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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Architect and Building News,
+Vol. 27, No. 733, January 11, 1890, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 27, No. 733, January 11, 1890
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 11, 2005 [EBook #15322]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Charles Aldarondo and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+
+
+THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND BUILDING NEWS.
+
+VOL. XXVII. Copyright, 1890, by Ticknor & Company, Boston, Mass. No 733.
+
+Entered at the Post-Office at Boston as second-class matter.
+
+
+
+
+JANUARY 11, 1890.
+
+
+[Illustration: CONTENTS]
+
+SUMMARY:--
+
+     Our International Edition and the Support it would receive Abroad
+     and should receive Here.--The Influence of Architectural Journals
+     on the Reputations of Architects.--Probable Irregularity in
+     Publication.--Death of Mr. Charles Keely, Architect.--The Movement
+     to abolish the Tariff on Works of Art.--The Borrowing of Fire
+     Engines as it affects Insurance.--The Duke of Brunswick's Monument
+     at Geneva.--An Opening for Architects in Spanish America. 17
+
+CIVIL AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.--I. 19
+
+LETTER FROM PARIS. 21
+
+LOSS OF POWER BY RADIATION OF HEAT. 22
+
+THE COST OF A SMALL MUSEUM. 23
+
+SANITARY ENTOMBMENT: THE IDEAL DISPOSITION OF THE DEAD. 24
+
+THE VERPLANCK HOMESTEAD, FISHKILL, N.Y. 26
+
+ELECTRICITY'S VICTIMS IN EUROPE. 27
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS:--
+
+     House of G.M. Smith, Esq., Providence, R.I.--The Cathedral of St.
+     Machar, Aberdeen.--Monument in the South Transept of the Cathedral,
+     Aberdeen, Scotland.--The Hotel de Soto, Savannah, Ga.--Memorial
+     Church of the Angels, Los Angeles, Cal.--St. Augustine's Roman
+     Catholic Church Buildings, Brooklyn, N.Y.--Chateau de Josselin,
+     Morbihan, France: Facade on the Cour d'Honneur.--An Interior in the
+     Chateau de Josselin, Morbihan, France.--Two Views of the House of
+     Mrs. Consino, Santiago, Chili.--Design for Church of the Good
+     Shepherd, Gospel Oak, London, N.W., Eng.--Butler's Wood,
+     Chislehurst, Eng.--House at Pennsylvania, Exeter, Eng.--Design for
+     Board Schools. 27
+
+METHODS OF REDUCING THE FIRE LOSS. 28
+
+SOCIETIES. 30
+
+COMMUNICATIONS.--
+
+     Agreement between Architect and Client.--Inspection of Buildings in
+     New York.--A seeming Attempt to defraud an Architect.--Ventilating
+     Wooden Columns.--Books on Water-color Painting. 30
+
+NOTES AND CLIPPINGS. 31
+
+TRADE SURVEYS. 32
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We wonder whether every one who receives these first issues of the
+International Edition of the _American Architect_ comprehends the
+significance of the step which we, with the kind support and
+appreciation of our subscribers, have ventured to take. How many of
+those who turn over our pages realize that this is by far the most
+ambitious and costly architectural periodical in the world, and that it
+has been reserved for America to try to present every week, with a due
+proportion of the more valuable models from the past, an adequate view
+of all the best architecture which modern civilization can show?
+Strangely enough, in carrying out our plan of representing contemporary
+architecture as it should be represented, it is to Americans that we
+must most earnestly and urgently appeal for cooperation. We know where
+we can get drawings, plans, photographs, descriptions and details of all
+the best current work in North and South Germany, Italy, France and
+England, and even in Russia, but to secure anything like a decent
+representation of modern American architecture has hitherto been,
+according to our experience, absolutely impossible. Not long ago a
+discussion took place in England about architectural periodicals, and
+one or two of the American journals were mentioned with commendation, on
+account of the beautiful drawing and process-work in their
+illustrations, as well as the value of their text. Not long afterwards,
+a disparaging commentary on this discussion was made in one of the
+English professional papers, to the effect that it was a great mistake
+to value so highly the illustrations in the American journals, for the
+reason that, although charmingly executed and fascinating, they rarely
+represented architectural work of any importance. Our readers,
+especially those faithful friends who have stood by us for years, will
+understand that this was a sharp thrust, but it is, and not through our
+fault, altogether too well deserved. While in all other countries where
+architecture is practised, every important competition is regularly
+illustrated from the competitive drawings themselves, which are, as a
+matter of course, placed at the disposal of the professional journals;
+and plans, elevations, sections and perspectives of all new buildings of
+interest, and often photographs from the models for the sculptured
+detail, and illustrations of the schemes for heating and ventilation are
+gladly furnished by the architects, who understand perfectly that their
+professional reputation depends in great part on the publicity which is
+given to their work through the medium of the technical press: in this
+country, on the contrary, the attitude toward technical journals of a
+great many architects, and among them some who are constantly engaged
+upon very important work, is one, apparently, of grave suspicion. The
+most earnest appeals by letter on the part of the editors for permission
+to publish plans or elevations of a successful building by one of them
+meet with no response. Then the editor takes two or three days from his
+abundant leisure, and calls personally upon the professional magnate.
+The latter seems pleased to see him, shows him the drawings of the
+building in question, appears to be gratified at his praises, and
+readily agrees to allow the publication of the plan and perspective. The
+editor lays these drawings aside, and proposes to take them with him,
+but the architect politely insists that he cannot allow him to burden
+himself, and promises that he will send them immediately by express. The
+editor returns to his desk, and arranges space for the expected drawings
+in the next issue, but they do not arrive. Two or three weeks go by, and
+he then writes to the distinguished architect, to remind him of his
+promise. The letter brings neither the drawings nor any other response,
+and, after a final entreaty, as unsuccessful as the rest, he abandons
+his efforts, to begin them again with a fresh subject, who proves as
+slippery as the other.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+After a good many years of such struggles, we should be inclined to say
+that we would trouble ourselves no further, and that American architects
+who are capable of carrying out important work successfully, and do not
+want other people to know it, may please themselves in the matter, were
+it not that, in a journal which now intends to show what is done all
+over the world, we most earnestly wish to have American, architecture
+properly represented. We are sure that the best of it is equal to the
+best anywhere, and we want to be able to prove it. The treatment of our
+modern mercantile and business structures, particularly those ten or
+twelve stories in height, is more successful than any other work of the
+kind in the world; the planning of our office-buildings is unrivalled
+anywhere, and some of our apartment-houses will bear comparison with the
+best in Paris--which are the best anywhere--and are more interesting, on
+account of the more complex character of the services which we must
+provide for. Besides this, many details of American construction, such
+as the encased iron framing-and isolated pier foundations of the Chicago
+architects, and the heating and ventilating systems in use everywhere
+here, are far in advance of foreign practice, and we want our foreign
+readers to see this with their own eyes, and to give their American
+brethren their proper rank in the profession. To do this we must have
+the material, and we appeal once more to American architects who have it
+to furnish it, and to those who do not have it themselves, but who know
+where it is to be found, to get it for us, or to put us in the way of
+getting it. Plans, elevations, perspectives, sketches, photographs,
+negatives, descriptions, whatever is good, we want to show, for the
+benefit and reputation of the profession in America far more than for
+our own, for we know better than the profession how very valuable
+publicity of the kind is to architects. The late Mr. Richardson, even to
+a comparatively late period in his professional career, was afflicted
+with the usual bashfulness about having his work published. We well
+remember the solicitations, the refusals, the renewed appeals, and,
+finally, the reluctant and conditional assent to have a single gelatine
+print from one of his perspectives published. This was the drawing, we
+think, of the Woburn Library, and was accompanied by a plan. Finding
+that he had suffered no severe injury from this exposure of his design
+to the gaze of the cold world, Mr. Richardson soon became one of our
+kindest friends, and if reputation and employment are things to be
+desired by an architect, we may say with all due modesty that what he
+did for us was repaid to him a hundred-fold, for, great as was his
+talent, it must, without the publicity given to his work through means
+like ours, have had for years only a local influence. As it was,
+however, every issue of ours with one of his designs was studied in a
+thousand offices and imitated in hundreds; his name was in the mouths of
+all architects throughout the Union; our plates were reproduced abroad;
+the illustrated magazines, finding his reputation already made in the
+profession, hastened to spread it among the public; and at his lamented
+death, a few years later, he was the central figure of American
+architecture. Now, although we do not say that all the architects who
+send us their drawings will attain the fame of a Richardson, we do say
+that Richardson would never have attained a fraction of his reputation
+if he had not allowed his designs to be published, and we need hardly
+say further that if any architect has done a good piece of work, and has
+it published, more people will know about it than if he kept it to
+himself; and the more people know about his good work, the more will
+come to him to get some like it, the better will be his standing in the
+profession here, and the more credit he will do his country abroad.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It may be as well to disarm criticism and complaint by stating that
+there will be throughout the year more or less of irregularity in the
+appearance of the additional illustrations in the International Edition,
+owing partly to steamer delays, and partly, perhaps, to misunderstanding
+of our instructions on the part of our correspondents. It will not be
+proper, therefore, to compare one issue with another, and assert that we
+are falling short of our promises. When the end of the year is reached,
+the subscribers to that edition will find, on review, that our promises
+have been fully kept, and that the edition has been what it professed to
+be. Naturally, defects and deficiencies will be more apparent at the
+outset, when the complicated details of supply have not been definitely
+adjusted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The profession in Brooklyn, N.Y., has to mourn the loss of Mr. Charles
+Keely, son of Mr. Peter C. Keely, the architect of so many Catholic
+churches all over the country, and associated with his father in
+business. The practice of the office is enormous, fifty churches, it is
+said, being sometimes in process of execution from the designs of the
+father and son, and of the excellent work done there, no doubt much was
+due to the younger man's talent. Mr. Keely was about thirty-five years
+of age, active and popular. He died of pneumonia in Hartford, at the
+house of the bishop, whom he was visiting on business.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A deputation was presented to the Ways and Means Committee of Congress
+the other day from the Free Art League, which urged the abolition of the
+present duty on foreign works of art. The deputation consisted of Mr.
+Carroll Beckwith and Mr. Kenyon Cox, with Mr. William A. Coffin, who,
+after mentioning some of the obvious reasons for abolishing the tax,
+stated that, in response to a circular sent out by the League, fourteen
+hundred and thirty-five communications were received from artists,
+teachers of art and others whose opinion would be of value. Of these,
+thirteen hundred and forty-five desired the immediate abolition of the
+duty, eighty-three favored a moderate duty, ten per cent being mentioned
+by twenty-eight out of the number and seven wished the present impost
+retained. The Ways and Means Committee, according to the newspapers,
+listened politely to the artists for a time, and then turned their
+attention to the duty on carbonate of soda. Whether, in the presence of
+practical matters like carbonate of soda, they will ever, think again of
+the tax on mere works of art, remains to be seen.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Fire and Water_ says, referring to some remarks of ours about the
+policy of transferring the fire-extinguishing apparatus of small towns
+to any neighboring large one in which a serious conflagration happens to
+break out, that we were mistaken in "supposing" that the insurance
+companies might refuse to pay losses in suburban towns occurring during
+the temporary absence of the regular protective apparatus, and that as
+the contract of insurance does not mention anything of the kind, the
+companies would be compelled to pay losses, whatever happened to the
+engines, so long as their policies remained uncancelled. Now, in the
+first place, we did not "suppose" or "assert," as another paper says we
+did, anything about the matter. We simply said we had been told that the
+companies would not pay in such cases, which was true. We were told
+that, and by an insurance agent, who ought to know something about it.
+Moreover, this was not the first time we have heard the same thing. Not
+long ago, in a discussion in the city government of a town near Boston,
+one of the members protested against allowing the town engines to leave
+the limits of the municipality, for the same reason, that the insurance
+companies would not pay losses occurring while the engines were absent.
+As to the contract in the policy, we have often seen clauses requiring
+the insured to notify the company of any circumstances affecting the
+risk, of which the absence of the town engines might be considered one,
+so, in our ignorance, we, and, we imagine, a good many others, would be
+glad to have an authoritative statement from the companies themselves on
+the subject.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+According to the _Wiener Bauindustrie Zeitung_, the splendid Brunswick
+monument at Geneva is on the point of falling down. Every one remembers
+the history of this structure, which was erected in 1879, at a cost of
+six hundred thousand dollars, to the memory of Charles the Second of
+Brunswick, the "Diamond Duke," as he was called by the Germans, who,
+after his expulsion from his principality by his subjects, on account of
+his extravagance and general worthlessness, took up his residence in
+Geneva, and, on his death, in 1873, bequeathed all his property, about
+four million dollars, to the city. The municipality was grateful enough
+to carry out in a very sumptuous manner the last wishes of its
+benefactor, who desired to be commemorated by a monument in the style of
+the later Scaliger tomb at Verona, and from the designs of Frauel was
+erected the hexagonal Gothic pavilion, surmounted by an equestrian
+statue of the Duke, which is so well known to architects. The Veronese
+prototype of the monument is a tolerably insecure affair, but the modern
+imitation is still larger and heavier, and two years after its
+completion the substructure began to come to pieces. It was then clamped
+with metal, but water got into the joints, and further repairs were soon
+necessary. In 1883, the Carrara marble of which it was built had so far
+decayed that the rebuilding of the whole with more durable stone was
+seriously proposed; and now, examination, having shown that the whole
+affair is likely to collapse at any moment, the city authorities have
+asked for authority to raise eight thousand dollars, by loan, to put it
+in secure condition. To tell the truth, it would not be an irreparable
+loss to the world to have the structure go to ruin. An imitation of an
+existing monument is not likely to be a very inspiring work of art, and
+this was not extremely successful, even as an imitation; while the
+historical fact which it immortalized, that the last representative of
+one of the six great German princely families, whose ancestors had been
+reigning sovereigns for a thousand years, had been obliged to set up the
+images of his haughty forefathers in a community of Republicans, because
+his own people despised and hated him so much that they could endure him
+no longer, was not of a character to arouse noble thoughts in the mind
+of the beholder.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have before called attention to the great and rapidly increasing
+importance of the South American Republics, and, while there seems to be
+no prospect that our proximity to them will be of any commercial
+advantage to us, some of our young architects and skilled mechanics, who
+speak Spanish, might perhaps find profitable employment there. At
+present, the most prosperous city is Buenos Ayres, which, from one
+hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants in 1870, increased to four
+hundred and sixty thousand in 1888, and has gained very rapidly within
+the last year. We must confess that our own ideas of Buenos Ayres still
+retain a reminiscence of gauchos and lassoes and buffalo, but this grows
+fainter as we find illustrations in the foreign papers of the newer
+buildings going up in the city. The last we have seen is of an enormous
+dry-goods store, after the model of the "Bon Marche" or the "Printemps"
+in Paris, which is known as the "Bon Marche Argentin," and covers at
+present ninety thousand square feet of land, while thirty-five thousand
+feet adjoining have been secured, and are to be used for the enlargement
+of the present building which will soon become necessary. There are said
+to be a good many architects already in Buenos Ayres, but first-rate
+mechanics are, or were not long ago, so scarce that the municipality
+imported plumbers under contract from London to do work on public
+buildings.
+
+
+
+
+CIVIL AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.--I.[1]
+
+
+The term Civil and Domestic Architecture includes all public and private
+edifices, that is to say: honorary monuments, such as triumphal arches
+and tombs; buildings for the instruction of the public, such as museums,
+libraries and schools; houses for public amusements, as theatres,
+amphitheatres and circuses; structures for public service, as
+city-halls, court-houses, prisons, hospitals, thermae, markets,
+warehouses, slaughter-houses, railway-stations, light-houses, bridges
+and aqueducts; finally, private dwellings, as palaces, mansions, city
+and country residences, chateaux and villas.
+
+[Illustration: Memorial to the Heroes of the Franco Prussian War,
+Berlin.]
+
+The first care of all social organizations, at their inception, must
+have been to provide shelter against inclement weather. In primitive
+times society was composed of shepherds, or agriculturists, or hunters,
+and it is presumable that each of these groups adopted a shelter suited
+to its nomadic or sedentary tastes. For this reason to shepherds is
+attributed the invention of the tent, a portable habitation which they
+could take with them from valley to valley, wherever they led their
+flocks to pasture; agriculturists fixed to the soil which they tilled,
+dwelling in the plains and along the river banks, must have found the
+hut better adapted to their wants, while the hunters, stealing through
+the forests, ambushed in the mountains, or stationed on the seashore,
+naturally took safety in caves, or dug holes for themselves in the
+earth, or hollowed out grottos in the rocks.
+
+An imitation of the tent is found later on in the form of the Chinese
+and Japanese structures; the principle of the cave appears developed in
+the subterranean dwellings of the people of India and Nubia; while the
+hut is the point of departure for all Greek and Roman architecture.
+
+As soon as man had contrived a shelter for himself, before considering
+improvements that might be made in it, he turned his thoughts toward the
+divine being of his worship, and the first steps in art were taken in
+the monuments which he raised to his gods. Then, confounding kings with
+deities, he reared palaces like unto temples. But civil architecture,
+properly so called, came into existence only with an already advanced
+state of civilization, when cities were forming and peoples were
+organizing. After having satisfied the demands of the moral nature,
+after having erected temples to their gods and palaces to their kings,
+the people began to group together and surround themselves with
+fortifications. Next the material needs of society made themselves felt;
+aqueducts were constructed to supply water; bridges established
+communication between the opposite banks of streams; dikes confined the
+rivers within certain bounds; streets were laid out along which houses
+were built in orderly fashion, public squares were marked off where the
+products of industry could be exchanged, where justice was dispensed and
+where the great affairs of State were treated; then came mental and
+physical demands, a felt need for the training of body and mind, and out
+of this want grew theatres, stadia, gymnasia and thermae. In time we find
+the history of a single people developing; and with this development a
+necessity arising for lasting monuments to commemorate its various
+stages; public services rendered by certain illustrious men called for
+some enduring memorial; and relatives and friends, with whom one had
+lived and whom the dread enemy had snatched away could not be left
+without sepulture. Is there nothing after death? And so honorary
+monuments, triumphal columns, statues and tombs sprang into being.
