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diff --git a/old/14070.txt b/old/14070.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3372528 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14070.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14244 @@ +Project Gutenberg's English Grammar in Familiar Lectures, by Samuel Kirkham + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: English Grammar in Familiar Lectures + +Author: Samuel Kirkham + +Release Date: November 17, 2004 [EBook #14070] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Karl Hagen, Susan Skinner and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. + + + + + +ENGLISH GRAMMER IN + +FAMILIAR LECTURES; + +ACCOMPANIED BY +A COMPENDIUM +EMBRACING + +A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING +A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION, +EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, + +AND + +A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, +IN NOTES: + +TO WHICH ARE ADDED, + +AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES +DESIGNED +FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. + +BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM. + +STEREOTYPE EDITION + +NEW YORK +ROBERT B. COLLINS, +254 PEARL STREET. + + + + +_Southern District of New-York, ss_. + +BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 22d day of August, A.D. 1829, in the L. +S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, Samuel +Kirkham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title +of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words +following, to wit: + +"English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium, +embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system of +Punctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical +Grammar in notes: to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the +Exercises: designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. By +Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved." In conformity +to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled "an act for the +encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and +books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time +therein mentioned." And also to an act entitled "an act supplementary to +an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing +the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of +such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the +benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching +historical and other prints." + +FRED. J. BETTS, +_Clerk of the Southern District of New-York._ + + +AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION, + +DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS + +BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM. + +This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the first +part of it, the _principles_ of reading are developed and explained in a +scientific and _practical_ manner, and so familiarly illustrated in +their application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile +mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their design +and use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both, in +reading and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain. + +The last part of the work, contains _Selections_ from the greatest +master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient and +modern. Many of these selections are taken from the most elegant and +classical American authors--writers whose noble productions have already +shed an unfading lustre, and stamped immortality upon the literature of +our country.--In the select part of the work, _rhetorical marks_ are +also employed to point out the application of the principles laid down +in the first part.--The very favorable reception of the work by the +public, and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools, since its +first publication in 1833, excites in the author the most sanguine hopes +in regard to its future success. + +NOTICES. + +After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, that +it is the only _successful_ attempt of the kind. The rules are copious, +and the author's explanations and illustrations _are happily adapted to +the comprehension of learners_. No school should be without this book, +and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman who +values the attainment of a just and forcible elocution.--_Pittsburgh +Mer. April,_ 1834. + +Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and has +followed them by illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon the +inflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference of +one inflection to another--a most admirable plan for such a work. +Copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and the +shades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness. +The catechetical appendages of each chapter, give the work new value in +a school, and the selections made for the exercise of scholars, evince +good taste and judgment. _U.S. Gazette, Philadelphia, Sept_. 17, 1834. + +The Essay now before us, needs not depend on any former work of its +author for a borrowed reputation; it has intrinsic merits of its own. It +lays down principles clearly and concisely. It presents the reader with +many new and judicious selections, both in prose and poetry; and +altogether evinces great industry combined with taste and +ingenuity.--_Courier of Upper Canada, York, Oct_. 12, 1833. + +Of the talent and judgment of Mr. Kirkham, we have already had occasion +to speak in terms of honest praise. His work on Elocution raises him +still higher in our estimation.--The book would be of great utility in +schools--such a one as has long been wanted; and we are glad to see it +forthcoming.--_Baltimore Visitor, July,_ 1833. + +Every facility for teaching Elocution, which I have so often needed, but +never before found, is exactly furnished in this work:--principles are +clearly and concisely laid down, and _are very happily adapted to the +comprehension of the learner_. Thoroughly convinced of its utility, I +shall lose no time in introducing it into my school. _Hartford, Conn. +Aug._. 20, 1534. NATHANIEL WEBB. + + + + +RECOMMENDATIONS. + +It is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new +books have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be, +for that work which rests more on its written testimonials, than on its +intrinsic merits for support, asserts no claims to permanent patronage. +But recommendations which analyze the merits of a work, and which, by +exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are calculated to +carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is +meritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in +this volume. The following are _some_ of the numerous testimonials which +he has received, and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments +to those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he is +indebted for them. More than _six hundred_ others presented to the +author, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has not +room to insert. + + * * * * * + +The following notice of this work is extracted from the "Western +Review." This journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint, +author of "Francis Berrian," "History and Geography of the Miss. +Valley," and many other popular and valuable works. + +We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's "Grammar in familiar +Lectures," but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehend +the author's design, it is not so much to introduce new principles, as +to render more easy and intelligible those which have been long +established, and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate and +thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been +successful. + +It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting +himself before the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as is +consistent with his plan, avail himself of the authority of such as have +written well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham has accordingly +followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers on +grammar, in the general principles of his science; endeavoring, at the +same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the +writings of that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The +most useful matter contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced +in this; but in the definitions and rules, it is simplified, and +rendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray, +in the general principles of his work, he has, in numerous instances, +differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to be his own, and +introducing some valuable improvements. + +Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes +in syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode of +explaining them, manner of parsing, manner of explaining some of the +pronouns, and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of the +science at one view, and is well calculated to afford assistance to +learners. + +In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have +endeavored to follow _the order of nature;_ and we are not able to see +how he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the most +important parts of speech, are first explained, and afterwards those +which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. By +following this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common among +authors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of which +they were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared the +way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the +science. + +In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, our +author appears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the +appearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness and +perspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar objects, +are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understanding +of the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. The +principles of the science _are simplified, and rendered so perfectly +easy of comprehension,_ we should think no ordinary mind, having such +help, could find them difficult. It is in this particular that the work +appears to possess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot fail +of being preferred to many others. + +It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of the +amiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from +the fifth edition. + +Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827. + + + + +The following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly a +distinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the "National Crisis."] + +As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine merit, it is with +peculiar pleasure I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, in +which Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on English +Grammar. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practical +knowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented which +ought not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, in several +instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr. +Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits. +The extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in +Pittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere, +are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of +teaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow. + +The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" is +predicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed; +but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations +accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which +it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive +stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are +addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar, +that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whatever +system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must, +I conceive, be productive of good results. In my humble opinion, the +system of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligent +pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of +grammar, _in less than one-fourth_ part of the time usually devoted. + +My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, with the +greater pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been +so extensively practised in many parts of the western country. + +Cincinnati, April 26, 1826. + + + + +From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa. + +Mr. Kirkham,--It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of +youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have +used many of the different systems of English grammar that have fallen +in my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter, +that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen. + +Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent; and +experience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last +twelve or thirteen months), that a scholar will learn more of the nature +and principles of our language in _one quarter_, from your system, than +in a _whole year_ from any other I had previously used. I do, therefore, +most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, and +especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language, +are destitute of the advantages of an instructer. + +Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD. + +Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825. + + + + + +From Mr. N.R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled "The +Hesperus." + +Mr. Kirkham, + +Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree +of minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of +the work as a grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have +explained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to the +capacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of your +plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an +_analytical development_ of grammatical principles, while it is +calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the march +of improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the +literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will be +speedily introduced into schools and academies. + +With respect, yours, N.R. SMITH, A.M. + +Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825. + + + + + +From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran +Academy:--Extract. + +Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of "English +Grammar in familiar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent +advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the +public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which +have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided _superiority over +all other systems_, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the +capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of +communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he +can easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principle +that comes before him. + +In short, all the intricacies of the science are _elucidated so +clearly_, I am confident that even a private learner, of common +docility, can, by perusing this system attentively acquire a better +practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in _three +months_, than is ordinarily obtained in _one year_. + +Frederick, Md. Sept 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN. + + + + + +Extract: from De Witt Clinton, late Gov. of New-York. + +I consider the Compendium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a work +deserving encouragement, and well calculated to facilitate the +acquisition of this useful science. DE WITT CLINTON. + +Albany, Sept 25, 1824. + + + + + +S. Kirkham, Esq.