and a fine painting, "The Defense of Paris +in 1814," by M. Schommer. Other compositions are signed by Cormon, +Gervex and Boulanger. + +Finally, to make an end of the important works which she has caused to +be executed, the City of Paris exhibits models, at a reduced scale, of +the new Sorbonne, of the Ecole de Medicine, and of the Ecole Pratique, +at present in course of construction, also plans and photographs of +buildings erected during the last ten years, such as schools, _maries_, +etc. The department of sidewalks and plantations is represented by a +reduced model of the Crematory at Pere Lachaise, plans and views of the +new cemeteries at Pantin and Bagneux, as well as the future square of +Montmartre. + +The second pavilion of the City of Paris is more especially consecrated +to instruction. After attending to the healthfulness of matter, +attention must be given to the healthfulness of the mind and moral +culture. By the side of the models of the school-rooms, where children +find school-furniture studied with painstaking care and proportioned to +their stature, have been placed the works executed by the +school-children themselves of every kind, primary, maternal and +professional. These works, in a general way, prove an average aptitude +for the industrial arts, and indicate a real taste for beautiful forms. +A hall is wholly set apart for the pupils of the special schools. +Finally, around the two pavilions are arranged the numerous statues, +purchased, or ordered by the City of Paris, archers, halberdiers, +officers of the watch of the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries, +and we recognize, as we pass, the "Sauveteur" of M. Mombur, the +"Science" of M. Blanchard, the "Art" of M. Marqueste, and especially the +proud "Porte-falot" of Fremiet, which decorates the lower part of the +staircase of the new Hotel de Ville. + +PALACES OF THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS. + +The two Palaces of the Fine Arts and the Liberal Arts are of equal +dimensions and similar aspect. They cover an area of 21,000 square +metres. They are composed of a large central nave, measuring 209.31 +metres in length by a width of fifty-three metres and one-half. The nave +is surrounded with galleries on the lower floor and first story. On the +garden under the porticos are restaurants. Each of these palaces is +connected with the Industrial section of the foreign countries by a +large vestibule thirty metres wide by 115 in length, one of which, that +of the Fine Arts, contains the exhibition of sculpture, and the other +contains a large part of the musical instruments. These two palaces are +entirely of iron, terra-cotta and ceramic work. The entrance is executed +by a large porch of three arches, and the wings on either side are +pierced by wide bays. Each is crowned with a dome fifty-five metres high +and thirty-two in width. These two palaces are striking examples of the +richness which can be introduced in a moment by the artistic employment +of terra-cotta and ceramic work, especially when the ceramic artists +bear such names as Mueller, Loebnitz and Parvillee, to say nothing of MM. +Breult, Boulanger and Mortreux, whose work we met in the ceramic +division, or which we shall meet in our walks through the foreign +pavilions. With M. Mueller, who has given his name to a kind of brick +covered with enamel on one of its faces, ceramic work becomes a portion +of the very fabric itself as well as of its ornamentation. This +principle applied with rare talent to the covering of the two domes of +the palaces has given a very curious and interesting result. This +covering is composed of enamelled tiles of more than 600 varieties which +are not superposed one upon another, but butt together side by side, and +form a mosaic rather than a covering of tiles. Each dome contains about +50,000 pieces arranged in ninety rows and twelve divisions. The general +tone is blue. The principal ornamental motive consists of a cartouche +which bears in the centre two large letters "R.F." in gold. The +cartouche stands out on a background of cream-white, bordered with a +meander. The effect is very brilliant and chatoyant. At the base of each +dome twenty-four vases in pottery, three metres high, are arranged on +the consoles of the attic which supports the roof, and in which are +pierced bull's-eyes decorated in tones of blue and natural terra-cotta. +The domes of the pavilions at the angle of the palace on the side of the +Seine are in the same way covered with enamelled porcelain tiles. This +is a new product invented by M. Parvillee and has a great decorative +richness. Above each bay of the two palaces is repeated a terra-cotta +frieze two metres high, which bears children holding cartouches and +standing out from a golden background. Pillars between the bays are +encased in terra-cotta fluted panels with interlacements of laurel and +oak leaves. The ironwork of these pillars is exposed and encloses the +terra-cotta work like a Spanish net, with very original effect and very +interesting constructive frankness. Finally, the balustrade crowning +each palace is also of terra-cotta, and is formed of small pilasters and +between them is repeated a _motif_ of bucklers bearing lions' heads. The +balustrade is composed of 7,500 pieces and weighs 450,000 kilogrammes, +and covers a space of 2,000 square metres. + +Independently of the exhibit indicated by its name and character, the +Palace of the Liberal Arts encloses one of the great curiosities of the +Exhibition of '89; that is the "retrospective history of labor and +anthropologic science." "The aim of this exhibit," said M. Jules Simon, +in a report which he made as the president of the Superior Commission, +June 15, 1888, "is to instruct the public in the history of the +processes of manual and mechanical labor, which in the passage of +centuries have resulted in the modern industrial utensils used in the +arts and trades." This exhibit has a particularly historical and +technical character. It is far from excluding objects of art, for in +several ages the utensils, those especially which were used in the +liberal arts, were veritable jewels, either from their elegance of form, +or from the richness of their material, or the grace of their details. +We find chefs-d'oeuvre, for instance on a geographical map, on the +handle of a chisel, on the barrel of a musket. Our ancestors were not +possessed with the same passion for speed and cheapness that possesses +us. Industry lost, perhaps, but the arts were the gainers. The aim of +the retrospective exhibition is well defined. It is to retrace with +broad strokes by means of the reproductions of diagrams and authentic +monuments the stages of human genius. To achieve this result it was +necessary to associate with the retrospective exhibition of labor that +of anthropologic science, in order to show in the outset what man was +when he left the hands of nature in the different physical forms of +different races. The exhibit of anthropological science and history of +labor comprises then five grand divisions--first, anthropologic and +ethnographic science; second, the liberal arts; third, arts and trades; +fourth, means of transportation; fifth, military arts. + +The central nave of the Palace of the Liberal Arts is wholly occupied by +this exhibit. Grand porticos and galleries of woodwork with platforms in +the lower story, form four grand divisions with interior courts that +approach by monumental staircases opening under the dome upon each side +of the rotunda, which occupies the centre and shelters the theatrical +exhibit. All around the porticos and galleries full panels were reserved +upon which M. Charles Touche placed decorative compositions broadly +treated in aquarelle illustrating, so to say, the history of labor. + + * * * * * + +AN INGENIOUS PLAN FOR STRAIGHTENING WALLS.--Yankees, as a rule, are +equal to any emergency; what the average Yankee mechanic fails to +conjure up at a time when his wits are most needed, leaves very little +room for foreign genius to think and work in. Yet it remained for M. +Molard, a French architect, to contrive an original and ingenious plan +for straightening the walls of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, +which threatened an absolute collapse owing to the extreme weight of the +roof. A series of strong iron bars were carried across the building from +wall to wall, passing through holes in the walls, and were secured by +nuts on the outside. In this state they would have been sufficient to +have prevented the further separation of the walls by the weight of the +roof, but it was desirable to restore the walls to their original state +by drawing them together. This was effected in the following manner: +Alternate bars were heated by lamps fixed beneath them. They expanded, +and consequently the nuts, which were previously in contact with the +walls, were no longer so. The nuts were then screwed up so as to be +again in close contact with the walls. The lamps were withdrawn and the +bars allowed to cool. In cooling they gradually contracted and resumed +their former dimensions; consequently the nuts, pressing against the +walls, drew them together through a space equal to that through which +they had been screwed up. Meanwhile the intermediate bars were heated +and expanded, and the nuts screwed up as before. The lamps being again +withdrawn, they contracted in cooling, and the walls were further drawn +together. This process was continually repeated, until at length the +walls were restored to their perpendicular position. The gallery may +still be seen with the bars extending across it, and binding together +its walls.--_Philadelphia Record and Guide_. + + + + +LOSS OF POWER BY RADIATION OF HEAT.[3] + + +[Illustration: The Martyrs Column, Naples, Italy.] + +To him who holds the purse and pays for the coal consumed, it is of +importance that between the energy of the burning fuel and the power +developed by the engine there should be the least possible loss. Every +unit of heat radiated by boiler-pipe, cylinder or heater is absolute +loss, and must come out of that purse. In an electrical plant this +matter is of great importance. There is less opportunity to have results +obscured. There is, proportionally, a large possible loss between the +coal on the grate and the far end of the cylinder, and this loss should +be reduced to the minimum. Is it not always the best economy to throw +away as little as possible, to save from waste _all_ that can be saved? +Is not the very _reason far being_, of the architect, the mechanical +engineer, in fact of every man who is paid for his advice and direction, +just this: that he shall bring to bear upon the subject, and impart to +his client honest knowledge concerning the various matters about which +he is consulted? That he shall keep abreast of the tide of discovery and +improvement, and that upon these subjects he shall _know_, not trusting +to mere hearsay or to unintelligent prejudice for his impressions. + +Some little time since a gentleman from a neighboring city called upon +me for information upon the subject of coverings in general and their +comparative values. Being an intelligent man he said frankly at the +outset that he knew very little on the subject. He had, however, in +common with all of us, heard the word "asbestos" used as a shibboleth +for years, but he desired definite knowledge, and after he had digested +the information he should act on his judgment. I devoted sufficient time +to him to put him in possession of the salient points of the subject. +His understanding was acute. He left me to seek elsewhere further light +upon this matter. After some few days he returned and directed that the +magnesia covering be applied to his work. In the course of conversation +he remarked that he had received great diversity of advice from those to +whom he had gone. One man, who had been years in the business of selling +steam plants, told him that the best thing for him to use was hair-felt, +even though the steam-pressure might run up to 125 pounds to the inch. +Now, as a matter-of-fact, the man who gave that advice simply showed +himself an unsafe guide; and from his inability to keep abreast with +modern knowledge, that he had no conception of the fire-hazard which his +advice was to thrust upon the innocent inquirer, and that his advice was +little short of being morally criminal. + +The subject of the fire-hazard of organic coverings has been pretty +thoroughly investigated and can be pretty well-known, when there is any +inclination to get out of ruts which long years of travelling in has +deepened. How many fires (cause unknown?) have really originated from +the slow carbonizing of organic material on steam-pipes? It is but +recently that the hair-felt covering on the steam end of a Worthington +pumping-engine, within ten miles of us, not only burnt itself but +destroyed some thousands of dollars worth of walnut lagging. Cases of +the combustion of these organic coverings are numerous and are +well-known. + +Few appreciate the great loss of heat from uncovered or imperfectly +covered pipes. Many have an indistinct impression that there may +possibly be some slight loss. But there is in many cases an absence of +knowledge upon this subject where it should be complete. The most +correct data available show that the radiation from uncovered two-inch +steam-pipe, with 60 pounds steam-pressure, is 391.83 kilo. centigrade +heat-units one foot one hour, or 21,739.78 kilos. of coal for 100 feet +per year of 300 days of 10 hours each; one kilo. equals 2,205 pounds. +Properly combining these figures we see that there are 23.97 tons of +coal lost by radiation from that uncovered pipe. If the coal costs $4 +per ton, the radiation from this 100 feet of pipe will amount to $95.87. +From the same pipe covered with Wm. Berkefield's fossil meal +composition, 32/100-inch thick, the most powerful inorganic non-heat +conductor used as a covering at the time these investigations were made, +there was radiated 24,109 kilo. cent. heat-units one foot one hour, or +1,337.63 kilos. of coal for the year. This would be 1-474/1000 tons of +coal at $4 per ton, amounting to $5.89. Then $95.87 less $5.89 equals +$89.98, the saving effected by covering this pipe with William +Berkefield's fossil-meal composition 92/106 of an inch thick. Or, in +other words, the saving effected was over 93 per cent of the total +possible radiation, using a thickness of one inch this loss would be +reduced to $5.50. + +From the same data we find (page 44) it stated that while the radiation +through 25 m.m. of Wm. Berkefield's fossil meal was 7.7 heat-units, +through 25 m.m. of carb. magnesia it was 6.7 heat-units, therefore the +proportions 7.7: 6.7 = $5.50: $4.80 gives us the coal value of heat lost +by radiation through the magnesia covering. To put this in another form: +From the running-foot of two-inch pipe uncovered the loss is 96 cents, +while, from the same pipe covered with the magnesia, the loss is less +than five cents; or a saving of over 91 cents per year. To accomplish +this saving the cost of the covering should be taken into account. This +was 27 cents. Therefore, the investment in the magnesia covering is paid +back in less than four