+Again, with the growth of a people, wealth increases, and every new
+victory assuring an added degree of ease introduces at the same time
+extravagant tastes; a people after enduring suffering cries out for its
+portion of pleasure; it was to satisfy this demand that circuses were
+built, and amphitheatres where the eyes could feast on imposing
+spectacles; private houses became more comfortable, they were improved
+in arrangement, they were enlarged and embellished; at length an
+extraordinary display of sumptuousness began to appear in the dwellings
+of the great,--that luxury of decadence which marks the close of ancient
+civilization.
+
+With the advent of Christ came new ideas which caused new departures,
+not only in religious and monastic architecture, but in civil
+architecture, as well. Christianity, in proclaiming a new virtue, love,
+created retreats for the unfortunate, asylums for their reception and
+hospitals for their care. Monkish orders, in their efforts to prevent
+the destruction of old manuscripts, spread knowledge around them, and
+following the example set by them in their monasteries, outside colleges
+were founded. With the dissemination of knowledge, cities roused out of
+their long sleep; their independent spirit began to shake off the yoke
+of their oppressors; they formed themselves into communes and various
+privileges were granted them. Under certain conditions, and in
+consideration of the discharge of certain obligations, the commune is
+seen at length assuming the administration of its own affairs. From this
+moment an assembling-place is needed where communal interests can be
+discussed and where questions can be put to vote. The town-hall, with
+its belfry from which could be proclaimed afar all immunities won,
+supplied the want. Around this centre markets sprang up, and exchanges
+where merchants could negotiate and transact business. Finally, the less
+exclusive modern spirit made itself felt, and, soaring beyond the city
+bounds, it projected works of a genuinely public nature, not for the
+benefit of this or that city, but for the entire country. Political
+centralization, governmental unity, later on, made it possible to run
+canals through different provinces, to establish barracks for troops
+over broad stretches of territory, to build court-houses and prisons, to
+reconstruct hospitals on new plans, and to open more extensive
+exchanges, markets, warehouses and slaughter-houses. Public instruction
+also had its imperious demands, and States were forced to sprinkle their
+lands with school-houses of every grade, from the simplest asylums and
+primary and secondary schools to special government institutions;
+libraries and museums were founded to satisfy still other claims of
+education. Then with the ever-increasing wants of a civilization, eager
+for progress, in the presence of the important discoveries of science,
+before the invasions of finance and the extension of governmental
+machinery, architectural designs are indefinitely multiplied to supply
+suitable departmental buildings, banking-houses, houses of commerce,
+quarters for public officers and public boards, railway-stations, inns,
+custom-houses and toll-houses; to say nothing of private residences and
+play-houses, bathing establishments, casinos and villas, whose designs
+change from time to time with the manners and customs of the period or
+people.
+
+Civil architecture, in the proper sense of the term, originated with the
+Greeks and was extended in a surprising degree among the Romans. All the
+other peoples of antiquity devoted themselves to the rearing of
+religious and sepulchral monuments, and to the construction of palaces
+for their sovereigns. Their political organization did not lend itself
+to development in other directions. So long as a people is not
+considered as an individual there can be no thought of erecting for its
+comfort or education structures of any considerable importance; so long
+as it has no existence as a civil body there can be no call for the
+building of edifices wherein to discuss its own affairs or the affairs
+of State. Nevertheless, aside from temples and palaces, there are
+certain works of public utility which are forced upon all civilizations,
+and among all organized peoples a domestic architecture exists which
+answers to their needs and which we cannot pass over in silence.
+
+The sacred books of the Hindoos give us the plans on which their cities
+were built. There were forty different kinds of cities, distinguished
+one from the other by their extent and form. The streets crossed at
+right angles. The centre of the city was reserved for sacred uses and
+was inhabited by the Brahmins; around them dwelt the people, and the
+angles were occupied by the exchanges, markets, colleges and other
+public structures. The city was always walled, with a gate on each of
+the four sides and one at each corner.
+
+Private dwellings varied in height according to the rank of the owners.
+Those of the inferior classes could have only one story above the
+ground-floor, and in most cases they were limited to the ground-floor
+itself. The door was never placed in the centre of the facade. Its
+position, as well as its height and breadth, was fixed by rule; the same
+was true of the windows. The streets were supplied with running water,
+and adorned with avenues of trees; they were bordered by rich shops and
+houses set close together, with no intervening spaces. The palaces,
+which were composed of separate buildings, approached by porches, were
+usually erected around small courts, and these courts were almost always
+planted with trees. The roofs were flat, and the narrow, rude staircases
+were made in the thickness of the walls. The Hindoos also constructed
+huge reservoirs, and reared columns and square triumphal arches in honor
+of their heroic victors; they are also known to have built bridges, the
+piles of which, formed of enormous blocks, were connected by stones of a
+single piece.
+
+Passing into China we encounter a civilization whose antiquity rivals
+that of India. However, there are no very ancient remains there. But
+there is documentary evidence that the Chinese, several centuries before
+the Christian era, built from the same designs that they use to-day.
+Architecture being the expression of the needs, instincts, character and
+traditions of a people, and the Chinese having in no way modified their
+manner of living or their traditions, we can easily understand why their
+architecture has undergone no modifications.
+
+The Great Wall, running along the north of China proper, with a length
+of fifteen hundred to eighteen hundred miles, is the only Chinese work
+that can boast of its antiquity. It is attributed to the emperor Tsin
+Hoang Ti [Che Hoang-te], who reigned in the third century before our
+era, and who is said to have employed in its construction five or six
+million men. The foundations are of hewn stone, the rest is of brick
+faced with smoothly-joined stones. The wall is battlemented, flanked
+with towers, and is provided at certain intervals with fortified gates.
+It is broad enough for six horsemen to ride abreast on it.
+
+Among the great works of the Chinese, mention is also made of the bridge
+of Loyau at Sueno chou Fou; it is built over the point of an arm of the
+sea and comprises two hundred and fifty piles made of material of
+enormous bulk. The roadway is formed with single blocks of granite, and
+is guarded on each side by a balustrade.
+
+There are other bridges raised on vaulted arches. Others, still, are
+decorated with triumphal arches, such as that of the Province of
+Kiang-Nan; and again there are others built of wood, like the bridge of
+King-Chou-Fou, with the flooring supported by iron chains fastened to
+rocks.
+
+The cities are generally laid out on a square plan with the angles
+directed as far as possible toward the four cardinal points, and the
+predominance of a single architectural type imparts a certain monotony
+to the streets. The enclosing walls are flanked with towers and their
+gates are surmounted by lofty structures which include an arsenal and a
+guard-room. Besides the temples and commemorative monuments erected on
+the same plan as the temples, at the entrance to certain streets and
+before certain edifices monuments in the form of gates are to be seen.
+These structures, called _pai leou_, are nothing else than triumphal
+arches raised to the memory of emperors, generals, mandarins and all
+those who have rendered important services to the country. The bases of
+these arches are of stone, the rest is made of wood; they have a single
+bay, or one principal bay with two smaller ones, and the top is in the
+form of a Chinese roof.
+
+The palaces present a succession of spacious courts surrounded by
+buildings and are entered through gates in the form of triumphal arches.
+Each separate portion of the structure is destined to a special use. The
+women and children are usually relegated to the rear court.
+
+The houses have one or two stories; their dimensions are regulated by
+law, according to the rank and condition of the owner, and, as in all
+Oriental dwellings, there are but few openings on the street.
+
+While the Hindoos built with enduring materials, the Chinese generally
+used brick and wood. The explanation of this fact is to be sought not so
+much in their fear of the earthquakes with which they are constantly
+threatened as in their narrow-mindedness and lack of ambition; they saw
+no reason why an edifice should outlast the generation for which it was
+constructed.
+
+Judging from the ruins of Persepolis, the Medes and Persians must have
+attained to a high degree of civilization in the time of Cyrus, but we
+have no authentic records concerning their civil architecture. Their art
+is derived from the Babylonians and Assyrians, from whom they must have
+largely borrowed their customs.
+
+The Assyrian palaces consisted of three wholly distinct groups of
+buildings, three divisions which we find exactly reproduced to-day in
+the seigneurial and princely dwellings of Persia, India and Turkey.
+First, there was the seraglio, or the palace properly so-called, which
+comprised the reception-halls and the men's apartments, and which is
+known now throughout the East under the name of _selamlik_; then came
+the harem containing the private rooms where the master saw his wives
+and children with their guards of eunuchs and their throngs of
+attendants; and lastly, there was the _khan_, a cluster of dependent
+structures including servants' quarters and out-buildings. In princely
+palaces each of these divisions included several courts, and the whole
+was disposed around a principal court, the court of honor. The entire
+assemblage of edifices was nothing more than one vast ground-floor. "The
+design followed in the arrangement of these composite dwellings," it has
+been said, is almost naive in its simplicity: the plan is merely divided
+into as many right parallelograms as there are services to be provided
+for, and these rectangles are so disposed as to touch along one side or
+at one of the angles, but they never interfere with or command one
+another; they are contiguous or adjacent but always independent. Thus
+each of the three divisions (seraglio, harem and khan) presents a
+rectangular figure, and each borders one side of the principal court,
+which is neutral ground,--the common centre around which all are
+grouped. The same principle of arrangement is applied to the
+subdivisions of the great quarters; the latter are composed of smaller
+rectangles distributed about an uncovered space, on which each apartment
+opens, with no direct communication between adjoining rooms through
+partition-walls. In this way all the sections of an edifice were
+clustered together and at the same time isolated; and each of these
+sections had its special use and its pre-assigned occupants.[2]
+
+Drains were contrived under the palaces, and certain square rooms were
+covered with dome-shaped vaults.
+
+The houses, built of brick, were of two different types; some were
+covered with hemispherical or parabolical calottes, others had flat
+roofs with a tower in the fashion of a belvedere. They were generally
+quite low, except in large cities like Babylon, where they were
+sometimes three or four stories high.
+
+The towns were regularly laid out; the streets ran at right-angles to
+each other; quays were built along the streams, and bridges established
+communication between their banks. The large cities were protected by a
+fortified wall. The gates were arched and flanked each by two towers
+which were separated by only the width of the entrance. Some of the
+gates were ornamented, others were plain, but each one was in itself an
+edifice of quite complicated structure.
+
+The city gate played then, as it still does all through the East, an
+important role in the life of the urban populations. It was an agora for
+the Greeks, a forum for the Romans. The people gathered there to chat,
+and learn the news, and there the old men acted as arbitrators in case
+of quarrels. In the same way it was at the palace-gates, which were
+always constructed on the model of the city-gates, that the court
+attendants assembled, and that petitioners stood in waiting.
+
+The Phoenician cities also were surrounded by fortified walls, and
+dwellings were burrowed into the very body of the ramparts. In order not
+to extend the limits of the city too much, the houses in the central
+portions were built very high. In the chief quarters of Carthage some of
+them had as many as six stories; they were covered with flat roofs, and,
+as is the case of all warm countries, the streets were narrow. The
+residences of the rich merchants were of a marked character and were
+easily distinguished; they were all provided with cisterns; they had
+inner courts adorned with porches, and with open galleries along the
+upper stories. The streets, squares and courts were paved with broad
+flags, probably for the purpose of saving every drop of water that fell.
+There were also public cisterns, and ports for shipping. As their
+country abounded in stone that could be easily cut, the Phoenicians used
+no artificial building material: they are not known to have built of
+brick before the Roman period.
+
+In Judea, while enormous, rough blocks were used in huge structures, the
+houses were made of unburned brick, with ceilings of palm or sycamore
+beams covered with a layer of hard earth. In order that the variations
+in temperature should not be felt in the interior, the outer walls and
+the roof had to be quite thick. All the dwellings were covered with flat
+roofs surrounded by a parapet, and here people passed the night in
+certain seasons. Most houses had only a ground-floor; but the residences
+of the wealthy sometimes boasted of an upper story, and certain windows,
+doubtless those lighting the women's apartments, were provided with
+lattices similar to the _moucharabiehs_ of the Arab houses of the
+present day.
+
+The villages were generally built on the hill-tops, and the more
+important of them were surrounded with fortifications. Jerusalem was the
+seat of royalty. It was there that David reared his palace, to which
+Solomon added numerous edifices that occupied thirteen years in
+construction. Other great works were undertaken by the Hebrews, with the
+view of carrying to a distance the precious water of the springs; and
+they were compelled to supplement their scant supply of water by digging
+wells and making cisterns.
+
+In Egypt, the attention of archaeologists was so long riveted on the
+temples and tombs that it is only recently that a study has been made of
+private dwellings. To-day, however, something is known of these.
+
+The streets of Egyptian cities were usually laid out regularly, but they
+were so narrow that, except in the principal ones, two chariots could
+scarcely pass. This narrowness of the streets, which is frequently
+observed in the ancient Arab cities, and which has been so long
+maintained in all hot countries, had the advantage of securing shade at
+all times on one side of the street. The buildings along the street were
+ordinarily separated from each other by alleys; they were rarely more
+than two stories high, except in such large cities as Thebes, where they
+sometimes reached four and even five stories. The houses were so
+arranged as to meet the demands of the climate. A court often preceded
+the apartments which were disposed along both sides of a long corridor.
+In other cases the rooms occupied three sides of the court; or oftener
+still the court was surrounded on all sides by the different structures.
+The ground-floor was reserved for the stables; it was used also for
+storing the corn, and it contained the kitchen and the cellar. The
+family occupied the upper stories. Above the whole was a terrace where
+they could enjoy the cool air and even pass the night, when the heat was
+excessive. Sometimes the terrace was protected by a light roof supported
+by slender wooden columns. There were but few windows, so as to keep the
+sun out as far as possible, and such as there were were placed nearly at
+the top of the rooms.
+
+The houses were built of unburned brick, made from a heavy clay, mixed
+with a little sand and chopped straw; this was shaped into oblong slabs
+which were dried in the sun. Bricks of ordinary size measured 8-2/3 in.
+x 4-1/3 in. x 5-1/2 in., the large ones were 15 in. x 7 in. x 5-1/2 in.
+There were special marks to indicate where they were manufactured; some
+came from the royal works, some from private shops. The foundations of
+the buildings were not deep; the walls were whitewashed, or painted in
+bright colors; the floors were of brick or flagging, or simply of
+hardened earth; the roof was flat, with a framework of palm branches
+covered with a coating of earth sufficiently thick to prevent the
+infiltration of the rain. The dwellings of the wealthy lords were
+usually erected in the centre of a garden, or of a cultivated court, and
+occupied a considerable space. The entrance was announced by a colonaded
+porch or a pylon, and the interior was like a small city,--the dwelling
+in the background, with the granaries, stables, servants' quarters and
+out-buildings disposed here and there about the enclosure.
+
+In the more important palaces, the dwelling of the master stood in the
+centre of a rectangular court, the sides of which, on the right and
+left, were occupied by the storehouses.
+
+Like all other peoples of antiquity, the Egyptians were obliged to
+protect their towns from the incursions of enemies. The greater part of
+their cities, and even the principal villages, were therefore walled.
+Man will never cease to fortify his cities until these fortifications
+have been proved unavailing before the power of new engines of
+destruction.
+
+In this rapid review of the civil architecture of the ancient peoples of
+Asia and Egypt, we have discovered no traces of structures whose
+destination indicated any care for the development of the lower classes
+of society, no remains which implied their participation in any
+municipal life whatever, no edifice erected for the purpose of national
+education. Such institutions had no place under a theocractic government
+which absorbed into itself the entire nation. When it had made provision
+for the defence of its cities, erected temples to its gods, reared
+palaces for the earthly abode of its monarchs and tombs for their future
+life, when it had satisfied the simple material needs of the people,
+what more could be asked?
+
+[To be continued.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: From the French of G. Guicestre, in "_Encyclopedie de
+l'Architecture et de la Construction_."]
+
+[Footnote 2: Perrot and Chipiez. "_Histoire de l'art dans
+l'antiquite_."]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PARIS]
+
+THE PAVILIONS OF THE CITY OF PARIS.--DOMESTIC AND URBAN
+SANITATION.--VIEWS OF OLD PARIS.--PALACES OF THE LIBERAL ARTS AND THE
+FINE ARTS.--RETROSPECTIVE EXHIBITION OF LABOR.