--I have examined your Grammar with attention, and with +a particular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fully +satisfied, that it is the _best form_ in which Murray's principles have +been given to the public. The lectures are ample, and given in so +familiar and easy language, as to be readily understood, even by a +_tyro_ in grammar. + +I feel it due to you to say, that I commenced the examination of your +work, under _a strong prejudice against it,_ in consequence of the +numerous "improved systems" with which the public has been inundated, of +late, most of which are by no means improvements on Murray, but the +productions of individuals whom a "_little grammar_ has rendered +grammatically insane." My convictions, therefore, are the result of +_investigation_. I wish you, Sir, success in your publication. + +Respectfully, EBER. WHEATON, + +Pr. of Mechanics' Society School + +With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham's English Grammar, +we heartily concur. NATHAN STARK, Pr. Acad. + (Rev.) JOHN JOHNSTON, +Newburgh, Aug. 4, 1829. (Rev.) WM. S. HEYER, + + + + +From the Rev. C.P. McIlvaine, and others. + +So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by Samuel +Kirkham I am well satisfied that _it meets the wants_ of elementary +schools in this branch, and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P. +McILVAINE. + +Brooklyn, L.I. July 9, 1829. + +We fully concur in the above, ANDREW HAGEMAN, + E.M. JOHNSON. + + + + +EXTRACT. + +From the partial examination which I have given Mr. S. Kirkham's English +Grammar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the _best of +the class I have ever seen,_ and as filling up an important and almost +impassable chasm in works on grammatical science. D.L. CARROLL. + +Brooklyn, L.I. June 29, 1829. + +We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. B.B. HALLOCK, + E. KINGSLEY, + T.S. MAYBON. + + + + +From A.W. Dodge, Esq. + +New-York, July 15, 1829. + +The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of +instruction, must have taught him that the study of grammar, important +as it is to every class of learners, is almost invariably a dry and +uninteresting study to young beginners, and for the very obvious reason, +that the systems in general use in the schools, are _far beyond_ the +comprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is, +that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as +_tasks,_ and if committed at all, committed to _the memory, without +enlightening their understandings;_ so that many a pupil who has _been +through_ the English grammar, is totally unacquainted with the nature +even of the simplest parts of speech. + +The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy these +evils, and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously +felt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of +their own language. By a simple, familiar, and lucid method of treating +the subject, he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable, +pleasing and instructive. In one word, the grammar of Mr. Kirkham +furnishes a _clew_ by which the youthful mind is guided through the +intricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns and pronouns; and the path which has +been heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardor of +youth, and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its +obstacles, is cleared of these obstructions by this _pioneer_ to the +youthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with friendly _guide-boards +to direct them in the right road_. The slightest perusal of the work +alluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these +remarks, and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to old +rules and forms, that it will meet the wants of the community. + +ALLEN W. DODGE. + +Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829 + + + + +Having, for several years, been engaged in lecturing on the science of +grammar and, during this period, having _thoroughly tested_ the merits +of Mr. S. Kirkham's system of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures" by +using it as a text-book for my classes, I take pleasure in giving this +testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham has +attempted to improve upon this branch of science, chiefly by unfolding +and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and +simple, as _to adapt them completely to the understanding_ of the young +learner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to +commit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practical +examples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful in +his attempt _in a pre-eminent degree_. I make this assertion under a +full conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of +the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this +manual. + +The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the +novel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying +them, the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts of +the subject, the facilities proffered by the "systematic mode of +parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction and +adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and +critical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes," render +this system of grammar _so decidedly superior to all others extant_, +that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known. + +My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and +witnessing its effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in +saying, that a learner will, by studying this book _four months without +a teacher_, obtain a more clear conception of the nature and proper +construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in common +schools and academies, _in five times four months_. + +It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been +circulated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which +have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country. + +I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in +orthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and the +improvements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about +introducing into his ELEVENTH EDITION, will render it quite _an +improvement on the former editions of this work_. H. WINCHESTER. + +From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy. + + + + + +I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar +satisfaction. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation, +give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To point +out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other +system can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present it +is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially +excellent and useful in other systems, while it is entirely free from +that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much +perplex and embarrass the learner. + +The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, _the simplicity of +its method_, and _the plainness of its illustrations_. Being conducted +by familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into +agreeable contact by each lesson. Both are improved by the same task, +without the slightest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there is +anything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a conviction, this, +which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be +made. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a _practical_ one; +and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be +introduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment I +can attest to the practicability of the plan which the author has +adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the pains +to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER. + +Albany, July 10, 1829. + + + + +From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton, +author of the "Western Calculator" and "Western Spelling-Book." + +Dear Sir,--I am much pleased with both the _plan_ and _execution_ of +your "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a _systematic +mode of parsing_, calculated alike to exercise the _understanding_ and +_memory_ of the pupil, and also free the teacher from the _drudgery_ of +continued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every +_elementary_ school book ought to be--_plain, systematic_, and _easy_ to +be understood. + +This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other +improvements so judiciously introduced, gives it _a decisive +superiority_ over the imperfect grammar of Murray, now so generally +used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A.M. + +Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825. + + + + +TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION. + +The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first +ventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which +have waited it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason to +anticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the +demand for it would call forth _twenty-two thousand_ copies during the +past year, the author would have considered the prediction extravagant +and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled +so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning, +he has endeavored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his +work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time and +talents would permit. + +It is believed that the _tenth_ and _eleventh_ editions have been +greatly improved; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not +yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the +disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being +able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time, +snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (_active_ as far +as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its +defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his +credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope, +that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed +at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon +him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and +reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of +self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be +willing to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest; for +he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the +advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production, +that may appear, and, two or three years hence, _revise_ his work, and +present to the public another and a better edition. + +The improvements in the _tenth_ edition, consisted mainly in the +addition of many important principles; in rendering the illustrations +more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid; in connecting more +closely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the general +principles adopted; and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammar +interspersed in notes. The introduction into the ELEVENTH EDITION, of +many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in orthography and +orthoepy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of general +additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render _this +edition/,_ it is believed, _far preferable_ to any of the former +editions of the work. + +Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition +of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some +investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of +the community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of +a kind of _philosophical mania;_ and to such these notes are +respectfully submitted for just what _they_ may deem their real value. +The author's own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no +_material_ advantages to common learners; but that they may profitably +engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of +interest to the literary connoisseur. + +New-York, August 22, 1820. + + + + +CONTENTS. + +Address to the learner +A, an, one +And +Adjectives +Adverbs +Agreement of words +Anomalies +Articles +Because +But, than, as +Case + Nominative + Possessive + Objective + Nominative case independent + Nominative case absolute + Apposition of cases + Nominative and objective after the verb _to be_ + Active, passive, and neuter nominatives +Conjunctions +Conjugation of regular verbs +Derivation (all the philosophical notes treat of derivation) +Etymology +Exercises in false syntax + In punctuation +Figures of speech +Gender +Government +Grammar, general division of + Philosophical +Have +Idioms +Interjections +It +If +Key to the exercises +Letters, sounds of +Like +Manner of meaning of words +Moods + Signs of + Subjunctive +Nouns + Gender of + Person of + Number of + Case of +Orthography + Rules of +Parsing +Participles +Poetry transposed +Prepositions +Pronouns + Personal + Compound personal + Adjective + Relative +Pronunciation +Prosody +Provincialisms +Punctuation +Rhetoric +Rules of syntax +Sentences, definitions of simple and compound + Transposition of +Standard of grammatical accuracy +Syntax +To +Tenses + Signs of the +The +That +Terminations +Verbs + Active-transitive + Active-intransitive + Passive + Neuter + Defective + Auxiliary + Regular + Irregular + Compound +Versification +Worth +What, which, who +You + + + + +PREFACE + +There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and +thrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has already +employed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless he +believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one +of the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the public +this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will +be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded, +must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no +explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of +arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are +wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, with _them_ he +will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent +either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is +willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always +ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks +nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical +utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in +facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement, +_that_ will be its best apology. + +When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those +learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so +successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more +especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who +have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange +those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy +medium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little like +presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so +frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for +their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the +conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least, +in _manner,_ if not in _matter_; and this conviction, he believes, will +be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is +admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our +late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject +intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the +author considers a very important object, namely, _a systematic order of +parsing;_ and nearly all have neglected to _develop and explain_ the +principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great +difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use. + +By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its +_simplicity_; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal +recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great +advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct the +literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to +charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify +him; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to +accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of +science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and +removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way +it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has +hitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object +is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended +with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him +a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and useful +exercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to +become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with +their practical utility and application. + +Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these +pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have +been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at +originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors +whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his +opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in +the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in +Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of +policy, but from choice, to select his _principles_ chiefly from that +work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, +the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied +from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical +advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so +frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who +have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able +writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world +as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves +the credit due to another. + +The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to +originality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who +would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, +and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he +happen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to _some_ +contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of +plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits +often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is not +uncommon for the same thought to be strictly _original_ with many +writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to +shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of +another; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of +teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and +arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding +with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances, +been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be +pardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject a +good idea _of his own,_ merely because some one else has, at some time +or other, been blessed with the same thought. + +As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of +ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work +unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was +desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important +principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, +and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical +purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of +illustrations so full and intelligible, as _completely to adapt the +principles to the capacities of common learners._ Whether this design +has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the public +to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it +has become known, and the ready sale of _forty thousand_ copies, (though +_without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,_) are +favorable omens. + +In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author +has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking +blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the +authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, +which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all +former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and +science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own +invention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is +powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be +liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he has +taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject +critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he +deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object +he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others, +consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the +_method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the +learner_. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: and +he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own +want of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious +cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the +language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the +existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and, +moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can +never be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected +because they admit of exceptions.--He who is thoroughly acquainted with +the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth +of these remarks. + + * * * * * + +Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be +destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not +have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which +it accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the +definitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of +Lectures. + +HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. + +As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangement +essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed +improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be +disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the +order of parsing, will not consider it _new_, but blend it with those +long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat +similar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author +considers a _regular systematic order_. + +The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to +_interrogate_ the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse +without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner +ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no +systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The _systematic_ order +laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply +every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses, +without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing, +he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the +learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great +relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method, +are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted +with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice, +wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and +recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of +them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates +the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the +young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most +important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying +them in parsing. + +If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every +teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the +advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any +former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the +author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years, +devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system, +he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical +knowledge of this abstruse science, in _two months_, than he could in +_one year_ when he taught in the "old way." It is presumed that no +instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the +truth of this assertion. + +Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the +transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will +find that, although the author has not followed the common "artificial +and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he +has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of the +understanding." + +The learner should commence, _not by committing and rehearsing_, but by +reading attentively the first _two_ lectures several times over. He +ought then to parse, according to the _systematic order_, the examples +given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an +opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the +parts of speech included in the examples. + +The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but +comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an +"Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young +student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very +commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem +rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of +discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing _five_ words +critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing _fifty_ +words superficially, and without understanding their various properties. +The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing +his pupils recite a single lesson of _definitions_ committed to memory, +for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as +they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the +learner in school, as well as for the _private learner_, will be given +in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a +saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be +disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to +acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and +desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized; +but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the +acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient +ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its +contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not +be thrown upon _him._ + + * * * * * + +To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to +lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints +by way of encouragement. + +Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to make +himself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find it +an easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer, +is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of +the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him +communicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part of +speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties, +not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by +giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of +speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it, +and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the +rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other +parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until +the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may +have been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress, +on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and that +teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an +enviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM. + + + + +FAMILIAR LECTURES + +ON + +ENGLISH GRAMMAR. + + * * * * * + +LECTURE I + + +DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.--ORTHOGRAPHY. + +TO THE YOUNG LEARNER. + +You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly +pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of +science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the +impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of +little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind, +all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to +convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a +pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that +directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the +condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which +alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of +elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual +existence;--of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and +enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and +every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these +remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens +the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is +indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic +of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even +if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think +it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses +a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship, +arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are +highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so +universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every +situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;--when you speak, +read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility. + +Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and +correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately +without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon +convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, +may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire +that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring +errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross, +which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be +detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me, +therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of +grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or +write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express +their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it +impossible for any one to _understand_ them: their language frequently +amounts, not only to _bad_ sense, but _non_-sense. In other instances +several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and +what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so +constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they +intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your +attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge. + +The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way +smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed, +and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will +find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is +rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall, +therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to +illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you +will be able, _if you exercise your mind,_ to understand its nature, and +apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one +useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you +would probably be unable to comprehend. + +Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the +sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either +by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to +inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all +doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing, +the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical +construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by +which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and +distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing; +and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any +branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be +understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be +discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to +meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to +overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your +studies, is to cultivate the habit of _thinking methodically and +soundly_ on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention. +Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to +speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according +to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This +system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and +strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a +process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar +communicated in an interesting and familiar manner. + +You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and +knowledge;--an age in which science and the arts are marching onward +with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;--a land on +which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of +the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or +in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the +mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich +boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our +fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so +unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, +and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. +Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous +people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our +youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the +grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a +laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which +leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the +hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her +crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned +and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you +will be happy. + +LANGUAGE. + +Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men +and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and +desires. + +Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken +and written. + +NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which +different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another. +The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of +their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The +elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds; +modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two +savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their +thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm +and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into +contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in +the use of those _inarticulate_ sounds by which they express their +thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a +lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of +a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively. + +ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which +mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.--In +order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term _word,_ I +will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term. + +_Idea_. The _notices_ which we gain by sensation and perception, and +which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and +knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand +upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call _coldness_. +That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the +mind, is called _perception;_ and the abstract notice itself, or notion +you form of this sensation, is denominated an _idea_. This being +premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words. + +_Words_ are _articulate_ sounds, used by common consent, not as natural, +but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in +themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those +ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them. +In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the +name _gold;_ not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness +which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that +sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there +any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the +word _gold_ would convey the same idea to the people of other countries +as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make +use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, _aurum_ denotes +the same idea in Latin, and _or_ in French. Hence it follows, that it is +by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds. + +SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the +human voice. + +_The voice_ is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis, +(a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by +the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils. + +WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or +characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined +into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate +sounds uttered by the voice. + + * * * * * + + + + +GRAMMAR. + + +GRAMMAR is the science of language. + +Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular. + +UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all +languages. + +PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular +language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established +practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence, + +_The established practice of the best speakers and writers_ of any +language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that +language. + +By the phrase, _established practice,_ is implied reputable, national, +and present usage. A usage becomes _good_ and _legal,_ when it has been +long and generally adopted. + +_The best speakers and writers,_ or such as may be considered good +authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high +estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other +literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid +matter, and refined manner. + +In the grammar of a _perfect_ language, no rules should be admitted, but +such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of +that language and the nature of things; but our language being +_im_-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a _practical_ treatise, like +this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated +by _custom_. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious +custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great +inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages +which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are +conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have +power to control it. + +Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive +advancement, _varied_ for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it +assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give +it. We are, therefore, as _rational_ and _practical_ grammarians, +compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language +as it _is_, and not as it _should be_, and bow to custom. + +PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of +language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of +thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words, +and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our +observance. + +PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words +of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on +scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and +design, and enforces their application. + +PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the +language, sanctioned by good usage. + +DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed +in a definite form. + +RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial +relation of words, which custom has established for our observance. + + * * * * * + +ENGLISH GRAMMAR. + +ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language +with propriety. + +GRAMMAR teaches us _how to use words in a proper manner._ The most +important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts +to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what +they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply +them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were +invented. _Grammar_, well understood, enables us to express our +thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will +defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that +which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write +our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a +consideration of the highest moment. + + +Grammar is divided into four parts; + + 1. ORTHOGRAPHY, + 2. ETYMOLOGY, + 3. SYNTAX, + 4. PROSODY. + +ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of +letters, and the just method of spelling words. + +ORTHOGRAPHY means _word-making_, or _spelling_. It teaches us the +different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into +syllables, and syllables into words. + +As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume +you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just +method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell +long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather +dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and +analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can _spell correctly_, you +may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax. + +Orthography treats, 1st, of _Letters_, 2ndly, of _Syllables_, and 3dly, +of _Words_. + +I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. + +The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. + +They are divided into vowels and consonants. + +A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels +are _a, e, i, o, u,_ and sometimes _w_ and _y_. _W_ and _y_ are +consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other +situation they are vowels. + +A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the +help of a vowel; as, _b, d, f, l_. All letters except the vowels are +consonants. + +Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. + +The mutes cannot be sounded _at all_ without the aid of a vowel. They +are _b, p, t, d, k_, and _c_ and _g_ hard. + +The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are _f, l, +m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft. + +Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are called _liquids_, +because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, +into their sounds. + + +A diphthong is the union of _two_ vowels, pronounced by a single impulse +of the voice; as _oi_ in voice, _ou_ in sound. + +A triphthong is the union of _three_ vowels pronounced in like manner; +as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view. + +A _proper_ diphthong has _both_ the vowels sounded; as, _ou_ in ounce. +An _improper_ diphthong has only _one_ of the vowels sounded; as, _oa_ +in boat. + +II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single +impulse of the voice; as, _a, an, ant_. + +A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two +syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a +word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. + +III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as +signs of our ideas. + +Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. + +A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in +the language; as, _man, good_. + +A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as, +_manful, goodness_. + +There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. +The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, +en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were, +originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been +contracted, and made to coalesce with other words. + + +OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. + +A.--_A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in +_ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italian +sound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has the +short sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_ +in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_. + +The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma, +Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless +excrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_. + +The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_; +except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and some +others. + +_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_, +like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_. + +_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_. + +_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_. + +B.--_B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_. + +_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_, +&c. except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before +_t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c. + +C.--_C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end of +syllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, +flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre, +cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, and +is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social, +pronunciation_, &c.; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_. +It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_. + +_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in words +derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in +_chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_. +In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise, +chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in +_milch, bench, clinch_, &c. + +_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_, +except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant, +it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule, +schism, yacht, drachm_. + +D.--_D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like +_dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in +_educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_. + +The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains +its distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_ +are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed, +walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. which are pronounced, _past, walkt, +flasht, aimd, rold_. + +E.