months. The data which we have used were obtained +by the use of a calorimeter measuring the quantity of heat passing +through covering. The other possible method of arriving at this +knowledge would be to accurately measure the condensation of the steam. +In these experiments, owing to several reasons, it was not deemed +advisable to rely upon the second method. Recently, however, I have seen +in the _American Engineer_ of June 12, a report of the proceedings of +the Michigan Engineering Society containing a paper by Professor Cooley, +of Ann Arbor, Mich., in which he says: + +"The benefits of covering steam-pipes to prevent radiation are +strikingly illustrated by the following example: The Thomson-Houston +electric-light plant in Ann Arbor has about 60 feet of seven-inch pipe +connecting the boilers with the engines and two large steam-drums above +the boilers: in March, 1887, the steam at the far end of this pipe was +tested to determine the amount of entrained water, the pipes and drums +at the time being uncovered. An average of nine experiments gave 31.01 +per cent moisture. In June of the same year, after the pipes were +covered with magnesia sectional-coverings, the quality of the steam was +again tested, the average of five experiments giving 3.61 per cent +moisture; the tests were made by the same men from the same connections, +and in the same manner. The pipes and steam-drums in March were +subjected to a draught, which, of course, aided the condensation. Enough +water passed into the cylinders to retard the engines, producing a +disagreeable noise. In June the weather was warmer and the pipes and +steam-drums were well protected. The quality of steam at the boilers was +tested in June, and showed about three per cent moisture. Assuming that +100 incandescent horse-power were being developed at the time, and that +each horse-power required 30 pounds of steam; if the steam is assumed to +have 25 per cent entrained water due to condensation in the pipes and +connections, then 4,000 pounds steam will need be produced in the +boilers, or 1,000 pounds more than necessary. To produce this steam will +require about 125 pounds of good coal per hour, or 1,000 pounds per day +of eight hours. One-half ton per day at $3 per ton for 300 days, $450. +The actual cost of the covering put on complete probably did not exceed +$150." + +An interesting verification of the remarkable non-heat condensing +quality of the magnesia covering occurred at Lynn, Mass. In the heart of +the district in that city, recently the scene of the disastrous +conflagration, there was located the machine-shop of Messrs. Rollins & +Glozier. A two-inch steam-pipe there was covered with this material. The +heat of the fire at this place has been curiously determined to have +been between the minimum extreme of 2,756 deg. Fah. and the maximum extreme +of 2,950 deg. Fah., in this way: Cast-iron melts at 2,756 deg. Fah.; +wrought-iron at 2,950 deg. Fah. A portion of the cast-iron bed of a lathe +was fused into an irregular mass, and on it, partly imbedded, was a +wrought-iron nut not melted. The steam-pipe spoken of fell a distance of +20 feet, and some of the magnesia covering was broken by the fall, but +so effective was its heat-resisting and non-heat-conducting power that +the pipe was found to be uninjured, and it is being used again in the +building which is being erected to take the place of the one burned. +That the magnesia should have endured the ordeal successfully was not +unexpected, for we know that it is used by the Herreshoff Manufacturing +Company as a lining to the shells of its coil boilers, and it is there +subjected to a very intense heat resulting from the forced draught used +in this type of boiler. Instances could be multiplied indefinitely, but +I refrain from occupying further time with them, citing, however, one +recent pertinent case. + +The trial trip of the new cruiser "_Baltimore_" took place in the middle +of September. It is reported to have been in many ways eminently +satisfactory. The report goes on to state: "Another noteworthy fact was +the comfortable condition of the fire and engine rooms. A duplicate crew +had been provided with the expectation of relieving the firemen in +two-hour turns; but after the first two hours of the run the first watch +refused to quit work and insisted in running the ship throughout the +entire four hours' trial." Boilers and all steam-surfaces were covered +with the magnesia covering. + +So it appears that not alone is the man who pays for the coal interested +in this question of most perfect insulation, but also the men who +operate the plant as well. In time, those architects, those mechanical +engineers, those engine-builders and those other advisers, who are paid +to advise soundly and correctly, and who are represented by our figure +with the re-entering angles, will, of necessity, change their form and +begin to assimilate these new facts, or ossification will so spread +throughout the whole figure that they will be relegated to the shelf for +curiosities as showing what strange geometrical forms the intellectual +life of man may take. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE COST OF A SMALL MUSEUM. + + +[Illustration: Mr. A.A. Carey's +Cambridge, Mass. +_Sturgis & Brigham Archts._] + +More than once we have endeavored to impress upon our readers the +importance of collections of casts and other art reproductions as +factors in popular education. It is only through these that the body of +our people can ever hope to become familiar with the great masterpieces +of European galleries, which have had so much effect upon the taste of +the people among whom they exist, and might do a similar good work in +this country were they only brought within reach. Doubtless there are +many who join us in the wish that not only every large, but every small +city might have its gallery of reproductions as well as its public +library--a gallery in which children could grow up familiar with the +noblest productions of Greece and Italy, in which the laborer could pass +some of his holiday hours, and in which the mechanic could find the +stimulus to make his own work beautiful as well as good. But the +principal reason why such collections are not more numerous is probably +that people have an exaggerated idea of their cost, and, among those who +might best afford this, there are doubts as to whether an undertaking of +the kind would be appreciated in any but the large cities. + +Thanks to the liberality of Mr. W.A. Slater, the experiment has been +tried in Norwich, Conn., and the results of the first year of the Slater +Memorial Museum in attracting and holding popular interest have far +exceeded the anticipations of its founder and his advisers. As it has +been Mr. Slater's desire that the museum established by him should serve +not only to educate his townsmen, but also to stimulate others who had +the means to follow his example in other parts of the country, he has +given us permission to make public the cost of his collections, which, +we doubt not, will be a revelation to many. In August of last year we +gave a long description of the Slater Memorial Museum, not then quite +completed, from which it was evident that within the lines laid down by +Mr. Slater, by which it was determined that the collection should +contain only reproductions, and no original works, there were no +restrictions as to expense. The works selected were to be the best of +their kind, and were to be set up and arranged in the most effective +manner possible. The number of objects was to be limited only by the +size of the building. + +The useful little catalogue of the casts in the Museum, prepared by Mr. +H.W. Kent, the curator, to whom we are indebted for the figures which we +shall quote, shows 124 numbers in the Greek and Roman section, and 103 +in that of the Renaissance. Among these are some of the largest casts +made, such as the selection from the Pergamon reliefs, the Nike of +Samothrace and the Font of Siena. They were all made expressly for the +Museum, and imported from London, Paris, Berlin, Munich, Florence, Rome, +Naples and Athens. In addition to these, there is a complete collection +of the British Museum electrotypes of Greek coins, handsomely mounted, +and the nucleus of a collection of photographs, about 600, including the +best plates of Braun, Naya, Brogi and other celebrated photographers. +Most of the statues are mounted on revolving pedestals; two hundred and +fifty of the photographs are exhibited in individual frames, the backs +of which are movable, that the exhibition may be varied as often as +desired; and, owing to the lack of wall-space, draperies have been hung +extensively throughout the hall, the material of which is heavy raw +silk. We mention these facts only to show that economy was not a +consideration in the execution of the Museum, and believe that our +readers will be the more surprised to learn that its _gross_ cost to Mr. +Slater--excluding, of course, the building itself--was exactly +$27,112.97. Is there any city or college in the Union in which this sum +could not be raised for a similar purpose? + +The cost of the building we do not give, because it would be useful as +showing how much, rather than how little, could be put into such an +edifice. It contains, besides the museum proper, the floor-space of +which amounts to about 10,000 square feet, a lecture-hall with a +seating-capacity of about 1,200, a library and four large class-rooms, +which, if the intentions of the founder are fully carried out, will be +used for practical instruction in the fine arts. Desirable as all these +rooms are in a building of the kind, the only one which seems to us +absolutely necessary is the lecture-hall. To open a gallery like this to +the public, and then leave people to float about in it aimlessly, +without a notion of its meaning or its purposes, is to do but half the +work. Either regular courses of instruction or occasional lectures upon +topics connected with the theory or history of art are necessary in +order to make the Museum anything more than a collection of curiosities +to the uninitiated, and such lectures are given during the winter at the +Slater Museum. + +Of the amount just quoted, the principal item was naturally for casts. +The cost of these, including packing and transportation, but not +setting-up in the Museum, was $13,968.68, making an average of a trifle +less than $62 for each number in the catalogue. We ought to say here, +however, that an average is a dangerous guide in a matter of this kind, +owing to the enormous difference in the size and price of casts, as well +as in the distance from which they come. Obviously, too, the cost of +packing and importing a few casts would be proportionately much greater +than in a large order. + +The casts once received, they must be put together, sometimes repaired +and finally set up. Pedestals must be built for the statues, wall-spaces +prepared for the reliefs. Therefore, a small force of skilled +plaster-workers and carpenters is necessary. In Norwich most of the +plaster-work was done by two men, a third being added occasionally, and +the aggregate of this item in the expenses was $1,626.75. With regard to +the carpentry, more work of this kind than would usually be necessary +was required by the fact that a number of changes had to be made in +order to adapt the hall to its use as a museum of art, its destination +not having been determined when the building itself was completed. +Consequently, some of the $4,690 paid for material and labor in this +department would form a part of the building expenses in a structure +designed especially for the purpose. + +These were the principal expenses in the preparation of the Slater +Museum. On photographs about $800 have been spent thus far, the +electrotype coins cost something less than $750, and the balance of the +total quoted was made up by such incidentals as the draperies and +upholstering, photograph frames, the designer's commission and petty +expenses. + +Turning now for a moment to the other side of the balance-sheet, we +shall try to answer the question, "Does it pay" to undertake a work of +this kind, except in our large and central cities? If to the founder or +founders of such an institution it be sufficient recompense for their +liberality to see their gift used, appreciated and enjoyed by people of +all classes, the brief experience of the Slater Memorial Museum answers +the question with a strong affirmative. The Museum was dedicated on +November 22 of last year. Since then it has been open regularly ten +hours a week, divided among three days, and at other times to students +and visitors from a distance. It is always free. There being no +automatic machine for registering the admissions, Mr. Kent has requested +visitors to write their names in a book provided for the purpose. The +number who do so is naturally considerably less than the total number of +visitors, particularly when the Museum is crowded, yet up to date the +books show more than 10,000 names. The average attendance per week thus +recorded, from the time of opening to July 1, was 283, the best month +being December, in which 2,163 names were entered, the poorest June, +with a total of 483. Especially gratifying has been the attendance on +holidays, which shows that the interest in the Museum is by no means +confined to those who have plenty of leisure. On Thanksgiving Day 800 +names were registered, Christmas 932, New Year's 732, Decoration Day +850. For the benefit of the mill-operatives and other laborers who form +the largest portion of the population of Norwich and the adjoining +towns, to whom the Museum might do a world of good, we sincerely hope +the day is not far distant when the building may be open at least a +couple of hours each Sunday. The experience of the Boston Museum of Fine +Arts in Sunday opening has been an unqualified success, and we wish that +Norwich, as well as our own city, might profit by it. In Boston, we are +told, the average number of admissions during the Sunday hours has +reached as high as 1,000 per hour, and of these probably four-fifths are +common workmen with their families. + +These facts and figures regarding the Slater Memorial Museum are +valuable only so far as they go. They show that the first problem of a +museum--to interest the public at large--has there been solved +successfully. More than that is not to be looked for yet. The ultimate +good which the institution will accomplish can be but imperfectly +manifested in one generation. It is from the children now growing up, +from their children and their children's children, that the deeper +results are to be expected. As the beginning has been made, we can +afford to wait for the rest, which will come in good time. The lesson to +be learned from it now is, that such collections are needed, that they +are appreciated not by a few but by many, and that, so far as the cost +is concerned, they are within the reach of every well-settled +community.--_New York Evening Post._ + + * * * * * + + + + +SANITARY ENTOMBMENT: THE IDEAL DISPOSITION OF THE DEAD.