+
+
+The City of Paris desired to have in the Champ de Mars a serious and
+useful exhibition, so it began by paying no sort of attention to the
+decorative and architectural side of its two pavilions, placed in the
+centre of the upper garden between the monumental fountain and the
+central dome. It was not afraid, in spite of its surroundings, to
+shelter itself within the simplest of buildings in plaster, with a
+decoration meagre and accentuated by the needs of construction. In fact,
+the large entrance doors, all of wood, were made afterwards and applied
+to the plaster, and the same may be said of all the visible woodwork;
+but this lack of ingenuousness in the construction is not to be too
+severely blamed, since it is a question of pavilions which are to
+disappear after an existence of six months. Economical reasons are
+always worthy of respect, and the modesty of the Municipal Council on
+this occasion ought to be praised. But what one has a right to criticise
+is the unhappy idea which placed these pavilions in such a manner as to
+completely obstruct the view of the exterior porticos of the palaces and
+industrial sections when one stands before the central dome in the
+centre of the garden. This criticism once made, there only remains to
+give expression to praise of the exhibit made by the city of Paris. Very
+well arranged inside, very well considered, it possesses enormous
+interest principally from the point-of-view of hygiene and the
+sanitation of the city. This is a question much studied for a long time
+back, and is one which marches towards a solution which promises to be
+perfectly satisfactory in view of the progress already made. Wide
+streets have replaced narrow alleys, air circulates freely everywhere,
+trees and enormous gardens have been planted on every side, and the
+salubrity of the house is assured by a severe inspection, one which will
+become yet more severe, it is to be hoped, in the case of those owners
+who are inclined to despise regulations. It would be so simple in place
+of continuing the ancient ways, whose inconveniences are so well
+demonstrated in the large model of an unhealthy house exhibited in the
+pavilion of the city of Paris, to adopt all the new systems of
+sanitation which, on their part, are shown in application in the model
+of a sanitarily perfect house which has been placed opposite to it. To
+establish this comparison two very simple models of construction have
+been selected, proving that healthfulness is not merely an attribute of
+luxury, but that the most modest houses can present all possible
+guaranties from this point of view. The healthfulness of houses, and
+consequently of cities, depends amongst other multiple but relatively
+simple causes on two preeminent conditions,--that of the removal of
+excrement, and the purity of the water-supply. In a large degree the
+first condition is subordinated to the second. "Everything to the sewer"
+is recognized by the most competent hygienists as the best system, but
+only on the condition that water shall be abundant and that no
+stagnation of the material shall be allowed. These problems, which were
+for a long time studied by M. Durand-Claye, and to which he devoted
+himself until his premature death unfortunately took him from us, have
+received the attention of his devoted successors, who have already
+brought to fruition interesting solutions which prompt us to hope for a
+completely satisfactory system in the near future.
+
+Three glass reservoirs, containing water from the Seine, from the Ourcq
+and the Vanne, allow us to perceive the difference of quality which
+exists between these three sources of supply, the first of which, with
+its yellow color, is anything but appetizing, and the second is not much
+less doubtful, while the third, alone, presents the limpidity and
+transparency which one has a right to demand in potable water.
+Nevertheless, one should not believe, as many persons do, that the water
+that we see in this reservoir, and which has been taken within the
+limits of Paris, is the same that is distributed from time to time
+through each quarter. The water there used is taken up-stream and before
+it has been soiled by its passage through the suburbs and city.
+
+In the same pavilion the Administration has exhibited the plans and the
+comparative views of the city taken at different epochs since 1789 up to
+the last months of 1889. We here see the march of progress in this
+immense city, expanding without cessation like a drop of oil, and as it
+enlarges crossed by great arteries which establish across its mass
+conduits for aeration, and at the same time suppress the agglomerations
+of former days.
+
+For artists and archaeologists and lovers of old Paris, whom these new
+transformations displease and who regret the picturesque past, the
+authorities have had the forethought to paint or photograph before
+demolition the quarters which to-day have disappeared, or are on the
+point of disappearing; and as a consolation such persons have very
+pretty pictures by M. Pansyer, representing St. Julien le Pauvre, the
+Rue Galande, the Place Maubert, the ruins of the Opera Comique, the
+flower-covered relics of the Cour de Comptes; and there has even been
+evoked for them the manor-houses of Clichy and Monceau such as they were
+in 1789, and also the quarter of the Bastile, which can thus be compared
+with their present aspect. Not far from these antiquities the City of
+Paris has exhibited some decorative paintings executed for its various
+_mairies_, the "Abreuvoir" and the "Lavoir" of M. D. A. Baudoin, and for
+the _Mairie_ d' Arcueil-cachan "L' Automne et l'Ete," by M. A. Seon;
+"The Marriage," by M. Glaize, and a fine painting, "The Defense of Paris
+in 1814," by M. Schommer. Other compositions are signed by Cormon,
+Gervex and Boulanger.
+
+Finally, to make an end of the important works which she has caused to
+be executed, the City of Paris exhibits models, at a reduced scale, of
+the new Sorbonne, of the Ecole de Medicine, and of the Ecole Pratique,
+at present in course of construction, also plans and photographs of
+buildings erected during the last ten years, such as schools, _maries_,
+etc. The department of sidewalks and plantations is represented by a
+reduced model of the Crematory at Pere Lachaise, plans and views of the
+new cemeteries at Pantin and Bagneux, as well as the future square of
+Montmartre.
+
+The second pavilion of the City of Paris is more especially consecrated
+to instruction. After attending to the healthfulness of matter,
+attention must be given to the healthfulness of the mind and moral
+culture. By the side of the models of the school-rooms, where children
+find school-furniture studied with painstaking care and proportioned to
+their stature, have been placed the works executed by the
+school-children themselves of every kind, primary, maternal and
+professional. These works, in a general way, prove an average aptitude
+for the industrial arts, and indicate a real taste for beautiful forms.
+A hall is wholly set apart for the pupils of the special schools.
+Finally, around the two pavilions are arranged the numerous statues,
+purchased, or ordered by the City of Paris, archers, halberdiers,
+officers of the watch of the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries,
+and we recognize, as we pass, the "Sauveteur" of M. Mombur, the
+"Science" of M. Blanchard, the "Art" of M. Marqueste, and especially the
+proud "Porte-falot" of Fremiet, which decorates the lower part of the
+staircase of the new Hotel de Ville.
+
+PALACES OF THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS.
+
+The two Palaces of the Fine Arts and the Liberal Arts are of equal
+dimensions and similar aspect. They cover an area of 21,000 square
+metres. They are composed of a large central nave, measuring 209.31
+metres in length by a width of fifty-three metres and one-half. The nave
+is surrounded with galleries on the lower floor and first story. On the
+garden under the porticos are restaurants. Each of these palaces is
+connected with the Industrial section of the foreign countries by a
+large vestibule thirty metres wide by 115 in length, one of which, that
+of the Fine Arts, contains the exhibition of sculpture, and the other
+contains a large part of the musical instruments. These two palaces are
+entirely of iron, terra-cotta and ceramic work. The entrance is executed
+by a large porch of three arches, and the wings on either side are
+pierced by wide bays. Each is crowned with a dome fifty-five metres high
+and thirty-two in width. These two palaces are striking examples of the
+richness which can be introduced in a moment by the artistic employment
+of terra-cotta and ceramic work, especially when the ceramic artists
+bear such names as Mueller, Loebnitz and Parvillee, to say nothing of MM.
+Breult, Boulanger and Mortreux, whose work we met in the ceramic
+division, or which we shall meet in our walks through the foreign
+pavilions. With M. Mueller, who has given his name to a kind of brick
+covered with enamel on one of its faces, ceramic work becomes a portion
+of the very fabric itself as well as of its ornamentation. This
+principle applied with rare talent to the covering of the two domes of
+the palaces has given a very curious and interesting result. This
+covering is composed of enamelled tiles of more than 600 varieties which
+are not superposed one upon another, but butt together side by side, and
+form a mosaic rather than a covering of tiles. Each dome contains about
+50,000 pieces arranged in ninety rows and twelve divisions. The general
+tone is blue. The principal ornamental motive consists of a cartouche
+which bears in the centre two large letters "R.F." in gold. The
+cartouche stands out on a background of cream-white, bordered with a
+meander. The effect is very brilliant and chatoyant. At the base of each
+dome twenty-four vases in pottery, three metres high, are arranged on
+the consoles of the attic which supports the roof, and in which are
+pierced bull's-eyes decorated in tones of blue and natural terra-cotta.
+The domes of the pavilions at the angle of the palace on the side of the
+Seine are in the same way covered with enamelled porcelain tiles. This
+is a new product invented by M. Parvillee and has a great decorative
+richness. Above each bay of the two palaces is repeated a terra-cotta
+frieze two metres high, which bears children holding cartouches and
+standing out from a golden background. Pillars between the bays are
+encased in terra-cotta fluted panels with interlacements of laurel and
+oak leaves. The ironwork of these pillars is exposed and encloses the
+terra-cotta work like a Spanish net, with very original effect and very
+interesting constructive frankness. Finally, the balustrade crowning
+each palace is also of terra-cotta, and is formed of small pilasters and
+between them is repeated a _motif_ of bucklers bearing lions' heads. The
+balustrade is composed of 7,500 pieces and weighs 450,000 kilogrammes,
+and covers a space of 2,000 square metres.
+
+Independently of the exhibit indicated by its name and character, the
+Palace of the Liberal Arts encloses one of the great curiosities of the
+Exhibition of '89; that is the "retrospective history of labor and
+anthropologic science." "The aim of this exhibit," said M. Jules Simon,
+in a report which he made as the president of the Superior Commission,
+June 15, 1888, "is to instruct the public in the history of the
+processes of manual and mechanical labor, which in the passage of
+centuries have resulted in the modern industrial utensils used in the
+arts and trades." This exhibit has a particularly historical and
+technical character. It is far from excluding objects of art, for in
+several ages the utensils, those especially which were used in the
+liberal arts, were veritable jewels, either from their elegance of form,
+or from the richness of their material, or the grace of their details.
+We find chefs-d'oeuvre, for instance on a geographical map, on the
+handle of a chisel, on the barrel of a musket. Our ancestors were not
+possessed with the same passion for speed and cheapness that possesses
+us. Industry lost, perhaps, but the arts were the gainers. The aim of
+the retrospective exhibition is well defined. It is to retrace with
+broad strokes by means of the reproductions of diagrams and authentic
+monuments the stages of human genius. To achieve this result it was
+necessary to associate with the retrospective exhibition of labor that
+of anthropologic science, in order to show in the outset what man was
+when he left the hands of nature in the different physical forms of
+different races. The exhibit of anthropological science and history of
+labor comprises then five grand divisions--first, anthropologic and
+ethnographic science; second, the liberal arts; third, arts and trades;
+fourth, means of transportation; fifth, military arts.
+
+The central nave of the Palace of the Liberal Arts is wholly occupied by
+this exhibit. Grand porticos and galleries of woodwork with platforms in
+the lower story, form four grand divisions with interior courts that
+approach by monumental staircases opening under the dome upon each side
+of the rotunda, which occupies the centre and shelters the theatrical
+exhibit. All around the porticos and galleries full panels were reserved
+upon which M. Charles Touche placed decorative compositions broadly
+treated in aquarelle illustrating, so to say, the history of labor.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AN INGENIOUS PLAN FOR STRAIGHTENING WALLS.--Yankees, as a rule, are
+equal to any emergency; what the average Yankee mechanic fails to
+conjure up at a time when his wits are most needed, leaves very little
+room for foreign genius to think and work in. Yet it remained for M.
+Molard, a French architect, to contrive an original and ingenious plan
+for straightening the walls of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers,
+which threatened an absolute collapse owing to the extreme weight of the
+roof. A series of strong iron bars were carried across the building from
+wall to wall, passing through holes in the walls, and were secured by
+nuts on the outside. In this state they would have been sufficient to
+have prevented the further separation of the walls by the weight of the
+roof, but it was desirable to restore the walls to their original state
+by drawing them together. This was effected in the following manner:
+Alternate bars were heated by lamps fixed beneath them. They expanded,
+and consequently the nuts, which were previously in contact with the
+walls, were no longer so. The nuts were then screwed up so as to be
+again in close contact with the walls. The lamps were withdrawn and the
+bars allowed to cool. In cooling they gradually contracted and resumed
+their former dimensions; consequently the nuts, pressing against the
+walls, drew them together through a space equal to that through which
+they had been screwed up. Meanwhile the intermediate bars were heated
+and expanded, and the nuts screwed up as before. The lamps being again
+withdrawn, they contracted in cooling, and the walls were further drawn
+together. This process was continually repeated, until at length the
+walls were restored to their perpendicular position. The gallery may
+still be seen with the bars extending across it, and binding together
+its walls.--_Philadelphia Record and Guide_.
+
+
+
+
+LOSS OF POWER BY RADIATION OF HEAT.[3]
+
+
+[Illustration: The Martyrs Column, Naples, Italy.]
+
+To him who holds the purse and pays for the coal consumed, it is of
+importance that between the energy of the burning fuel and the power
+developed by the engine there should be the least possible loss. Every
+unit of heat radiated by boiler-pipe, cylinder or heater is absolute
+loss, and must come out of that purse. In an electrical plant this
+matter is of great importance. There is less opportunity to have results
+obscured. There is, proportionally, a large possible loss between the
+coal on the grate and the far end of the cylinder, and this loss should
+be reduced to the minimum. Is it not always the best economy to throw
+away as little as possible, to save from waste _all_ that can be saved?
+Is not the very _reason far being_, of the architect, the mechanical
+engineer, in fact of every man who is paid for his advice and direction,
+just this: that he shall bring to bear upon the subject, and impart to
+his client honest knowledge concerning the various matters about which
+he is consulted? That he shall keep abreast of the tide of discovery and
+improvement, and that upon these subjects he shall _know_, not trusting
+to mere hearsay or to unintelligent prejudice for his impressions.
+
+Some little time since a gentleman from a neighboring city called upon
+me for information upon the subject of coverings in general and their
+comparative values. Being an intelligent man he said frankly at the
+outset that he knew very little on the subject. He had, however, in
+common with all of us, heard the word "asbestos" used as a shibboleth
+for years, but he desired definite knowledge, and after he had digested
+the information he should act on his judgment. I devoted sufficient time
+to him to put him in possession of the salient points of the subject.
+His understanding was acute. He left me to seek elsewhere further light
+upon this matter. After some few days he returned and directed that the
+magnesia covering be applied to his work. In the course of conversation
+he remarked that he had received great diversity of advice from those to
+whom he had gone. One man, who had been years in the business of selling
+steam plants, told him that the best thing for him to use was hair-felt,
+even though the steam-pressure might run up to 125 pounds to the inch.
+Now, as a matter-of-fact, the man who gave that advice simply showed
+himself an unsafe guide; and from his inability to keep abreast with
+modern knowledge, that he had no conception of the fire-hazard which his
+advice was to thrust upon the innocent inquirer, and that his advice was
+little short of being morally criminal.
+
+The subject of the fire-hazard of organic coverings has been pretty
+thoroughly investigated and can be pretty well-known, when there is any
+inclination to get out of ruts which long years of travelling in has
+deepened. How many fires (cause unknown?) have really originated from
+the slow carbonizing of organic material on steam-pipes? It is but
+recently that the hair-felt covering on the steam end of a Worthington
+pumping-engine, within ten miles of us, not only burnt itself but
+destroyed some thousands of dollars worth of walnut lagging. Cases of
+the combustion of these organic coverings are numerous and are
+well-known.
+
+Few appreciate the great loss of heat from uncovered or imperfectly
+covered pipes. Many have an indistinct impression that there may
+possibly be some slight loss. But there is in many cases an absence of
+knowledge upon this subject where it should be complete. The most
+correct data available show that the radiation from uncovered two-inch
+steam-pipe, with 60 pounds steam-pressure, is 391.83 kilo. centigrade
+heat-units one foot one hour, or 21,739.78 kilos. of coal for 100 feet
+per year of 300 days of 10 hours each; one kilo. equals 2,205 pounds.
+Properly combining these figures we see that there are 23.97 tons of
+coal lost by radiation from that uncovered pipe. If the coal costs $4
+per ton, the radiation from this 100 feet of pipe will amount to $95.87.
+From the same pipe covered with Wm. Berkefield's fossil meal
+composition, 32/100-inch thick, the most powerful inorganic non-heat
+conductor used as a covering at the time these investigations were made,
+there was radiated 24,109 kilo. cent. heat-units one foot one hour, or
+1,337.63 kilos. of coal for the year. This would be 1-474/1000 tons of
+coal at $4 per ton, amounting to $5.89. Then $95.87 less $5.89 equals
+$89.98, the saving effected by covering this pipe with William
+Berkefield's fossil-meal composition 92/106 of an inch thick. Or, in
+other words, the saving effected was over 93 per cent of the total
+possible radiation, using a thickness of one inch this loss would be
+reduced to $5.50.
+
+From the same data we find (page 44) it stated that while the radiation
+through 25 m.m. of Wm. Berkefield's fossil meal was 7.7 heat-units,
+through 25 m.m. of carb. magnesia it was 6.7 heat-units, therefore the
+proportions 7.7: 6.7 = $5.50: $4.80 gives us the coal value of heat lost
+by radiation through the magnesia covering. To put this in another form:
+From the running-foot of two-inch pipe uncovered the loss is 96 cents,
+while, from the same pipe covered with the magnesia, the loss is less
+than five cents; or a saving of over 91 cents per year. To accomplish
+this saving the cost of the covering should be taken into account. This
+was 27 cents. Therefore, the investment in the magnesia covering is paid
+back in less than four months. The data which we have used were obtained
+by the use of a calorimeter measuring the quantity of heat passing
+through covering. The other possible method of arriving at this
+knowledge would be to accurately measure the condensation of the steam.
+In these experiments, owing to several reasons, it was not deemed
+advisable to rely upon the second method. Recently, however, I have seen
+in the _American Engineer_ of June 12, a report of the proceedings of
+the Michigan Engineering Society containing a paper by Professor Cooley,
+of Ann Arbor, Mich., in which he says:
+
+"The benefits of covering steam-pipes to prevent radiation are
+strikingly illustrated by the following example: The Thomson-Houston
+electric-light plant in Ann Arbor has about 60 feet of seven-inch pipe
+connecting the boilers with the engines and two large steam-drums above
+the boilers: in March, 1887, the steam at the far end of this pipe was
+tested to determine the amount of entrained water, the pipes and drums
+at the time being uncovered. An average of nine experiments gave 31.01
+per cent moisture. In June of the same year, after the pipes were
+covered with magnesia sectional-coverings, the quality of the steam was
+again tested, the average of five experiments giving 3.61 per cent
+moisture; the tests were made by the same men from the same connections,
+and in the same manner. The pipes and steam-drums in March were
+subjected to a draught, which, of course, aided the condensation. Enough
+water passed into the cylinders to retard the engines, producing a
+disagreeable noise. In June the weather was warmer and the pipes and
+steam-drums were well protected. The quality of steam at the boilers was
+tested in June, and showed about three per cent moisture. Assuming that
+100 incandescent horse-power were being developed at the time, and that
+each horse-power required 30 pounds of steam; if the steam is assumed to
+have 25 per cent entrained water due to condensation in the pipes and
+connections, then 4,000 pounds steam will need be produced in the
+boilers, or 1,000 pounds more than necessary. To produce this steam will
+require about 125 pounds of good coal per hour, or 1,000 pounds per day
+of eight hours. One-half ton per day at $3 per ton for 300 days, $450.