--_E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in +_men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; and +of short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in the +unaccented terminations, _es, et, en_. + +F.--_F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_, +which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, a +calve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_ +head. + +G.--_G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and at +the end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is soft +before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get, +gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_. + +H.--_H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silent +after _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_. + +I.--_I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_. +Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; and +in other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words it +has the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_. + +J.--_J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which it +is pronounced like _y_. + +K.--_K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_, +where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before +_n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_. + +L.--_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is +often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_. + +M.--_M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in +_comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_. + +N.--_N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the other +a compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c., pronounced +_angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in +_hymn, autumn_. + +O.--_O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in +_not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth, +does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_, +&c. + +P.--_P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in +_cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in +_psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_. + +_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in +_nephew, Stephen_. + +Q.--_Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronounced +like _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_. + +R.--_R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one; +as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_ +is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_. + +S.--_S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at the +beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister, +sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent and +another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in +_expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accent +and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier, +usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_. + +T.--_T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accent +precedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature, +virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_ +before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in +_salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c. +and unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting also +derivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_. + +_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in +_thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c. + +U.--_U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in +_dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It is +pronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy, +business_. + +V.--_V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_. + +W.--_W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo, +beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and also +in _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written after +the _h_; as in _why, when, what_;--_hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as a +vowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_. + +X.--_X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with the +accent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accented +syllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse, +extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or +_h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_. +_X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greek +original; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_. + +Y.--_Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York, +yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the +sound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system, +party, pyramid_. + +Z.--_Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_. + + +RULES FOR SPELLING. + +SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters. + +The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they +assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. +This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book +and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading. + +RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final or +ending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff, +mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this, +us_, and _thus_. + + _False Orthography for the learner to correct_.--Be thou like the + gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.--The aged hero + comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam.--Shal + mortal man be more just than God?--Few know the value of health til + they lose it.--Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively + refined. + + And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat + The vaulty heaven so high above our heads: + I have more care to stay, than wil to go. + + +RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never +double the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as, +_man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, +purr_, and _buzz_. + + _False Orthography_.--None ever went sadd from Fingal.--He rejoiced + over his sonn.--Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death.--Many a + trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth. + + The weary sunn has made a golden sett, + And, by the bright track of his golden carr, + Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. + + +RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons of +verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and +superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a +_consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries; +carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_. + +The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not be +doubled; as, _carry, carrying_. + +But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above, +it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; except +in the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_, +and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c. + + _False Orthography_.--Our fancys should be governed by reason.--Thou + wearyest thyself in vain.--He denyed himself all sinful pleasures. + + Win straiing souls with modesty and love; + Cast none away. + The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. + Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder + allies green. + + +RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllable +beginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant, +is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_. + +But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very +rarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy, +joyless, joyful_. + + _False Orthography_.--His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful + humors.--The vessel was heavyly laden.--When we act against + conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace. + + Christiana, mayden of heroic mien! + Star of the north! of northern stars the queen! + + +RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, +ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, +double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins +with a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_. + +But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the last +syllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer, +an offering; maid, maiden_. + + _False Orthography_.--The business of to-day, should not be defered + till to-morrow.--That law is annuled.--When we have outstriped our + errors we have won the race.--By defering our repentance, we + accumulate our sorrows.--The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many + things which the heathen philosophers allowed. + + At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow + Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.-- + Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound + Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground. + +RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or +_ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fully +skilful_. + +But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less, +ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as, +_harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_. + + _False Orthography_.--A chillness generally precedes a fever.--He is + wed to dullness. + + The silent stranger stood amazed to see + Contempt of wealth and willful poverty. + + Restlesness of mind impairs our peace.--The road to the blisful + regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king.--The arrows of + calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue. + +RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent +_e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_; +except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_. + + _False Orthography_.--Sedatness is becoming. + + All these with ceasless praise his works behold. + Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives + Her ploughshare o'er creation! + ------Nature made a pause, + An aweful pause! prophetic of her end! + +RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, +_ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_. + +_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ is +preceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry, +merriment_. + + _False Orthography_.--A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates + improvment.--Encouragment is greatest when we least need it. + + To shun allurments is not hard, + To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared. + +RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_ +or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable; +cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_ +in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with +_able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_. + + _False Orthography_.--Knowledge is desireable.--Misconduct is + inexcuseable.--Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.--We + are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves. + +RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent +_e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge, +lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_. + + _False Orthography_.--Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish + spirit.--An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected + with a servile and cringeing humor. + + Conscience anticipateing time, + Already rues th' unacted crime. + One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs + Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. + +RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the +simple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight, +thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions to +this rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words, +_wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_. + + _False Orthography_.--The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M. + 2513.--They salute one another by touching their forheads.--That + which is some times expedient, is not allways so. + + Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain, + There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man. + Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour, + There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. + The head reclined, the loosened hair, + The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:-- + See, he looks up; a wofull smile + Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile. + + +You may now answer the following + +QUESTIONS. + +What is language?--How is language divided?--What is natural +language?--What are the elements of natural language in man?--Wherein +consists the language of brutes?--What is artificial language?--What is +an idea?--What are words?--What is grammar?--What does Universal grammar +explain?--Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?--What +is the standard of grammatical accuracy?--What is Philosophical +grammar?--What is Practical grammar?--What is a principle of grammar?--A +definition?--A rule?--What is English grammar?--Into how many parts is +grammar divided?