[4] + + +[Illustration] + +In this country, partly because there were few places of large +population, and partly because it was an early and general tendency to +use cemeteries rather than churches, and the grounds adjacent to them, +the evils of earth-burial did not manifest themselves so soon or in so +marked a manner as in the Old World. But there were instances enough to +convince the most incredulous that a radical change must be made. Dr. +Ackerly, writing in 1822, thus describes the condition of the +burial-ground connected with Trinity Church, New York, forty years +before: "During the Revolutionary War this ground emitted pestilential +vapors, the recollection of which is not obliterated from the memory of +a number of living witnesses." In the same year, the _Commercial +Advertiser_ published an article in reference to the present evils of +earth-burial at the same place, in which it was said: "It will be +remembered that the graveyard, being above the streets on the west, and +encompassed by a massive stone wall, and the east side being on a level +with Broadway, it results that this body of earth, the surface of which +has no declivity to carry off the rain, thus becomes a great reservoir +of contaminating fluids suspended above the adjacent streets. In proof +of this, it is stated that, in a house in Thames Street, springs of +water pouring in from that ground occasioned the removal of the tenants +on account of their exceeding fetidness." At a later date, Dr. Elisha +Harris brought this telling indictment against the same place of +interment: "Trinity churchyard has been the centre of a very fatal +prevalence of cholera whenever the disease has occurred as an endemic +near or within a quarter of a mile of it. Trinity Place, west of it, +Rector Street, on its border, the streets west of Rector and the +occupants of the neighboring offices and commercial houses have suffered +severely at each visitation of the pest from 1832 to 1854." It seems +hardly necessary to add that the foregoing statements are not intended +to make the impression that there was a worse condition at the +churchyard named than at any other.... + +It may now be said: "Yes, this is all true, but we have changed all +that! We no longer inter our dead in churchyards or burial-grounds +within the limits of cities. We have provided cemeteries at great +distances from our cities and large centres of population, and there the +dead can do no harm." + +To this the reply is easy and convincing: "that, if the dead endanger +the living when the population is dense, they certainly also endanger +them when the population is sparse. The danger is only diluted. It still +exists, and it ought to alarm us just as truly when a few are imperilled +as when many are." ... + +Not to attempt to tell all that has been ascertained, it will be +sufficiently convincing to quote from Sir Henry Thompson's utterance in +the _Nineteenth Century_ in 1880: "I state, as a fact of the highest +importance, that, by burial in earth, we effectively provide--whatever +sanitary precautions are taken by ventilation and drainage, whatever +disinfection is applied after contagion has occurred--that the +pestilential germs, which have destroyed the body in question, are thus +so treasured and protected as to propagate and multiply, ready to +reappear and work like ruin hereafter for others.... Beside anthrax or +splenic fever, spores from which are notoriously brought to the surface +from buried animals below, and become fatal to the herds feeding there, +it is now almost certain that malarial diseases, notably Roman fever and +even tetanus, are due to bacteria which flourish in the soil itself. The +poisons of scarlet fever, enteric fever (typhoid), small-pox, diphtheria +and malignant cholera are undoubtedly transmissible through earth from +the buried body." That the burial of a body that contains the seeds of +zymotic disease is simply storing them for future reproduction and +destruction is amply proved by the researches of Darwin and Pasteur, of +whom the former has shown that the mould, or fertile upper layer of +superficial soil, has largely acquired its character by its passage +through the digestive tract of earth-worms; and the latter that this +mould, when brought by this agency to the surface from subjacent soil +that has been used as a grave, contains the specific germ of the disease +that has destroyed its tenant. + +It may now be asked: "Granting that these evils are inseparable from the +burial of the dead in the earth or in tombs, what is the remedy? What +else can be done?" + +To this question not many answers can be given, because the modes of +disposing of the dead have always been and must always be few. + +Plainly, no such novel mode as casting the dead into the sea will be +generally adopted. Plainly, also, the mode of the Parsees, grounded as +it is in ancient, if not original use--to give the dead to beasts and +birds--will not become universal. And, plainly also, cremation will not +be welcome to the many, free as it is from objection on the score of +public health, if a method equally sanitary, and at the same time +satisfactory to a reverent and tender sentiment, can be devised. + +The inquiry, then, has reached its limit; for, apart from the modes that +have just been named, there are no others but earth-burial and +entombment, and earth-burial, as we have seen, cannot be made sanitary +under common conditions. Therefore, if the demands of affection and +sanitation are both to be met, entombment is to do it, or it cannot be +done. + +Happily, better than any other method of disposing of the dead that has +ever been devised, entombment has met the demand of affection. Never has +any other mode so commended itself to men as this. There may have been +at times a general adoption of cremation, and there may have been a +general prevalence of earth-burial, but the one has not long satisfied +the sorrowing survivors, and the other has owed its beginning and +continuance to the apparent absence of alternative. Wherever the living +have been able, and the dead have been dearly loved or highly esteemed, +the tendency to entomb and not to bury has been constantly manifested. + +To call attention to this tendency is enough to prove it, so easily +accessible is the evidence and so familiar is its operation in the human +heart. The most natural reference will be, first, to the mausoleum, the +tomb of Mausolus, that was erected by his sorrowing Queen, Artemisia, at +Halicarnassus, upon the AEgean's eastern shore, and that became at once +one of the few great wonders of the ancient world. This was intended to +do honor to the loved and illustrious dead, and this it did as no grave +or pyre could do. This was also intended to protect the lifeless form +from ruthless robbery and reckless profanation, and it performed this +task so well that for near two thousand years no human eye beheld the +mortal part of Mausolus, and no human hand disturbed its rest. At a far +earlier time, Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, while he illustrated +this tendency to entomb the dead, also offered an influential example to +all who would do him reverence, as, in the hour of his great sorrow, he +sought the seclusion and the security of Machpelah's cave for the last +earthly resting-place of his beloved wife. There he buried Sarah; there +he and his son and his son's son and their wives were all laid to rest, +and the place of their repose hath not been violated even at this +distant day. To this constant tendency constant testimony is borne by +the massive and magnificent tombs in which India abounds, the tombs and +pyramids that make marvellous the land of the Nile, the tombs that stood +thick upon the Appian Way, and that rose superb upon the Tiber's shore, +the modern use to which the Pantheon is put, the Pantheon at Paris and +the Crypt of the Invalides, the Abbey of Westminster, matchless in +memorials, the sepulchres within the hills that gird Jerusalem, and the +sepulchre in which the Nazarene was gently laid when His agony was +ended. + +It remains to be considered whether entombment can be made sanitary. If +it can be the problem is solved, for entombment has ever been the best +that the living could do for their dead, and, with the added advantage +of promoting, or ceasing to be prejudicial to, the public health +entombment will be the choice of all whom cost or caprice does not +deter. + +That entombment can be made sanitary is evident from the fact that in +countless instances, in many lands and through long periods of time, it +has been made sanitary by the ingenuity of man or by unassisted nature; +and it is also evident from the fact that decomposition and disease +germs are the dangers to be guarded against, and that against these both +ancient and modern science have been able to guard. Not to enumerate all +the modes that have been chanced upon or that have been devised by men, +there are two that have been notable and are available for modern +use--embalming and desiccation. + +It is a delusion to imagine that embalming is a lost art; that, like +some other marvels of the ancient time, this is a secret process that +perished with the people who employed it. Did we desire it, we could +embalm our princes and our priests, and retain their shrunken +similitudes for distant coming times to gaze and gape upon, as skilfully +as they who practised this art in Egypt's palmiest days. Nay, it is +doubtless far within the truth to claim that better than they did we +could do; and we are actually apprised of better methods and results +than they employed or could attain, and it is not unlikely that we +shall hear of better methods still. But Egypt's method, or its modern +counterpart, will hardly now be popular. It involves too much mutilation +and too much transformation. When it has done its work little is left +but bone and muscular tissue, and these are so transfused with foreign +substances that a form moulded from plastic matter or sculptured from +stone could almost as truly be considered that of the lamented dead as +this. Moreover, indefinite preservation of the dead is not desirable, +and is not desired. The uses to which the Egyptian Pharaohs and their +humbler subjects have been put in these days of indelicacy and +unscrupulousness in the pursuit of science or sordid gain are not such +as to make many eager to be preserved for a similar disposition when the +present shall have become a similarly distant past. + +Desiccation, in striking contrast with embalming, is the process of +nature rather than of art, and involves no mutilation and no +substitution of foreign substances for human flesh, and does not by +unnatural means preserve the semblance of the human form so long that a +susceptible sentiment is shocked and a due return of material humanity +to the elements that gave it birth prevented. Desiccation is so far a +natural process that it seems not to have been thought of until nature +had done the work and shown the product, and through many centuries, and +upon an extensive scale, nature had employed the process before it +occurred to man to copy her and adopt her method for the disposition of +his dead. + +Wherever the air that enwrapped the lifeless form of man or beast was +dry, desiccation anticipated and prevented decomposition. In deserts, +upon elevated plains, upon the slopes of lofty mountain ranges, to which +the winds that passed their summits bore no moisture, the dead have not +decayed, but have dried undecomposed. In the morgue attached to the +Hospice of St. Bernard, the dead, lifted too late from their shroud of +snow, and borne thither to await the recognition of their friends, dry, +and do not decay. In the "Catacombs" of the monastery of the Capuchins +at Palermo, and in the "Bleikeller" at Bremen, the same phenomenon has +appeared. Even Egypt is a confirmation of these statements, for it is +probable that, had much less care been taken to preserve the dead, they +would not there have yielded to decay as in other lands; and that +moisture is so far absent from the atmosphere that the dead would have +been preserved from decay by desiccation had not embalming been resorted +to. Upon the elevated Western plains of this continent, the bodies of +beasts and men by thousands have been preserved from decomposition by +desiccation. To take one instance out of many that might be cited: A +cave was not long ago discovered high up among the Sierra Madre +Mountains, within which were found, where they had rested undisturbed +for many years, the lifeless figures of a little aboriginal household, +dried and undecayed. Father, mother, son and daughter, one by one, as +death had overtaken them, had been brought thither, bound so as to keep +in death the attitude that had marked them when at their rest in life, +and there they bore their silent but impressive witness to the +beneficent action of the unmoist air that had stayed decay and kept them +innocuous to the living that survived them. In Peru, instances of this +simple, wholesome process abound on almost every side; upon the elevated +plains and heights, as also beside the sea, the dead of Inca lineage, +with the lowliest of their subjects, are found in uncounted numbers, +testifying that in their death they did not injure the living, because +desiccation saved them from decomposition; and a recent traveller has +vividly described the scene that a battlefield of the late war presents, +and that illustrates the same process, where, though years have passed +since the last harsh sound of strife was heard, the fierce and bitter +combatants still seem eager to rush to conflict or to sink reluctant +into the embrace of death. And all these instances furnish conclusive +proof that decomposition can be controlled, and that its loathsome and +unwholesome transformations can be prevented, if only the simple +conditions are secured that have already so extensively effected this +result. That these conditions can be secured no one can doubt, for, +every-day, in almost every clime, by processes familiar and available to +man, the atmosphere has moisture added to it or taken from it; and the +extraction of the moisture from a portion of the atmosphere is all that +is required to introduce the process of Peruvian desiccation into the +sepulchres of Chicago or New York. + +It will naturally be further asked: "Is this all that has been done to +demonstrate the efficiency and availability of desiccation for the +dead?" To this the answer would be sufficient that the evidence that has +been adduced is ample, and that, at once, in perfect confidence as to +the result, mausoleums might be erected, with provision for the +withdrawal of the moisture from the atmosphere, and for the passage of +the desiccated air through the sepulchres in which the dead should rest. +So little is involved, and so much has been accomplished without the +application of any human skill, that it seems inevitable that, as soon +as the resources of modern architecture and sanitary science are drawn +upon, the desired result will be at once attained. But, to make +assurance doubly sure, several carefully-conducted experiments have been +made, under the supervision of the directors of the New Mausoleum +movement, that prove that the conditions of desiccation can be +controlled and that decomposition can be prevented, that where it has +begun it can be stayed, and