+The actual cost of the covering put on complete probably did not exceed
+$150."
+
+An interesting verification of the remarkable non-heat condensing
+quality of the magnesia covering occurred at Lynn, Mass. In the heart of
+the district in that city, recently the scene of the disastrous
+conflagration, there was located the machine-shop of Messrs. Rollins &
+Glozier. A two-inch steam-pipe there was covered with this material. The
+heat of the fire at this place has been curiously determined to have
+been between the minimum extreme of 2,756 deg. Fah. and the maximum extreme
+of 2,950 deg. Fah., in this way: Cast-iron melts at 2,756 deg. Fah.;
+wrought-iron at 2,950 deg. Fah. A portion of the cast-iron bed of a lathe
+was fused into an irregular mass, and on it, partly imbedded, was a
+wrought-iron nut not melted. The steam-pipe spoken of fell a distance of
+20 feet, and some of the magnesia covering was broken by the fall, but
+so effective was its heat-resisting and non-heat-conducting power that
+the pipe was found to be uninjured, and it is being used again in the
+building which is being erected to take the place of the one burned.
+That the magnesia should have endured the ordeal successfully was not
+unexpected, for we know that it is used by the Herreshoff Manufacturing
+Company as a lining to the shells of its coil boilers, and it is there
+subjected to a very intense heat resulting from the forced draught used
+in this type of boiler. Instances could be multiplied indefinitely, but
+I refrain from occupying further time with them, citing, however, one
+recent pertinent case.
+
+The trial trip of the new cruiser "_Baltimore_" took place in the middle
+of September. It is reported to have been in many ways eminently
+satisfactory. The report goes on to state: "Another noteworthy fact was
+the comfortable condition of the fire and engine rooms. A duplicate crew
+had been provided with the expectation of relieving the firemen in
+two-hour turns; but after the first two hours of the run the first watch
+refused to quit work and insisted in running the ship throughout the
+entire four hours' trial." Boilers and all steam-surfaces were covered
+with the magnesia covering.
+
+So it appears that not alone is the man who pays for the coal interested
+in this question of most perfect insulation, but also the men who
+operate the plant as well. In time, those architects, those mechanical
+engineers, those engine-builders and those other advisers, who are paid
+to advise soundly and correctly, and who are represented by our figure
+with the re-entering angles, will, of necessity, change their form and
+begin to assimilate these new facts, or ossification will so spread
+throughout the whole figure that they will be relegated to the shelf for
+curiosities as showing what strange geometrical forms the intellectual
+life of man may take.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COST OF A SMALL MUSEUM.
+
+
+[Illustration: Mr. A.A. Carey's
+Cambridge, Mass.
+_Sturgis & Brigham Archts._]
+
+More than once we have endeavored to impress upon our readers the
+importance of collections of casts and other art reproductions as
+factors in popular education. It is only through these that the body of
+our people can ever hope to become familiar with the great masterpieces
+of European galleries, which have had so much effect upon the taste of
+the people among whom they exist, and might do a similar good work in
+this country were they only brought within reach. Doubtless there are
+many who join us in the wish that not only every large, but every small
+city might have its gallery of reproductions as well as its public
+library--a gallery in which children could grow up familiar with the
+noblest productions of Greece and Italy, in which the laborer could pass
+some of his holiday hours, and in which the mechanic could find the
+stimulus to make his own work beautiful as well as good. But the
+principal reason why such collections are not more numerous is probably
+that people have an exaggerated idea of their cost, and, among those who
+might best afford this, there are doubts as to whether an undertaking of
+the kind would be appreciated in any but the large cities.
+
+Thanks to the liberality of Mr. W.A. Slater, the experiment has been
+tried in Norwich, Conn., and the results of the first year of the Slater
+Memorial Museum in attracting and holding popular interest have far
+exceeded the anticipations of its founder and his advisers. As it has
+been Mr. Slater's desire that the museum established by him should serve
+not only to educate his townsmen, but also to stimulate others who had
+the means to follow his example in other parts of the country, he has
+given us permission to make public the cost of his collections, which,
+we doubt not, will be a revelation to many. In August of last year we
+gave a long description of the Slater Memorial Museum, not then quite
+completed, from which it was evident that within the lines laid down by
+Mr. Slater, by which it was determined that the collection should
+contain only reproductions, and no original works, there were no
+restrictions as to expense. The works selected were to be the best of
+their kind, and were to be set up and arranged in the most effective
+manner possible. The number of objects was to be limited only by the
+size of the building.
+
+The useful little catalogue of the casts in the Museum, prepared by Mr.
+H.W. Kent, the curator, to whom we are indebted for the figures which we
+shall quote, shows 124 numbers in the Greek and Roman section, and 103
+in that of the Renaissance. Among these are some of the largest casts
+made, such as the selection from the Pergamon reliefs, the Nike of
+Samothrace and the Font of Siena. They were all made expressly for the
+Museum, and imported from London, Paris, Berlin, Munich, Florence, Rome,
+Naples and Athens. In addition to these, there is a complete collection
+of the British Museum electrotypes of Greek coins, handsomely mounted,
+and the nucleus of a collection of photographs, about 600, including the
+best plates of Braun, Naya, Brogi and other celebrated photographers.
+Most of the statues are mounted on revolving pedestals; two hundred and
+fifty of the photographs are exhibited in individual frames, the backs
+of which are movable, that the exhibition may be varied as often as
+desired; and, owing to the lack of wall-space, draperies have been hung
+extensively throughout the hall, the material of which is heavy raw
+silk. We mention these facts only to show that economy was not a
+consideration in the execution of the Museum, and believe that our
+readers will be the more surprised to learn that its _gross_ cost to Mr.
+Slater--excluding, of course, the building itself--was exactly
+$27,112.97. Is there any city or college in the Union in which this sum
+could not be raised for a similar purpose?
+
+The cost of the building we do not give, because it would be useful as
+showing how much, rather than how little, could be put into such an
+edifice. It contains, besides the museum proper, the floor-space of
+which amounts to about 10,000 square feet, a lecture-hall with a
+seating-capacity of about 1,200, a library and four large class-rooms,
+which, if the intentions of the founder are fully carried out, will be
+used for practical instruction in the fine arts. Desirable as all these
+rooms are in a building of the kind, the only one which seems to us
+absolutely necessary is the lecture-hall. To open a gallery like this to
+the public, and then leave people to float about in it aimlessly,
+without a notion of its meaning or its purposes, is to do but half the
+work. Either regular courses of instruction or occasional lectures upon
+topics connected with the theory or history of art are necessary in
+order to make the Museum anything more than a collection of curiosities
+to the uninitiated, and such lectures are given during the winter at the
+Slater Museum.
+
+Of the amount just quoted, the principal item was naturally for casts.
+The cost of these, including packing and transportation, but not
+setting-up in the Museum, was $13,968.68, making an average of a trifle
+less than $62 for each number in the catalogue. We ought to say here,
+however, that an average is a dangerous guide in a matter of this kind,
+owing to the enormous difference in the size and price of casts, as well
+as in the distance from which they come. Obviously, too, the cost of
+packing and importing a few casts would be proportionately much greater
+than in a large order.
+
+The casts once received, they must be put together, sometimes repaired
+and finally set up. Pedestals must be built for the statues, wall-spaces
+prepared for the reliefs. Therefore, a small force of skilled
+plaster-workers and carpenters is necessary. In Norwich most of the
+plaster-work was done by two men, a third being added occasionally, and
+the aggregate of this item in the expenses was $1,626.75. With regard to
+the carpentry, more work of this kind than would usually be necessary
+was required by the fact that a number of changes had to be made in
+order to adapt the hall to its use as a museum of art, its destination
+not having been determined when the building itself was completed.
+Consequently, some of the $4,690 paid for material and labor in this
+department would form a part of the building expenses in a structure
+designed especially for the purpose.
+
+These were the principal expenses in the preparation of the Slater
+Museum. On photographs about $800 have been spent thus far, the
+electrotype coins cost something less than $750, and the balance of the
+total quoted was made up by such incidentals as the draperies and
+upholstering, photograph frames, the designer's commission and petty
+expenses.
+
+Turning now for a moment to the other side of the balance-sheet, we
+shall try to answer the question, "Does it pay" to undertake a work of
+this kind, except in our large and central cities? If to the founder or
+founders of such an institution it be sufficient recompense for their
+liberality to see their gift used, appreciated and enjoyed by people of
+all classes, the brief experience of the Slater Memorial Museum answers
+the question with a strong affirmative. The Museum was dedicated on
+November 22 of last year. Since then it has been open regularly ten
+hours a week, divided among three days, and at other times to students
+and visitors from a distance. It is always free. There being no
+automatic machine for registering the admissions, Mr. Kent has requested
+visitors to write their names in a book provided for the purpose. The
+number who do so is naturally considerably less than the total number of
+visitors, particularly when the Museum is crowded, yet up to date the
+books show more than 10,000 names. The average attendance per week thus
+recorded, from the time of opening to July 1, was 283, the best month
+being December, in which 2,163 names were entered, the poorest June,
+with a total of 483. Especially gratifying has been the attendance on
+holidays, which shows that the interest in the Museum is by no means
+confined to those who have plenty of leisure. On Thanksgiving Day 800
+names were registered, Christmas 932, New Year's 732, Decoration Day
+850. For the benefit of the mill-operatives and other laborers who form
+the largest portion of the population of Norwich and the adjoining
+towns, to whom the Museum might do a world of good, we sincerely hope
+the day is not far distant when the building may be open at least a
+couple of hours each Sunday. The experience of the Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts in Sunday opening has been an unqualified success, and we wish that
+Norwich, as well as our own city, might profit by it. In Boston, we are
+told, the average number of admissions during the Sunday hours has
+reached as high as 1,000 per hour, and of these probably four-fifths are
+common workmen with their families.
+
+These facts and figures regarding the Slater Memorial Museum are
+valuable only so far as they go. They show that the first problem of a
+museum--to interest the public at large--has there been solved
+successfully. More than that is not to be looked for yet. The ultimate
+good which the institution will accomplish can be but imperfectly
+manifested in one generation. It is from the children now growing up,
+from their children and their children's children, that the deeper
+results are to be expected. As the beginning has been made, we can
+afford to wait for the rest, which will come in good time. The lesson to
+be learned from it now is, that such collections are needed, that they
+are appreciated not by a few but by many, and that, so far as the cost
+is concerned, they are within the reach of every well-settled
+community.--_New York Evening Post._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SANITARY ENTOMBMENT: THE IDEAL DISPOSITION OF THE DEAD.[4]
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In this country, partly because there were few places of large
+population, and partly because it was an early and general tendency to
+use cemeteries rather than churches, and the grounds adjacent to them,
+the evils of earth-burial did not manifest themselves so soon or in so
+marked a manner as in the Old World. But there were instances enough to
+convince the most incredulous that a radical change must be made. Dr.
+Ackerly, writing in 1822, thus describes the condition of the
+burial-ground connected with Trinity Church, New York, forty years
+before: "During the Revolutionary War this ground emitted pestilential
+vapors, the recollection of which is not obliterated from the memory of
+a number of living witnesses." In the same year, the _Commercial
+Advertiser_ published an article in reference to the present evils of
+earth-burial at the same place, in which it was said: "It will be
+remembered that the graveyard, being above the streets on the west, and
+encompassed by a massive stone wall, and the east side being on a level
+with Broadway, it results that this body of earth, the surface of which
+has no declivity to carry off the rain, thus becomes a great reservoir
+of contaminating fluids suspended above the adjacent streets. In proof
+of this, it is stated that, in a house in Thames Street, springs of
+water pouring in from that ground occasioned the removal of the tenants
+on account of their exceeding fetidness." At a later date, Dr. Elisha
+Harris brought this telling indictment against the same place of
+interment: "Trinity churchyard has been the centre of a very fatal
+prevalence of cholera whenever the disease has occurred as an endemic
+near or within a quarter of a mile of it. Trinity Place, west of it,
+Rector Street, on its border, the streets west of Rector and the
+occupants of the neighboring offices and commercial houses have suffered
+severely at each visitation of the pest from 1832 to 1854." It seems
+hardly necessary to add that the foregoing statements are not intended
+to make the impression that there was a worse condition at the
+churchyard named than at any other....
+
+It may now be said: "Yes, this is all true, but we have changed all
+that! We no longer inter our dead in churchyards or burial-grounds
+within the limits of cities. We have provided cemeteries at great
+distances from our cities and large centres of population, and there the
+dead can do no harm."
+
+To this the reply is easy and convincing: "that, if the dead endanger
+the living when the population is dense, they certainly also endanger
+them when the population is sparse. The danger is only diluted. It still
+exists, and it ought to alarm us just as truly when a few are imperilled
+as when many are." ...
+
+Not to attempt to tell all that has been ascertained, it will be
+sufficiently convincing to quote from Sir Henry Thompson's utterance in
+the _Nineteenth Century_ in 1880: "I state, as a fact of the highest
+importance, that, by burial in earth, we effectively provide--whatever
+sanitary precautions are taken by ventilation and drainage, whatever
+disinfection is applied after contagion has occurred--that the
+pestilential germs, which have destroyed the body in question, are thus
+so treasured and protected as to propagate and multiply, ready to
+reappear and work like ruin hereafter for others.... Beside anthrax or
+splenic fever, spores from which are notoriously brought to the surface
+from buried animals below, and become fatal to the herds feeding there,
+it is now almost certain that malarial diseases, notably Roman fever and
+even tetanus, are due to bacteria which flourish in the soil itself. The
+poisons of scarlet fever, enteric fever (typhoid), small-pox, diphtheria
+and malignant cholera are undoubtedly transmissible through earth from
+the buried body." That the burial of a body that contains the seeds of
+zymotic disease is simply storing them for future reproduction and
+destruction is amply proved by the researches of Darwin and Pasteur, of
+whom the former has shown that the mould, or fertile upper layer of
+superficial soil, has largely acquired its character by its passage
+through the digestive tract of earth-worms; and the latter that this
+mould, when brought by this agency to the surface from subjacent soil
+that has been used as a grave, contains the specific germ of the disease
+that has destroyed its tenant.
+
+It may now be asked: "Granting that these evils are inseparable from the
+burial of the dead in the earth or in tombs, what is the remedy? What
+else can be done?"
+
+To this question not many answers can be given, because the modes of
+disposing of the dead have always been and must always be few.
+
+Plainly, no such novel mode as casting the dead into the sea will be
+generally adopted. Plainly, also, the mode of the Parsees, grounded as
+it is in ancient, if not original use--to give the dead to beasts and
+birds--will not become universal. And, plainly also, cremation will not
+be welcome to the many, free as it is from objection on the score of
+public health, if a method equally sanitary, and at the same time
+satisfactory to a reverent and tender sentiment, can be devised.
+
+The inquiry, then, has reached its limit; for, apart from the modes that
+have just been named, there are no others but earth-burial and
+entombment, and earth-burial, as we have seen, cannot be made sanitary
+under common conditions. Therefore, if the demands of affection and
+sanitation are both to be met, entombment is to do it, or it cannot be
+done.
+
+Happily, better than any other method of disposing of the dead that has
+ever been devised, entombment has met the demand of affection. Never has
+any other mode so commended itself to men as this. There may have been
+at times a general adoption of cremation, and there may have been a
+general prevalence of earth-burial, but the one has not long satisfied
+the sorrowing survivors, and the other has owed its beginning and
+continuance to the apparent absence of alternative. Wherever the living
+have been able, and the dead have been dearly loved or highly esteemed,
+the tendency to entomb and not to bury has been constantly manifested.
+
+To call attention to this tendency is enough to prove it, so easily
+accessible is the evidence and so familiar is its operation in the human
+heart. The most natural reference will be, first, to the mausoleum, the
+tomb of Mausolus, that was erected by his sorrowing Queen, Artemisia, at
+Halicarnassus, upon the AEgean's eastern shore, and that became at once
+one of the few great wonders of the ancient world. This was intended to
+do honor to the loved and illustrious dead, and this it did as no grave
+or pyre could do. This was also intended to protect the lifeless form
+from ruthless robbery and reckless profanation, and it performed this
+task so well that for near two thousand years no human eye beheld the
+mortal part of Mausolus, and no human hand disturbed its rest. At a far
+earlier time, Abraham, the Father of the Faithful, while he illustrated
+this tendency to entomb the dead, also offered an influential example to
+all who would do him reverence, as, in the hour of his great sorrow, he
+sought the seclusion and the security of Machpelah's cave for the last
+earthly resting-place of his beloved wife. There he buried Sarah; there
+he and his son and his son's son and their wives were all laid to rest,
+and the place of their repose hath not been violated even at this
+distant day. To this constant tendency constant testimony is borne by
+the massive and magnificent tombs in which India abounds, the tombs and
+pyramids that make marvellous the land of the Nile, the tombs that stood
+thick upon the Appian Way, and that rose superb upon the Tiber's shore,
+the modern use to which the Pantheon is put, the Pantheon at Paris and
+the Crypt of the Invalides, the Abbey of Westminster, matchless in
+memorials, the sepulchres within the hills that gird Jerusalem, and the
+sepulchre in which the Nazarene was gently laid when His agony was
+ended.
