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diff --git a/15097.txt b/15097.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3119177 --- /dev/null +++ b/15097.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2894 @@ +Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Grammar of the English Tongue + +Author: Samuel Johnson + +Release Date: February 18, 2005 [EBook #15097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + +A + +DICTIONARY + +OF THE + +ENGLISH LANGUAGE: + +IN WHICH + +THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS, +EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS, + +AND + +AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS +THEY ARE FOUND. + +ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION, + +BY THE AUTHOR, + +SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D. + + * * * * * + +TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, + +DR. JOHNSON'S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION, + +AND + +HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. + +1812. + + * * * * * + +A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. + +GRAMMAR, which is the art of using words properly, comprises four parts: +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. + + In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common + grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not + be found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to + obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient + omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already + understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be + invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk + their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the + trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language. + +ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of combining letters into syllables, and syllables +into words. It therefore teaches previously the form and sound of letters. + +The letters of the English language are, + +Roman. Italick. Name. + +A a A a a + +B b B b be + +C c C c see + +D d D d dee + +E e E e e + +F f F f eff + +G g G g jee + +H h H h aitch + +I i I i i (or ja) + +J j J j j conson. + +K k K k ka + +L l L l el + +M m M m em + +N n N n en + +O o O o o + +P P P p pee + +Q q Q q cue + +R r R r ar + +S s S s ess + +T t T t tee + +U u U u u (or va) + +V v V v v conson. + +W w W w double u + +X x X x ex + +Y y Y y wy + +Z z Z z zed + +To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used in +printing; as, fl, ff, fi, ffi, ffl, and &, or and per se, and. + + Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently i and + j as well as u and v were expressed by the same character; but as those + letters, which had always different powers, have now different forms, + our alphabet may be properly said to consist of twenty-six letters + +Vowels are five, a, e, i, o, u. + +Such is the number generally received; but for i it is the practice to +write y in the end of words, as thy, holy; before i, as from die, dying; +from beautify, beautifying; in the words says, days, eyes; and in words +derived from the Greek, and written originally with [Greek: y], as +sympathy, [Greek: sympatheia], system, [Greek: systema]. + +For u we often write w after a vowel, to make a diphthong; as, raw, grew, +view, vow, flowing; lowness. + +The sounds of all the letters are various. + + In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians, + inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into + their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick, + anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of + sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a + writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English + alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I + follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence + than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader + already acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to + pronounce the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because + of sounds in general it may be observed, that words are unable to + describe them. An account, therefore, of the primitive and simple + letters, is useless, almost alike to those who know their sound, and + those who know it not. + +OF VOWELS + +A. + +A has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad. + +A slender is found in most words, as face, mane, and in words ending in +ation, as creation, salvation, generation. + + The a slender is the proper English a, called very justly by Erpenius, + in his Arabick Grammar, a Anglicum cum e mistum, as having a middle + sound between the open a and the e. The French have a similar sound in + the word pais, and in their e masculine. + +A open is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; as father, rather, +congratulate, fancy, glass. + +A broad resembles the a of the German; as all, wall, call. + + Many words pronounced with a broad were anciently written with au; as + sault, mault; and we still say, fault, vault. This was probably the + Saxon sound, for it is yet retained in the northern dialects, and in + the rustick pronunciation; as maun for man, haund for hand. + +The short a approaches to the a open, as grass. + +The long a, if prolonged by e at the end of the word, is always slender, as +graze, fame. + +A forms a diphthong only with i or y, and u or w. Ai or ay, as in plain, +wain, gay, clay, has only the sound of the long and slender a, and differs +not in the pronunciation from plane, wane. + +Au or aw has the sound of the German a, as raw, naughty. + + Ae is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized or + assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly + expressed by single e, as Cesar, Eneas. + +E. + + E is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English language. + +E is long, as in sc[=e]ne; or short, as in c[)e]llar, s[)e]parate, +c[)e]lebrate, m[)e]n, th[)e]n. + +It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in +v[)e]x, p[)e]rplexity, rel[)e]nt, m[)e]dlar, r[)e]ptile, s[)e]rpent, +c[)e]llar, c[)e]ssation, bl[)e]ssing, f[)e]ll, f[)e]lling, d[)e]bt. + +E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables that have no +other vowel, as the; or proper names, as Penelope, Phebe, Derbe; being used +to modify the foregoing consonants, as since, once, hedge, oblige; or to +lengthen the preceding vowel, as b[)a]n, b[=a]ne; c[)a]n, c[=a]ne; p[)i]n, +p[=i]ne; t[)u]n, t[=u]ne; r[)u]b, r[=u]be; p[)o]p, p[=o]pe; f[)i]r, +f[=i]re; c[)u]r, c[=u]re; t[)u]b, t[=u]be. + + Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in + e, as year, yeare; wildness, wildnesse; which e probably had the force + of the French e feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate + consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus, + clea-re, fel-le, knowled-ge. This e was perhaps for a time vocal or + silent in poetry as convenience required; but it has been long wholly + mute. Camden in his Remains calls it the silent e. + +It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as gl[)o]ve, l[)i]ve, +g[)i]ve. + +It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely +perceptible, as open, shapen, shotten, thistle, participle, metre, lucre. + + This faintness of sound is found when e separates a mute from a liquid, + as in rotten, or follows a mute and liquid, as in cattle. + +E forms a diphthong with a, as near; with i, as deign, receive; and with u +or w, as new, stew. + +Ea sounds like e long, as mean; or like ee, as dear, clear, near. + +Ei is sounded like e long, as seize, perceiving. + +Eu sounds as u long and soft. + +E, a, u, are combined in beauty and its derivatives, but have only the +sound of u. + +E may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as agree, sleeping. + + Eo is found in yeoman, where it is sounded as o short; and in people, + where it is pronounced like ee. + +I. + +I has a sound long, as f[=i]ne; and short as f[)i]n. + + That is eminently observable in i, which may be likewise remarkable in + other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound contracted, + but a sound wholly different. + +The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the e final, as +th[)i]n, th[=i]ne. + +I is often sounded before r, as a short u; as flirt, first, shirt. + +It forms a diphthong only with e, as field, shield, which is sounded as the +double ee; except friend, which is sounded as fr[)e]nd. + + I is joined with eu in lieu, and ew in view; which triphthongs are + sounded as the open u. + +O. + +O is long, as b[=o]ne, [=o]bedient, corr[=o]ding; or short, as bl[)o]ck, +kn[)o]ck, [)o]blique, l[)o]ll. + +Women is pronounced wimen. + + The short o has sometimes the sound of close u, as son, come. + +O coalesces into a diphthong with a, as moan, groan, approach: oa has the +sound of o long. + + O is united to e in some words derived from Greek, as oeconomy; but as + being not an English diphthong, they are better written as they are + sounded, with only e, economy. + +With i, as oil, soil, moil, noisome. + + This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two letters, + as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and + therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to + the notion of a diphthong. + +With o, as boot, hoot, cooler; oo has the sound of the Italian u. + +With u or w, as our, power, flower; but in some words has only the sound of +o long, as in soul, bowl, sow, grow. These different sounds are used to +distinguish different significations: as bow an instrument for shooting; +bow, a depression of the head; sow, the she of a boar; sow, to scatter +seed; bowl, an orbicular body; bowl, a wooden vessel. + +Ou is sometimes pronounced like o soft, as court; sometimes like o short, +as cough; sometimes like u close, as could; or u open, as rough, tough, +which use only can teach. + + Ou is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in Latin end + in or and are made English, as honour, labour, favour, from honor, + labor, favor. + + Some late innovators have ejected the u, without considering that the + last syllable gives the sound neither of or nor ur, but a sound between + them, if not compounded of both; besides that they are probably derived + to us from the French nouns in eur, as honeur, faveur. + +U. + +U is long in [=u]se, conf[=u]sion; or short, as [)u]s, conc[)u]ssion. + +It coalesces with a, e, i, o; but has rather in these combinations the +force of the w consonant, as quaff, quest, quit, quite, languish; sometimes +in ui the i loses its sound, as in juice. It is sometimes mute before a, e, +i, y, as guard, guest, guise, buy. + + U is followed by e in virtue, but the e has no sound. + + Ue is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the French, + as prorogue, synagogue, plague, vague, harangue. + +Y. + +Y is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman letters, we +might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It supplies the +place of i at the end of words, as thy, before an i, as dying; and is +commonly retained in derivative words where it was part of a diphthong, in +the primitive; as, destroy, destroyer; betray, betrayed, betrayer; pray, +prayer; say, sayer; day, days. + + Y being the Saxon vowel y, which was commonly used where i is now put, + occurs very frequently in all old books. + +GENERAL RULES. + +A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is +commonly short, as [)o]pp[)o]rtunity. + +In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as +stag, frog. + + Many is pronounced as if it were written manny. + + * * * * * + +OF CONSONANTS. + +B. + +B has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other languages. + +It is mute in debt, debtor, subtle, doubt, lamb, limb, dumb, thumb, climb, +comb, womb. + + It is used before l and r, as black, brown. + +C. + +C has before e and i the sound of s; as sincerely, centrick, century, +circular, cistern, city, siccity: before a, o, and u, it sounds like k, as +calm, concavity, copper, incorporate, curiosity, concupiscence. + + C might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of its + sounds might be supplied by, s, and the other by k, but that it + preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as face from facies, + captive from captivus. + +Ch has a sound which is analyzed into tsh, as church, chin, crutch. It is +the same sound which the Italians give to the c simple before i and e, as +citta, cerro. + +Ch is sounded like k in words derived from the Greek, as chymist, scheme, +choler. Arch is commonly sounded ark before a vowel, as archangel, and with +the English sound of ch before a consonant, as archbishop. + + Ch, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like