--What does Orthography teach? + + * * * * * + +ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX + + +LECTURE II + +OF NOUNS AND VERBS. + +ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various +modifications, and their derivation. + +SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their +proper arrangement in a sentence. + +The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_. + +_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means +_placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_. + +The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and +their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to +correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles +unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a +prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of +Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes +necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these +two parts of grammar in connexion. + +Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the +exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their +whole history, including their application to things in accordance with +the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply +them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources, +and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process +altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would +lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately +derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages +to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would +become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one +man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views +of this part of grammar. + +1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words. + +2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to each +class or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. By +modifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, in +consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one +another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_, +h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_, +writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will be +explained in their appropriate places. + +3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teaches +you _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example, +from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_, +speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_. +These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the +last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other +only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on +the word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ who +speak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_ +speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_ +speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_. + +The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the +second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the +Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of +derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is +the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is +not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to +trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the +Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their +meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but +it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their +connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in +which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor +in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but +_at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are already +derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound +to take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without any +regard to their ancient construction and application. + +CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be +the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practical +convenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a +reference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words, +nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they are +at present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankind +are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to +communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the +transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in +short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_, +or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by +refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and +elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every +language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than +in its barbarous state. + +The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the +_original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ of +meaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_. + +The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it +represents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dips +his _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word +_paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painter +uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to +_name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and, +lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a +_verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these +applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and +thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took +_water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants. + +ETYMOLOGY. + +Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words. + +THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, +and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been +greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, +Italian, and German languages. + +The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and +words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may +be estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words, +called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE, +ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and +INTERJECTION. + +Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are +included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a +knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these +ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The +_Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech; +therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the +interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you +proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more +labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become +familiar with all the minor parts of speech. + +The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them with +each other, and _express their actions_. + +_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ which +denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and +expressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions and +being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised +in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults, +mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, that +no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the +foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in +this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a +greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the +subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this +arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words +are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared +to appreciate my arguments. + + +OF NOUNS. + +A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston, +knowledge_. + +Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is the +name of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a +_substance_ or a _quality_. + +_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The name +of any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or +which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun. +_Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty, +virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish +this part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will be +useful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that will +make sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words by +this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind, +conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, and +so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed; +therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions to +this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. These +you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their +_making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope, +immortality_. + + [1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is + almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal + and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that + which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also + frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly + _thing_." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature; + but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing. + +Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as +its reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, +invisibility_. + +Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to +their _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, +and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the +concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to +comprehend it. + +NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper. + +A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man, +tree, river_. + +A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca, +Ganges_. + +A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun of +multitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_. + +The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For +example: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_ +boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an +_individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you +know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to all +boys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an +individual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the name +of a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_ +rivers. + +Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, +are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_, +different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties. +The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a +common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper +noun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are _common +nouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes of +things containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places, +rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are _proper nouns_, because they denote +_individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron. + +_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns, +because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, when +applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to +denote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common. +The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance, +demand your attentive and careful perusal. + + NOTES. + + 1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are + used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled + _the_ Washington of South America." + + 2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when + articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is + studious; _That_ girl is discreet." In such instances, they are + nearly equivalent to proper nouns. + + 3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following + classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament: + _Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing; + and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from + their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student + be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives, + both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be + necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts + of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_ + (that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it + belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_ + the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and + _white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a + distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in + reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper, + _white_ mouse. + + 4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and + sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which + appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of + things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial + nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house: + 3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man, + woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things + inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following, + however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the + names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial + nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope, + immortality. + +To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. + +GENDER. + +GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the +masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. + +The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_. + +The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_. + +The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_. + +_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neither +gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender +means _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes, +nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience, +we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_ +gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only +languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division +of nouns.--The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther +explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the +following + + NOTES. + + 1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and + sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the + masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate, + neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c._ if doubtful, are + of the masculine _or_ feminine gender. + + 2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or + _personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender. + Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous + for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by + nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep, + winter, &c._ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are + conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or + which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon, + church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, + virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c._ This principle for designating the + sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally + adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet + applies the sex according to his fancy. + + The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways: + + + 1. _By different words_; as, + + _Masculine_. _Feminine_. + Bachelor maid + Boar sow + Boy girl + Brother sister + Buck doe + Bull cow + Cock hen + Dog bitch + Drake duck + Earl countess + Father mother + Friar nun + Gander goose + Hart roe + Horse mare + Husband wife + King queen + Lad lass + Lord lady + Man woman + Master mistress + Milter spawner + Nephew niece + Ram ewe + Singer songstress or singer + Sloven slut + Son daughter + Stag hind + Uncle aunt + Wizard witch + Sir madam + + 2. _By a difference in termination_; as, + Abbot abbess + Actor actress + Administrator administratrix + Adulterer adulteress + Ambassador ambassadress + Arbiter arbitress + Auditor auditress + Author authoress + Baron baroness + Benefactor benefactress + Bridegroom bride + Canon canoness + Caterer cateress + Chanter chantress + Conductor conductress + Count countess + Czar czarina + Deacon deaconess + Detracter detractress + Director directress + Duke dutchess + Elector electress + Embassador embassadress + Emperor emperess + Enchanter enchantress + Executor executrix + Fornicator fornicatress + God goddess + Governor governess + Heir heiress + Hero heroine + Host hostess + Hunter huntress + Inheritor inheritress or inheritrix + Instructor instructress + Jew Jewess + Lion lioness + Marquis marchioness + Mayor mayoress + Patron patroness + Peer peeress + Poet poetess + Priest priestess + Prince princess + Prior prioress + Prophet prophetess + Proprietor proprietress + Protector protectress + Shepherd shepherdess + Songster songstress + Sorcerer sorceress + Suiter suitress + Sultan sultaness or sultana + Tiger tigress + Testator testatrix + Traitor traitress + Tutor tutoress + Tyrant tyranness + Victor victress + Viscount viscountess + Votary votaress + Widower widow + + 3. _By prefixing another word_; as, + + A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow + A man-servant A maid-servant + A he-goat A she-goat + A he-bear A she-bear + A male-child A female-child + Male-descendants Female-descendants + + +PERSON. + +PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb. + +The _first person_ denotes the speaker. + +The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen, +_earth!"