+
+It remains to be considered whether entombment can be made sanitary. If
+it can be the problem is solved, for entombment has ever been the best
+that the living could do for their dead, and, with the added advantage
+of promoting, or ceasing to be prejudicial to, the public health
+entombment will be the choice of all whom cost or caprice does not
+deter.
+
+That entombment can be made sanitary is evident from the fact that in
+countless instances, in many lands and through long periods of time, it
+has been made sanitary by the ingenuity of man or by unassisted nature;
+and it is also evident from the fact that decomposition and disease
+germs are the dangers to be guarded against, and that against these both
+ancient and modern science have been able to guard. Not to enumerate all
+the modes that have been chanced upon or that have been devised by men,
+there are two that have been notable and are available for modern
+use--embalming and desiccation.
+
+It is a delusion to imagine that embalming is a lost art; that, like
+some other marvels of the ancient time, this is a secret process that
+perished with the people who employed it. Did we desire it, we could
+embalm our princes and our priests, and retain their shrunken
+similitudes for distant coming times to gaze and gape upon, as skilfully
+as they who practised this art in Egypt's palmiest days. Nay, it is
+doubtless far within the truth to claim that better than they did we
+could do; and we are actually apprised of better methods and results
+than they employed or could attain, and it is not unlikely that we
+shall hear of better methods still. But Egypt's method, or its modern
+counterpart, will hardly now be popular. It involves too much mutilation
+and too much transformation. When it has done its work little is left
+but bone and muscular tissue, and these are so transfused with foreign
+substances that a form moulded from plastic matter or sculptured from
+stone could almost as truly be considered that of the lamented dead as
+this. Moreover, indefinite preservation of the dead is not desirable,
+and is not desired. The uses to which the Egyptian Pharaohs and their
+humbler subjects have been put in these days of indelicacy and
+unscrupulousness in the pursuit of science or sordid gain are not such
+as to make many eager to be preserved for a similar disposition when the
+present shall have become a similarly distant past.
+
+Desiccation, in striking contrast with embalming, is the process of
+nature rather than of art, and involves no mutilation and no
+substitution of foreign substances for human flesh, and does not by
+unnatural means preserve the semblance of the human form so long that a
+susceptible sentiment is shocked and a due return of material humanity
+to the elements that gave it birth prevented. Desiccation is so far a
+natural process that it seems not to have been thought of until nature
+had done the work and shown the product, and through many centuries, and
+upon an extensive scale, nature had employed the process before it
+occurred to man to copy her and adopt her method for the disposition of
+his dead.
+
+Wherever the air that enwrapped the lifeless form of man or beast was
+dry, desiccation anticipated and prevented decomposition. In deserts,
+upon elevated plains, upon the slopes of lofty mountain ranges, to which
+the winds that passed their summits bore no moisture, the dead have not
+decayed, but have dried undecomposed. In the morgue attached to the
+Hospice of St. Bernard, the dead, lifted too late from their shroud of
+snow, and borne thither to await the recognition of their friends, dry,
+and do not decay. In the "Catacombs" of the monastery of the Capuchins
+at Palermo, and in the "Bleikeller" at Bremen, the same phenomenon has
+appeared. Even Egypt is a confirmation of these statements, for it is
+probable that, had much less care been taken to preserve the dead, they
+would not there have yielded to decay as in other lands; and that
+moisture is so far absent from the atmosphere that the dead would have
+been preserved from decay by desiccation had not embalming been resorted
+to. Upon the elevated Western plains of this continent, the bodies of
+beasts and men by thousands have been preserved from decomposition by
+desiccation. To take one instance out of many that might be cited: A
+cave was not long ago discovered high up among the Sierra Madre
+Mountains, within which were found, where they had rested undisturbed
+for many years, the lifeless figures of a little aboriginal household,
+dried and undecayed. Father, mother, son and daughter, one by one, as
+death had overtaken them, had been brought thither, bound so as to keep
+in death the attitude that had marked them when at their rest in life,
+and there they bore their silent but impressive witness to the
+beneficent action of the unmoist air that had stayed decay and kept them
+innocuous to the living that survived them. In Peru, instances of this
+simple, wholesome process abound on almost every side; upon the elevated
+plains and heights, as also beside the sea, the dead of Inca lineage,
+with the lowliest of their subjects, are found in uncounted numbers,
+testifying that in their death they did not injure the living, because
+desiccation saved them from decomposition; and a recent traveller has
+vividly described the scene that a battlefield of the late war presents,
+and that illustrates the same process, where, though years have passed
+since the last harsh sound of strife was heard, the fierce and bitter
+combatants still seem eager to rush to conflict or to sink reluctant
+into the embrace of death. And all these instances furnish conclusive
+proof that decomposition can be controlled, and that its loathsome and
+unwholesome transformations can be prevented, if only the simple
+conditions are secured that have already so extensively effected this
+result. That these conditions can be secured no one can doubt, for,
+every-day, in almost every clime, by processes familiar and available to
+man, the atmosphere has moisture added to it or taken from it; and the
+extraction of the moisture from a portion of the atmosphere is all that
+is required to introduce the process of Peruvian desiccation into the
+sepulchres of Chicago or New York.
+
+It will naturally be further asked: "Is this all that has been done to
+demonstrate the efficiency and availability of desiccation for the
+dead?" To this the answer would be sufficient that the evidence that has
+been adduced is ample, and that, at once, in perfect confidence as to
+the result, mausoleums might be erected, with provision for the
+withdrawal of the moisture from the atmosphere, and for the passage of
+the desiccated air through the sepulchres in which the dead should rest.
+So little is involved, and so much has been accomplished without the
+application of any human skill, that it seems inevitable that, as soon
+as the resources of modern architecture and sanitary science are drawn
+upon, the desired result will be at once attained. But, to make
+assurance doubly sure, several carefully-conducted experiments have been
+made, under the supervision of the directors of the New Mausoleum
+movement, that prove that the conditions of desiccation can be
+controlled and that decomposition can be prevented, that where it has
+begun it can be stayed, and that prolonged preservation, with a fair
+approximation to the appearance in life, can be made sure for the
+recognition of absent friends, for transportation or the furtherance of
+the ends of justice.
+
+When, now, it is added that desiccation has been ascertained to be an
+efficient agent in the destruction of disease germs, as proved by the
+experiments of Dr. Sternberg, of the Hoagland Laboratory, and by the
+investigations of other experts, enough seems to have been said to
+establish the truth of the assertion that entombment can be made
+sanitary, and that, therefore, entombment offers the satisfactory
+solution of the problem how to dispose of the dead so as to do no
+violence to a reverent and tender sentiment, and at the same time not to
+imperil the public health.
+
+The proposition, then, soon to be submitted for public approval is this:
+to erect in the suburbs of our large towns and cities, perhaps even in
+their most thickly-populated parts, extensive and handsome edifices that
+will provide sanitary Sepulchres for the dead. To be comparatively
+inexpensive, they will have to be comparatively plain, and it seems not
+too much to hope that our cities will soon adopt this mode of disposing
+of the dead that depend upon the public care for burial, and that the
+horrors of a "Potter's Field," of which it cannot be divested, even in a
+fair and sea-girt isle, may be forevermore unknown of men....
+
+Within there would be, as the unit of construction, each sepulchre so
+constructed that anhydrous air could enter, or could be made to enter
+and withdraw, laden with moisture and morbific matter, which it would
+convey to a separate structure, where a furnace would complete the
+sanitary work that the anhydrous air had begun, and return to the
+external atmosphere nothing that would be noxious. Each sepulchre, in
+itself and its surroundings, would appear to provide a place of repose,
+and would have electrical appliances attached to it for the instant
+indication of the return of consciousness to any who had been
+prematurely entombed, and would promise and provide the most perfect and
+permanent protection against intrusion or theft that can be found on
+earth. In arrangement these sepulchres would have to conform to the
+price paid and the taste of the purchaser. Many would be like the single
+graves that thickly ridge portions of our cemeteries; many more would be
+grouped together after the semblance of a family-tomb; but in the
+general impression, in the surroundings and suggestions, the resemblance
+to the provisions of a cemetery would go no farther. For here there
+could be no burning sun, no chilling cold, no inclement storm; for the
+living, as they should pay the last sad honor to the dead, or in any
+subsequent tribute of affection, there could be no exposure, and for the
+dead there would be only the constant semblance of the comfort and the
+quiet of the best-ordered and most tranquil home. Thus, in providing the
+utmost that exacting affection and sanitary science can require, and in
+taxing to the utmost the resources of art, in architecture, in sculpture
+and in the use of subdued and according hues and forms for appropriate
+decoration, these "Campo Santos," or "Mausoleums," or "Mansions of the
+Dead," will seem to have realized the ideal disposition of the mortal
+remains of those who depart this life.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 3: Extracts from a paper read before the Boston Electric Club,
+December 23, 1889, by F.C. Child.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Extracts from an address by Rev. Charles R. Treat before
+the American Public Health Association at Brooklyn, N.Y., October
+23, 1889.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE VEKPLANCK HOMESTEAD, FISHKILL, N.Y.
+
+
+[Illustration: The Old Verplanck Homestead at Fishkill, Hudson River, in
+which the Society of the Cincinnati originated.]
+
+The Verplanck homestead stands on the lands granted by the Wappinger
+Indians, in 1683, to Gulian Verplanck and Francis Rombout, under a
+license given by Governor Thomas Dongan Commander-in-Chief of the
+Province of New York, and confirmed, in 1685, by letters patent from
+King-James the II. The purchase included "all that Tract or Parcell of
+land Scituate on the East side of Hudson's river, beginning from the
+South side of a Creek called the fresh Kill and by the Indians
+Matteawan, and from thence Northward along said Hudson's river five
+hundred Rodd beyond the Great Wappin's Kill, and from thence into the
+woods fouer Houres goeing"; or, in our speech, easterly sixteen English
+miles. There were eighty-five thousand acres in this grant, and the
+"Schedull or Perticuler" of money and goods given to the natives, in
+exchange, by ffrancis Rumbout and Gulyne Ver Planke sounds oddly to-day:
+
+  One hundred Royalls,
+  One hundred Pound Powder,
+  Two hundred fathom of white Wampum,
+  One hundred Barrs of lead,
+  One hundred fathom of black Wampum,
+  Thirty tobacco boxes, ten holl adzes,
+  Thirty Gunns, twenty Blankets,
+  Forty fathom of Duffils,
+  Twenty fathom of stroudwater Cloth,
+  Thirty Kittles, forty Hatchets,
+  Forty Hornes, forty Shirts,
+  Forty pair stockins,
+  Twelve coates of B.C.,
+  Ten drawing Knives,
+  Forty earthen Juggs,
+  Forty Bottles, Fouer ankers Rum,
+  Forty Knives, ten halfe Vatts Beere,
+  Two hundred tobacco pipes,
+  Eighty pound tobacco.
+
+The purchasers were also to pay Governor Dongan six bushels of good and
+merchantable winter wheat every year. The deed is recorded at Albany in
+Vol. 5 of the Book of Patents.
+
+Before 1685 Gulian Verplanck died, leaving minor children, and
+settlements on his portion of the land were thus postponed. Divisions of
+the estate were made in 1708, in 1722, and again in 1740. It is not
+accurately known when the Homestead, the present low Dutch farm-house
+was built, but we know that it stood where it now stands, before the
+Revolutionary War, and the date commonly assigned to the building is a
+little before 1740.
+
+The house stands on a bluff overlooking the Hudson, about a mile and
+one-half north of Fishkill Landing. It is one-story and one-half high,
+of stone, plastered. The gambrel roof is shingled, descends low and has
+dormer windows. The house has always been occupied and is in excellent
+preservation. Baron Steuben chose it for his headquarters, no doubt for
+its nearness to Washington's headquarters across the river, and for the
+beauty and charm of the situation. It is made still further famous by
+the fact that under its roof was organized in 1783 the Society of the
+Cincinnati. The room then used is on the right of the hall, and is
+carefully preserved. In fancy we can picture the assembly of officers
+grouped about Washington, in that west room overlooking the river,
+pledging themselves to preserve the memories of the years during which
+they had struggled for their country's being.
+
+The whole neighborhood, especially the village of Fishkill which was the
+principal settlement in the county at that date, has many revolutionary
+associations. The interior army route to Boston passed through the
+village; this was a depot of army stores, and workshops and hospitals
+were established. Here was forged the sword of Washington, now in the
+keeping of the United States Government, and exhibited in the late
+Centennial collection. It is marked with the maker's name, J. Bailey,
+Fishkill.
+
+The New York Legislature, retiring before the approach of the British,
+after the evacuation of the city, came at last to Fishkill, and here the
+constitution of the State was printed, in 1777, on the press of Samuel
+Loundon, the first book, Lossing says, ever printed in the State.
+
+Some years after peace was restored, the Verplanck family appear to have
+occupied the Homestead from time to time. Philip Verplanck, a grandson
+of Gulian the original grantee, was a native of the patent, but his
+public life was spent elsewhere. He was an engineer and surveyor, and an
+able man. Verplanck's Point in Westchester County, where Fort Lafayette
+stood during the Revolution, was named for him, and he represented that
+Manor in the Colonial Assembly from 1734 to 1768. Finally, Daniel
+Crommelin Verplanck with his large family--one of his sons being the
+well-known Gulian C. Verplanck, born here in 1786--came to live in the
+old home permanently. He had led an active life in New York, served in
+Congress and on the bench, and now retired to the quiet of the country.
+It was he who planted the fine old trees which now shade the lawn; among
+them the coffee-tree so much admired. About 1810 the north end, built of
+wood, was added to the old house. Architects were not numerous,
+apparently, in those days, so the Dutch type was lost in making this
+large addition, though the interior is quaint, dignified and
+interesting. It was from under its roof that Daniel C. Verplanck was
+carried to his last resting-place as his father before him, and
+generations after him lived and still live in the old Homestead.
+
+For the above description, prepared with no little painstaking, of an
+interesting house and demesne, as well as for the loan of the photograph
+from which I made my pen-and-ink sketch of it, I am wholly indebted to a
+member of the Verplanck family and a mutual friend.
+
+A.J. BLOOR.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ROCK UPHEAVAL CAUSED BY HYDRAULIC PRESSURE.--There was a remarkable
+occurrence at the mills of the Combined Locks Paper Company at Combined
+Locks, Wis., on Saturday. From some unknown cause there was an upheaval
+of rock upon which the mills are located, throwing the mill walls out of
+place, cracking a great wall of stone and cement twenty feet thick and
+making a saddle-back several hundred feet long and six inches high in
+the bed rock beneath the mill. An artesian well two hundred feet away on
+the bluff has dried up. The damage to the mill and machinery will
+probably amount to several thousand dollars. The upheaval is supposed to
+have resulted from some hydraulic pressure between the seams of rock
+beneath. A panic occurred among the mill operatives at the time of the
+shake-up, but nobody was hurt in the stampede from the mill.--_Boston
+Transcript_, _September_ 10.
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY'S VICTIMS IN EUROPE.
+
+
+[Illustration: Monument to Minine and Pojarsky, Russia.]
+
+Although the greatest number of deaths from electricity have occurred in
+this country--more than one hundred--of which twenty-two occurred in
+this city, yet other countries have not been without such "accidents,"
+as has been erroneously stated by experts in the employ of the companies
+interested in the deadly high-voltage currents, and as the subjoined
+list, compiled by C.F. Heinrichs, the electrical expert, shows. The list
+is by no means exhaustive. Many European newspapers contain articles
+advising stringent measures to stop the causes of those accidents and
+the use of currents of electricity above six hundred volts.
+
+Following is a list of victims of electricity in Europe:
+
+In February, 1880, Mr. Bruno, the euphonium player at the Holte Theatre
+in Ashton, near Birmingham, touched the conductors of a two-light
+electric plant and received a shock which rendered him insensible, and
+he died within forty minutes.
+
+In October, 1880, the stoker of the yacht Livadia, which was lying in
+the Thames, near London, was ordered to adjust one of the Jablochkoff
+candles. He accidently touched the terminals of the lamp, and instantly
+fell down dead. The difference of potential at the lamp terminals was
+only fifty volts, but it was admitted at the time that the wires must
+have been in contact with the iron plate upon which the stoker stood,
+and that alternating currents of higher voltages from the main source
+caused the death, because with fifty volts an electrical energy of only
+.05 Watts would have been expended on the resistances of the skin and
+the vital organs of the victim.
+
+In 1880, a workman touched a wire of a Brush installation at the
+Hatfield House, the residence of the Marquis of Salisbury, and fell down
+dead. The current was under eight hundred volts.
+
+In July, 1882, on the occasion of a fire in Brighton, England, a fireman
+took hold of a fire-escape which was in contact with the wire of a Brush
+machine. He received a shock which doubled him up and disabled him for a
+long time.
+
+August, 1883, an official of the Hungarian railway in Pesth was killed
+on touching a wire of a "Ganz" alternating-current generator.
+
+August, 1884, Emile Martin and Joseph Kenarec were killed in Paris on
+attempting to climb over the fence of the garden of the Tuileries. Both
+victims came in contact with the wires of a Siemen twelve-light
+alternating-current generator. The difference of potential between the
+place of the accident and the ground was 250 volts. The current which
+would pass that way caused the deaths, and burns upon the hands, cheek
+and ear of the victims.
+
+September, 1884, Henry Pink, an attendant at the Health exhibition in
+London, was killed on touching a Hochhausen dynamo of 1,000-volt
+capacity. At that time all electricians agreed that no currents over 600
+volts should be allowed.