sh, as + machine, chaise. + + C, according to English orthography, never ends a word; therefore we + write stick, block, which were originally, sticke, blocke. In such + words c is now mute. + + It is used before l and r, as clock, cross. + +D. + +Is uniform in its sound, as death, diligent. + + It is used before r, as draw, dross; and w as dwell. + +F. + +F, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by the +grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute, that it +is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as flask, fry, freckle. It has an +unvariable sound, except that of is sometimes spoken nearly as ov. + +G. + +G has two sounds; one hard, as in gay, go, gun; the other soft, as in gem, +giant. + +At the end of a word it is always hard, as ring, snug, song, frog. + +Before e and i the sound is uncertain. + +G before e is soft, as gem, generation, except in gear, geld, geese, get, +gewgaw, and derivatives from words ending in g, as singing, stronger, and +generally before er at the ends of words, as finger. + +G is mute before n, as gnash, sign, foreign. + +G before i is hard, as give, except in giant, gigantick, gibbet, gibe, +giblets, Giles, gill, gilliflower, gin, ginger, gingle, to which may be +added Egypt and gypsy. + +Gh in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard g, as ghostly; in +the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is quite silent, as though, right, +sought, spoken tho', rite, soute. + +It has often at the end the sound of f, as laugh; whence laughter retains +the same sound in the middle; cough, trough, sough, tough, enough, slough. + + It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation gh has + the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still continued + among the Scotch. + + G is used before h, l, and r. + +H. + +H is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel must be +pronounced with a strong emission of breath, as hat, horse. + +It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always sounded +with a full breath, except in heir, herb, hostler, honour, humble, honest, +humour and their derivatives. + + It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as + blockhead; or derived from the Latin, as comprehend. + +J. + +J consonant sounds uniformly like the soft g, and is therefore a letter +useless, except in etymology, as ejaculation, jester, jocund, juice. + +K. + +K has the sound of hard c, and is used before e and i, where, according to +English analogy, c would be soft, as kept, king, skirt, skeptick, for so it +should be written, not sceptick, because sc is sounded like s, as in scene. + + It is used before n, as knell, knot, but totally loses its sound in + modern pronunciation. + +K is never doubled; but c is used before it to shorten the vowel by a +double consonant, as cockle, pickle. + +L. + +L has in English the same liquid sound as in other languages. + + The custom is to double the l at the end of monosyllables, as kill, + will, full. These words were originally written kille, wille, fulle; + and when the e first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the ll was + retained, to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to + the foregoing vowel. + +L, is sometimes mute, as in calf, half, halves, calves, could, would, +should, psalm, talk, salmon, falcon. + + The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the l + at the beginning of words, as hlaf, a loaf, or bread; hlaford, a lord; + but this pronunciation is now disused. + +Le at the end of words is pronounced like a weak el, in which the e is +almost mute, as table, shuttle. + +M. + +M has always the same sound, as murmur, monumental. + +N. + +N has always, the same sound, as noble, manners. + +N is sometimes mute after m, as damn, condemn, hymn. + +P. + +P has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans confound with b. + +P is sometimes mute, as in psalm, and between m and t, as tempt. + +Ph is used for f in words derived from the Greek, as philosopher, +philanthropy, Philip. + +Q. + +Q, as in other languages, is always followed by u, and has a sound which +our Saxon ancestors well expressed by cw, as quadrant, queen, equestrian, +quilt, inquiry, quire, quotidian. Qu is never followed by u. + +Qu is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like k, as +conquer, liquor, risque, chequer. + +R. + +R has the same rough snarling sound as in the other tongues. + + The Saxons used often to put h before it, as before l at the beginning + of words. + + Rh is used in words derived from the Greek, as myrrh, myrrhine, + catarrhous, rheum, rheumatick, rhyme. + +Re, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French, is +pronounced like a weak er, as theatre, sepulchre. + +S. + +S has a hissing sound, as sibilation, sister. + + A single s seldom ends any word, except in the third person of verbs, + as loves, grows; and the plurals of nouns, as trees, bushes, + distresses; the pronouns this, his, ours, yours, us; the adverb thus; + and words derived from Latin, as rebus, surplus; the close being always + either in se, as house, horse, or in ss, as grass, dress, bliss, less, + anciently grasse, dresse. + +S, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that of z, as +trees, eyes, except this, thus, us, rebus, surplus. + +It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before it, as intrusion; and +like s, if it follows a consonant, as conversion. + +It sounds like z before e mute, as refuse, and before y final, as rosy; and +in those words, bosom, desire, wisdom, prison, prisoner, present, present, +damsel, casement. + + It is the peculiar quality of s, that it may be sounded before all + consonants, except x and z, in which s is comprised, x being only ks, + and z a hard or gross s. This s is therefore termed by grammarians suae + potestatis litera; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke + erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at + pleasure. Thus we find in several languages. + +[Greek: Sbennymi], scatter, sdegno, sdrucciolo, sfavellare, [Greek: +sphinx], sgombrare, sgranare, shake, slumber, smell, snipe, space, +splendour, spring, squeeze, shrew, step, strength, stramen, stripe, +sventura, swell. + +S is mute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. + +T. + +T has its customary sound; as take, temptation. + +Ti before a vowel has the sound of si as salvation, except an s goes +before, as question; excepting likewise derivatives from words ending in +ty, as mighty, mightier. + +Th has two sounds; the one soft, as thus, whether; the other hard, as +thing, think. The sound is soft in these words, then, thence, and there, +with their derivatives and compounds, and in that, these, thou, thee, thy, +thine, their, they, this, those, them, though, thus; and in all words +between two vowels, as, father, whether; and between r and a vowel, as +burthen. + +In other words it is hard, as thick, thunder, faith, faithful. Where it is +softened at the end of a word, an e silent must be added, as breath, +breathe; cloth, clothe. + +V. + +V has a sound of near affinity to that of f, as vain, vanity. + + From f in the Islandick alphabet, v is only distinguished by a + diacritical point. + +W. + +Of w, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some grammarians +have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather as it is called +a double u, or ou, as water may be resolved into ouater; but letters of the +same sound are always reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be +observed, that w follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of +utterance, as frosty winter. + +Wh has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the Saxons better +expressed by hw, as, what, whence, whiting; in whore only, and sometimes in +wholesome, wh is sounded like a simple h. + +X. + +X begins no English word: it has the sound of ks, as axle, extraneous. + +Y. + +Y, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes either a vowel +or a diphthong, is a consonant, as ye, young. It is thought by some to be +in all cases a vowel. But it may be observed of y as of w, that it follows +a vowel without any hiatus, as rosy youth. + + The chief argument by which w and y appear to be always vowels is, that + the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants, cannot be + uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus we say + tu, ut; do, odd; but in wed, dew; the two sounds of w have no + resemblance to each other. + +Z. + +Z begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its name izzard +or s hard expresses, of an s uttered with a closer compression of the +palate by the tongue, as freeze, froze. + + In orthography I have supposed orthoepy, or just utterance of words, to + be included; orthography being only the art of expressing certain + sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed in what words + any of the letters are mute. + + Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words + pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently + to have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is + a double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular + and solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain, + being made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness, + or affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable + and permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less + liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed + their tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they + happened to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to + vitiate language in one manner, have often established the jargon of + the lowest of the people as the model of speech. + + For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the + most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words. + + There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement + of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by + chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, + was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently + irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate + orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this + is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which + is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with + equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the + number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own + character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the + orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians + upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to + change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what + advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion + and perplexity of such an alteration? + + Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their + country, by writing honor and labor for honour and labour, red for read + in the preter-tense, sais for says, repete tor repeat, explane for + explain, or declame for declaim. Of these it may be said, that as they + have done no good they have done little harm; both because they have + innovated little, and because few have followed them. + + The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers has + no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and + terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care. + The oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less + variation in England than in most other nations of equal extent. The + language of the northern counties retains many words now out of use, + but which are commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered + with a pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably + used by our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous, + but obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from + the general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any + real difference which letters would express. + + * * * * * + +ETYMOLOGY. + +Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the various +modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified; as horse, +horses; I love, I loved. + +Of the ARTICLE. + +The English have two articles, an or a, and the. + +AN, A. + +A has an indefinite signification, and means one, with some reference to +more; as This is a good book; that is, one among the books that are good; +He was killed by a sword; that is, some sword; This is a better book for a +man than a boy; that is, for one of those that are men than one of those +that are boys; An army might enter without resistance; that is, any army. + +In the senses in which we use a or an in the singular, we speak in the +plural without an article; as these are good books. + + I have made an the original article, because it is only the Saxon an, + or aen, one, applied to a new use, as the German ein, and the French un; + the n being cut off before a consonant in the speed of utterance. + +Grammarians of the last age direct, that an should be used before h; whence +it appears that the English anciently asperated less. An is still used +before the silent h; as an herb, an honest man; but otherwise a; as + + A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse. Shakespeare. + +An or a can only be joined with a singular: the correspondent plural is the +noun without an article, as, I want a pen, I want pens; or with the +pronominal adjective some, as, I want some pens. + +THE. + +The has a particular and definite signification. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +That is, that particular fruit, and this world in which we live. So, He +giveth fodder for the cattle, and green herbs for the use of man; that is, +for those beings that are cattle, and his use that is man. + +The is used in both numbers. + + I am as free as Nature first made man, + Ere the base laws of servitude began, + When wild in woods the noble savage ran. Dryden. + +Many words are used without articles; as + +1. Proper names, as John, Alexander, Longinus, Aristarchus, Jerusalem, +Athens, Rome, London. GOD is used as a proper name. + +2. Abstract names, as blackness, witch-craft, virtue, vice, beauty, +ugliness, love, hatred, anger, good-nature, kindness. + +3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied: This +is not beer, but water; this is not brass, but steel. + + * * * * * + +Of NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE. + +The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are not +expressed by cases, or changes of termination, but, as in most of the other +European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said to have a +genitive case. + +Singular. + +Nom. Magister, a Master, the Master. + +Gen. Magistri, of a Master, of the Master, + or Master's, the Master's. + +Dat. Magistro, to a Master, to the Master. + +Acc. Magistrum, a Master, the Master. + +Voc. Magister, Master, O Master. + +Abl. Magistro, from a Master, from the Master. + +Plural. + +Nom. Magistri, Masters, the Masters. + +Gen. Magistrorum, of Masters, of the Masters. + +Dat. Magistris, to Masters, to the Masters. + +Acc. Magistros, Masters, the Masters. + +Voc. Magistri, Masters, O Masters. + +Abl. Magistris, from Masters, from the Masters. + +Our nouns are therefore only declined thus: + +Master, Gen. Master's. Plur. Masters. + +Scholar, Gen. Scholar's. Plur. Scholars. + + These genitives are always written with a mark of elision, master's, + scholar's, according to an opinion long received, that the 's is a + contraction of his, as the soldier's valour, for the soldier his + valour: but this cannot be the true original, because 's is put to + female nouns, Woman's beauty; the Virgin's delicacy; Haughty Juno's + unrelenting hate; and collective nouns, as Women's passions; the + rabble's insolence; the multitude's folly: in all these cases it is + apparent that his cannot be understood. We say likewise the + foundation's strength; the diamond's lustre; the winter's severity: but + in these cases his may be understood, he and his having formerly been + applied to neuters in the place now supplied by it and its. + + The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian owes + a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an + adjective possessive; I think with no more propriety than he might have + applied the same to the genitive in equitum decus, Trojae oris, or any + other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other part, supposes the + possessive pronouns mine and thine to be genitive cases. + + This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive + indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon's who + declined smith, a smith; Gen. smither, of a smith; Plur. smither or + smithar, smiths; and so in two other of their seven declensions. + + It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets + both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the + original word: knitis for knight's, in Chaucer; leavis for leaves, in + Spenser. + + When a word ends in s, the genitive may be the same with the + nominative, as Venus temple. + +The plural is formed by adding s, as table, tables; fly, flies; sister, +sisters; wood, woods; or es where s could not otherwise be sounded, as +after ch, s, sh, x, z; after c sounded like s, and g like j; the mute e is +vocal before s, as lance, lances; outrage, outrages. + + The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same. + + A few words still make the plural in n, as men, women, oxen, swine, and + more anciently eyen, shoon. This formation is that which generally + prevails in the Teutonick dialects. + +Words that end in f commonly form their plural by ves, as loaf, loaves; +calf, calves. + + Except a few, muff, muffs; chief, chiefs. So hoof, roof, proof, relief, + mischief, puff, cuff, dwarf, handkerchief, grief. + + Irregular plurals are teeth from tooth, lice from louse, mice from + mouse, geese from goose, feet from foot, dice from die, pence from + penny, brethren from brother, children from child. + +Plurals ending in s have no genitives; but we say, Womens excellencies, and +Weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs. + + Dr. Willis thinks the Lords' house may he said for the house of Lords; + but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English ear rebels + against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome ambiguity, as + the Lord's house may be the house of Lords, or the house of a Lord. + Besides that the mark of elision is improper, for in the Lords' house + nothing is cut off. + + Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change + their termination as they express different sexes; as prince, princess; + actor, actress; lion, lioness; hero, heroine. To these mentioned by Dr. + Lowth may be added arbitress, poetess, chauntress, duchess, tigress, + governess, tutress, peeress, authoress, traytress, and perhaps othets. + Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make + us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a philosopher, + an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, a dancer, we perceive an + impropriety in the termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say + that she is an architect, a botanist, a student. because these + terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which + the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished + not by different terminations but by different names, as a bull, a cow; + a horse, a mare; equus, equa; a cock, a hen; and sometimes by pronouns + prefixed, as a he-goat, a, she-goat. + + * * * * * + +Of ADJECTIVES. + +Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having neither +case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all relations +without any change; as, a good woman, good women, of a good woman; a good +man, good men, of good men. + +The Comparison of Adjectives. + +The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the +superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest; +lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest; +high, higher, highest. + +Some words are irregularly compared; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, +worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (for +moe), more (for moer) most (for moest); late, later, latest or last. + +Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, most, as nether, +nethermost; outer, outermost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore, +former, foremost. + +Most is sometimes added to a substantive, as, topmost, southmost. + +Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only +compared by more and most, as, benevolent, more benevolent, most +benevolent. + +All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have +comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as, fair, fairer, or more +fair; fairest, or most fair. + + In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is + oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written + for fairer, than most fair for fairest. + +The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by +commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily +reduced to rules. + +Monosyllables are commonly compared. + +Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared +otherwise than by more and most, as, deplorable, more deplorable, most +deplorable. + +Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome, +toilsome; in ful, as, careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling, +charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as, careless, harmless; in ed, as +wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent; +in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy; +in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as +ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary. + + Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers formed + without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected so + little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently occur. + +So shady is compared by Milton. + + She in shadiest covert hid, + Tun'd her nocturnal note. Par. Lost. + +And virtuous. + + What she wills to say or do, + Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. Par. Lost. + +So trifling by Ray, who is indeed of no great authority. + + It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately do + all the meanest and triflingest things himself, without making use of + any inferior or subordinate minister. Ray on the Creation. + +Famous, by Milton. + + I shall be nam'd among the famousest + Of women, sung at solemn festivals. Milton's Agonistes. + +Inventive, by Ascham. + + Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes, and roundest tongues + in all matters. Ascham's Schoolmaster. + +Mortal, by Bacon. + + The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture + of the blood, fat, or flesh of man. Bacon. + +Natural, by Wotton. + + I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturalest considerations + that belong to this piece. Wotton's Architecture. + +Wretched, by Jonson. + + The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps; such as presuming on + their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when they + understand not things. Ben Jonson. + +Powerful, by Milton. + + We have sustain'd one day in doubtful fight, + What heav'n's great king hath pow'rfullest to send + Against us from about his throne. Par. Lost. + + The termination in ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of + comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the + positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, + or having a little taste of salt; they therefore admit no comparison. + This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible + qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely + used in the solemn or sublime style. + + * * * * * + +Of PRONOUNS. + +Pronouns, in the English language, are, I, thou, he, with their plurals, +we, ye, they; it, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever, my, +mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours, his, her, hers, theirs, this, +that, other, another, the same, some. + +The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. I, We. + +Accus. and Me, Us. +other oblique +cases. + +Nom. Thou, Ye. + +Oblique. Thee, You. + +You is commonly used in modern writers for ye, particularly in the language +of ceremony, where the second person plural is used for the second person +singular, You are my friend. + + Singular. Plural. + +Nom. He, They, Applied to masculines. + +Oblique. Him, Them. + +Nom. She, They, Applied to feminines. + +Oblique. Her, Them. + +Nom. It, They, Applied to neuters or things. + +Oblique. Its, Them. + +For it the practice of ancient writers was to use he, and for its, his. + +The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or change +of termination. + +The possessive of the first person is my, mine, our, ours; of the second, +thy, thine, your, yours; of the third, from he, his; from she, her, and +hers; and in the plural, their, theirs, for both sexes. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used when the substantive preceding is + separated by a verb, as These are our books. These books are ours. Your + children excel ours in stature, but ours surpass yours in learning. + + Ours, yours, hers, theirs, notwithstanding their seeming plural + termination, are applied equally to singular and plural substantives, + as, This book is ours. These books are ours. + + Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, as mine amiable lady: + which though now disused in prose, might be still properly continued in + poetry: they are used as ours and yours, when they are referred to a + substantive preceding, as thy house is larger than mine, but my garden + is more spacious than thine. + +Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the +plural of it, and are therefore applied to things. + +Pronouns relative are, who, which, what, whether, whosoever, whatsoever. + +Nom. Who. + +Gen. Whose. + +Other oblique cases. Whom. + +Nom. Which. + +Gen. Of which, or whose. + +Other oblique cases. Which. + + Who is now used in relation to persons, and which in relation to + things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was common to + say, the man which, though I remember no example of the thing who. + + Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which. + + The fruit + Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste + Brought death into the world. Milton. + +Whether is only used in the nominative and accusative cases; and has no +plural, being applied only to one of a number, commonly to one of two, as +Whether of these is left I know not. Whether shall I choose? It is now +almost obsolete. + +What, whether relative or interrogative, is without variation. + +Whosoever, whatsoever, being compounded of who or what, and soever, follow +the rule of their primitives. + + Singular. Plural. + + This These + +In all cases. That Those. + + Other, Others. + + Whether. + + The plural others is not used but when it is referred to a substantive + preceding, as I have sent other horses. I have not sent the same + horses, but others. + +Another, being only an other, has no plural. + +Here, there, and where, joined with certain particles, have a relative and +pronominal use. Hereof, herein, hereby, hereafter, herewith, thereof, +therein, thereby, thereupon, therewith, whereof, wherein, whereby, +whereupon, wherewith, which signify, of this, in this, &c. of that, in +that, &c. of which, in which, &c. + +Therefore and wherefore, which are properly there for and where for, for +that, for which, are now reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The +rest seem to be passing by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and +analogous. They are referred both to singular and plural antecedents. + +There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns, own and +self. + +Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my own hand, our +own house. It is emphatical, and implies a silent contrariety, or +opposition; as, I live in my own house, that is, not in a hired house. This +I did with my own hand, that is, without help or not by proxy. + +Self is added to possessives, as myself, yourselves; and sometimes to +personal pronouns, as himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, +expresses emphasis and opposition, as I did this myself, that is, not +another; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as We hurt ourselves by vain +rage. + + Himself, itself, themselves, are supposed by Wallis to be put by + corruption, for his self, it self, their selves; so that self is always + a substantive. This seems justly observed, for we say, He came himself; + Himself shall do this; where himself cannot be an accusative. + + * * * * * + +Of the VERB. + +English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I languish. The neuters +are formed like the actives. + + Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit, + and become neuters; as I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now + striking. + +Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the present, +and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the auxiliary +verbs, have, shall, will, let, may, can, and the infinitive of the active +or neuter verb. + +The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the +substantive verb, as I am loved. + +To have. Indicative Mood. + +Present Tense. + + Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has, + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + + Has is a termination connoted from hath, but now more frequently used + both in verse and prose. + +Simple Preterit. + + Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had + Plur. We had, ye had, they had. + +Compound Preterit. + + Sing. I have had, thou hast had, he has or hath had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Preterpluperfect. + + Sing. I had had, thou hadst had, he had had. + Plur. We had had, ye had had, they had had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, thou shalt have, he shall have; + Plur. We shall have, ye shall have, they shall have. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I will have, thou wilt have, he will have; + Plur. We will have, ye wilt have, they will have. + + By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of shall + and will. + +Imperative Mood. + + Sing. Have, or have thou, let him have; + Plur. Let us have, have or have ye, let them have. + +Conjunctive Mood. + +Present. + + Sing. I have, thou have, he have; + Plur. We have, ye have, they have. + +Preterit simple as in the Indicative. + +Preterit compound. + + Sing. I have had, thou have had, he have had; + Plur. We have had, ye have had, they have had. + +Future. + + Sing. I shall have, as in the Indicative. + +Second Future. + + Sing. I shall have had, thou shalt have had, he shall have had; + Plur. We shall have had, ye shall have had, they shall have had. + +Potential. + +The potential form of speaking is expressed by may, can, in the present; +and might, could, or should, in the preterit, joined with the infinitive +mood of the verb. + +Present. + + Sing. I may have, thou mayst have, he may have; + Plur. We may have, ye may have, they may have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I might have, thou mightst have, he might have; + Plur. We might have, ye might have, they might have. + +Present. + + Sing. I can have, thou canst have, he can have; + Plur. We can have, ye can have, they can have. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I could have, thou couldst have, he could have; + Plur. We could have, ye could have, they could have. + +In like manner should is united to the verb. + +There is likewise a double Preterit. + + Sing. I should have had, thou shouldst have had, he should have had; + Plur. We should have had, ye should have had, they should have had. + +In like manner we use, I might have had; I could have had, &c. + +Infinitive Mood. + + Present. To have. + Preterit. To have had. + Participle present. Having. + Participle preterit. Had. + +Verb Active. To love. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou lovest, he loveth or loves; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + +Preterit simple. + + Sing. I loved, thou lovedst, he loved; + Plur. We loved, ye loved, they loved. + Preterperfect compound. I have loved, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. I will love, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Love or love thou, let him love; + Plur. Let us love, love or love ye, let them love. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I love, thou love, he love; + Plur. We love, ye love, they love. + Preterit simple, as in the indicative. + Preterit compound. I have loved, &c. + Future. I shall love, &c. + Second Future. I shall have loved, &c. + +Potential. + + Present. I may or can love, &c. + Preterit. I might, could, or should love, &c. + Double Preterit. I might, could, or should have + loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To love. + Preterit. To have loved. + Participle present. Loving. + Participle past. Loved. + +The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to the +different tenses of the verb to be, which must therefore be here exhibited. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I am, thou art, he is; + Plur. We are or be, ye are or be, they are or be. + The plural be is now little in use. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I was, thou wast or wert, he was; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + +Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be used in the +indicative. + + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Preterpluperfect. I had been, &c. + Future. I shall or will be, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Be thou; let him be; + Plur. Let us be; be ye; let them be. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I be, thou beest, he be; + Plur. We be, ye be, they be. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I were, thou wert, he were; + Plur. We were, ye were, they were. + Preterit compound. I have been, &c. + Future. I shall have been, &c. + +Potential. + + I may or can; would, could, or should be; could, + would, or should have been, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be. + Preterit. To have been. + Participle present. Being. + Participle preterit. Having been. + +Passive Voice. Indicative Mood. + + I am loved, &c. I was loved, &c. I have been + loved, &c. + +Conjunctive Mood. + + If I be loved, &c. If I were loved, &c. If I shall + have been loved, &c. + +Potential Mood. + + I may or can be loved, &c. I might, could, or + should be loved, &c. I might, could, or should + have been loved, &c. + +Infinitive. + + Present. To be loved. + Preterit. To have been loved. + Participle. Loved. + +There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood is +joined to the verb do in its various inflections, which are therefore to be +learned in this place. + +To do. + +Indicative. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou dost, he doth; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +Preterit. + + Sing. I did, thou didst, he did; + Plur. We did, ye did, they did. + Preterit., &c. I have done, &c. I had done, &c. + Future. I shall or will do, &c. + +Imperative. + + Sing. Do thou, let him do; + Plur. Let us do, do ye, let them do. + +Conjunctive. Present. + + Sing. I do, thou do, he do; + Plur. We do, ye do, they do. + +The rest are as in the Indicative. + + Infinite. To do, to have done. + Participle present. Doing. + Participle preterit. Done. + +Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did love; simply for I +love, or I loved; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech. + +It is sometimes used emphatically; as, + + I do love thee, and when I love thee not, + Chaos is come again. Shakespeare. + +It is frequently joined with a negative; as, I like her, but I do not love +her; I wished him success, but did not help him. This, by custom at least, +appears more easy than the other form of expressing the same sense by a +negative adverb after the verb, I like her, but love her not. + +The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at least +in prose, without the word do; as, Stop him, but do not hurt him; Praise +beauty, but do not dote on it. + +Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used +through all the persons; as, Do I live? Dost thou strike me? Do they rebel? +Did I complain? Didst thou love her? Did she die? So likewise in negative +interrogations; Do I not yet grieve? Did she not die? + +Do and did are thus used only for the present and simple preterit. + +There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is +used, may not improperly denominate them neuter passives, as they are +inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb substantive +to be. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in French; as, I am +risen, surrexi, Latin; Je me suis leve, French. I was walked out, exieram: +Je m'etois promene. + +In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going, eo. I +am grieving, doleo, She is dying, illa moritur. The tempest is raging, +furit procella. I am pursuing an enemy, hostem insequor. So the other +tenses, as, We were walking, [Greek: etynchanomen peripatountes], I have +been walking, I had been walking, I shall or will be walking. + +There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a +passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, grammatica jam nunc +chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, ara excuduntur. This is, in my +opinion, a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, +but now somewhat obsolete: The book is a printing, The brass is a forging; +a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying +action, according to the analogy of this language. + +The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently +confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some +convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used among +the purer writers of former times after if, though, ere, before, till or +until, whether, except, unless, whatsoever, whomsoever, and words of +wishing; as, Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham be ignorant of +us, and Israel acknowledge us not. + + * * * * * + +Of IRREGULAR VERBS. + +The English verbs were divided by Ben Jonson into four conjugations, +without any reason arising from the nature of the language, which has +properly but one conjugation, such as has been exemplified: from which all +deviations are to be considered as anomalies, which are indeed, in our +monosyllable Saxon verbs, and the verbs derived from them, very frequent; +but almost all the verbs which have been adopted from other languages, +follow the regular form. + + Our verbs are observed by Dr. Wallis to be irregular only in the + formation of the preterit, and its participle. Indeed, in the + scantiness of our conjugations, there is scarcely any other place for + irregularity. + +The first irregularity is a slight deviation from the regular form, by +rapid utterance or poetical contraction: the last syllable ed is often +joined with the former by suppression of e; as lov'd for loved; after c, +ch, sh, f, k, x, and after the consonants s, th, when more strongly +pronounced, and sometimes after m, n, r, if preceded by a short vowel, t is +used in pronunciation, but very seldom in writing rather than d; as plac't, +snatch't, fish't, wak't, dwel't, smel't for plac'd, snatch'd, fish'd, +wak'd, dwel'd, smel'd; or placed, snatched, fished, waked, dwelled, +smelled. + +Those words which terminate in l or ll, or p, make their preterit in t, +even in solemn language; as crept, felt, dwelt; Sometimes after x, ed is +changed into t; as vext: this is not constant. + +A long vowel is often changed into a short one; thus kept, slept, wept, +crept, swept; from the verbs to keep, to sleep, to weep, to creep, to +sweep. + +Where d or t go before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted +form, coalesce into one letter with the radical d or t: if t were the +radical, they coalesce into t; but if d were the radical, then into d or t, +as the one or the other letter may be more easily pronounced; as read, led, +spread, shed, shred, bid, hid, chid, fed, bled, bred, sped, strid, slid, +rid; from the verbs to read, to lead, to spread, to shed, to shread, to +bid, to hide, to chide, to feed, to bleed, to breed, to speed, to stride, +to slide, to ride. And thus cast, hurt, cost, burst, eat, beat, sweat, sit, +quit, smit, writ, bit, hit, met, shot; from the verbs to cast, to hurt, to +cost, to burst, to eat, to beat, to sweat, to sit, to quit, to smite, to +write, to bite, to hit, to meet, to shoot. And in like manner, lent, sent, +rent, girt; from the verbs to lend, to send, to rend, to gird. + +The participle preterit or passive is often formed in en instead of ed; as, +been, taken, given, slain, known, from the verbs to be, to take, to give, +to slay, to know. + +Many words have two or more participles, as not only written, bitten, +eaten, beaten, hidden, chidden, shotten, chosen, broken; but likewise writ, +bit, eat, beat, hid, chid, shot, chose, broke, are promiscuously used in +the participle, from the verbs to write, to bite, to eat, to beat, to hide, +to chide, to shoot, to choose, to break, and many such like. + +In the same manner, sown, shewn, hewn, mown, loaden, laden, as well as +sow'd, show'd, hew'd, mow'd, loaded, laded, from the verbs to sow, to show, +to hew, to mow, to load, to lade. + +Concerning these double participles it is difficult to give any rule; but +he shall seldom err who remembers, that when a verb has a participle +distinct from its preterit, as write, wrote, written, that distinct +participle is more proper and elegant, as The book is written, is better +than The book is wrote. Wrote however may be used in poetry; at least, if +we allow any authority to poets, who, in the exultation of genius, think +themselves perhaps entitled to trample on grammarians. + +There are other anomalies in the preterit. + +1. Win, spin, begin, swim, strike, stick, sing, sting, fling, ring, wring, +spring, swing, drink, sink, shrink, stink, come, run, find, bind, grind, +wind, both in the preterit imperfect and participle passive, give won, +spun, begun, swum, struck, stuck, sung, stung, flung, rung, wrung, sprung, +swung, drunk, sunk, shrunk, stunk, come, run, found, bound, ground, wound. +And most of them are also formed in the preterit by a, as began, sang, +rang, sprang, drank, came, ran, and some others; but most of these are now +obsolete. Some in the participle passive likewise take en, as stricken, +strucken, drunken, bounden. + +2. Fight, teach, reach, seek, beseech, catch, buy, bring, think, work, make +fought, taught, raught, sought, besought, caught, bought, brought, thought, +wrought. + +But a great many of these retain likewise the regular form, as teached, +reached, beseeched, catched, worked. + +3. Take, shake, forsake, wake, awake, stand, break, speak, bear, shear, +swear, tear, wear, weave, cleave, strive, thrive, drive, shine, rise, +arise, smite, write, bide, abide, ride, choose, chuse, tread, get, beget, +forget, seethe, make in both preterit and participle took, shook, forsook, +woke, awoke, stood, broke, spoke, bore, shore, swore, tore, wore, wove, +clove, strove, throve, drove, shone, rose, arose, smote, wrote, bode, +abode, rode, chose, trode, got, begot, forgot, sod. But we say likewise, +thrive, rise, smit, writ, abid, rid. In the preterit some are likewise +formed by a, as brake, spake, bare, share, sware, tare, ware, clave, gat, +begat, forgat, and perhaps some others, but more rarely. In the participle +passive many of them are formed by en, as taken, shaken, forsaken, broken, +spoken, born, shorn, sworn, torn, worn, woven, cloven, thriven, driven, +risen, smitten, ridden, chosen, trodden, gotten, begotten, forgotten, +sodden. And many do likewise retain the analogy in both, as waked, awaked, +sheared, weaved, cleaved, abided, seethed. + +4. Give, bid, sit, make in the preterit gave, bade, sate; in the participle +passive given, bidden, sitten; but in both bid. + +5. Draw, know, grow, throw, blow, crow like a cock, fly, slay, see, ly, +make their preterit drew, knew, grew, threw, blew, crew, flew, slew, saw, +lay; their participles passive by n, drawn, known, grown, thrown, blown, +flown, slain, seen, lien, lain. Yet from flee is made fled; from go, went, +(from the old wend) the participle is gone. + + * * * * * + +Of DERIVATION. + + That the English language may be more easily understood, it is + necessary to inquire how its derivative words are deduced from their + primitives, and how the primitives are borrowed from other languages. + In this inquiry I shall sometimes copy Dr. Wallis, and sometimes + endeavour to supply his detects, and rectify his errours. + +Nouns are derived from verbs. + +The thing implied in the verb, as done or produced, is commonly either the +present of the verb; as to love, love; to fright, a fright; to fight, a +fight; or the preterit of the verb, as to strike, I strick or strook, a +stroke. + +The action is the same with the participle present, as loving, frighting, +fighting, striking. + +The agent, or person acting, is denoted by the syllable er added to the +verb, as lover, frighter, striker. + +Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are changed +into verbs: in which case the vowel is often lengthened, or the consonant +softened; as, a house, to house; brass, to braze; glass, to glaze; grass, +to graze; price, to prize; breath, to breathe; a fish, to fish; oil, to +oil; further, to further; forward, to forward; hinder, to hinder. + +Sometimes the termination en is added, especially to adjectives; as, haste, +to hasten; length, to lengthen; strength, to strengthen; short, to shorten; +fast, to fasten; white, to whiten; black, to blacken; hard, to harden; +soft, to soften. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination y: as a louse, lousy; wealth, wealthy; health, healthy; might, +mighty; worth, worthy; wit, witty; lust, lusty; water, watery, earth, +earthy; wood, (a wood) woody; air, airy; a heart, hearty; a hand, handy. + +From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the +termination ful, denoting abundance; as, joy, joyful; fruit, fruitful; +youth, youthful; care, careful; use, useful; delight, delightful; plenty, +plentiful; help, helpful. + +Sometimes in almost the same sense, but with some kind of diminution +thereof, the termination some is added, denoting something, or in some +degree; as delight, delightsome; game, gamesome; irk, irksome; burden, +burdensome; trouble, troublesome; light, lightsome; hand, handsome; alone, +lonesome; toil, toilsome. + +On the contrary, the termination less added to substantives, makes +adjectives signifying want; as, worthless, witless, heartless, joyless, +careless, helpless. Thus comfort, comfortless; sap, sapless. + +Privation or contrariety is very often denoted by the participle un +prefixed to many adjectives, or in before words derived from the Latin; as +pleasant, unpleasant; wise, unwise; profitable, unprofitable, patient, +impatient. Thus unworthy, unhealthy, unfruitful, unuseful, and many more. + + The original English privative is un; but as we often borrow trom the + Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation, as + inefficacious, impious, indiscreet, the inseparable particles un and in + have fallen into confusion, from which it is not easy to disentangle + them. + + Un is prefixed to all words originally English, as untrue, untruth, + untaught, unhandsome. + + Un is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives, as + unfeeling, unassisting, unaided, undelighted, unendeared. + + Un ought never to be prefixed to a participle present to mark a + forbearance of action, as unsighing, but a privation of habit, as + unpitying. + + Un is prefixed to most substantives which have an English termination, + as unfertileness, unperfectness, which, if they have borrowed + terminations, take in or im, as infertility, imperfection; uncivil, + incivility; unactive, inactivity. + + In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is + usual to retain the particle prefixed, as indecent, inelegant, + improper; but if we borrow the adjective, and add the privative + particle, we commonly prefix un, as unpolite, ungallant. + +The prepositive particles dis and mis, derived from the des and mes of the +French, signify almost the same as un; yet dis rather imports contrariety +than privation, since it answers to the Latin preposition de. Mis +insinuates some errour, and for the most part may be rendered by the Latin +words male or perperam. To like, to dislike; honour, dishonour; to honour, +to grace, to dishonour, to disgrace; to deign, to disdeign; chance, hap, +mischance, mishap; to take, to mistake; deed, misdeed; to use, to misuse; +to employ, to misemploy, to apply, to misapply. + +Words derived from Latin written with de or dis retain the same +signification; as distinguish, distinguo; detract, detraho; defame, defamo; +detain, detineo. + +The termination ly added to substantives, and sometimes to adjectives, +forms adjectives that import some kind of similitude or agreement, being +formed by contraction of lick or like. A giant, giantly, giantlike; earth, +earthly; heaven, heavenly; world, worldly; God, godly; good, goodly. + +The same termination ly, added to adjectives, forms adverbs of like +signification; as, beautiful, beautifully; sweet, sweetly; that is, in a +beautiful manner; with some degree of sweetness. + +The termination ish added to adjectives, imports diminution; and added to +substantives, imports similitude or tendency to a character; as green, +greenish; white, whitish; soft, softish; a thief, thievish; a wolf, +wolfish; a child, childish. + +We have forms of diminutives in substantives, though not frequent; as a +hill, a hillock; a cock, a cockrel; a pike, a pickrel; this is a French +termination: a goose, a gosling; this is a German termination: a lamb, a +lambkin; a chick, a chicken; a man, a manikin; a pipe, a pipkin; and thus +Halkin, whence the patronymick, Hawkins; Wilkin, Thomkin, and others. + + Yet still there is another form of diminution among the English, by + lessening the sound itself, especially of vowels, as there is a form of + augmenting them by enlarging or even lengthening it; and that sometimes + not so much by change of the letters, as of their pronunciation; as, + sup, sip, soop, sop, sippet, where, besides the extenuation of the + vowel, there is added the French termination et; top, tip; spit, spout; + babe, baby; booby, [Greek: Boupais]; great pronounced long, especially + if with a stronger sound, grea-t; little, pronounced long lee-tle; + ting, tang, tong, imports