that prolonged preservation, with a fair +approximation to the appearance in life, can be made sure for the +recognition of absent friends, for transportation or the furtherance of +the ends of justice. + +When, now, it is added that desiccation has been ascertained to be an +efficient agent in the destruction of disease germs, as proved by the +experiments of Dr. Sternberg, of the Hoagland Laboratory, and by the +investigations of other experts, enough seems to have been said to +establish the truth of the assertion that entombment can be made +sanitary, and that, therefore, entombment offers the satisfactory +solution of the problem how to dispose of the dead so as to do no +violence to a reverent and tender sentiment, and at the same time not to +imperil the public health. + +The proposition, then, soon to be submitted for public approval is this: +to erect in the suburbs of our large towns and cities, perhaps even in +their most thickly-populated parts, extensive and handsome edifices that +will provide sanitary Sepulchres for the dead. To be comparatively +inexpensive, they will have to be comparatively plain, and it seems not +too much to hope that our cities will soon adopt this mode of disposing +of the dead that depend upon the public care for burial, and that the +horrors of a "Potter's Field," of which it cannot be divested, even in a +fair and sea-girt isle, may be forevermore unknown of men.... + +Within there would be, as the unit of construction, each sepulchre so +constructed that anhydrous air could enter, or could be made to enter +and withdraw, laden with moisture and morbific matter, which it would +convey to a separate structure, where a furnace would complete the +sanitary work that the anhydrous air had begun, and return to the +external atmosphere nothing that would be noxious. Each sepulchre, in +itself and its surroundings, would appear to provide a place of repose, +and would have electrical appliances attached to it for the instant +indication of the return of consciousness to any who had been +prematurely entombed, and would promise and provide the most perfect and +permanent protection against intrusion or theft that can be found on +earth. In arrangement these sepulchres would have to conform to the +price paid and the taste of the purchaser. Many would be like the single +graves that thickly ridge portions of our cemeteries; many more would be +grouped together after the semblance of a family-tomb; but in the +general impression, in the surroundings and suggestions, the resemblance +to the provisions of a cemetery would go no farther. For here there +could be no burning sun, no chilling cold, no inclement storm; for the +living, as they should pay the last sad honor to the dead, or in any +subsequent tribute of affection, there could be no exposure, and for the +dead there would be only the constant semblance of the comfort and the +quiet of the best-ordered and most tranquil home. Thus, in providing the +utmost that exacting affection and sanitary science can require, and in +taxing to the utmost the resources of art, in architecture, in sculpture +and in the use of subdued and according hues and forms for appropriate +decoration, these "Campo Santos," or "Mausoleums," or "Mansions of the +Dead," will seem to have realized the ideal disposition of the mortal +remains of those who depart this life. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 3: Extracts from a paper read before the Boston Electric Club, +December 23, 1889, by F.C. Child.] + +[Footnote 4: Extracts from an address by Rev. Charles R. Treat before +the American Public Health Association at Brooklyn, N.Y., October +23, 1889.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE VEKPLANCK HOMESTEAD, FISHKILL, N.Y. + + +[Illustration: The Old Verplanck Homestead at Fishkill, Hudson River, in +which the Society of the Cincinnati originated.] + +The Verplanck homestead stands on the lands granted by the Wappinger +Indians, in 1683, to Gulian Verplanck and Francis Rombout, under a +license given by Governor Thomas Dongan Commander-in-Chief of the +Province of New York, and confirmed, in 1685, by letters patent from +King-James the II. The purchase included "all that Tract or Parcell of +land Scituate on the East side of Hudson's river, beginning from the +South side of a Creek called the fresh Kill and by the Indians +Matteawan, and from thence Northward along said Hudson's river five +hundred Rodd beyond the Great Wappin's Kill, and from thence into the +woods fouer Houres goeing"; or, in our speech, easterly sixteen English +miles. There were eighty-five thousand acres in this grant, and the +"Schedull or Perticuler" of money and goods given to the natives, in +exchange, by ffrancis Rumbout and Gulyne Ver Planke sounds oddly to-day: + + One hundred Royalls, + One hundred Pound Powder, + Two hundred fathom of white Wampum, + One hundred Barrs of lead, + One hundred fathom of black Wampum, + Thirty tobacco boxes, ten holl adzes, + Thirty Gunns, twenty Blankets, + Forty fathom of Duffils, + Twenty fathom of stroudwater Cloth, + Thirty Kittles, forty Hatchets, + Forty Hornes, forty Shirts, + Forty pair stockins, + Twelve coates of B.C., + Ten drawing Knives, + Forty earthen Juggs, + Forty Bottles, Fouer ankers Rum, + Forty Knives, ten halfe Vatts Beere, + Two hundred tobacco pipes, + Eighty pound tobacco. + +The purchasers were also to pay Governor Dongan six bushels of good and +merchantable winter wheat every year. The deed is recorded at Albany in +Vol. 5 of the Book of Patents. + +Before 1685 Gulian Verplanck died, leaving minor children, and +settlements on his portion of the land were thus postponed. Divisions of +the estate were made in 1708, in 1722, and again in 1740. It is not +accurately known when the Homestead, the present low Dutch farm-house +was built, but we know that it stood where it now stands, before the +Revolutionary War, and the date commonly assigned to the building is a +little before 1740. + +The house stands on a bluff overlooking the Hudson, about a mile and +one-half north of Fishkill Landing. It is one-story and one-half high, +of stone, plastered. The gambrel roof is shingled, descends low and has +dormer windows. The house has always been occupied and is in excellent +preservation. Baron Steuben chose it for his headquarters, no doubt for +its nearness to Washington's headquarters across the river, and for the +beauty and charm of the situation. It is made still further famous by +the fact that under its roof was organized in 1783 the Society of the +Cincinnati. The room then used is on the right of the hall, and is +carefully preserved. In fancy we can picture the assembly of officers +grouped about Washington, in that west room overlooking the river, +pledging themselves to preserve the memories of the years during which +they had struggled for their country's being. + +The whole neighborhood, especially the village of Fishkill which was the +principal settlement in the county at that date, has many revolutionary +associations. The interior army route to Boston passed through the +village; this was a depot of army stores, and workshops and hospitals +were established. Here was forged the sword of Washington, now in the +keeping of the United States Government, and exhibited in the late +Centennial collection. It is marked with the maker's name, J. Bailey, +Fishkill. + +The New York Legislature, retiring before the approach of the British, +after the evacuation of the city, came at last to Fishkill, and here the +constitution of the State was printed, in 1777, on the press of Samuel +Loundon, the first book, Lossing says, ever printed in the State. + +Some years after peace was restored, the Verplanck family appear to have +occupied the Homestead from time to time. Philip Verplanck, a grandson +of Gulian the original grantee, was a native of the patent, but his +public life was spent elsewhere. He was an engineer and surveyor, and an +able man. Verplanck's Point in Westchester County, where Fort Lafayette +stood during the Revolution, was named for him, and he represented that +Manor in the Colonial Assembly from 1734 to 1768. Finally, Daniel +Crommelin Verplanck with his large family--one of his sons being the +well-known Gulian C. Verplanck, born here in 1786--came to live in the +old home permanently. He had led an active life in New York, served in +Congress and on the bench, and now retired to the quiet of the country. +It was he who planted the fine old trees which now shade the lawn; among +them the coffee-tree so much admired. About 1810 the north end, built of +wood, was added to the old house. Architects were not numerous, +apparently, in those days, so the Dutch type was lost in making this +large addition, though the interior is quaint, dignified and +interesting. It was from under its roof that Daniel C. Verplanck was +carried to his last resting-place as his father before him, and +generations after him lived and still live in the old Homestead. + +For the above description, prepared with no little painstaking, of an +interesting house and demesne, as well as for the loan of the photograph +from which I made my pen-and-ink sketch of it, I am wholly indebted to a +member of the Verplanck family and a mutual friend. + +A.J. BLOOR. + + * * * * * + +ROCK UPHEAVAL CAUSED BY HYDRAULIC PRESSURE.--There was a remarkable +occurrence at the mills of the Combined Locks Paper Company at Combined +Locks, Wis., on Saturday. From some unknown cause there was an upheaval +of rock upon which the mills are located, throwing the mill walls out of +place, cracking a great wall of stone and cement twenty feet thick and +making a saddle-back several hundred feet long and six inches high in +the bed rock beneath the mill. An artesian well two hundred feet away on +the bluff has dried up. The damage to the mill and machinery will +probably amount to several thousand dollars. The upheaval is supposed to +have resulted from some hydraulic pressure between the seams of rock +beneath. A panic occurred among the mill operatives at the time of the +shake-up, but nobody was hurt in the stampede from the mill.--_Boston +Transcript_, _September_ 10. + + + + +ELECTRICITY'S VICTIMS IN EUROPE. + + +[Illustration: Monument to Minine and Pojarsky, Russia.] + +Although the greatest number of deaths from electricity have occurred in +this country--more than one hundred--of which twenty-two occurred in +this city, yet other countries have not been without such "accidents," +as has been erroneously stated by experts in the employ of the companies +interested in the deadly high-voltage currents, and as the subjoined +list, compiled by C.F. Heinrichs, the electrical expert, shows. The list +is by no means exhaustive. Many European newspapers contain articles +advising stringent measures to stop the causes of those accidents and +the use of currents of electricity above six hundred volts. + +Following is a list of victims of electricity in Europe: + +In February, 1880, Mr. Bruno, the euphonium player at the Holte Theatre +in Ashton, near Birmingham, touched the conductors of a two-light +electric plant and received a shock which rendered him insensible, and +he died within forty minutes. + +In October, 1880, the stoker of the yacht Livadia, which was lying in +the Thames, near London, was ordered to adjust one of the Jablochkoff +candles. He accidently touched the terminals of the lamp, and instantly +fell down dead. The difference of potential at the lamp terminals was +only fifty volts, but it was admitted at the time that the wires must +have been in contact with the iron plate upon which the stoker stood, +and that alternating currents of higher voltages from the main source +caused the death, because with fifty volts an electrical energy of only +.05 Watts would have been expended on the resistances of the skin and +the vital organs of the victim. + +In 1880, a workman touched a wire of a Brush installation at the +Hatfield House, the residence of the Marquis of Salisbury, and fell down +dead. The current was under eight hundred volts. + +In July, 1882, on the occasion of a fire in Brighton, England, a fireman +took hold of a fire-escape which was in contact with the wire of a Brush +machine. He received a shock which doubled him up and disabled him for a +long time. + +August, 1883, an official of the Hungarian railway in Pesth was killed +on touching a wire of a "Ganz" alternating-current generator. + +August, 1884, Emile Martin and Joseph Kenarec were killed in Paris on +attempting to climb over the fence of the garden of the Tuileries. Both +victims came in contact with the wires of a Siemen twelve-light +alternating-current generator. The difference of potential between the +place of the accident and the ground was 250 volts. The current which +would pass that way caused the deaths, and burns upon the hands, cheek +and ear of the victims. + +September, 1884, Henry Pink, an attendant at the Health exhibition in +London, was killed on touching a Hochhausen dynamo of 1,000-volt +capacity. At that time all electricians agreed that no currents over 600 +volts should be allowed. + +November, 1884, an engine-driver, William Moore, was instantly killed on +touching the wire of an arc-light plant, at Messrs. Bolcknow, Vaughan & +Co.'s, works, at Middleborough, England. The fatality was admitted to be +due to the high-voltage current and bad insulation. + +January, 1887, Richard Grove noted that his employer's store, in Regent +Street, London, was set on fire by electric-light wires. He rushed up on +the roof of the building to cut the wires. He received a shock and fell +off the roof, dead. Secondary currents of Goulard & Gibb's converters +(Westinghouse system) were held responsible for the fatality by +electricians. + +December, 1887, James Williams was killed by an electric-light shock at +the Pontyminister tin-plate works at Bisca, in Wales. + +June, 1888, in Terri, Italy, a tinner was killed on the roof of a +building on touching an alternating-current circuit. + +October. 1888, in Spain, at the Valladolid electric-light station a +carpenter took hold of a wire of an alternating-current generator and +could not let go. An attendant tried to pull the man off the wire and +both were killed by the currents. + +November, 1888, E.A. Richardson, employed at the Consett iron works, in +the county of Durnham, England, received a shock from an arc-light +plant, from the effects of which he died two hours later. + +December, 1888, in Turin, Italy, an employe of an electric-light company +was killed by alternating currents. + +June, 1889, John Connelly, an employe of the Siemens Electric-Light +Company, near London, was killed by an alternating current of 1,000 +volts. + +Speaking of recent cases here, Mr. Heinrichs said: + +"It is to be regretted that some of our electrical experts of so-called +standing, not only assist in keeping the facts from the public, but tell +when under oath only half the truth, as was said a short time ago in a +conservative electrical publication in London. One of these experts had +to admit in the Kemmler investigations that all of his knowledge as to +the harmless nature of the Westinghouse current was obtained by him from +observations made upon himself and friends receiving alternating +currents from an electro-medical apparatus. And the various +susceptibilities of the different living organisms to electric +influences he judged from the manner in which some of his friends +dropped the metal handles. Had this expert made any calculations of the +electrical energy expended in these trivial experiments he would have +found that the whole electrical energy expended upon the living organism +of any of his friends was below one-fifty thousandth of an electrical +horse-power per second, and the difference of susceptibilities of any of +his friends was infinitesimal, and the difference of the electrical +energy between the minimum and maximum charges less than one-two hundred +thousandths of an electrical horse-power. It is a well-established fact +that alternating currents of an electrical energy of one-four-thousandth +part of an electrical horse-power per second, if expended upon the vital +organs, the nerves and muscles, of any human being, will cause +instantaneous death in every case."