+
+November, 1884, an engine-driver, William Moore, was instantly killed on
+touching the wire of an arc-light plant, at Messrs. Bolcknow, Vaughan &
+Co.'s, works, at Middleborough, England. The fatality was admitted to be
+due to the high-voltage current and bad insulation.
+
+January, 1887, Richard Grove noted that his employer's store, in Regent
+Street, London, was set on fire by electric-light wires. He rushed up on
+the roof of the building to cut the wires. He received a shock and fell
+off the roof, dead. Secondary currents of Goulard & Gibb's converters
+(Westinghouse system) were held responsible for the fatality by
+electricians.
+
+December, 1887, James Williams was killed by an electric-light shock at
+the Pontyminister tin-plate works at Bisca, in Wales.
+
+June, 1888, in Terri, Italy, a tinner was killed on the roof of a
+building on touching an alternating-current circuit.
+
+October. 1888, in Spain, at the Valladolid electric-light station a
+carpenter took hold of a wire of an alternating-current generator and
+could not let go. An attendant tried to pull the man off the wire and
+both were killed by the currents.
+
+November, 1888, E.A. Richardson, employed at the Consett iron works, in
+the county of Durnham, England, received a shock from an arc-light
+plant, from the effects of which he died two hours later.
+
+December, 1888, in Turin, Italy, an employe of an electric-light company
+was killed by alternating currents.
+
+June, 1889, John Connelly, an employe of the Siemens Electric-Light
+Company, near London, was killed by an alternating current of 1,000
+volts.
+
+Speaking of recent cases here, Mr. Heinrichs said:
+
+"It is to be regretted that some of our electrical experts of so-called
+standing, not only assist in keeping the facts from the public, but tell
+when under oath only half the truth, as was said a short time ago in a
+conservative electrical publication in London. One of these experts had
+to admit in the Kemmler investigations that all of his knowledge as to
+the harmless nature of the Westinghouse current was obtained by him from
+observations made upon himself and friends receiving alternating
+currents from an electro-medical apparatus. And the various
+susceptibilities of the different living organisms to electric
+influences he judged from the manner in which some of his friends
+dropped the metal handles. Had this expert made any calculations of the
+electrical energy expended in these trivial experiments he would have
+found that the whole electrical energy expended upon the living organism
+of any of his friends was below one-fifty thousandth of an electrical
+horse-power per second, and the difference of susceptibilities of any of
+his friends was infinitesimal, and the difference of the electrical
+energy between the minimum and maximum charges less than one-two hundred
+thousandths of an electrical horse-power. It is a well-established fact
+that alternating currents of an electrical energy of one-four-thousandth
+part of an electrical horse-power per second, if expended upon the vital
+organs, the nerves and muscles, of any human being, will cause
+instantaneous death in every case."--_New York Commercial Advertiser_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE ILLUSTRATIONS]
+
+
+[_Contributors are requested to send with their drawings full and
+adequate descriptions of the buildings, including a statement of cost_.]
+
+
+HOUSE OF G.M. SMITH, ESQ., PROVIDENCE, R.I. MESSRS. STOKE, CARPENTER &
+WILLSON, ARCHITECTS, PROVIDENCE, R.I.
+
+[Gelatine Print issued only with the Imperial and International
+Editions.]
+
+
+THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. MACHAR, ABERDEEN.[5]
+
+"In the bustling manufacturing town which has lately become, and is
+likely for some time to remain, the extreme northern point of our great
+system of railway communication, a venerable cathedral, surrounded by
+tree, with a pleasant river sweeping past it, is scarcely an expected
+sight. But the two divisions of Aberdeen the old and the new town--are
+as unlike each other as Canterbury and Manchester. The old town, or
+'Alton,' as it is locally termed, is not the most ancient part of a city
+of different periods, around which its modern streets and squares have
+ramified. It is a distinct hamlet or village, at some distance from the
+city, and edged away in privacy apart from the great thoroughfares
+connecting the manufacturing centre with other districts of the country.
+Its houses are venerable, standing generally in ancient gardens; and
+save that the beauty and tranquillity of the spot have led to the
+erection of a few pleasant modern villas, dotting it here and there,
+whoever treads the one echoing street of the Alton for the first time,
+feels that two centuries must have brought very little external change
+to the objects by which he is surrounded. In this pristine place, the
+short-spiked steeples, and the broad-slated roof of the old cathedral of
+St. Machar may be seen rising over a cluster of fine old trees which top
+the sloping bank of the winding Don, from the opposite shore of which
+the whole scene--comprehending the river, the sloping banks, the trees,
+and the gray old church--makes a very perfect landscape, rather English
+than Scottish in its aspect.
+
+"A near approach develops something very peculiar in the character of
+this edifice. It bears throughout unmistakable marks of age, but none of
+decay. It is gray with the weather-wearing of centuries, but it displays
+none of the mouldering vestiges of Time's decaying fingers; nor yet has
+it that prim air of good keeping which shows, in treasured antiquities,
+that careful hands have sedulously restored each feature that age may
+have injured. It is clear that the completeness of detail--the clean
+outlines, the hard, unworn surfaces--are characteristics of innate
+strength, and connect themselves with the causes of a certain northern
+sternness and rigidity in the general architectural designs.
+
+"The secret of all these peculiarities is to be found in the nature of
+the material, which is granite--the same that has handed down to us,
+through thousands of years, the cold, stony eyes of the sphynx,
+precisely as the chisel last touched them--and retains, to the wonder
+of the Londoners, the glittering lustre of the polished cheeks of
+Rameses. The stern nature of the primitive rock--obdurate alike to the
+chisel and to time--has entirely governed the character of the
+architecture; and, while it has precluded lightness and decoration, has
+given opportunities for a certain gloomy dignity. About the porch, one
+or two niches and other small details, have been decorated; but as if
+the artist had abandoned the task of chiselling his obdurate materials
+as a vain one, ornament goes no farther, and all the architectural
+effects are the fruit of bold design. Such, for instance, is the great
+west window--not mullioned, but divided by long massive stone shafts
+into seven arched compartments; such, too, is the low-browed doorway
+beneath, with its heavy semicircular arch. The upper tier of
+windows--here called _storm_ windows, perhaps as a corruption of
+_dormer_--are the plain, unmoulded arch, such as one sometimes sees it
+in unadorned buildings of the earlier Norman period. Indeed, though the
+building dates from the second age of the Pointed style, it associates
+itself in some of its features, very closely with the relics of the
+Norman age, especially in the short, massive round pillars which support
+the clerestory. The roof, with its carving, gilding, and bright heraldic
+colors, is in thorough contrast with the rest of the architecture, and
+the eye gratefully relieves itself from the gloom below, by wandering
+over its quaint devices and gaudy hues. It is divided into three
+longitudinal departments, panelled with richly-carved oak; and at each
+intersection of the divisions of the compartments with the cross-beams,
+there is emblazoned a shield armorial, with an inscription.
+
+"It is an uncommon thing to find, as in this instance we do, the nave
+only of a church remaining, for the chancel was generally the part first
+erected, and sometimes the only part. The remains of the central and
+eastern portions of St. Machar's tell how the western compartment braved
+the causes of destruction which to them had been fatal: they were built
+of freestone. Incrusted, as it were, in the eastern wall, are the
+clustered freestone pillars, with richly-flowered capitals, which of old
+supported the central square tower; and on either side are the vestiges
+of the transept, with the remains of the richly-sculptured tombs,
+represented in the accompanying plate, embedded in the wall. In
+Slezer's, and some other representations of this building in the
+seventeenth century, the tower--a simple square mass, with a
+roof--appears to have been still standing, but the choir had
+disappeared."
+
+
+MONUMENT IN THE SOUTH TRANSEPT OF THE CATHEDRAL, ABERDEEN, SCOTLAND.
+
+
+THE HOTEL DE SOTO, SAVANNAH, GA. MR. WM. GIBBONS PRESTON, ARCHITECT,
+BOSTON, MASS.
+
+This hotel, which has just been completed, occupies a whole square in
+the heart of the city, and has a frontage of 300 feet on Liberty Street
+and 200 feet on Bull Street. It forms two sides of the square, the
+two-story kitchen and servants' wing forming the third side. The climate
+renders it desirable to have it freely open and exposed to the cool
+southeast winds which blow refreshingly up from the bay, and, as a
+winter resort, a southeast exposure of nearly half the rooms makes them
+sunny and dry. The building is four, five and six stories in height, and
+a flat roof, 50 x 70 on the highest portion, gives a fine view down the
+bay. A "solarium" is erected on this roof, to contain a tropical garden
+or to be used for dancing. The "parade" or garden, upon which all the
+southeast windows look, has been beautifully laid out, and there is not
+a dark room or a "back room" in the building.
+
+A "rotunda" with glass roof at the rear of hall, first story, is
+intended as a lounging-room for ladies and gentlemen, and a veranda 35
+feet in width in front opens upon Bull Street. Many of the rooms open
+upon covered verandas on the second, third and fourth stories. The
+dining-room is 50 x 120 feet, open to the air on three sides. The
+materials are local brick for the lower portions, and buff Perth Amboy
+brick and terra-cotta above. It contains about 300 rooms, and will cost,
+completed, about half a million. It is, except the Ponce de Leon, the
+largest hotel in the South. Special arrangements have been made for
+introducing large volumes of warmed or cooled air into the halls and
+corridors. The contractors are Mr. T. Lewman & Co. The Whittier Machine
+Co. did the elevator, heating and laundry work. The Brush system of
+electric lighting has been introduced throughout. L. Haberstroh & Son
+have decorated the walls and ceilings, making a special feature of the
+dining-room. Ground was broken just a year ago, and the house was opened
+for guests on New Year's day.
+
+
+MEMORIAL CHURCH OF THE ANGELS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. MR. ERNEST A. COXHEAD,
+ARCHITECT, LOS ANGELES, CAL.
+
+This church which has lately been finished has cost about $25,000. The
+inside walls are finished in brick and stone.
+
+
+ST. AUGUSTINE'S ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH BUILDINGS, BROOKLYN, N.Y. MESSRS.
+PARFITT BROS., ARCHITECTS, BROOKLYN, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Additional Illustrations in the International Edition.]
+
+
+CHATEAU DE JOSSELIN, MORBIHAN, FRANCE.--FACADE ON THE COUR D'HONNEUR.
+
+[Gelatine Plate.]
+
+
+AN INTERIOR IN THE CHATEAU DE JOSSELIN, MORBIHAN, FRANCE.
+
+[Gelatine Plate.]
+
+
+TWO VIEWS OF THE HOUSE OF MRS. CONSINO, SANTIAGO, CHILI.
+
+
+DESIGN FOR CHURCH OF THE GOOD SHEPHERD, GOSPEL OAK, LONDON, N.W., ENG.
+MR. F. PHILLIPS FIGGIS, ARCHITECT.
+
+
+BUTLER'S WOOD, CHISLEHURST, ENG. MR. ERNEST NEWTON, ARCHITECT.
+
+
+HOUSE AT PENNSYLVANIA, EXETER, ENG. MR. JAMES CROCKER, F.R.I.B.A.,
+ARCHITECT, EXETER, ENG.
+
+This house has recently been completed for Mr. E.C. Philp, and stands in
+one of the best suburbs of the city. The materials employed are
+Wellington red brick for the facings above plinth, with Broseley tiles
+for the roofs, the few stone dressings being of Ham Hill. The walling up
+to the plinth level is of Westleigh limestone, as are also the piers
+surrounding the site, with wrought-iron railing between same. The
+principal chimney-pieces in the house have been made to special design,
+and are chiefly executed in American walnut and pitch-pine. The
+dining-room is panelled the full height up to a richly-modelled frieze
+in plaster, all to design, and the ceiling of this apartment is also
+panelled.
+
+
+DESIGN FOR BOARD SCHOOLS. MR. GEORGE W. WEBB, A.R.I.B.A., ARCHITECT,
+READING, ENG.
+
+This design was prepared in competition for schools near London, but,
+owing to a mistake in the date for sending in designs, it was too late
+for the competition. The plan is on the central hall system for boys and
+girls, the hall being 110 feet by 54 feet, and top-lighted. Fourteen
+class-rooms, each 30 feet by 20 feet, are provided, each divided from
+the central hall by movable glass screens. The infants' school, lodge,
+etc., form detached buildings. The total cost was estimated at L16,000.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 5: It should always be kept in mind that these illustrations
+from the "_Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_," by
+R.W. Billings, are republished very largely for the sake of giving
+instruction in one manner of the rendering of architectural drawings.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+METHODS OF REDUCING THE FIRE LOSS.[6]
+
+
+[Illustration: OLD DOORWAY AT NEWPORT R.I.]
+
+The liability to injury by fire is a hazard inherent to all buildings,
+and this danger is a constant menace whose threatening destruction of
+values imposes upon the owner a persistent consideration, which endures
+as long as the building stands.
+
+As every method of construction, the various mechanical processes and
+the stock in each stage of manufacture bears some relation to the
+fire-hazard as a supporter or possible originator of combustion, the
+engineer whose duties pertain to these matters must necessarily also
+consider the question of the fire-hazard in the important phase of
+prevention, as well as the direct application of those engineering
+problems required in the design and installation of fire apparatus.
+
+The fire-loss is a most oppressive tax, much of which can be abated by
+the application of well-established means of prevention. In a practical
+sense, certain fires are to be considered as unpreventable, being caused
+by exposure to fires in other burning buildings, but there are very few
+fires whose destructive results might not have been prevented by the
+exercise of precautions entirely feasible in their nature.
+
+These several topics will be considered in reference to the reduction of
+the fire-loss on isolated manufacturing property, because the exercise
+of every possible precaution may not avail anything if the property is
+liable to be imperilled by fires originating in adjacent buildings.
+
+
+SUPERVISION.
+
+The prevention of fires must in greater measure proceed from the
+efficiency of the supervision exercised over the property in the order
+of the buildings, heed to probable causes of fire, and attention to the
+fire-apparatus.
+
+In a manufactory there is a wide distinction to be made between to-day's
+dirt and yesterday's dirt; valuable results may be obtained by an
+inspection of the whole property made on Saturday afternoon by two men,
+such as foremen or overseers of rooms, who may be appointed to serve
+four weeks, their assignment terminating on alternate fortnights. The
+report should be made on a sheet of paper, divided so as to include all
+features of order and fire-apparatus in every room.
+
+As property should be watched during the day Sunday, as well as at
+night, it is under the care of watchmen about five-eighths of the time,
+and the measure of this responsibility should be clearly understood.
+
+The patrol should be recorded on a watchman's clock, not merely to show
+that he was not unfaithful, but also to prove that he was faithful.
+
+Especially in districts liable to disorder and lawlessness, it is
+desirable to have a district-messenger signal-box in the works, visited
+once an hour, with the understanding that if the call is not made within
+fifteen minutes of the appointed time, it will be assumed that there is
+trouble and help sent at once.
+
+Safety requires that the lanterns should be securely guarded; that the
+handle and sustaining parts of the lantern be connected together by
+rivets or by locking the metals together without relying on soldered
+joints; and thirdly, that the lamp should be put in from above, and
+never from the bottom.
+
+
+CONSTRUCTION.
+
+In its design, a mill for any standard line of manufacture is not a
+building whose arrangements and proportions are fixed upon at the whim
+of the owner, but it must conform to certain conditions of dimensions,
+stability, light and application of power to satisfy the requirements
+essential for furnishing every advantage necessary for producing the
+desired results at the lowest cost.
+
+The destructive consequences attending fire in such buildings, whose
+iron and masonry construction is called fireproof, show that some other
+form of construction is necessary to obtain the desired results of
+minimizing the annual cost of the maintenance of the invested capital,
+as represented by insurance, depreciation, interest and taxation. There
+is little incentive for entering into unusual expenses in the
+construction of a manufacturing building for the purpose of increasing
+its resistance to fire, unless the additional interest on such increase
+in the investment is to be met by a corresponding reduction in the
+annual cost of the fire-hazard. In addition to these questions,
+involving the annual maintenance of the plant, the increase in the
+expense of the building above a certain point may prove poor management,
+by locking up capital for too long a time, and may tend to prevent the
+improvements in arrangement and construction which are necessary for the
+most advantageous manufacturing.
+
+The method of mill building known as slow-burning construction combines
+the advantages of low initial cost and great resistance to destruction
+by fire, the final result being that the manufacturing is housed at the
+minimum annual cost. The fundamental principle of such construction is
+to mass the material in such a way that there shall not be any concealed
+spaces about the structure, and that the number of projections of
+timbers, which are more easily ignited than the flat surfaces, shall be
+reduced as far as possible; that iron portions of the structure shall
+not be exposed to the heat of any fire in the contents of the building,
+and furthermore, that the isolation of the various portions, both in
+respect to that of one building to another and of the various rooms and
+stories of the same building, shall be as complete as is feasible.
+
+The most important feature is that of the mill floors, which should be
+laid on beams, generally of Southern pine, 12 x 14 inches, or two inches
+larger when required by unusual loads or longer span than twenty-two
+feet. These beams are placed from eight to ten feet apart between
+centres.
+
+At the columns, beams rest on cast-iron caps.
+
+The support from one column to the next should be made by cast-iron
+pintles, preferably those whose section is in the form of a Greek cross,
+as that presents advantages in the way of securely joining them to the
+timber beams. At the top of the pintle, a cast-iron plate should support
+the base of the column above.
+
+Timber columns are preferred to those of iron, unless the load is
+greater than can be sustained by timber.
+
+The floor planks for this type of floor are generally made of spruce
+plank from three to four inches in thickness, grooved on both edges and
+joined together by hardwood splines. These floor-planks should be two
+bays in length, breaking joints at least every four feet.