_ + +The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The +_earth_ thirsts." + +Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks, +the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be in +the _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologists +suppose the noun to be in the _first_ person:--"This may certify, that +I, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident, +that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_ +himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_. + +If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought +is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed. +If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the +noun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him; +that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_ +person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, have +you seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the +_third_. + +"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ of +the sky?" + +"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship +between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his +wig-wam behind the western waters." + + "Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies! + Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!" + "Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore + Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore." + +In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope, +are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the +nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain, +friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, +bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person. + +NUMBER. + +Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two +numbers, the singular and the plural. + +The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_. + +The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_. + + NOTES. + + 1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax, + barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, + compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows, + scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers, + ides, pains, vespers, &c. + + 2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine; + and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species. + + 3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to + the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add + _es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; + cargo, cargoes. + + 4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of + that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except + grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals + by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular + plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves. + + 5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the + same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty, + beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is + another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays; + attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys. + + 6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics, + hydraulics_, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns. + + 7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and + _amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in + signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiae are + always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti. + + 8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any + general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox, + oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse, + lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny, + pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_ + dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species + is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as, + six _peas_, ten _fishes_. + + 9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, + handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law, + brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial. + + The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the + languages from which they are adopted. + + + _Singular_ _Plural._ + Antithesis antitheses + Apex apices + Appendix appendixes _or_ appendices + Arcanum arcana + Automaton automata + Axis axes + Basis bases + Beau beaux _or_ beaus + Calx calces _or_ calxes + Cherub cherubim _or_ cherubs + Crisis crises + Criterion criteria + Datum data + Diaeresis diaereses + Desideratum desiderata + Effluvium effluvia + Ellipsis ellipses + Emphasis emphases + Encomium encomia _or_ encomiums + Erratum errata + Genius genii [2] + Genus genera + Hypothesis hypotheses + Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui + Index indices _or_ indexes [3] + Lamina laminae + Magus magi + Memorandum memoranda _or_ memorandums + Metamorphosis metamorphoses + Parenthesis parentheses + Phenomenon phenomena + Radius radii _or_ radiuses + Stamen stamina + Seraph seraphim _or_ seraphs + Stimulus stimuli + Stratum strata + Thesis theses + Vertex vertices + Vortex vortices _or_ vortexes + + +[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental +abilities. + +[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, +when referring to algebraic quantities. + +CASE. + +Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, +situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have +three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. + +I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in +the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but in +the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming +different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this +definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning +principles, founded in the nature of things. + +Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what +is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the +different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes. +The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, +then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say +he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is +lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to +denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun +before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative +case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it +has another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_ +in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_ +gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is, +therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the +_boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of +the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I +say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as +_acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which +reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns +have three cases or positions. + +As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably +connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them +until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I +will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in +connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of +the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature. + +In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with +each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to +the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of +the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to +name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for +their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, +or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, +they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so +on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. +Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be +to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we +call + +VERBS. + +A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_; +I _rule_; I _am ruled_. + +Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also +divided into regular, irregular, and defective. + +The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifies +a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it +is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb +and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The +noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in +order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most +useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. +The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as +you will hereafter learn, of minor importance. + +For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the +verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as +_convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent +with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I +shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle +of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to +the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good +definition. + +A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_. + +An _active verb_ expresses action; and + +The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John +writes_. + +In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_, +because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_, +therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you +know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the +_nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man +walks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive that +the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you +cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and +_warriors_, are in the _nominative case._ + +As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it +follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This +_actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative. +_Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_ +but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the +noun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or +nominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter +exemplified. + +A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _a +state of being_; as, _John sits_. + +Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as +the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative +case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express +_apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents +John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter +verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that +_neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender +implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, +by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied +to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_ +verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The +man stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--the +words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the +nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative +case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that +when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the +_actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an +actor, but the _subject_ of the verb. + +Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms +_exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man +_stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_. + +I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish +the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its +signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a +verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to +live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a +verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he +writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will +not make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is +nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is +worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_ +verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes +used as nouns. This will be explained by and by. + +To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_. + +At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but +hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties. +And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the +_intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions, +you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such +principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the +time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get +along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one +principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you +for the next. + +NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the +_actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by +the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or +relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore, +only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same +instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is +here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and +the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs; +therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with +its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb +must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb +ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_; +thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write. + +_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_, +but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree +with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb +must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the +_first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or pronoun which is its +nominative. + +I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its +nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You, +They, are _personal pronouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and +_singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing._; _He, She_, or +_It_, is _third_ per. _sing._; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or +_You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. These +pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office +that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb, +they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb. + +Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as +it is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + +1. _Per_. I walk, 1. _Per_. We Walk, +2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_, 2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk, +3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_ 3. _Per_. They walk, or + the boy walk_s_, the boys walk. + _or_ walk_eth_. + +This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, it +is of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or +_eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest, +standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh, +rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person +singular. + +I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb +must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the +nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the +same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of _walk_, +you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the _singular_, +in order to agree in _form_ with the first, second, and third person of +its nominative; but in the _plural_ it does not vary its endings from +the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in _sense_ with its +nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little +mind, and you will perceive that _agreement_ and _government_ in +language do not consist _merely_ in the _form_ of words. Now, is it not +clear, that when I say, I _walk_, the verb walk is _singular_, because +it expresses but _one_ action? And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it not +equally apparent, that walk is _plural_, because it expresses _two_ +actions? In the sentence, Ten men _walk_, the verb _walk_ denotes _ten_ +actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there +must be as many _actions_ as there are _actors_; and that the verb, when +it has _no form_ or _ending_ to show it, is as strictly plural, as when +it has.