--_New York Commercial Advertiser_. + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: THE ILLUSTRATIONS] + + +[_Contributors are requested to send with their drawings full and +adequate descriptions of the buildings, including a statement of cost_.] + + +HOUSE OF G.M. SMITH, ESQ., PROVIDENCE, R.I. MESSRS. STOKE, CARPENTER & +WILLSON, ARCHITECTS, PROVIDENCE, R.I. + +[Gelatine Print issued only with the Imperial and International +Editions.] + + +THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. MACHAR, ABERDEEN.[5] + +"In the bustling manufacturing town which has lately become, and is +likely for some time to remain, the extreme northern point of our great +system of railway communication, a venerable cathedral, surrounded by +tree, with a pleasant river sweeping past it, is scarcely an expected +sight. But the two divisions of Aberdeen the old and the new town--are +as unlike each other as Canterbury and Manchester. The old town, or +'Alton,' as it is locally termed, is not the most ancient part of a city +of different periods, around which its modern streets and squares have +ramified. It is a distinct hamlet or village, at some distance from the +city, and edged away in privacy apart from the great thoroughfares +connecting the manufacturing centre with other districts of the country. +Its houses are venerable, standing generally in ancient gardens; and +save that the beauty and tranquillity of the spot have led to the +erection of a few pleasant modern villas, dotting it here and there, +whoever treads the one echoing street of the Alton for the first time, +feels that two centuries must have brought very little external change +to the objects by which he is surrounded. In this pristine place, the +short-spiked steeples, and the broad-slated roof of the old cathedral of +St. Machar may be seen rising over a cluster of fine old trees which top +the sloping bank of the winding Don, from the opposite shore of which +the whole scene--comprehending the river, the sloping banks, the trees, +and the gray old church--makes a very perfect landscape, rather English +than Scottish in its aspect. + +"A near approach develops something very peculiar in the character of +this edifice. It bears throughout unmistakable marks of age, but none of +decay. It is gray with the weather-wearing of centuries, but it displays +none of the mouldering vestiges of Time's decaying fingers; nor yet has +it that prim air of good keeping which shows, in treasured antiquities, +that careful hands have sedulously restored each feature that age may +have injured. It is clear that the completeness of detail--the clean +outlines, the hard, unworn surfaces--are characteristics of innate +strength, and connect themselves with the causes of a certain northern +sternness and rigidity in the general architectural designs. + +"The secret of all these peculiarities is to be found in the nature of +the material, which is granite--the same that has handed down to us, +through thousands of years, the cold, stony eyes of the sphynx, +precisely as the chisel last touched them--and retains, to the wonder +of the Londoners, the glittering lustre of the polished cheeks of +Rameses. The stern nature of the primitive rock--obdurate alike to the +chisel and to time--has entirely governed the character of the +architecture; and, while it has precluded lightness and decoration, has +given opportunities for a certain gloomy dignity. About the porch, one +or two niches and other small details, have been decorated; but as if +the artist had abandoned the task of chiselling his obdurate materials +as a vain one, ornament goes no farther, and all the architectural +effects are the fruit of bold design. Such, for instance, is the great +west window--not mullioned, but divided by long massive stone shafts +into seven arched compartments; such, too, is the low-browed doorway +beneath, with its heavy semicircular arch. The upper tier of +windows--here called _storm_ windows, perhaps as a corruption of +_dormer_--are the plain, unmoulded arch, such as one sometimes sees it +in unadorned buildings of the earlier Norman period. Indeed, though the +building dates from the second age of the Pointed style, it associates +itself in some of its features, very closely with the relics of the +Norman age, especially in the short, massive round pillars which support +the clerestory. The roof, with its carving, gilding, and bright heraldic +colors, is in thorough contrast with the rest of the architecture, and +the eye gratefully relieves itself from the gloom below, by wandering +over its quaint devices and gaudy hues. It is divided into three +longitudinal departments, panelled with richly-carved oak; and at each +intersection of the divisions of the compartments with the cross-beams, +there is emblazoned a shield armorial, with an inscription. + +"It is an uncommon thing to find, as in this instance we do, the nave +only of a church remaining, for the chancel was generally the part first +erected, and sometimes the only part. The remains of the central and +eastern portions of St. Machar's tell how the western compartment braved +the causes of destruction which to them had been fatal: they were built +of freestone. Incrusted, as it were, in the eastern wall, are the +clustered freestone pillars, with richly-flowered capitals, which of old +supported the central square tower; and on either side are the vestiges +of the transept, with the remains of the richly-sculptured tombs, +represented in the accompanying plate, embedded in the wall. In +Slezer's, and some other representations of this building in the +seventeenth century, the tower--a simple square mass, with a +roof--appears to have been still standing, but the choir had +disappeared." + + +MONUMENT IN THE SOUTH TRANSEPT OF THE CATHEDRAL, ABERDEEN, SCOTLAND. + + +THE HOTEL DE SOTO, SAVANNAH, GA. MR. WM. GIBBONS PRESTON, ARCHITECT, +BOSTON, MASS. + +This hotel, which has just been completed, occupies a whole square in +the heart of the city, and has a frontage of 300 feet on Liberty Street +and 200 feet on Bull Street. It forms two sides of the square, the +two-story kitchen and servants' wing forming the third side. The climate +renders it desirable to have it freely open and exposed to the cool +southeast winds which blow refreshingly up from the bay, and, as a +winter resort, a southeast exposure of nearly half the rooms makes them +sunny and dry. The building is four, five and six stories in height, and +a flat roof, 50 x 70 on the highest portion, gives a fine view down the +bay. A "solarium" is erected on this roof, to contain a tropical garden +or to be used for dancing. The "parade" or garden, upon which all the +southeast windows look, has been beautifully laid out, and there is not +a dark room or a "back room" in the building. + +A "rotunda" with glass roof at the rear of hall, first story, is +intended as a lounging-room for ladies and gentlemen, and a veranda 35 +feet in width in front opens upon Bull Street. Many of the rooms open +upon covered verandas on the second, third and fourth stories. The +dining-room is 50 x 120 feet, open to the air on three sides. The +materials are local brick for the lower portions, and buff Perth Amboy +brick and terra-cotta above. It contains about 300 rooms, and will cost, +completed, about half a million. It is, except the Ponce de Leon, the +largest hotel in the South. Special arrangements have been made for +introducing large volumes of warmed or cooled air into the halls and +corridors. The contractors are Mr. T. Lewman & Co. The Whittier Machine +Co. did the elevator, heating and laundry work. The Brush system of +electric lighting has been introduced throughout. L. Haberstroh & Son +have decorated the walls and ceilings, making a special feature of the +dining-room. Ground was broken just a year ago, and the house was opened +for guests on New Year's day. + + +MEMORIAL CHURCH OF THE ANGELS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. MR. ERNEST A. COXHEAD, +ARCHITECT, LOS ANGELES, CAL. + +This church which has lately been finished has cost about $25,000. The +inside walls are finished in brick and stone. + + +ST. AUGUSTINE'S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH BUILDINGS, BROOKLYN, N.Y. MESSRS. +PARFITT BROS., ARCHITECTS, BROOKLYN, N.Y. + + * * * * * + +[Additional Illustrations in the International Edition.] + + +CHATEAU DE JOSSELIN, MORBIHAN, FRANCE.--FACADE ON THE COUR D'HONNEUR. + +[Gelatine Plate.] + + +AN INTERIOR IN THE CHATEAU DE JOSSELIN, MORBIHAN, FRANCE. + +[Gelatine Plate.] + + +TWO VIEWS OF THE HOUSE OF MRS. CONSINO, SANTIAGO, CHILI. + + +DESIGN FOR CHURCH OF THE GOOD SHEPHERD, GOSPEL OAK, LONDON, N.W., ENG. +MR. F. PHILLIPS FIGGIS, ARCHITECT. + + +BUTLER'S WOOD, CHISLEHURST, ENG. MR. ERNEST NEWTON, ARCHITECT. + + +HOUSE AT PENNSYLVANIA, EXETER, ENG. MR. JAMES CROCKER, F.R.I.B.A., +ARCHITECT, EXETER, ENG. + +This house has recently been completed for Mr. E.C. Philp, and stands in +one of the best suburbs of the city. The materials employed are +Wellington red brick for the facings above plinth, with Broseley tiles +for the roofs, the few stone dressings being of Ham Hill. The walling up +to the plinth level is of Westleigh limestone, as are also the piers +surrounding the site, with wrought-iron railing between same. The +principal chimney-pieces in the house have been made to special design, +and are chiefly executed in American walnut and pitch-pine. The +dining-room is panelled the full height up to a richly-modelled frieze +in plaster, all to design, and the ceiling of this apartment is also +panelled. + + +DESIGN FOR BOARD SCHOOLS. MR. GEORGE W. WEBB, A.R.I.B.A., ARCHITECT, +READING, ENG. + +This design was prepared in competition for schools near London, but, +owing to a mistake in the date for sending in designs, it was too late +for the competition. The plan is on the central hall system for boys and +girls, the hall being 110 feet by 54 feet, and top-lighted. Fourteen +class-rooms, each 30 feet by 20 feet, are provided, each divided from +the central hall by movable glass screens. The infants' school, lodge, +etc., form detached buildings. The total cost was estimated at L16,000. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 5: It should always be kept in mind that these illustrations +from the "_Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_," by +R.W. Billings, are republished very largely for the sake of giving +instruction in one manner of the rendering of architectural drawings.] + + * * * * * + + + + +METHODS OF REDUCING THE FIRE LOSS.[6] + + +[Illustration: OLD DOORWAY AT NEWPORT R.I.] + +The liability to injury by fire is a hazard inherent to all buildings, +and this danger is a constant menace whose threatening destruction of +values imposes upon the owner a persistent consideration, which endures +as long as the building stands. + +As every method of construction, the various mechanical processes and +the stock in each stage of manufacture bears some relation to the +fire-hazard as a supporter or possible originator of combustion, the +engineer whose duties pertain to these matters must necessarily also +consider the question of the fire-hazard in the important phase of +prevention, as well as the direct application of those engineering +problems required in the design and installation of fire apparatus. + +The fire-loss is a most oppressive tax, much of which can be abated by +the application of well-established means of prevention. In a practical +sense, certain fires are to be considered as unpreventable, being caused +by exposure to fires in other burning buildings, but there are very few +fires whose destructive results might not have been prevented by the +exercise of precautions entirely feasible in their nature. + +These several topics will be considered in reference to the reduction of +the fire-loss on isolated manufacturing property, because the exercise +of every possible precaution may not avail anything if the property is +liable to be imperilled by fires originating in adjacent buildings. + + +SUPERVISION. + +The prevention of fires must in greater measure proceed from the +efficiency of the supervision exercised over the property in the order +of the buildings, heed to probable causes of fire, and attention to the +fire-apparatus. + +In a manufactory there is a wide distinction to be made between to-day's +dirt and yesterday's dirt; valuable results may be obtained by an +inspection of the whole property made on Saturday afternoon by two men, +such as foremen or overseers of rooms, who may be appointed to serve +four weeks, their assignment terminating on alternate fortnights. The +report should be made on a sheet of paper, divided so as to include all +features of order and fire-apparatus in every room. + +As property should be watched during the day Sunday, as well as at +night, it is under the care of watchmen about five-eighths of the time, +and the measure of this responsibility should be clearly understood. + +The patrol should be recorded on a watchman's clock, not merely to show +that he was not unfaithful, but also to prove that he was faithful. + +Especially in districts liable to disorder and lawlessness, it is +desirable to have a district-messenger signal-box in the works, visited +once an hour, with the understanding that if the call is not made within +fifteen minutes of the appointed time, it will be assumed that there is +trouble and help sent at once. + +Safety requires that the lanterns should be securely guarded; that the +handle and sustaining parts of the lantern be connected together by +rivets or by locking the metals together without relying on soldered +joints; and thirdly, that the lamp should be put in from above, and +never from the bottom. + + +CONSTRUCTION. + +In its design, a mill for any standard line of manufacture is not a +building whose arrangements and proportions are fixed upon at the whim +of the owner, but it must conform to certain conditions of dimensions, +stability, light and application of power to satisfy the requirements +essential for furnishing every advantage necessary for producing the +desired results at the lowest cost. + +The destructive consequences attending fire in such buildings, whose +iron and masonry construction is called