+
+Above this the top floor, of 1-1/4 or 1-1/2 inch hardwood, is laid, and
+in some instances the resistance of the floor to fire is greatly
+increased by laying a coat of plaster on the floor-plank before the top
+flooring is built. But the general method of increasing the resistance
+of the floor to fire is by covering the floor and beams on the under
+side with plaster laid on wire-lathing.
+
+Such a mill floor and columns, while possessing in a very high degree
+features which offer resistance to the fire, being weakened by the
+temperature only to a slight extent as they are slowly burned away under
+the exposure to a very severe fire, also possess the merit of great
+economy, both as regards the low price of construction, and in that the
+floor is thinner in comparison with joisted floors of equal strength,
+saving in this respect, for every floor in a building, about ten inches
+in height of wall, stairs, belting, steam-pipes, and all vertical
+connections reaching from floor to floor, a saving which amounts to
+considerable in the total cost of a building.
+
+The division of mills into various portions by means of fire-walls is
+frequently not so efficient as assumed, by reason of the lack of
+fire-doors to satisfactorily fulfil the purpose of resisting fire. The
+best form of fire-door is that made of two thicknesses of matched
+boards, placed at right angles to each other and nailed together, being
+covered on the outside with tin, securely locked together and held to
+the door by numerous hanging-strips. The door should be secured to the
+hangers by means of bolts, and not screws, and the rail upon which it
+runs strongly bolted to the wall. When closed, such a door should fit
+into a jamb and be securely held in this manner against the wall. Such
+doors are frequently hung upon an inclined track, and, by some
+application of highly fusible solder at the catch, are so arranged that
+they will be closed by the heat of a fire, if not closed by hand.
+
+In this treatment of the arrangement of buildings to resist fire,
+consideration has not been given to the cost of land, which is, of
+itself, an important factor in determining what arrangement will be the
+most expedient for an establishment. Where land is expensive, or there
+are limitations in the space suitable for building, it is frequently
+necessary to build mills and shops higher than would be warranted by
+good judgment under other conditions; but where circumstances will
+permit it, the one-story mill has been very successful, not merely in
+immunity from fire, and very low cost per square foot of floor, but also
+in the advantages of manufacturing, particularly in regard to cost of
+supervision and movement of the stock in process of manufacture. These
+are questions which must be determined, not merely in regard to the
+various processes of manufacture, but the individual needs of each
+concern; the position of the fire-risk in the matter being that the
+hazard of a building increases very rapidly with its height, and to some
+extent with its area.
+
+The extension of one-story buildings over too large an area will not be
+commended, and certainly, as regards the question of fire, it has a
+tendency to place too large a property in direct exposure to a very wide
+hazard.
+
+Some textile mills have been built in the form of the block letter U,
+this form having been decided upon as giving the conditions of lowest
+resultant cost. One wing, two stories in height, contains weaving; the
+other wing, three stories in height, contains carding and spinning,
+while the engine is placed in the connecting building. The pickers and
+the boilers are in outside buildings, so placed that they will not
+interfere with future extensions of the building into the form of the
+block letter H.
+
+
+FIRE APPARATUS.
+
+All methods for the prevention of fires fall so far short of the ideal
+of immunity that there is a necessity for fire-apparatus. The principle
+of the defence of a manufactory against fire is that of self-protection,
+by making the installation and management of the fire-apparatus equal to
+the progress of any fire which can possibly occur.
+
+Fire-apparatus should be kept in service as well as in order. It is no
+exception to any other machinery, in that practice is essential to
+obtain any efficient results.
+
+The practical results of private fire-organizations, where fire has
+occurred, have been very marked; and systematic and skilful work has
+been the rule, in place of the needless confusion and liability to
+breakage of the apparatus, which almost inevitably occurs in the lack of
+such organization.
+
+The details differ with the arrangements and administration of every
+mill; but the general policy of definitely assigning persons to the
+positions for which they are best adapted, and where it is presumed they
+could be most useful, and to practice them in such work, is a rule which
+is common to all.
+
+A great deal of fire-apparatus is destroyed by freezing water during the
+winter months, and therefore a special inspection of all such apparatus
+should be made late in the autumn, when the water should be drained from
+all portions of the system where there is liability of freezing, and all
+hydrants and valves should be well oiled, preferably with mineral oil.
+The hazard from a hydrant or other portion of the apparatus broken by
+frost, does not lie so much in the probability that disadvantage may
+result from the disuse of one element of the plant, as in the liability
+that such a breakage may interfere with the whole system and render it
+inoperative.
+
+Buckets of water are the most effective fire-apparatus. They should be
+kept full, and distributed in liberal profusion in the various rooms of
+a mill, being placed on shelves or hung on hooks, as circumstances may
+require. In order to assist in keeping them for fire purposes only, they
+should be unlike other pails used about the premises, and in some
+instances each pail and the wall or column behind its position bears the
+same number.
+
+Automatic-sprinklers have proved to be a most valuable form of
+fire-apparatus in operating with great efficiency at fires where their
+action was unaided by other fire-apparatus, particularly at night. In
+mill fires the average loss for an experience of twelve years shows that
+in those fires where automatic-sprinklers formed a part of the apparatus
+operating upon the fire, the average loss amounted to only
+one-nineteenth of the average of all other losses. If the difference
+between these two averages represents the amount saved by the operation
+of automatic-sprinklers, then the total damage from the number of fires
+to which automatic-sprinklers are accredited, as forming a portion of
+the apparatus, has been reduced six and a quarter million dollars by the
+operation of this valuable device.
+
+Although there have been numerous patents granted to inventors of
+automatic-sprinklers since the early part of the present century, yet
+their practical use and introduction has been subsequent to the
+invention of the sealed automatic-sprinkler by Henry S. Parmelee of New
+Haven, Ct., about twelve years ago. This device being the first, and for
+many years the only automatic-sprinkler manufactured and sold, and
+actually performing service over accidental fires, to him belongs the
+distinction of being the pioneer, and practically the originator, of the
+vast work done by automatic-sprinklers in reducing destruction of
+property by fire.
+
+Although nearly or quite 200,000 Parmelee automatic-sprinklers have been
+installed, their manufacture has been supplanted by other forms; and the
+total number of automatic-sprinklers in position at the present time
+must be about 2,000,000.
+
+When automatic-sprinklers were first introduced there were many
+apprehensions that leakage, and also excessive water discharged upon
+small fires, would be sources of damage. In England this opinion found
+expression in increased insurance rates in buildings where
+automatic-sprinklers were installed.
+
+The logic of figures shows that this liability to damage is merely
+nominal in the case of well-constructed sprinklers. An association of
+underwriters who have given careful attention to the subject obtained
+the facts that from the automatic-sprinklers installed in some
+$500,000,000 worth of property insured by them, the average damage from
+all causes, except fire, was $2.56 per plant per annum.
+
+Although automatic-sprinklers have proved to be so reliable and
+effective, yet, in order to provide for all possible contingencies,
+their introduction should not displace other forms of fire-apparatus,
+particularly stand-pipes in the stairway towers, with hydrants at each
+story. The hose at these hydrants should be festooned on a row of pins,
+or doubled on some of the reels made especially for such purposes.
+Stand-pipes are not recommended to be placed in rooms or on
+fire-escapes; and inside hydrants should not be attached to the vertical
+pipes supplying automatic-sprinklers.
+
+Fire-pumps are generally too small for the work required of them, 500
+gallons per minute being the minimum capacity recommended. For a
+five-story mill there should be an allowance of 250 gallons per minute
+for an effective stream through a 1-1/8-inch nozzle, and for lower
+buildings the estimate should rarely be less than 200 gallons for each
+stream.
+
+Contrary to the general assumption, a ring nozzle is not so efficient as
+a smooth nozzle, the relative amount of discharge of ring and smooth
+nozzles of the same diameter being as three is to four. For stand-pipes
+7/8-inch nozzles are recommended, but for yard hydrant service the
+diameter should never be less than one inch, and 1-1/8 inches generally
+fulfils the conditions of best service.
+
+The yard hydrants should be placed at a distance of fifty feet from
+buildings, and covered with a house which should also contain hose,
+axes, bars, nozzles and spanners.
+
+Water-mains about a mill-yard should be of ample capacity not to cause
+an excessive loss by friction, their diameter being based upon a limit
+of velocity of ten feet per second for the maximum delivery.
+
+
+RESULTS.
+
+These methods of supervision, building and equipment do not refer to any
+ideality, but to measures which have been widely carried into effect for
+the purpose of reducing the fire-loss; the result of such action being
+to diminish the cost of insuring industrial property engaged in such
+normally hazardous processes as textile manufacture and other
+industries, down to a yearly cost of less than one-fifth of one per
+cent. This has been accomplished by the consideration of sources of
+danger and their abatement, and by a course which has been in line with
+sound engineering principles, and also practical methods of manufacture;
+and it has thus been proved that it is cheaper to prevent a fire than to
+sustain a loss.
+
+There has been no attempt made to credit individuals with their share in
+these features of mill development. They have been the outgrowth of a
+continual profiting by experience, adopting some features and modifying
+others. The concurrent action of the large number of minds engaged on
+the same problem has led to duplication of methods; but the whole
+progress has been a matter of slow, steady growth, advancing by hairs'
+breadths, as the result of persistent efforts to adapt means to ends in
+the endeavor to reduce the cost of manufacture.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 6: Abstract of a paper by Mr. C.J.H. Woodbury, read before the
+American Society of Mechanical Engineers.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: SOCIETIES]
+
+THE NEWARK ARCHITECTURAL SKETCH-CLUB.
+
+
+After a preliminary meeting held for permanent organization December 14,
+1889, a constitution and by-laws were adopted, and the following
+officers elected: _President_, W. Frank Bowers; _Vice-President_, J.C.
+Swinnerton; _Secretary_, H.A. Hickok; _Treasurer_, W.C. Hudson. _The
+Executive Committee_ consists of F.S. Sutton, A.E. Hudson, W.G. Smith,
+L.A. Virtue and E.K. Taylor, together with the officers. It is intended,
+in addition to the usual monthly competitions, to make a special feature
+of regular class-work throughout the year, this will consist of courses
+in constructional work, free-hand drawing, water-color work, plumbing,
+architectural history, etc. The courses will be under the direction of
+specialists in the various branches who are club-members. Applications
+for membership will be received by the Secretary, whose address is 762
+Broad Street, Newark. The Club expect to have permanent quarters soon,
+which will be open every evening to members.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: COMMUNICATIONS]
+
+[_The editors cannot pay attention to demands of correspondents who
+forget to give their names and addresses as guaranty of good faith; nor
+do they hold themselves responsible for opinions expressed by their
+correspondents_.]
+
+AGREEMENT BETWEEN ARCHITECT AND CLIENT.
+
+
+ALBANY, N.Y., December 26, 1889.
+
+TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT:
+
+_Dear Sirs_,--As the services which an architect is supposed to render
+his client and the compensation for same have been the subject of
+considerable loss to us through misunderstanding, we have prepared for
+use the enclosed proposition, which covers most cases in our general
+practice. In work of such a nature as can't be covered by this
+proposition, we prepare one specially suited to the occasion, but in all
+cases insist on a written agreement which we consider is fair to both
+parties. Should you see in this proposition anything of benefit to the
+profession, you are at liberty to use same.
+
+Yours truly, FULLER & WHEELER.
+
+OFFICE OF FULLER & WHEELER, ARCHITECTS,
+No. 86 STATE STREET, ALBANY, N.Y., ---- 189 .
+
+
+PROPOSITION.
+
+Mr.----
+
+We will prepare for you the Preliminary Sketches, General Drawings,
+Details and Specifications for proposed----
+
+to be erected at----
+
+for 3-1/2 per cent on the actual cost of same, which is to be determined
+by the amount of Mason, Carpenter, Roofer, Plumber, Stone-cutting,
+Heating, Ventilating, Iron-workers, Mantel and Elevator Contracts,
+including all extras and deductions. In connection with Heating,
+Ventilating and Elevator, we will either select the apparatus and
+approve the specifications as submitted by the dealers, or prepare plans
+and specifications for contractors to estimate on, according to the
+character of the work in contemplation, and as in our judgment will
+secure the best advantage to you. The cost of hardware, mantel facings,
+hearths, back linings, metal bands, electric work and decorations are
+also to be included in the total cost of said building, but we are not
+required to perform more than our customary work in connection with the
+last mentioned items, which is either to select them from manufacturers'
+stock or have submitted to us samples, sketches and specifications from
+which a selection is made. Any other work, not mentioned above, that we
+may be called upon to perform will be charged for at the same rates.
+
+
+SUPERVISION.
+
+We agree to professionally supervise work constructed from our plans,
+for an additional 1-1/2 per cent, or 5 per cent in all, where the work
+is in the city, and inspect work out of city at the same rate per cent,
+visits not to exceed 2 per month. In any case where a Clerk-of-Works is
+required, either on account of the magnitude of the job, or the
+inefficiency or carelessness of the contractors, the cost of same is to
+be paid by you in addition to our compensation for supervision or
+inspection, and said Clerk is to be approved by us.
+
+We do not agree to be responsible for the acts of the Clerk-of-Works, or
+for the negligence or violations of contracts by the contractors any
+further than we can reasonably detect at the time of our visits of
+supervision or inspection; but such negligence or violations of
+contracts, as we detect, we will have corrected, so far as the power
+vested in us will permit and as speedily as possible.
+
+You are at all times to consult with us about desired changes or
+additions to the work; to order all such changes through us; and to
+notify us in regard to any work done or material used that you consider
+is a violation of the contract.
+
+No allowance from our percentage will be made for drawings contracted
+for and not furnished, except upon a refusal by us to furnish such as
+may be necessary.
+
+The supervision and inspection contemplated by this agreement, is such
+as is calculated to and ordinarily will secure the furnishing of
+materials of the kind and quality required by the contract, and the
+performance of the work in accordance with the plans and specifications,
+and in a good, workmanlike and substantial manner.
+
+
+CERTIFICATES.
+
+Where the work is under our supervision, or inspection, we will issue
+certificates of indebtedness to the contractors, as per terms of
+contract. The final certificate being an adjustment of the contract and
+extras, and also an expression of judgment on our part that the work has
+been carried out according to the general drawings and specifications
+and contracts by the contractors, but is not to form a legal obligation
+on our part.
+
+If the building is not erected from said plans, the charges, instead of
+being based on the actual cost, will be based on the approximate cost,
+which is hereby estimated at $----, although the last-mentioned sum is
+not guaranteed to be the actual cost of said building. Should the actual
+cost exceed the approximate cost, we will make the necessary changes in
+the plans, so as to reduce the cost, should you so desire, without extra
+charge. Changes made in plans from other causes, charged for according
+to time consumed.
+
+Travelling expenses and other necessary disbursements in addition to
+fee for services.
+
+
+PAYMENTS.
+
+Payments shall be made as follows: Upon completion of the preliminary
+sketches, 1 per cent of estimated cost; upon completion of the general
+drawings and specifications, an additional 1-1/2 per cent of estimated
+cost; upon completion of details an additional 1 per cent of estimated
+cost; and upon completion of the work, the charge for supervision or
+inspection. At that time, also, any differences between the percentage
+upon the estimated and actual cost is to be settled, and any deficiency
+is to be paid or excess credited.
+
+Travelling expenses and other necessary disbursements are payable when
+incurred.
+
+In case contracts are not entered into for the work within six months
+after the drawings are ready for contractors to estimate, payment shall
+be made for the work done at the rates herein before specified, computed
+upon the estimated cost. Provided, however, that if at any subsequent
+time the plans and specifications prepared by us, are used and the
+actual cost exceeds the estimated cost, compensation upon such excesses,
+shall be made at the rates aforesaid.
+
+
+REMARKS.
+
+Respectfully yours,
+
+Accepted, ---- 189
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INSPECTION OF BUILDINGS IN NEW YORK.
+
+NEW YORK, N.Y., December 22, 1889.
+
+TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT:--
+
+_Dear Sirs_,--In your issue of the 21st. I note an editorial setting
+forth how the New York City Health Department trapped an ingenious
+builder, who piped his sewerage into his back-yard, and I, and, I think
+I can safely say, many other architects of New York, would ask why you
+omit, when publishing such facts, to mention that such work was so put
+in and is continually put in, in as bad or in a very unworkmanlike and
+insanitary manner, under the supervision of the same department, and
+thus shows how the paid officials and inspectors whose business it is to
+pass upon and approve the plans and specifications and to give continual
+inspection--to see, examine and test every length of pipe and every
+joint; who have the might of the law to strike down the offender who
+shall make bold to violate their mandates, fail to give protection to
+the innocent owners and purchasers of property, or curb the avaricious
+hands of unscrupulous builders and careless workmen.
+
+I should like further, to ask you to publish to the New York City
+public, the fact that the "Department", the "Health Department", with
+its Bureau of Plumbing and Light and Ventilation, and the Building
+Bureau of the Fire Department, are unable to protect property owners and
+purchasers from errors in sanitation and construction as they are
+supposed by too many to do. Owners frequently think that unless they
+want "fancy" drawings and fronts, an architect is superfluous. The
+"speculator" finds it no advantage, but rather the opposite, to have an
+impartial judge between owner and Contractor, or a close inspection over
+his subs; as he gains little by the fact of his having employed a
+thorough architect, when he comes to fell, and loses by the bill for
+services and the legitimate price he pays for honest work.
+
+The bulk of speculative work done in New York is after the most trivial
+plans made by some mere draughtsman or carpenter, and the
+"superintendence" is under the "keen" eye of the builder and owner--who
+is usually one and the same individual and who has made a definite
+failure at all the branches of the trade and frequently many others, and
+now holds position as owner of the property by virtue of his having
+paid, entirely in mortgage, for the same. In the large majority of cases
+that have been under my observation, they are entirely incapable of
+passing an intelligent opinion on any of the materials and work that
+make up a building, or at least on very little, and the gross
+impositions practiced upon them by their sub-contractors is startling.