a succession of smaller and then greater + sounds; and so in jingle, jangle, tingle, tangle, and many other made + words. + + Much however of this is arbitrary and fanciful, depending wholly on + oral utterance, and therefore scarcely worthy the notice of Wallis. + +Of concrete adjectives are made abstract substantives, by adding the +termination ness; and a few in hood or head, noting character or qualities: +as white, whiteness; hard, hardness; great, greatness; skilful, +skilfulness, unskilfulness; godhead, manhood, maidenhead, widowhood, +knighthood, priesthood, likelihood, falsehood. + +There are other abstracts, partly derived from adjectives, and partly from +verbs, which are formed by the addition of the termination th, a small +change being sometimes made; as long, length; strong, strength; broad, +breadth; wide, width, deep, depth; true, truth; warm, warmth; dear, dearth; +slow, slowth; merry, mirth; heal, health; well, weal, wealth; dry, drought; +young, youth; and so moon, month. + +Like these are some words derived from verbs; die, death; till, tilth; +grow, growth; mow, later mowth, after mowth; commonly spoken and written +later math, after math; steal, stealth; bear, birth, rue, ruth; and +probably earth, from to ear or plow; fly, flight; weigh, weight; fray, +fright; draw, draught. + + These should rather be written flighth, frighth, only that custom will + not suffer h to be twice repeated. + + The same form retain faith, spight, wreathe, wrath, broth, froth, + breath, sooth, worth, light, wight, and the like, whose primitives are + either entirely obsolete, or seldom occur. Perhaps they are derived + from fey or foy, spry, wry, wreak, brew, mow, fry, bray, say, work. + +Some ending in ship, imply an office, employment, or condition; as, +kingship, wardship, guardianship, partnership, stewardship, headship, +lordship. + + Thus worship, that is, worthship; whence worshipful, and to worship. + +Some few ending in dom, rick, wick, do especially denote dominion, at least +state or condition; as, kingdom, dukedom, earldom, princedom, popedom, +Christendom, freedom, wisdom, whoredom, bishoprick, bailiwick. + +Ment and age are plainly French terminations and are of the same import +with us as among them, scarcely ever occurring, except in words derived +from the French, as commandment, usage. + + There are in English often long trains of words allied by their meaning + and derivation; as, to beat, a bat, batoon, a battle, a beetle, a + battledore, to batter, batter, a kind of glutinous composition for + food, made by beating different bodies into one mass. All these are of + similar signification, and perhaps derived from the Latin batuo. Thus + take, touch, tickle, tack, tackle; all imply a local conjunction from + the Latin tango, tetigi, tactum. + + From two are formed twain, twice, twenty, twelve, twins, twine, twist, + twirl, twig, twitch, twinge, between, betwixt, twilight, twibil. + + The following remarks, extracted from Wallis, are ingenious but of more + subtlety than solidity, and such as perhaps might in every language be + enlarged without end. + + Sn usually imply the nose, and what relates to it. From the Latin nasus + are derived the French nez and the English nose; and nesse, a + promontory, as projecting like a nose. But as if from the consonants ns + taken from nasus, and transposed that they may the better correspond, + sn denote nasus; and thence are derived many words that relate to the + nose, as snout, sneeze, snore, snort,snear, snicker, snot, snivel, + snite, snuff, snuffle, snaffle, snarl, snudge. + + There is another sn which may perhaps be derived from the Latin sinuo, + as snake, sneak, snail, snare; so likewise snap and snatch, snib, snub. + Bl imply a blast; as blow, blast, to blast, to blight, and, + metaphorically, to blast one's reputation; bleat, bleak, a bleak place, + to look bleak, or weather-beaten, black, blay, bleach, bluster, blurt, + blister, blab, bladder, blew, blabber lip't, blubber-cheek't, bloted, + blote-herrings, blast, blaze, to blow, that is, blossom, bloom; and + perhaps blood and blush. + + In the native words of our tongue is to be found a great agreement + between the letters and the thing signified; and therefore the sounds + of the letters smaller, sharper, louder, closer, softer, stronger, + clearer, more obscure, and more stridulous, do very often intimate the + like effects in the things signified. + + Thus words that begin with str intimate the force and effect of the + thing signified, as if probably derived from [Greek: stronnymi], or + strenuous; as strong, strength, strew, strike, streak, stroke, stripe, + strive, strife, struggle, strout, strut, stretch, strait, strict, + streight, that is, narrow, distrain, stress, distress, string, strap, + stream, streamer, strand, strip, stray, struggle, strange, stride, + stradale. + + St in like manner imply strength, but in a less degree, so much only as + is sufficient to preserve what has been already communicated, rather + than acquire any new degree; as if it were derived from the Latin sto; + for example, stand, stay, that is, to remain, or to prop; staff, stay, + that is, to oppose; stop, to stuff, stifle, to stay, that is, to stop; + a stay, that is, an obstacle; stick, stut, stutter, stammer, stagger, + stickle, stick, stake, a sharp, pale, and any thing deposited at play; + stock, stem, sting, to sting, stink, stitch, stud, stuncheon, stub, + stubble, to stub up, stump, whence stumble, stalk, to stalk, step, to + stamp with the feet, whence to stamp, that is, to make an impression + and a stamp; stow, to stow, to bestow, steward, or stoward; stead, + steady, stedfast, stable, a stable, a stall, to stall, stool, stall, + still, stall, stallage, stage, still, adjective, and still, adverb: + stale, stout, sturdy, stead, stoat, stallion, stiff, stark-dead, to + starve with hunger or cold; stone, steel, stern, stanch, to stanch + blood, to stare, steep, steeple, stair, standard, a stated measure, + stately. In all these, and perhaps some others, st denote something + firm and fixed. + + Thr imply a more violent degree of motion, as throw, thrust, throng, + throb, through, threat, threaten, thrall, throws. + + Wr imply some sort of obliquity or distortion, as wry, to wreathe, + wrest, wrestle, wring, wrong, wrinch, wrench, wrangle, wrinkle, wrath, + wreak, wrack, wretch, wrist, wrap. + + Sw imply a silent agitation, or a softer kind of lateral motion; as + sway, swag, to sway, swagger, swerve, sweat, sweep, swill, swim, swing, + swift, sweet, switch, swinge. + + Nor is there much difference of sm in smooth, smug, smile, smirk, + smite; which signifies the same as to strike, but is a softer word; + small, smell, smack, smother, smart, a smart blow properly signifies + such a kind of stroke as with an originally silent motion, implied in + sm, proceeds to a quick violence, denoted by ar suddenly ended, as is + shown by t. + + Cl denote a kind of adhesion or tenacity, as in cleave, clay, cling, + climb, clamber, clammy, clasp, to clasp, to clip, to clinch, cloak, + clog, close, to close, a clod, a clot, as a clot of blood, clouted + cream, a clutter, a cluster. + + Sp imply a kind of dissipation or expansion, especially a quick one, + particularly if there be an r, as if it were from spargo or separo: for + example, spread, spring, sprig, sprout, sprinkle, split, splinter, + spill, spit, sputter, spatter. + + Sl denote a kind of silent fall, or a less observable motion; as in + slime, slide, slip, slipper, sly, sleight, slit, slow, slack, slight, + sling, slap. + + And so likewise ash, in crash, rash, gash, flash, clash, lash, slash, + plash, trash, indicate something acting more nimbly and sharply. But + ush, in crush, rush, gush, flush, blush, brush, hush, push, imply + something as acting more obtusely and dully. Yet in both there is + indicated a swift and sudden motion not instantaneous, but gradual, by + the continued sound, sh. + + Thus in fling, sling, ding, swing, cling, sing, wring, sting, the + tingling of the termination ng, and the sharpness of the vowel i, imply + the continuation of a very slender motion or tremor, at length indeed + vanishing, but not suddenly interrupted. But in tink, wink, sink, + clink, chink, think, that end in a mute consonant, there is also + indicated a sudden ending. + + If there be an l, as in jingle, tingle, tinkle, mingle, sprinkle, + twinkle, there is implied a frequency, or iteration of small acts. And + the same frequency of acts, but less subtile by reason of the clearer + vowel a, is indicated in jangle, tangle, spangle, mangle, wrangle, + brangle, dangle; as also in mumble, grumble, jumble. But at the same + time the close u implies something obscure or obtunded; and a congeries + of consonants mbl, denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as + in ramble, scamble, scramble, wamble, amble; but in these there is + something acute. + + In nimble, the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity. In sparkle, sp + denotes dissipation, ar an acute crackling, k a sudden interruption, l + a frequent iteration; and in like manner in sprinkle, unless in may + imply the subtilty of the dissipated guttules. Thick and thin differ in + that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an + acute. + + In like manner, in squeek, squeak, squeal, squall, brawl, wraul, yaul, + spaul, screek, shriek, shrill, sharp, shrivel, wrinkle, crack, crash, + clash, gnash, plash, crush, hush, hisse, fisse, whist, soft, jar, hurl, + curl, whirl, buz, bustle, spindle, dwindle, twine, twist, and in many + more, we may observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the + things signified; and this so frequently happens, that scarce any + language which I know can be compared with ours. So that one + monosyllable word, of which kind are almost all ours, emphatically + expresses what in other languages can scarce be explained but by + compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a tedious circumlocution. + +We have many words borrowed from the Latin; but the greatest part of them +were communicated by the intervention of the French; as, grace, face, +elegant, elegance, resemble. + +Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the present +tense, and some from the supines. + +From the present are formed spend, expend, expendo; conduce, conduco; +despise, despicio; approve, approbo; conceive, concipio. + +From the supines, supplicate, supplico; demonstrate, demonstro; dispose, +dispono; expatiate, expatior; suppress, supprimo; exempt, eximo. + + Nothing is more apparent than that Wallis goes too far in quest of + originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants + from the Latin, are apparently French, as, conceive, approve, expose, + exempt. + +Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have transferred +into our language; as, garden, garter, buckler, to advance, to cry, to +plead, from the French jardin, jartier, bouclier, avancer, crier, plaider; +though, indeed, even of these part is of Latin original. + + As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is + doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the + Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as + wine, vinum; wind, ventus; went, veni; way, via, wall, vallum; wallow, + volvo; wool, vellus; will, volo; worm, vermis; worth, virtus; wasp, + vespa; day, dies; draw, traho; tame, domo, [Greek: damao]; yoke, jugum, + [Greek: zeugos]; over, upper, super, [Greek: hyper]; am, sum, [Greek: + eimi]; break, frango; fly, volo; blow, flo. I make no doubt but the + Teutonick is more ancient than the Latin: and it is no less certain, + that the Latin, which borrowed a great number of words not only from + the Greek, especially the AEolick, but from other neighbouring + languages, as the Oscan and others, which have long become obsolete, + received not a few from the Teutonick. It is certain, that the English, + German, and other Teutonick languages, retained some derived from the + Greek, which the Latin has not; as, ax, achs, mit, ford, pfurd, + daughter, tochter, mickle, mingle, moon, sear, oar, grave, graff, to + grave, to scrape, whole, from [Greek: axine], [Greek: meta], [Greek: + porthmos], [Greek: thygater], [Greek: megalos], [Greek: mignyo], + [Greek: mene], [Greek: xeros], [Greek: grapho], [Greek: holos]. Since + they received these immediately from the Greeks, without the + intervention of the Latin language, why may not other words be derived + immediately from the same fountain, though they be likewise found among + the Latins? + +Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into +monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but cropped +the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel; and +rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a