fireproof, show that some other +form of construction is necessary to obtain the desired results of +minimizing the annual cost of the maintenance of the invested capital, +as represented by insurance, depreciation, interest and taxation. There +is little incentive for entering into unusual expenses in the +construction of a manufacturing building for the purpose of increasing +its resistance to fire, unless the additional interest on such increase +in the investment is to be met by a corresponding reduction in the +annual cost of the fire-hazard. In addition to these questions, +involving the annual maintenance of the plant, the increase in the +expense of the building above a certain point may prove poor management, +by locking up capital for too long a time, and may tend to prevent the +improvements in arrangement and construction which are necessary for the +most advantageous manufacturing. + +The method of mill building known as slow-burning construction combines +the advantages of low initial cost and great resistance to destruction +by fire, the final result being that the manufacturing is housed at the +minimum annual cost. The fundamental principle of such construction is +to mass the material in such a way that there shall not be any concealed +spaces about the structure, and that the number of projections of +timbers, which are more easily ignited than the flat surfaces, shall be +reduced as far as possible; that iron portions of the structure shall +not be exposed to the heat of any fire in the contents of the building, +and furthermore, that the isolation of the various portions, both in +respect to that of one building to another and of the various rooms and +stories of the same building, shall be as complete as is feasible. + +The most important feature is that of the mill floors, which should be +laid on beams, generally of Southern pine, 12 x 14 inches, or two inches +larger when required by unusual loads or longer span than twenty-two +feet. These beams are placed from eight to ten feet apart between +centres. + +At the columns, beams rest on cast-iron caps. + +The support from one column to the next should be made by cast-iron +pintles, preferably those whose section is in the form of a Greek cross, +as that presents advantages in the way of securely joining them to the +timber beams. At the top of the pintle, a cast-iron plate should support +the base of the column above. + +Timber columns are preferred to those of iron, unless the load is +greater than can be sustained by timber. + +The floor planks for this type of floor are generally made of spruce +plank from three to four inches in thickness, grooved on both edges and +joined together by hardwood splines. These floor-planks should be two +bays in length, breaking joints at least every four feet. + +Above this the top floor, of 1-1/4 or 1-1/2 inch hardwood, is laid, and +in some instances the resistance of the floor to fire is greatly +increased by laying a coat of plaster on the floor-plank before the top +flooring is built. But the general method of increasing the resistance +of the floor to fire is by covering the floor and beams on the under +side with plaster laid on wire-lathing. + +Such a mill floor and columns, while possessing in a very high degree +features which offer resistance to the fire, being weakened by the +temperature only to a slight extent as they are slowly burned away under +the exposure to a very severe fire, also possess the merit of great +economy, both as regards the low price of construction, and in that the +floor is thinner in comparison with joisted floors of equal strength, +saving in this respect, for every floor in a building, about ten inches +in height of wall, stairs, belting, steam-pipes, and all vertical +connections reaching from floor to floor, a saving which amounts to +considerable in the total cost of a building. + +The division of mills into various portions by means of fire-walls is +frequently not so efficient as assumed, by reason of the lack of +fire-doors to satisfactorily fulfil the purpose of resisting fire. The +best form of fire-door is that made of two thicknesses of matched +boards, placed at right angles to each other and nailed together, being +covered on the outside with tin, securely locked together and held to +the door by numerous hanging-strips. The door should be secured to the +hangers by means of bolts, and not screws, and the rail upon which it +runs strongly bolted to the wall. When closed, such a door should fit +into a jamb and be securely held in this manner against the wall. Such +doors are frequently hung upon an inclined track, and, by some +application of highly fusible solder at the catch, are so arranged that +they will be closed by the heat of a fire, if not closed by hand. + +In this treatment of the arrangement of buildings to resist fire, +consideration has not been given to the cost of land, which is, of +itself, an important factor in determining what arrangement will be the +most expedient for an establishment. Where land is expensive, or there +are limitations in the space suitable for building, it is frequently +necessary to build mills and shops higher than would be warranted by +good judgment under other conditions; but where circumstances will +permit it, the one-story mill has been very successful, not merely in +immunity from fire, and very low cost per square foot of floor, but also +in the advantages of manufacturing, particularly in regard to cost of +supervision and movement of the stock in process of manufacture. These +are questions which must be determined, not merely in regard to the +various processes of manufacture, but the individual needs of each +concern; the position of the fire-risk in the matter being that the +hazard of a building increases very rapidly with its height, and to some +extent with its area. + +The extension of one-story buildings over too large an area will not be +commended, and certainly, as regards the question of fire, it has a +tendency to place too large a property in direct exposure to a very wide +hazard. + +Some textile mills have been built in the form of the block letter U, +this form having been decided upon as giving the conditions of lowest +resultant cost. One wing, two stories in height, contains weaving; the +other wing, three stories in height, contains carding and spinning, +while the engine is placed in the connecting building. The pickers and +the boilers are in outside buildings, so placed that they will not +interfere with future extensions of the building into the form of the +block letter H. + + +FIRE APPARATUS. + +All methods for the prevention of fires fall so far short of the ideal +of immunity that there is a necessity for fire-apparatus. The principle +of the defence of a manufactory against fire is that of self-protection, +by making the installation and management of the fire-apparatus equal to +the progress of any fire which can possibly occur. + +Fire-apparatus should be kept in service as well as in order. It is no +exception to any other machinery, in that practice is essential to +obtain any efficient results. + +The practical results of private fire-organizations, where fire has +occurred, have been very marked; and systematic and skilful work has +been the rule, in place of the needless confusion and liability to +breakage of the apparatus, which almost inevitably occurs in the lack of +such organization. + +The details differ with the arrangements and administration of every +mill; but the general policy of definitely assigning persons to the +positions for which they are best adapted, and where it is presumed they +could be most useful, and to practice them in such work, is a rule which +is common to all. + +A great deal of fire-apparatus is destroyed by freezing water during the +winter months, and therefore a special inspection of all such apparatus +should be made late in the autumn, when the water should be drained from +all portions of the system where there is liability of freezing, and all +hydrants and valves should be well oiled, preferably with mineral oil. +The hazard from a hydrant or other portion of the apparatus broken by +frost, does not lie so much in the probability that disadvantage may +result from the disuse of one element of the plant, as in the liability +that such a breakage may interfere with the whole system and render it +inoperative. + +Buckets of water are the most effective fire-apparatus. They should be +kept full, and distributed in liberal profusion in the various rooms of +a mill, being placed on shelves or hung on hooks, as circumstances may +require. In order to assist in keeping them for fire purposes only, they +should be unlike other pails used about the premises, and in some +instances each pail and the wall or column behind its position bears the +same number. + +Automatic-sprinklers have proved to be a most valuable form of +fire-apparatus in operating with great efficiency at fires where their +action was unaided by other fire-apparatus, particularly at night. In +mill fires the average loss for an experience of twelve years shows that +in those fires where automatic-sprinklers formed a part of the apparatus +operating upon the fire, the average loss amounted to only +one-nineteenth of the average of all other losses. If the difference +between these two averages represents the amount saved by the operation +of automatic-sprinklers, then the total damage from the number of fires +to which automatic-sprinklers are accredited, as forming a portion of +the apparatus, has been reduced six and a quarter million dollars by the +operation of this valuable device. + +Although there have been numerous patents granted to inventors of +automatic-sprinklers since the early part of the present century, yet +their practical use and introduction has been subsequent to the +invention of the sealed automatic-sprinkler by Henry S. Parmelee of New +Haven, Ct., about twelve years ago. This device being the first, and for +many years the only automatic-sprinkler manufactured and sold, and +actually performing service over accidental fires, to him belongs the +distinction of being the pioneer, and practically the originator, of the +vast work done by automatic-sprinklers in reducing destruction of +property by fire. + +Although nearly or quite 200,000 Parmelee automatic-sprinklers have been +installed, their manufacture has been supplanted by other forms; and the +total number of automatic-sprinklers in position at the present time +must be about 2,000,000. + +When automatic-sprinklers were first introduced there were many +apprehensions that leakage, and also excessive water discharged upon +small fires, would be sources of damage. In England this opinion found +expression in increased insurance rates in buildings where +automatic-sprinklers were installed. + +The logic of figures shows that this liability to damage is merely +nominal in the case of well-constructed sprinklers. An association of +underwriters who have given careful attention to the subject obtained +the facts that from the automatic-sprinklers installed in some +$500,000,000 worth of property insured by them, the average damage from +all causes, except fire, was $2.56 per plant per annum. + +Although automatic-sprinklers have proved to be so reliable and +effective, yet, in order to provide for all possible contingencies, +their introduction should not displace other forms of fire-apparatus, +particularly stand-pipes in the stairway towers, with hydrants at each +story. The hose at these hydrants should be festooned on a row of pins, +or doubled on some of the reels made especially for such purposes. +Stand-pipes are not recommended to be placed in rooms or on +fire-escapes; and inside hydrants should not be attached to the vertical +pipes supplying automatic-sprinklers. + +Fire-pumps are generally too small for the work required of them, 500 +gallons per minute being the minimum capacity recommended. For a +five-story mill there should be an allowance of 250 gallons per minute +for an effective stream through a 1-1/8-inch nozzle, and for lower +buildings the estimate should rarely be less than 200 gallons for each +stream. + +Contrary to the general assumption, a ring nozzle is not so efficient as +a smooth nozzle, the relative amount of discharge of ring and smooth +nozzles of the same diameter being as three is to four. For stand-pipes +7/8-inch nozzles are recommended, but for yard hydrant service the +diameter should never be less than one inch, and 1-1/8 inches generally +fulfils the conditions of best service. + +The yard hydrants should be placed at a distance of fifty feet from +buildings, and covered with a house which should also contain hose, +axes, bars, nozzles and spanners. + +Water-mains about a mill-yard should be of ample capacity not to cause +an excessive loss by friction, their diameter being based upon a limit +of velocity of ten feet per second for the maximum delivery. + + +RESULTS. + +These methods of supervision, building and equipment do not refer to any +ideality, but to measures which have been widely carried into effect for +the purpose of reducing the fire-loss; the result of such action being +to diminish the cost of insuring industrial property engaged in such +normally hazardous processes as textile manufacture and other +industries, down to a yearly cost of less than one-fifth of one per +cent. This has been accomplished by the consideration of sources of +danger and their abatement, and by a course which has been in line with +sound engineering principles, and also practical methods of manufacture; +and it has thus been proved that it is cheaper to prevent a fire than to +sustain a loss. + +There has been no attempt made to credit individuals with their share in +these features of mill development. They have been the outgrowth of a +continual profiting by experience, adopting some features and modifying +others. The concurrent action of the large number of minds engaged on +the same problem has led to duplication of methods; but the whole +progress has been a matter of slow, steady growth, advancing by hairs' +breadths, as the result of persistent efforts to adapt means to ends in +the endeavor to reduce the cost of manufacture. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 6: Abstract of a paper by Mr. C.J.H. Woodbury, read before the +American Society of Mechanical Engineers.] + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: SOCIETIES] + +THE NEWARK ARCHITECTURAL SKETCH-CLUB. + + +After a preliminary meeting held for permanent organization December 14, +1889, a constitution and by-laws were adopted, and the following +officers elected: _President_, W. Frank Bowers; _Vice-President_, J.C. +Swinnerton; _Secretary_, H.A. Hickok; _Treasurer_, W.C. Hudson. _The +Executive Committee_ consists of F.S. Sutton, A.E. Hudson, W.G. Smith, +L.A. Virtue and E.K. Taylor, together with the officers. It is intended, +in addition to the usual monthly competitions, to make a special feature +of regular class-work throughout the year, this will consist of courses +in constructional work, free-hand drawing, water-color work, plumbing, +architectural history, etc. The courses will be under the direction of +specialists in the various branches who are club-members. Applications +for membership will be received by the Secretary, whose address is 762 +Broad Street, Newark. The Club expect to have permanent quarters soon, +which will be open every evening to members. + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: COMMUNICATIONS] + +[_The editors cannot pay attention to demands of correspondents who +forget to give their names and addresses as guaranty of good faith; nor +do they hold themselves responsible for opinions expressed by their +correspondents_.] + +AGREEMENT BETWEEN ARCHITECT AND CLIENT. + + +ALBANY, N.Y., December 26, 1889. + +TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT: + +_Dear Sirs_,--As the services which an architect is supposed to render +his client and the compensation for same have been the subject of +considerable loss to us through misunderstanding, we have prepared for +use the enclosed proposition, which covers most cases in our general +practice. In work of such a nature as can't be covered by this +proposition, we prepare one specially suited to the occasion, but in all +cases insist on a written agreement which we consider is fair to both +parties. Should you see in this proposition anything of benefit to the +profession, you are at liberty to use same. + +Yours truly, FULLER & WHEELER. + +OFFICE OF FULLER & WHEELER, ARCHITECTS, +No. 86 STATE STREET, ALBANY, N.Y., ---- 189 . + + +PROPOSITION. + +Mr.---- + +We will prepare for you the Preliminary Sketches, General Drawings, +Details and Specifications for proposed---- + +to be erected at---- + +for 3-1/2 per cent on the actual cost of same, which is to be determined +by the amount of Mason, Carpenter, Roofer, Plumber, Stone-cutting, +Heating, Ventilating, Iron-workers, Mantel and Elevator Contracts, +including all extras and deductions. In connection with Heating, +Ventilating and Elevator, we will either select the apparatus and +approve the specifications as submitted by the dealers, or prepare plans +and specifications for contractors to estimate on, according to the +character of the work in contemplation, and as in our judgment will +secure the best advantage to you. The cost of hardware, mantel facings, +hearths, back linings, metal bands, electric work and decorations are +also to be included in the total cost of said building, but we are not +required to perform more than our customary work in connection with the +last mentioned items, which is either to select them from manufacturers' +stock or have submitted to us samples, sketches and specifications from +which a selection is made. Any other work, not mentioned above, that we +may be called upon to perform will be charged for at the same rates. + + +SUPERVISION. + +We agree to professionally supervise work constructed from our plans, +for an additional 1-1/2 per cent, or 5 per cent in all, where the work +is in the city, and inspect work out of city at the same rate per cent, +visits not to exceed 2 per month. In any case where a Clerk-of-Works is +required, either on account of the magnitude of the job, or the +inefficiency or carelessness of the contractors, the cost of same is to +be paid by you in addition to our compensation for supervision or +inspection, and said Clerk is to be approved by us. + +We do not agree to be responsible for the acts of the Clerk-of-Works, or +for the negligence or violations of contracts by the contractors any +further than we can reasonably detect at the time of our visits of +supervision or inspection; but such negligence or violations of +contracts, as we detect, we will have corrected, so far as the power +vested in us will permit and as speedily as possible. + +You are at all times to consult with us about desired changes or +additions to the work; to order all such changes through us; and to +notify us in regard to any work done or material used that you consider +is a violation of the contract. + +No allowance from our percentage will be made for drawings contracted +for and not furnished, except upon a refusal by us to furnish such as +may be necessary. + +The supervision and inspection contemplated by this agreement, is such +as is calculated to and ordinarily will secure the furnishing of +materials of the kind and quality required by the contract, and the +performance of the work in accordance with the plans and specifications, +and in a good, workmanlike and substantial manner. + + +CERTIFICATES. + +Where the work is under our supervision, or inspection, we will issue +certificates of indebtedness to the contractors, as per terms of +contract. The final certificate being an adjustment of the contract and +extras, and also an expression of judgment on our part that the work has +been carried out according to the general drawings and specifications +and contracts by the contractors, but is not to form a legal obligation +on our part. + +If the building is not erected from said plans, the charges, instead of +being based on the actual cost, will be based on the approximate cost, +which is hereby estimated at $----, although the last-mentioned sum is +not guaranteed to be the actual cost of said building. Should the actual +cost exceed the approximate cost, we will make the necessary changes in +the plans, so as to reduce the cost, should you so desire, without extra +charge. Changes made in plans from other causes, charged for according +to time consumed. + +Travelling expenses and other necessary disbursements in addition to +fee for services. + + +PAYMENTS. + +Payments shall be made as follows: Upon completion of the preliminary +sketches, 1 per cent of estimated cost; upon completion of the general +drawings and specifications, an additional 1-1/2 per cent of estimated +cost; upon completion of details an additional 1 per cent of estimated +cost; and upon completion of the work, the charge for supervision or +inspection. At that time, also, any differences between the percentage +upon the estimated and actual cost is to be settled, and any deficiency +is to be paid or excess credited. + +Travelling expenses and other necessary disbursements are payable when +incurred. + +In case contracts are not entered into for the work within six months +after the drawings are ready for contractors to estimate, payment shall +be made for the work done at the rates herein before specified, computed +upon the estimated cost. Provided, however, that if at any subsequent +time the plans and specifications prepared by us, are used and the +actual cost exceeds the estimated cost, compensation upon such excesses, +shall be made at the rates aforesaid. + + +REMARKS. + +Respectfully yours, + +Accepted, ---- 189 + + * * * * * + + +INSPECTION OF BUILDINGS IN NEW YORK. + +NEW YORK, N.Y., December 22, 1889. + +TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT:-- + +_Dear Sirs_,--In your issue of the 21st. I note an editorial setting +forth how the New York City Health Department trapped an ingenious +builder, who piped his sewerage into his back-yard, and I, and, I think +I can safely say, many other architects of New York, would ask why you +omit, when publishing such facts, to mention that such work was so put +in and is continually put in, in as bad or in a very unworkmanlike and +insanitary manner, under the supervision of the same department, and +thus shows how the paid officials and inspectors whose business it is to +pass upon and approve the plans and specifications and to give continual +inspection--to see, examine and test every length of pipe and every +joint; who have the might of the law to strike down the offender who +shall make bold to violate their mandates, fail to give protection to +the innocent owners and purchasers of property, or curb the avaricious +hands of unscrupulous builders and careless workmen. + +I should like further, to ask you to publish to the New York City +public, the fact that the "Department", the "Health Department", with +its Bureau of Plumbing and Light and Ventilation, and the Building +Bureau of the Fire Department, are unable to protect property owners and +purchasers from errors in sanitation and construction as they are +supposed by too many to do. Owners frequently think that unless they +want "fancy" drawings and fronts, an architect is superfluous. The +"speculator" finds it no advantage, but rather the opposite, to have an +impartial judge between owner and Contractor, or a close inspection over +his subs; as he gains little by the fact of his having employed a +thorough architect, when he comes to fell, and loses by the bill for +services and the legitimate price he pays for honest work. + +The bulk of speculative work done in New York is after the most trivial +plans made by some mere draughtsman or carpenter, and the +"superintendence" is under the "keen" eye of the builder and owner--who +is usually one and the same individual and who has made a definite +failure at all the branches of the trade and frequently many others, and +now holds position as owner of the property by virtue of his having +paid, entirely in mortgage, for the same. In the large majority of cases +that have been under my observation, they are entirely incapable of +passing an intelligent opinion on any of the materials and work that +make up a building, or at least on very little, and the gross +impositions practiced upon them by their sub-contractors is startling. +Their work is covered-in and is so left, I doubt not, in the majority of +cases, as the inspection furnished by the "Department" is entirely +inadequate for proper protection. The confidence of the public is +continually bolstered up by such descriptions as the editorial above +mentioned. + +A NEW YORK ARCHITECT. + + * * * * * + + +A SEEMING ATTEMPT TO DEFRAUD AN ARCHITECT. + +PITTSBURGH, PA., December 30, 1889. + +TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT: + +_Dear Sirs_,--Please answer through the columns of your valuable journal +the following: + +I will designate A as the party for whom I drew plans, etc., B as the +owner of property adjoining, and C as the contractor for A. I drew up +plans and specifications for a 60' 0" front by 60' 0" deep building for +A, including party-wall for A and B who has 35' 0" front by 60' 0" deep +lot. I was employed to render full services, such as to draw up plans, +specifications, details and superintend the construction of said +building for A. + +A wrote to me asking me whether I would allow B to use my plans and +specifications to be copied. I answered, emphatically, that not under +any circumstances would I allow it without compensation, as the plans, +etc., were my property, and were only designed for A. + +A let the contract for erection and completion of the building to C, I +having made the articles of agreement for same. + +In the meantime I was notified that B and C were taking sub-bids for +the erection of the 35' 0" building, all with my plans and +specifications. They were taking the sub-bids from the same parties that +were to do the work for C on the building for A. B let C build the 35' +0" building. + +I notified B and C that I will collect my commission on the construction +and completion of their building, to which notices I have no reply. + +The 35' 0" building was commenced at the same time as the building for +A; my plans, specifications and details were used for the building by +the same sub-contractors, etc. + +The buildings are now nearly complete, and the building for B or the 85' +0" building is a portion of the building designed for A with slight +variations made by C. + +I think the above to be very explicit; and now, gentlemen, I would like +to ask you for your opinion as to my compensation, and to what extent I +am entitled to it. + +Yours very respectfully, + +F.C. SAUER. + +[We think that you are entitled to the full commission of five per cent +on the cost of the 35-foot building, and believe that you can collect +it.--EDS. AMERICAN ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + +VENTILATING WOODEN COLUMNS. + +ZANESVILLE, O., December 23,1889. + +TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT: + +_Dear Sirs_,--We notice that in buildings in the East for factory +purposes, all wood columns have a hole bored through the centre for +ventilation. What size should the hole be for 12" x 12", 10" x 10" and +8" x 8" posts. Also size of cross holes for the purpose of communicating +with vertical hole, and how far from ends. + +Respectfully yours, + +A.E. PILING CO., LTD. + +[We have referred this to Mr. C.J.H. Woodbury who replies that the +method followed by the best mill-builders is to bore a hole along the +axis one and three-fourth to two inches in diameter. The method formerly +used was to bore the hole in half-way from each end after the column was +finished, but as the auger would follow the grain of the wood, the holes +would not always meet, and running out nearer the side of the column +would produce structural weakness which has been revealed in tests of +columns whenever destructive tests of such columns have been made. The +better way is to arrange a lathe with a hollow headstock and a guide +which will carry a pod-auger boring in from one end. This will define +the axis of the column whether it is to be turned or left square. Near +each end, say five inches, a couple of transverse holes generally +five-eighth of an inch in diameter are bored. This arrangement is to +reduce and in some cases prevent checking in the same way as has been +used, time immemorial, for getting out hubs for wagon wheels.--EDS. +AMERICAN ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + +BOOKS IN WATER-COLOR PAINTING. + +SPOKANE FALLS, WASH., December 11, 1889. + +TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT: + +_Dear Sirs_,--Will you kindly advise, through the columns of your paper, +what is the best self-instructing work on architectural water-coloring, +and oblige. + +INQUIRER. + +[The best drill for the eye and hand that we know of can be obtained in +the shortest time by getting Buskin's "_Elements of Drawing_," and doing +faithfully and exactly all the exercises which he prescribes, including +both those in black-and-white and color. Many people, however, do not +care for this drill, but prefer to make a few bad imitations of simple +chromos, and consider that equipment enough for architectural work. For +those, Penley's large work, the "_System of Water-Color Painting_" is +the best for copying from; or the aspirant may get some of the little +Winsor and Newton "_Handbooks on Sketching in Water-Colors_," to show +him how to choose and mix his pigments, and use as models to copy from +some of the colored prints of architectural subjects which are to be +picked up in the stores. There is a good deal of choice among these. We +have ourselves published one or two, from originals by Mr. Botch, which +will answer as well as anything we know, being admirable in color and +architectural feeling, and just sketchy enough. Pains should generally +be taken _not_ to make an elaborate picture of an architectural sketch, +and the processes preliminary to making a highly-finished water-color +painting, such as laying a ground-color of neutral orange, and sponging +it partly out, cutting out foreground lights with a knife, and so on, +are best dispensed with. Chinese white, also, should be used very +sparingly, and only where the scale is so small that it appears in the +form of dots. A good lesson on the importance of keeping color subdued, +for the sake of heightening architectural effect, can be derived from +any of Front's works, which, by the way, might with great advantage be +used to copy from. These will show the value of what most students +consider beneath their notice--work in two tints and give the best +models possible of artistic distribution of light and shade.