+Their work is covered-in and is so left, I doubt not, in the majority of
+cases, as the inspection furnished by the "Department" is entirely
+inadequate for proper protection. The confidence of the public is
+continually bolstered up by such descriptions as the editorial above
+mentioned.
+
+A NEW YORK ARCHITECT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A SEEMING ATTEMPT TO DEFRAUD AN ARCHITECT.
+
+PITTSBURGH, PA., December 30, 1889.
+
+TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT:
+
+_Dear Sirs_,--Please answer through the columns of your valuable journal
+the following:
+
+I will designate A as the party for whom I drew plans, etc., B as the
+owner of property adjoining, and C as the contractor for A. I drew up
+plans and specifications for a 60' 0" front by 60' 0" deep building for
+A, including party-wall for A and B who has 35' 0" front by 60' 0" deep
+lot. I was employed to render full services, such as to draw up plans,
+specifications, details and superintend the construction of said
+building for A.
+
+A wrote to me asking me whether I would allow B to use my plans and
+specifications to be copied. I answered, emphatically, that not under
+any circumstances would I allow it without compensation, as the plans,
+etc., were my property, and were only designed for A.
+
+A let the contract for erection and completion of the building to C, I
+having made the articles of agreement for same.
+
+In the meantime I was notified that B and C were taking sub-bids for
+the erection of the 35' 0" building, all with my plans and
+specifications. They were taking the sub-bids from the same parties that
+were to do the work for C on the building for A. B let C build the 35'
+0" building.
+
+I notified B and C that I will collect my commission on the construction
+and completion of their building, to which notices I have no reply.
+
+The 35' 0" building was commenced at the same time as the building for
+A; my plans, specifications and details were used for the building by
+the same sub-contractors, etc.
+
+The buildings are now nearly complete, and the building for B or the 85'
+0" building is a portion of the building designed for A with slight
+variations made by C.
+
+I think the above to be very explicit; and now, gentlemen, I would like
+to ask you for your opinion as to my compensation, and to what extent I
+am entitled to it.
+
+Yours very respectfully,
+
+F.C. SAUER.
+
+[We think that you are entitled to the full commission of five per cent
+on the cost of the 35-foot building, and believe that you can collect
+it.--EDS. AMERICAN ARCHITECT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+VENTILATING WOODEN COLUMNS.
+
+ZANESVILLE, O., December 23,1889.
+
+TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT:
+
+_Dear Sirs_,--We notice that in buildings in the East for factory
+purposes, all wood columns have a hole bored through the centre for
+ventilation. What size should the hole be for 12" x 12", 10" x 10" and
+8" x 8" posts. Also size of cross holes for the purpose of communicating
+with vertical hole, and how far from ends.
+
+Respectfully yours,
+
+A.E. PILING CO., LTD.
+
+[We have referred this to Mr. C.J.H. Woodbury who replies that the
+method followed by the best mill-builders is to bore a hole along the
+axis one and three-fourth to two inches in diameter. The method formerly
+used was to bore the hole in half-way from each end after the column was
+finished, but as the auger would follow the grain of the wood, the holes
+would not always meet, and running out nearer the side of the column
+would produce structural weakness which has been revealed in tests of
+columns whenever destructive tests of such columns have been made. The
+better way is to arrange a lathe with a hollow headstock and a guide
+which will carry a pod-auger boring in from one end. This will define
+the axis of the column whether it is to be turned or left square. Near
+each end, say five inches, a couple of transverse holes generally
+five-eighth of an inch in diameter are bored. This arrangement is to
+reduce and in some cases prevent checking in the same way as has been
+used, time immemorial, for getting out hubs for wagon wheels.--EDS.
+AMERICAN ARCHITECT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BOOKS IN WATER-COLOR PAINTING.
+
+SPOKANE FALLS, WASH., December 11, 1889.
+
+TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT:
+
+_Dear Sirs_,--Will you kindly advise, through the columns of your paper,
+what is the best self-instructing work on architectural water-coloring,
+and oblige.
+
+INQUIRER.
+
+[The best drill for the eye and hand that we know of can be obtained in
+the shortest time by getting Buskin's "_Elements of Drawing_," and doing
+faithfully and exactly all the exercises which he prescribes, including
+both those in black-and-white and color. Many people, however, do not
+care for this drill, but prefer to make a few bad imitations of simple
+chromos, and consider that equipment enough for architectural work. For
+those, Penley's large work, the "_System of Water-Color Painting_" is
+the best for copying from; or the aspirant may get some of the little
+Winsor and Newton "_Handbooks on Sketching in Water-Colors_," to show
+him how to choose and mix his pigments, and use as models to copy from
+some of the colored prints of architectural subjects which are to be
+picked up in the stores. There is a good deal of choice among these. We
+have ourselves published one or two, from originals by Mr. Botch, which
+will answer as well as anything we know, being admirable in color and
+architectural feeling, and just sketchy enough. Pains should generally
+be taken _not_ to make an elaborate picture of an architectural sketch,
+and the processes preliminary to making a highly-finished water-color
+painting, such as laying a ground-color of neutral orange, and sponging
+it partly out, cutting out foreground lights with a knife, and so on,
+are best dispensed with. Chinese white, also, should be used very
+sparingly, and only where the scale is so small that it appears in the
+form of dots. A good lesson on the importance of keeping color subdued,
+for the sake of heightening architectural effect, can be derived from
+any of Front's works, which, by the way, might with great advantage be
+used to copy from. These will show the value of what most students
+consider beneath their notice--work in two tints and give the best
+models possible of artistic distribution of light and shade.--EDS.
+AMERICAN ARCHITECT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: NOTES AND CLIPPINGS]
+
+
+THE DUTY ON GLASS AS IT AFFECTS CONSUMERS.--In a letter to the _New York
+Times_, Mr. J.S. Moore writes: As I am on the subject of glass, and as
+the members of the Pan-American Congress are inspecting our magnificent
+metropolis, I wish to call their attention to two subjects. First, our
+dirty streets, and second, our splendid windows. Dickens has
+immortalized the "Golden Dustman." In this city we have the "Dirty
+Ringman," or we may say "Ringmen." There have been millions in New
+York's dirty streets. The most honest and persevering Mayors and other
+high officials have got stuck in New York street mud and were never
+heard of again. Our aristocratic home mud has flourished without any
+protection, and the pauper mud of Europe or any other mud could never
+beat our home product. Here our amiable and friendly Commissioners of
+the Pan-American Congress can see it demonstrated that our mud industry
+can flourish without protection. I will now call the attention of our
+Pan-American friends to the windows in New York houses. They are
+invariably of plate-glass, and there is not a city in the world that can
+beat New York in handsome windows. Now, then, it is an actual fact that
+the tax or duty on plate-glass is as follows: Plate-glass, 10 by 15
+inches, 3 cents per foot, or 13.60 per cent; plate-glass, 16 by 24
+inches, 5 cents per foot, or 19.78 per cent; plate-glass, 24 by 30
+inches, 8 cents per foot, or 27.46 per cent. Now, we must admit that
+this is a moderate tax. The above glass goes into the houses of the
+rich. Of course, it will not do to tax influential and rich citizens.
+But now let me show how we tax that class of people who build
+three-hundred-dollar houses, or the hundreds of thousands of farmers who
+live in the far West. Those houses are glazed by what is known as common
+green window glass. Let me show to what extent we have taxed that class
+of people in 1888:
+
+
+IMPORTS OF COMMON WINDOW GLASS IN 1888.
+
+                                          Duty
+                                        Collected,     Per
+                             Value.     Ad valorem.    Cent.
+
+Sizes not exceeding 10x15   $288,927     $190,815       66
+Sizes 16 x 24                265,919      305,357      114.83
+Sizes 24 x 30                346,486      440,685      127.15
+All above that               477,132      626,740      131.35
+                                       ----------
+Total                                  $1,563,497
+
+We have squeezed out of the neediest, most hard-working of our
+population $1,563,000 taxes on their "daylight" or window tax, which has
+gone into the Treasury; but we have squeezed at least $5,000,000 more
+and put it into the pockets of people who made similar glass. Our
+Pan-American guests may reflect on the above statistics and come to the
+conclusion that having flourishing window-glass industries may, after
+all, not be the highest blessing.
+
+I beg to assure Mr. Carnegie that I am "not" a grumbler, as I don't want
+to run the risk of having the door of heaven shut in my face when he
+succeeds St. Peter in office.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE NATURAL-GAS SUPPLY.--At the recent meeting in New York of the
+American Geological Society, Prof. Edward Orton, State Geologist of
+Ohio, and a professor in the State University, in his paper answered
+those who claim that the great natural gas fields of the country are
+practically inexhaustible, and that nature is manufacturing the gas by
+chemical combination in the subterranean cavities as rapidly as it is
+consumed by man at the surface. He claimed that the supply of natural
+gas in those States was not only limited, but was being exhausted very
+rapidly and would be drained in less than nine years. The gas, he said,
+is now being used as the basis of a varied line of manufactures, the
+annual products of which aggregate many millions of dollars, and it is
+driving, besides the iron and steel mills of Pittsburgh, potteries and
+brick works, over forty glass furnaces and a long list of factories in
+which cheap power is a desideratum. The gas is the product of ages,
+which has been accumulated in the porous limestone of Ohio and Indiana.
+It has been produced so slowly that when once exhausted it will take
+many thousands of years for it to again accumulate in sufficient
+quantities to be used, even if the elements necessary for its production
+were preserved, which he thought was not at all probable. The pressure
+which forces the gas out with such tremendous power that it sometimes
+reaches 1,000 pounds pressure per square inch, is not due to the
+pressure of the gas itself, but to the hydrostatic pressure brought to
+bear by the column of salt water that enters the porous stratum of rock
+containing the gas at the sea-level, and which by its weight tends to
+force the gas out. To the explanation and elucidation of this
+phenomenon, Professor Orton's paper was more especially devoted. The men
+who are engaged in the practical development of gas and oil fields, said
+he, made great account of rock-pressure. It is the first fact they
+inquire after in a new gas-field. They appreciate its importance,
+knowing that the distance of the markets they care to reach and the size
+of the pipes they can employ are entirely dependent upon this element.
+He defined the term "rock-pressure", and showed the decrease of its rate
+westward. He said four hundred thousand people in Northwestern Ohio and
+Central Indiana alone depended upon natural-gas for fuel and
+illumination.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+STATUE GIVING A DOUBLE IMAGE.--At the Italian exhibition in the Champ de
+Mars there was a statue that attracted much attention from the visitors.
+It represented Goethe's Marguerite standing before a mirror. This latter
+gave by reflection the image of Faust. The artifice was well concealed
+by the sculptor. In reality, it was not a double statue, but the figure
+of Faust was skilfully obtained by means of the folds of Marguerite's
+robe.
+
+Marguerite holds her arms in front of her, and these same arms form
+those of Faust, who holds them crossed behind his back. Faust's face is
+carved in Marguerite's back hair, and the man's figure is obtained, as
+before stated, by means of the folds of the woman's robe. This curious
+object might inspire some of our sculptors with an analogous idea. We do
+not know the name of the author of the statue, but we can say that it
+was exhibited by Mr. Francesco Toso, a Venetian manufacturer of mirrors.
+The statue was of wood, and of nearly life-size.--_La Nature_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+SITE FOE THE KAISER'S MONUMENT.--Three or four Berlin banks have secured
+the preemption of all the buildings in Schlossfreiheitstrasse, with a
+view to pulling them down and fulfilling the Emperor's wish to have his
+grandfather's monument erected there. Only a few days ago three of the
+most eminent Berlin architects declared that the place was absolutely
+unsuited for that purpose. The banks are said to have agreed to pay
+5,000,000 marks for the houses, and an equal amount as compensation,
+and intend to form a lottery of 40,000,000 marks, with prizes to the
+amount of 30,000,000.--_The London Standard_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: TRADE SURVEYS]
+
+
+The salient features of the business situation this week afford every
+encouragement to the promoters of new schemes and the pioneers in
+industry. Among the additional factors which will stimulate trade and
+business during 1890 are the following: The construction of fifty per
+cent more railway mileage than was built last year; a very great
+increase in lake tonnage; a large increase in inland water-way tonnage;
+a very great increase in rolling-stock; a greater increase in locomotive
+capacity than has been made during any one year in our history; greater
+activity in house-building, and greater activity in the building of
+shops and factories. Several other interesting features also deserve
+mention, among them the very strong probability of the establishment of
+a larger number of banks daring 1890 than were established during 1889
+or any previous year; the more rapid expansion of the building and loan
+association system, particularly in the newer States; the increase in
+the output of the gold and silver mines of the West and Southwest; the
+opening-up of valuable coal-beds in many localities, which will tend to
+the establishment of little industries; a great increase in the area of
+land devoted to agriculture. Speaking generally, the agricultural
+interests will be stimulated. Speaking prophetically, it is very
+probable that prices will continue to advance, but by infinitesimal
+degrees. Speaking conservatively and in the light of recent experience,
+it is safe to assume and assert that production will be evenly gauged to
+consumptive requirements. Those who have kept a close eye upon the
+operations of manufacturers in all the leading channels recognize one
+very gratifying feature, and that is, that they are protecting
+themselves against unwarranted and unexpected advances in the cost of
+their raw material by making purchases for future requirements, ranging
+from three to six months. Users of cotton and wool are largely doing
+this; so are users of iron ore and iron and steel, as well as users of
+lumber, stone, cement and building material generally. This general
+policy of providing for legitimate future requirements is one of those
+instincts which safely guide the commercial world out of danger into
+safety. One fruitful source of panics in former periods of activity was
+the failure of consuming interests to supply themselves with raw
+material to complete their contracts. The business world has learned
+wisdom from its experience, and is now quietly turning a corner and
+wheeling into line safely early in 1890. The tanning interests of the
+United States have pursued this course in their limited field. The boot
+and shoe manufacturers, if they have not bought largely of raw material,
+have, at least, taken such steps as will guarantee them against a sudden
+advance. The clothing manufacturers have wisely purchased for their
+future wants; in fact, in almost every avenue of activity this policy
+has been pursued. The users of Lake ore have already bought five and
+one-half millions of the seven or eight million tons of ore they will
+want this year. The users of steel blooms and billets have bought so far
+ahead that manufacturers are now declining to make further contracts,
+excepting for very strong reasons. The Southern pig-iron makers are
+debating with themselves whether they will accept orders for pig-iron to
+be delivered next summer or wait a few months. Scores of illustrations
+of this sort could be enumerated. In many quarters this policy is
+believed to be an unwise one. Experience has shown it to be a safe one.
+
+The iron industry, as a whole, is on a very permanent foundation.
+Manufacturers are hurrying to complete new works; lumber manufacturers,
+especially throughout the South, are stimulated to the greatest exertion
+by two new causes: First, a strong demand throughout the North for the
+superior lumber-mill products of the South; and second, a wonderful
+expansion of local demand in the South arising from the new industries
+there. The makers of nearly all kinds of machinery are busy with new
+work, fully one-half of which is for delivery in the new Southern or
+Western States. The manufacturers of steam-pumps, the manufacturers of
+appliances for new fuel-gas processes, the builders of heavy machinery
+for steam and electrical purposes, the manufacturers of
+hoisting-machinery and of machinery for mining purposes, as well as of
+machinery for general shop-use, have been booking more business since
+the 1st of October than their present shop-capacity will allow them to
+execute. Consequently, a general system of enlargement is in progress.
+Contracts have been lately given out for the construction of machinery
+to make machines of larger than usual dimensions. Our industries are
+being reorganized, and instead of engines of five, ten or fifty
+horse-power, engines of fifty to five hundred horse-power are now
+common. Agricultural operations are conducted by the aid of machinery
+upon a larger scale, and within the past six months a score or more of
+establishments for the manufacture of agricultural implements have been
+equipped with machinery, and facilities in the Western States, that
+indicate more clearly than anything else can do the magnitude and scope
+of our agricultural interests. Last year the rolling stock of the
+railroads was increased by some 54,000 freight cars, but it is probable
+that the additional orders this year will reach 100,000. The managers of
+several of the Western railroad systems have decided to erect
+repair-shops along their various systems, by which repair work and new
+work can be more expeditiously and economically done. The springing up
+of so many little industries along these new lines is creating local
+markets for farm-products. Last year the opening of coal mines, to the
+number of about sixty, promises a sufficient supply of coal to these new
+communities at a low cost. These encouragements are stimulating the
+outflow of population from the older States, and it is this outflow,
+coupled with the better conditions for living in the West through the
+development of industries, that is equalizing in such a healthy and
+natural way the great manufacturing and agricultural forces. By this
+growth of little industries, mechanical, mining and railroad, the
+decline in the value of farm-products is checked, or possibly altogether
+prevented; or, at least, the demand arising from this cause enables the
+farmer to obtain the very best possible price for what he has to sell.
+It is not out of place, at the opening of the year, to briefly direct
+attention to these forces acting beneath the surface. The manufacturer
+and merchant have nothing to fear from hidden destructive agencies.
+During the past two or three years several threatening commercial evils
+have arisen only to disappear by a self-correcting agency which seems to
+develop itself at the right time. The merchants and manufacturers of the
+New England and Middle States will find, this year, a much more valuable
+market west of the Mississippi than last year. The increasing demand for
+all kinds of raw material there during the past few months is a sure
+indication of the growth of a great market for the shop-products.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+S.J. PARKHILL. & CO., Printers, Boston.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The American Architect and Building
+News, Vol. 27, No. 733, January 11, 1890, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AMERICAN ARCHITECT AND ***
+
+***** This file should be named 15322.txt or 15322.zip *****
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