weaker +sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or changing +them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might become the +softer; but especially transposing their order, that they might the more +readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For example in +expendo, spend; exemplum, sample; excipio, scape; extraneus, strange; +extractum, stretch'd; excrucio, to screw; exscorio, to scour; excorio, to +scourge; excortico, to scratch; and others beginning with ex: as also, +emendo, to mend; episcopus, bishop, in Danish bisp; epistola, epistle; +hospitale, spittle; Hispania, Spain; historia, story. + + Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently mistaken. + + The following are somewhat harder, Alexander, Sander; Elisabetha, + Betty; apis, bee; aper, bar; p passing into b, as in bishop; and by + cutting off a from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but + for the old bar or bare, we now say boar; as for lang, long, for bain, + bane; for stane, stone; aprugna, brawn, p, being changed into b and a + transposed, as in aper, and g changed into w, as in pignus, pawn; lege, + law; [Greek: alopex], fox, cutting off the beginning, and changing p + into f, as in pellis, a fell; pullus, a foal; pater, father; pavor, + fear; polio, file; pleo, impleo, fill, full; piscis, fish; and + transposing o into the middle, which was taken from the beginning; + apex, a piece; peak, pike; zophorus, freese; mustum, stum; defensio, + fence; dispensator, spencer; asculto, escouter, Fr. scout; exscalpo, + scrape; restoring l instead of r, and hence scrap, scrabble, scrawl; + exculpo, scoop; exterritus, start; extonitus, attonitus, stonn'd; + stomachus, maw; offendo, fined; obstipo, stop; audere, dare; cavere, + ware; whence, a-ware, beware, wary, warn, warning; for the Latin v + consonant formerly sounded like our w, and the modern sound of the v + consonant was formerly that of the letter f, that is, the AEolick + digamma, which had the sound of [Greek: ph], and the modern sound of + the letter f was that of the Greek [Greek: ph] or ph; ulcus, ulcere, + ulcer, sore, and hence sorry, sorrow, sorrowful; ingenium, engine, gin, + scalenus, leaning, unless you would rather derive it from [Greek: + klino], whence inclino; infundibulum, funnel; gagates, jett, projectum, + to jett forth, a jetty; cucullus, a cowl. + + There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, time; from nomine, + name, domina, dame; as the French homme, femme, nom, from homine, + foemina, nomine. Thus pagina, page; [Greek: poterion], pot; [Greek: + kypella], cup; cantharus, can; tentorium, tent; precor, pray; preda, + prey; specio, speculor, spy; plico, ply; implico, imply; replico, + reply; complico, comply; sedes episcopalis, see. + + A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the syllables + may be lessened; as amita, aunt; spiritus, spright; debitum, debt; + dubito, doubt; comes, comitis, count; clericus, clerk; quietus, quit, + quite; acquieto, to acquit; separo, to spare; stabilis, stable; + stabulum, stable; pallacium, palace, place; rabula, rail, rawl, wrawl, + brawl, rable, brable; quaesito, quest. + + As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a whole + syllable, rotundus, round; fragilis, frail; securus, sure; regula, + rule; tegula, tile; subtilis, subtle; nomen, noun; decanus, dean; + computo, count; subitaneus, sudden, soon; superare, to soar; periculum, + peril; mirabile, marvel; as magnus, main; dignor, deign; tingo, stain; + tinctum, taint; pingo, paint; praedari, reach. + + The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as [Greek: + kyriakos], kyrk, church; presbyter, priest; sacristanus, sexton; + frango, fregi, break, breach; fagus, [Greek: phega], beech, f changed + into b, and g into ch, which are letters near akin; frigesco, freeze, + frigesco, fresh, sc into sh, as above in bishop, fish, so in scapha, + skiff, skip, and refrigesco, refresh; but viresco, fresh; phlebotamus, + fleam; bovina, beef; vitulina, veal; scutifer, squire; poenitentia, + penance; sanctuarium, sanctuary, sentry; quaesitio, chase; perquisitio, + purchase; anguilla, eel; insula, isle, ile, island, iland; insuletta, + islet, ilet, eyght, and more contractedly ey, whence Owsney, Ruley, + Ely; examinare, to scan; namely, by rejecting from the beginning and + end e and o, according to the usual manner, the remainder xamin, which + the Saxons, who did not use x, writ csamen, or scamen, is contracted + into scan: as from dominus, don; nomine, noun; abomino, ban; and indeed + apum examen; they turned into sciame; for which we say swarme, by + inserting r to denote the murmuring; thesaurus, store; sedile, stool; + [Greek: hyetos], wet; sudo, sweat; gaudium, gay; jocus, joy; succus, + juice; catena, chain; caliga, calga; chause, chausse, French, hose; + extinguo, stand, squench, quench, stint; foras, forth; species, spice; + recito, read; adjuvo, aid; [Greek: aion], aevum, ay, age, ever; floccus, + lock; excerpo, scrape, scrabble, scrawl; extravagus, stray, straggle; + collectum, clot, clutch; colligo, coil: recolligo, recoil; severo, + swear; stridulus, shrill; procurator, proxy; pulso, to push; calamus, a + quill; impetere, to impeach; augeo, auxi, wax; and vanesco, vanui, + wane; syllabare, to spell; puteus, pit; granum, corn; comprimo, cramp, + crump, crumple, crinkle. + + Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least + appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are + others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander, + Elick, Scander, Sander, Sandy, Sanny; Elizabetha, Elizabeth, Elisabeth, + Betty, Bess; Margareta, Margaret, Marget, Meg, Peg; Maria, Mary, Mal, + Pal, Malkin, Mawkin, Mawkes; Mathaeus, Mattha, Matthew; Martha, Mat, + Pat; Gulielmus, Wilhelmus, Girolamo, Guillaume, William, Will, Bill, + Wilkin, Wicken, Wicks, Weeks. + + Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French, + gilliflower, which the vulgar call julyflower, as if derived from the + month July; petroselinum, parsley; portulaca, purslain; cydonium, + quince; cydoniatum, quiddeny; persicum, peach; eruca, eruke, which they + corrupt to earwig, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus + geminus, a gimmal, or gimbal-ring; and thus the word gimbal or jumbal + is transferred to other things thus interwoven; quelques choses, + kickshaws. Since the origin of these, and many others, however forced, + is evident, it ought to appear no wonder to any one if the ancients + have thus disfigured many, especially as they so much affected + monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took this liberty of + maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and softening them. + + But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that + many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish, + Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more + lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards. + + The same word, according to its different significations, often has a + different origin; as, to bear a burden, from fero; but to bear, whence + birth, born, bairn, comes from pario; and a bear, at least if it be of + Latin original, from fera. Thus perch, a fish, from perca; but perch, a + measure, from pertica, and likewise to perch. To spell is from syllaba; + but spell, an inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries + are so fixed in lands that none can pass them against the master's + will, from expello; and spell, a messenger, from epistola; whence + gospel, good-spell, or god-spell. Thus freese, or freeze, from + frigesco; but freeze, an architectonick word, from zophorus; but + freeze, for cloth, from Frisia, or perhaps from frigesco, as being more + fit than any other for keeping out the cold. + + There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two or + more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the + signification of more words that one; as, from scrip and roll comes + scroll; from proud and dance, prance; from st of the verb stay or stand + and out, is made stout; from stout and hardy, sturdy; from sp of spit + or spew, and out, comes spout; from the same sp with the termination + in, is spin; and adding out, spin out: and from the same sp, with it, + is spit, which only differs from spout in that it is smaller, and with + less noise and force; but sputter is, because of the obscure u, + something between spit and spout: and by reason of adding r, it + intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused; + whereas spatter, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel a, + intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs from + sputter. From the same sp and the termination ark, comes spark, + signifying a single emission of fire with a noise; namely sp, the + emission, ar, the more acute noise, and k, the mute consonant, + intimates its being suddenly terminated; but adding l, is made the + frequentative sparkle. The same sp, by adding r, that is spr, implies a + more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding itself; to which adding + the termination ing, it becomes spring: its vigour spr imports; its + sharpness the termination ing; and lastly in acute and tremulous, + ending in the mute consonant g, denotes the sudden ending of any + motion, that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not + a complicated exilition. Hence we call spring whatever has an elastick + force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any thing: + and to spring, to germinate, and spring, one of the four seasons. From + the same spr and out, is formed sprout, and wit the termination ig, + sprig; of which the following, for the most part, is the difference: + sprout, of a grosser sound, imports a fatter or grosser bud; sprig, of + a slenderer sound, denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from str of + the verb strive, and out, comes strout, and strut. From the same str, + and the termination uggle, is made struggle; and this gl imports, but + without any great noise, by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel u. + In like manner, from throw and roll is made troll, and almost in the + same sense is trundle, from throw or thrust, and rundle. Thus graff or + grough is compounded of grave and rough; and trudge from tread or trot, + and drudge. + +In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great +extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more +than enough. It may be remarked, + +1. That Wallis's derivations are often so made, that by the same license +any language may be deduced from any other. + +2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by us +from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can +therefore afford no example of the genius of the English language, or its +laws of derivation. + +3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and violence, +words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own +declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them. + +4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous. + + * * * * * + +SYNTAX. + + The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here + treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or + variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor + admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and + Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned + languages made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has + published such petty observations as were better omitted. + +The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number and +person; as, Thou fliest from good; He runs to death. + +Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable. + +Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, His +father's glory; The sun's heat. + +Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, He loves me; You fear him. + +All prepositions require an oblique case: as, He gave this to me; He took +this from me; He says this of me; He came with me. + + * * * * * + +PROSODY. + + It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages, to + omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei; + that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis, + Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are + included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert them. + +PROSODY comprises orthoepy, or the rules of pronunciation; and orthometry, +or the laws of versification. + +Pronunciation is just, when every letter has its proper sound, and every +syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English versification is the +same, its proper quantity. + + The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for + the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to + innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I + shall here propose. + +1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former syllable +is commonly accented, as childish, kingdom, actest, acted, toilsome, lover, +scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, fulness, godly, meekly, artist. + +2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, have +commonly the accent on the latter; as to beget, to beseem, to bestow. + +3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has +commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable; as, +to descant, a descant; to cement, a cement; to contract, a contract. + + This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent on + the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as delight, + perfume. + +4. All dissyllables ending in y, as cranny; in our, as labour, favour; in +ow, as willow, wallow, except allow; in le, as battle, bible; in ish, as +banish; in ck, as cambrick, cassock; in ter, as to batter; in age, as +courage, in en, as fasten; in et, as quiet; accent the former syllable. + +5. Dissyllable nouns in er, as canker, butter, have the accent on the +former syllable. + +6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and e final, as comprise, +escape; or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as appease, reveal; or +ending in two consonants, as attend; have the accent on the latter +syllable. + +7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have +commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as applause; except words in +ain, certain, mountain. + +8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a syllable, +retain the accent of the radical word; as, loveliness, tenderness, +contemner, wagonner, physical, bespatter, commenting, commending, +assurance. + +9. Trissyllables ending in ous, as gracious, arduous; in al, as capital; in +ion, as mention; accent the first. + +10. Trissyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate, accent the first syllable, as +countenance, continence, armament, imminent, elegant, propagate, except +they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as connivance, +acquaintance; or the middle syllable hath a vowel before two consonants, as +promulgate. + +11. Trissyllables ending in y, as entity, specify, liberty, victory, +subsidy, commonly accent the first syllable. + +12. Trissyllables in re or le accent the first syllable, as legible, +theatre, except disciple, and some words which have a position, as example, +epistle. + +13. Trissyllables in ude commonly accent the first syllable, as plenitude. + +14. Trissyllables ending in ator or atour, as creatour; or having in the +middle syllable a diphthong, as endeavour; or a vowel before two +consonants, as domestick; accent the middle syllable. + +15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are commonly +French, as acquiesce, repartee, magazine, or words formed by prefixing one +or two syllables to an acute syllable, as immature, overcharge. + +16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the accent +of the words from which they are derived, as arrogating, continency, +incontinently, commendable, communicableness. We should therefore say +disputable, indisputable; rather than disputable, indisputable; and +advertisement, rather than advertisement. + +17. Words in ion have the accent upon the antepenult, as salvation, +perturbation, concoction; words in atour or ator on the penult, as +dedicator. + +18. Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first syllable, as +amicable, unless the second syllable have a vowel before two consonants, as +combustible. + +19. Words ending in ous have the accents on the antepenult, as uxorious, +voluptuous. + +20. Words ending in ty have their accent on the antepenult, as +pusillanimity, activity. + + These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed as + useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in + English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and + authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped + my observation. + +VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according +to certain laws. + +The feet of our verses are either iambick, as aloft, create; or trochaick, +as holy, lofty. + +Our iambick measure comprises verses + +Of four syllables, + + Most good, most fair, + Or things as rare, + To call you's lost; + For all the cost + Words can bestow, + So poorly show + Upon your praise, + That all the ways + Sense hath, come short. Drayton. + + With ravish'd ears + The monarch hears. Dryden. + +Of six, + + This while we are abroad, + Shall we not touch our lyre? + Shall we not sing an ode? + Or shall that holy fire, + In us that strongly glow'd, + In this cold air expire? + + Though in the utmost peak, + A while we do remain, + Amongst the mountains bleak, + Expos'd to sleet and rain, + No sport our hours shall break, + To exercise our vein. + + What though bright Phoebus' beams + Refresh the southern ground, + And though the princely Thames + With beauteous nymphs abound, + And by old Camber's streams + Be many wonders found: + + Yet many rivers clear + Here glide in silver swathes, + And what of all most dear, + Buxton's delicious baths, + Strong ale and noble chear, + T' asswage breem winters scathes. + + In places far or near, + Or famous, or obscure, + Where wholsom is the air, + Or where the most impure, + All times, and every where, + The muse is still in ure. Drayton. + +Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems, + + And may at last my weary age + Find out the peaceful hermitage, + The hairy gown, and mossy cell, + Where I may sit, and nightly spell + Of ev'ry star the sky doth shew, + And ev'ry herb that sips the dew. Milton. + +Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry, + + Full in the midst of this created space, + Betwixt heav'n, earth, and skies, there stands a place + Confining on all three; with triple bound; + Whence all things, though remote, are view'd around, + And thither bring their undulating sound. + The palace of loud Fame, her seat of pow'r, + Plac'd on the summit of a lofty tow'r; + A thousand winding entries long and wide + Receive of fresh reports a flowing tide. + A thousand crannies in the walls are made; + Nor gate nor bars exclude the busy trade. + Tis built of brass, the better to diffuse + The spreading sounds, and multiply the news; + Where echoes in repeated echoes play: + A mart for ever full; and open night and day. + Nor silence is within, nor voice express, + But a deaf noise of sounds that never cease; + Confus'd and chiding, like the hollow roar + Of tides, receding from th' insulted shore; + Or like the broken thunder heard from far, + When Jove to distance drives the rolling war. + The courts are fill'd with a tumultuous din, + Of crouds, or issuing forth, or ent'ring in: + A thorough-fare of news; where some devise + Things never heard, some mingle truth with lies: + The troubled air with empty sounds they beat, + Intent to hear, and eager to repeat. Dryden. + +In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables; and +every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is more +strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to the art +of poetry, not the rules of grammar. + +Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables, + + Here we may + Think and pray, + Before death + Stops our breath: + Other joys + Are but toys. Walton's Angler. + +Of five, + + In the days of old, + Stories plainly told, + Lovers felt annoy. Old Ballad. + +Of seven, + + Fairest piece of well form'd earth, + Urge not thus your haughty birth. Waller. + +In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables. + +These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of +seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes +of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion. + + Of all the Cambrian shires their heads that bear so high, + And farth'st survey their soils with an ambitious eye, + Mervinia for her hills, as for their matchless crouds, + The nearest that are said to kiss the wand'ring clouds, + Especial audience craves, offended with the throng, + That she of all the rest neglected was so long; + Alledging for herself, when, through the Saxons' pride, + The godlike race of Brute to Severn's setting side + Were cruelly inforc'd, her mountains did relieve + Those whom devouring war else every where did grieve. + And when all Wales beside (by fortune or by might) + Unto her ancient foe resign'd her ancient right, + A constant maiden still she only did remain, + The last her genuine laws which stoutly did retain. + And as each one is prais'd for her peculiar things; + So only she is rich, in mountains, meres and springs, + And holds herself as great in her superfluous waste, + As others by their towns, and fruitful tillage grac'd. + +And of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer. + + And as the mind of such a man, that hath a long way gone, + And either knoweth not his way, or else would let alone, + His purpos'd journey, is distract. + +The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by our old +poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate couplets. + +The verse of twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, is now only used to +diversify heroick lines. + + Waller was smooth, but Dryden taught to join + The varying verse, the full resounding line, + The long majestick march, and energy divine. Pope. + +The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable. + +The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick measure of +verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six. + + She to receive thy radiant name, + Selects a whiter space. Fenton. + + When all shall praise, and ev'ry lay + Devote a wreath to thee, + That day, for come it will, that day + Shall I lament to see. Lewis to Pope. + + Beneath this tomb an infant lies + To earth whose body lent, + Hereafter shall more glorious rise, + But not more innocent. + When the Archangel's trump shall blow, + And souls to bodies join, + What crowds shall wish their lives below + Had been as short as thine! Wesley. + +We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in +songs, which may be called the anapestick, in which the accent rests upon +every third syllable. + + May I govern my passions with absolute sway, + And grow wiser and better as life wears away. Dr. Pope. + +In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, as + + Diogenes surly and proud. Dr. Pope. + + When present, we love, and when absent agree, + I think not of Iris, nor Iris of me. Dryden. + +These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double +endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick measure. + + 'Tis the divinity that stirs within us, + 'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter, + And intimates eternity to man. Addison. + +So in that of eight syllables, + + They neither added nor confounded, + They neither wanted nor abounded. Prior. + +In that of seven, + + For resistance I could fear none, + But with twenty ships had done, + What thou, brave and happy Vernon, + Hast atchiev'd with six alone. Glover. + +In that of six, + + 'Twas when the seas were roaring, + With hollow blasts of wind, + A damsel lay deploring, + All on a rock reclin'd. Gay. + +In the anapestick, + + When terrible tempests assail us. + And mountainous billows affright, + Nor power nor wealth can avail us, + But skilful industry steers right. Ballad. + +To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English +verse. + +Our versification admits of few licences, except a synaloepha, or elision +of e in the before a vowel, as th' eternal; and more rarely of o in to, as +t' accept; and a synaresis, by which two short vowels coalesce into one +syllable, as question, special; or a word is contracted by the expulsion of +a short vowel before a liquid, as av'rice, temp'rance. + +Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English language may +be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with grammatical terms, or +taught by a master to those that are more ignorant. To have written a +grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the schools, would have been +tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's A Grammar of the English Tongue, by Samuel Johnson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE *** + +***** This file should be named 15097.txt or 15097.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/0/9/15097/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the PG Online +Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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