--EDS. +AMERICAN ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: NOTES AND CLIPPINGS] + + +THE DUTY ON GLASS AS IT AFFECTS CONSUMERS.--In a letter to the _New York +Times_, Mr. J.S. Moore writes: As I am on the subject of glass, and as +the members of the Pan-American Congress are inspecting our magnificent +metropolis, I wish to call their attention to two subjects. First, our +dirty streets, and second, our splendid windows. Dickens has +immortalized the "Golden Dustman." In this city we have the "Dirty +Ringman," or we may say "Ringmen." There have been millions in New +York's dirty streets. The most honest and persevering Mayors and other +high officials have got stuck in New York street mud and were never +heard of again. Our aristocratic home mud has flourished without any +protection, and the pauper mud of Europe or any other mud could never +beat our home product. Here our amiable and friendly Commissioners of +the Pan-American Congress can see it demonstrated that our mud industry +can flourish without protection. I will now call the attention of our +Pan-American friends to the windows in New York houses. They are +invariably of plate-glass, and there is not a city in the world that can +beat New York in handsome windows. Now, then, it is an actual fact that +the tax or duty on plate-glass is as follows: Plate-glass, 10 by 15 +inches, 3 cents per foot, or 13.60 per cent; plate-glass, 16 by 24 +inches, 5 cents per foot, or 19.78 per cent; plate-glass, 24 by 30 +inches, 8 cents per foot, or 27.46 per cent. Now, we must admit that +this is a moderate tax. The above glass goes into the houses of the +rich. Of course, it will not do to tax influential and rich citizens. +But now let me show how we tax that class of people who build +three-hundred-dollar houses, or the hundreds of thousands of farmers who +live in the far West. Those houses are glazed by what is known as common +green window glass. Let me show to what extent we have taxed that class +of people in 1888: + + +IMPORTS OF COMMON WINDOW GLASS IN 1888. + + Duty + Collected, Per + Value. Ad valorem. Cent. + +Sizes not exceeding 10x15 $288,927 $190,815 66 +Sizes 16 x 24 265,919 305,357 114.83 +Sizes 24 x 30 346,486 440,685 127.15 +All above that 477,132 626,740 131.35 + ---------- +Total $1,563,497 + +We have squeezed out of the neediest, most hard-working of our +population $1,563,000 taxes on their "daylight" or window tax, which has +gone into the Treasury; but we have squeezed at least $5,000,000 more +and put it into the pockets of people who made similar glass. Our +Pan-American guests may reflect on the above statistics and come to the +conclusion that having flourishing window-glass industries may, after +all, not be the highest blessing. + +I beg to assure Mr. Carnegie that I am "not" a grumbler, as I don't want +to run the risk of having the door of heaven shut in my face when he +succeeds St. Peter in office. + + * * * * * + +THE NATURAL-GAS SUPPLY.--At the recent meeting in New York of the +American Geological Society, Prof. Edward Orton, State Geologist of +Ohio, and a professor in the State University, in his paper answered +those who claim that the great natural gas fields of the country are +practically inexhaustible, and that nature is manufacturing the gas by +chemical combination in the subterranean cavities as rapidly as it is +consumed by man at the surface. He claimed that the supply of natural +gas in those States was not only limited, but was being exhausted very +rapidly and would be drained in less than nine years. The gas, he said, +is now being used as the basis of a varied line of manufactures, the +annual products of which aggregate many millions of dollars, and it is +driving, besides the iron and steel mills of Pittsburgh, potteries and +brick works, over forty glass furnaces and a long list of factories in +which cheap power is a desideratum. The gas is the product of ages, +which has been accumulated in the porous limestone of Ohio and Indiana. +It has been produced so slowly that when once exhausted it will take +many thousands of years for it to again accumulate in sufficient +quantities to be used, even if the elements necessary for its production +were preserved, which he thought was not at all probable. The pressure +which forces the gas out with such tremendous power that it sometimes +reaches 1,000 pounds pressure per square inch, is not due to the +pressure of the gas itself, but to the hydrostatic pressure brought to +bear by the column of salt water that enters the porous stratum of rock +containing the gas at the sea-level, and which by its weight tends to +force the gas out. To the explanation and elucidation of this +phenomenon, Professor Orton's paper was more especially devoted. The men +who are engaged in the practical development of gas and oil fields, said +he, made great account of rock-pressure. It is the first fact they +inquire after in a new gas-field. They appreciate its importance, +knowing that the distance of the markets they care to reach and the size +of the pipes they can employ are entirely dependent upon this element. +He defined the term "rock-pressure", and showed the decrease of its rate +westward. He said four hundred thousand people in Northwestern Ohio and +Central Indiana alone depended upon natural-gas for fuel and +illumination. + + * * * * * + + +STATUE GIVING A DOUBLE IMAGE.--At the Italian exhibition in the Champ de +Mars there was a statue that attracted much attention from the visitors. +It represented Goethe's Marguerite standing before a mirror. This latter +gave by reflection the image of Faust. The artifice was well concealed +by the sculptor. In reality, it was not a double statue, but the figure +of Faust was skilfully obtained by means of the folds of Marguerite's +robe. + +Marguerite holds her arms in front of her, and these same arms form +those of Faust, who holds them crossed behind his back. Faust's face is +carved in Marguerite's back hair, and the man's figure is obtained, as +before stated, by means of the folds of the woman's robe. This curious +object might inspire some of our sculptors with an analogous idea. We do +not know the name of the author of the statue, but we can say that it +was exhibited by Mr. Francesco Toso, a Venetian manufacturer of mirrors. +The statue was of wood, and of nearly life-size.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + +SITE FOE THE KAISER'S MONUMENT.--Three or four Berlin banks have secured +the preemption of all the buildings in Schlossfreiheitstrasse, with a +view to pulling them down and fulfilling the Emperor's wish to have his +grandfather's monument erected there. Only a few days ago three of the +most eminent Berlin architects declared that the place was absolutely +unsuited for that purpose. The banks are said to have agreed to pay +5,000,000 marks for the houses, and an equal amount as compensation, +and intend to form a lottery of 40,000,000 marks, with prizes to the +amount of 30,000,000.--_The London Standard_. + + * * * * * + + + + +[Illustration: TRADE SURVEYS] + + +The salient features of the business situation this week afford every +encouragement to the promoters of new schemes and the pioneers in +industry. Among the additional factors which will stimulate trade and +business during 1890 are the following: The construction of fifty per +cent more railway mileage than was built last year; a very great +increase in lake tonnage; a large increase in inland water-way tonnage; +a very great increase in rolling-stock; a greater increase in locomotive +capacity than has been made during any one year in our history; greater +activity in house-building, and greater activity in the building of +shops and factories. Several other interesting features also deserve +mention, among them the very strong probability of the establishment of +a larger number of banks daring 1890 than were established during 1889 +or any previous year; the more rapid expansion of the building and loan +association system, particularly in the newer States; the increase in +the output of the gold and silver mines of the West and Southwest; the +opening-up of valuable coal-beds in many localities, which will tend to +the establishment of little industries; a great increase in the area of +land devoted to agriculture. Speaking generally, the agricultural +interests will be stimulated. Speaking prophetically, it is very +probable that prices will continue to advance, but by infinitesimal +degrees. Speaking conservatively and in the light of recent experience, +it is safe to assume and assert that production will be evenly gauged to +consumptive requirements. Those who have kept a close eye upon the +operations of manufacturers in all the leading channels recognize one +very gratifying feature, and that is, that they are protecting +themselves against unwarranted and unexpected advances in the cost of +their raw material by making purchases for future requirements, ranging +from three to six months. Users of cotton and wool are largely doing +this; so are users of iron ore and iron and steel, as well as users of +lumber, stone, cement and building material generally. This general +policy of providing for legitimate future requirements is one of those +instincts which safely guide the commercial world out of danger into +safety. One fruitful source of panics in former periods of activity was +the failure of consuming interests to supply themselves with raw +material to complete their contracts. The business world has learned +wisdom from its experience, and is now quietly turning a corner and +wheeling into line safely early in 1890. The tanning interests of the +United States have pursued this course in their limited field. The boot +and shoe manufacturers, if they have not bought largely of raw material, +have, at least, taken such steps as will guarantee them against a sudden +advance. The clothing manufacturers have wisely purchased for their +future wants; in fact, in almost every avenue of activity this policy +has been pursued. The users of Lake ore have already bought five and +one-half millions of the seven or eight million tons of ore they will +want this year. The users of steel blooms and billets have bought so far +ahead that manufacturers are now declining to make further contracts, +excepting for very strong reasons. The Southern pig-iron makers are +debating with themselves whether they will accept orders for pig-iron to +be delivered next summer or wait a few months. Scores of illustrations +of this sort could be enumerated. In many quarters this policy is +believed to be an unwise one. Experience has shown it to be a safe one. + +The iron industry, as a whole, is on a very permanent foundation. +Manufacturers are hurrying to complete new works; lumber manufacturers, +especially throughout the South, are stimulated to the greatest exertion +by two new causes: First, a strong demand throughout the North for the +superior lumber-mill products of the South; and second, a wonderful +expansion of local demand in the South arising from the new industries +there. The makers of nearly all kinds of machinery are busy with new +work, fully one-half of which is for delivery in the new Southern or +Western States. The manufacturers of steam-pumps, the manufacturers of +appliances for new fuel-gas processes, the builders of heavy machinery +for steam and electrical purposes, the manufacturers of +hoisting-machinery and of machinery for mining purposes, as well as of +machinery for general shop-use, have been booking more business since +the 1st of October than their present shop-capacity will allow them to +execute. Consequently, a general system of enlargement is in progress. +Contracts have been lately given out for the construction of machinery +to make machines of larger than usual dimensions. Our industries are +being reorganized, and instead of engines of five, ten or fifty +horse-power, engines of fifty to five hundred horse-power are now +common. Agricultural operations are conducted by the aid of machinery +upon a larger scale, and within the past six months a score or more of +establishments for the manufacture of agricultural implements have been +equipped with machinery, and facilities in the Western States, that +indicate more clearly than anything else can do the magnitude and scope +of our agricultural interests. Last year the rolling stock of the +railroads was increased by some 54,000 freight cars, but it is probable +that the additional orders this year will reach 100,000. The managers of +several of the Western railroad systems have decided to erect +repair-shops along their various systems, by which repair work and new +work can be more expeditiously and economically done. The springing up +of so many little industries along these new lines is creating local +markets for farm-products. Last year the opening of coal mines, to the +number of about sixty, promises a sufficient supply of coal to these new +communities at a low cost. These encouragements are stimulating the +outflow of population from the older States, and it is this outflow, +coupled with the better conditions for living in the West through the +development of industries, that is equalizing in such a healthy and +natural way the great manufacturing and agricultural forces. By this +growth of little industries, mechanical, mining and railroad, the +decline in the value of farm-products is checked, or possibly altogether +prevented; or, at least, the demand arising from this cause enables the +farmer to obtain the very best possible price for what he has to sell. +It is not out of place, at the opening of the year, to briefly direct +attention to these forces acting beneath the surface. The manufacturer +and merchant have nothing to fear from hidden destructive agencies. +During the past two or three years several threatening commercial evils +have arisen only to disappear by a self-correcting agency which seems to +develop itself at the right time. The merchants and manufacturers of the +New England and Middle States will find, this year, a much more valuable +market west of the Mississippi than last year. The increasing demand for +all kinds of raw material there during the past few months is a sure +indication of the growth of a great market for the shop-products. + + * * * * * + +S.J. PARKHILL. & CO., Printers, Boston. + + * * * * * + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Architect and Building +News, Vol. 27, No. 733, January 11, 1890, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND *** + +***** This file should be named 15322.txt or 15322.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/3/2/15322/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Charles Aldarondo and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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