--So, in the phrase, _We_ walk, the verb walk is _first_ person, +because it expresses the actions performed by the _speakers: Ye_ or +_you_ walk, the verb is _second_ person, denoting the actions of the +persons _spoken to;_ third person, _They_ walk. The verb, then, when +correctly written, always agrees, in _sense_, with its nominative in +number and person. + +At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be +understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes +necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been +already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the +possessive, and the objective. + +POSSESSIVE CASE. The _possessive case_ denotes the possessor of +something; as, This is _John's_ horse. This expression implies, that +_John_ is the _owner_ or _possessor_ of the horse; and, that horse is +the _property_ which he possesses. + +When I say, These are the _men's_, and those, the _boys'_ hats, the two +words, "boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning +at all, that the boys _own_ or _possess_ the hats. "Samuel Badger sells +_boys'_ hats." Who _owns_ the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact +ascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, +imply, not that they are _Mr. Badger's_ hats, nor that they are _for_ +boys, but that they are hats _of_, or _belonging to_, or _possessed by_ +boys. But we _infer_ from the _words connected_ with the phrase, "boys' +hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in +the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated. + +In the phrases, _fine_ hats, _coarse_ hats, _high-crowned_ hats, +_broad-brimmed_ hats, _woollen, new, ten, some, these, many_ hats, the +words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or +define the term _hats;_ but the term _boys'_ does not _describe_ or +limit the meaning of _hats. Boys'_, therefore, is not, as some suppose, +an adjective. + +"The _slave's_ master." Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The +slave _has_ a master. If he _has_ him, then, he _possesses_ him;--he +sustains that relation to him which we call possession. + +A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an +apostrophe, and generally an _s_ after it; thus, _John's_, hat; the +_boy's_ coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in _s_, +the apostrophe is added, but no additional _s_; as, "_Boys'_ hats; +_Eagles'_ wings." When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostrophe +only is added; as, "For _goodness'_ sake; for _righteousness'_ sake;" +except the word witness; as, "The _witness's_ testimony." When a noun in +the possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but the +apostrophe is retained; as, "For _conscience'_ sake." + +Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture +_three_ times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to +_remember_, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence +over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three +times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed +in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume +to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for, +unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid +progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my +instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of +grammar in a short time.--When you shall have complied with this +requisition, you may commit the following _order of parsing a noun_, and +_the order of parsing a verb_; and then you will be prepared to parse or +analyze the following examples. + +ANALYSIS, OR PARSING. + +Do you recollect the meaning of the word _analysis?_ If you do not, I +will explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is the +reverse of synthesis. _Synthesis_ is the act of combining simples so as +to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as to +form syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to form +sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is +called synthetic. _Analysis_, on the contrary, is the act of +decomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into +its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles. +Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is +to separate from one another and classify the different words of which +it is composed; and to analyze or _parse_ a word, means to enumerate and +describe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations with +respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its +inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to +be of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find +it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct, +errors in composition. + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +The _order of parsing_ a NOUN, is--a noun, and why?--common, proper, or +collective, and why?--gender, and why?--person, and why?--number, and +why?--case, and why?--RULE:--decline it. + +_The order of parsing_ a VERB, is--a verb, and why?--active, passive, +or neuter, and why?--if _active_--transitive or intransitive, and +why?--if _passive_--how is it formed?--regular, irregular, or defective, +and why?--mood, and why?--tense, and why?--person and number, and +why?--with what does it agree?--RULE:--conjugate it. + +I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by +applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions +given in the order. If you have _perfectly committed_ the order of +parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, you +cannot parse a verb _in full_, until you shall have had a more complete +explanation of it. + + _John's hand trembles_. + +_John's_ is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person--proper, the +name of an individual--masculine gender, it denotes a male--third +person, spoken of--singular number, it implies but one--and in the +possessive case, it denotes possession--it is governed by the noun +"hand," according to + +RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the +noun it possesses_. + +Declined--Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural--nom. +Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns. + +_Hand_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort or +species of things--neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex--third +person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the +nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "trembles," and +governs it agreeably to + +RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb:_--that is, the nominative +determines the number and person of the verb. + +Declined--Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands, +poss. hands', obj. hands. + +_Trembles_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it expresses +action--third person, singular number, because the nominative "hand" is +with which it agrees, according to + +RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_. + +You must not say that the verb is of the third person because _it is +spoken of_. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person, +and singular or plural number, because its nominative is. + +Conjugated--First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou tremblest, 3 pers. +he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we tremble, 2 pers. +ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble. + +Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has over +another, in causing that other word to be in some _particular case, +number, person, mood_, or _tense_. + +ILLUSTRATION. + +RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb_. + +If you employ the pronoun _I_, which is of the _first_ person, singular +number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers. +sing, thus, I _smile_; and when your nominative is _second_ pers. sing, +your verb must be; as, thou smil_est_. Why, in the latter instance, does +the ending of the verb change to _est_? Because the nominative changes. +And if your nominative is _third_ person, the verb will vary again; +thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that _the +nominative governs the verb_; that is, the nominative has power to +change the _form_ and _meaning_ of the verb, in respect to num. and +person. Government, thus far, is evinced in the _form_ of the words, as +well as in the sense. + +RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_. + +It is improper to say, thou _hear_, the men _hears_. Why improper? +Because _hear_ is _first_ pers. and the nominative _thou_ is _second_ +pers. _Hears_ is singular, and the nom. _men_ is _plural_. Rule 4th +says, _The verb must agree with its nominative_. The expressions should, +therefore, be, thou hear_est_, the men _hear_; and then the verb would +_agree_ with its nominatives. But _why_ must the verb agree with its +nominative? Why must we say, thou talk_est_, the man talks, men _talk_? +Because the genius of our language, and the common consent of those who +speak it, _require_ such a construction: and this _requisition_ amounts +to a _law_ or _rule_. This _rule_, then, is founded in _the nature of +things_, and sanctioned by _good usage_. + +RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the +noun which it possesses_. + +It is correct to say, The _man_ eats, _he_ eats; but we cannot say, the +_man_ dog eats, _he_ dog eats. Why not? Because the man is here +represented as the _possessor_, and _dog_, the _property_, or _thing +possessed_; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to +the possessor, the _thing_ which he is represented as possessing, the +possessor shall take a particular form to show its _case_, or _relation +to the property_; thus, The _man's_ dog eats, _his_ dog eats. You +perceive, then, that the _added_ noun, denoting the thing possessed, has +power _to change the form_ of the noun or pronoun denoting the +possessor, according to RULE 12. thus, by adding dog in the preceding +examples, _man_ is changed to _man's_, and _he_, to _his_. + +Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite +familiar to you; and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and +_systematically_, the following exercises. When you parse, you may +spread the Compendium before you; and, if you have not already committed +the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. +This mode of procedure will enable you to learn _all_ the definitions +and rules by applying them to practice. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Rain descends--Rains descend--Snow falls--Snows fall--Thunder +rolls--Thunders roll--Man's works decay--Men's labors cease--John's dog +barks--Eliza's voice trembles--Julia's sister's child improves--Peter's +cousin's horse limps. + +In the next place, I will parse a noun and a _neuter_ verb, which verb, +you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect. + + _"Birds repose_ on the branches of trees." + +_Birds_ is a noun, the name of a thing or creature--common, the name of +a genus or class--masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males +and females--third person, spoken of--plural number, it implies more +than one--and in the nominative case, it is the _subject_ of the verb +"repose," and governs it according to RULE 3. _The nominative case +governs the verb_. Declined--Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. +Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds. + +_Repose_ is a verb, a word that signifies to _be_--neuter, it expresses +neither action nor passion, but a state of being--third person, plural +number, because the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees, +agreeably to RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number +and person_. + +Declined--1. pers. sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. pers. he +reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or +you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds repose. + +Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by +_italics_, in the following + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +The _book lies_ on the desk--The _cloak hangs_ on the wall--_Man's days +are_ few--_Cathmor's warriors sleep_ in death--_Caltho reposes_ in the +narrow house--Jocund _day stands_ tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The +_sunbeams rest_ on the grave where her _beauty sleeps_. + +You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that follow, +_five or six times over_, if you please. + +OBJECTIVE CASE.--ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS. + +The _objective_ case expresses the object of an action or of a +relation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or a +preposition. + +A noun is in the objective case when it is the _object_ of something. At +present I shall explain this case only as the object of an _action_; but +when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also +illustrate it as the object of a _relation_. + +An active verb is _transitive_ when the action passes over from the +subject or nominative to an object; as, Richard _strikes_ John. + +_Transitive_ means _passing_. In this sentence the action of the verb +_strikes_ is _transitive_, because it _passes over_ from the nominative +Richard to the object John; and you know that the noun John is in the +_objective_ case, because it is _the object of the action_ expressed by +the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For +example: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that +Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object in +view. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileo +invented what? The telescope. _Telescope_, then, is the real object of +the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented; and, therefore, +telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse _kicks_ the +servant--Carpenters _build_ houses--Ossian _wrote_ poems--Columbus +_discovered_ America--you readily perceive, that the verbs _kick, build, +wrote_, and _discovered_, express transitive actions; and you cannot be +at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case:--they are +_servant, houses, poems_, and _America_. + +The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the +following rule: the nominative _does something_; the objective _has +something done to it_. The nominative generally comes _before_ the verb; +and the objective, _after_ it. When I say, George struck the servant, +_George_ is in the nominative, and _servant_ is in the objective case; +but, when I say, The servant struck George, _servant_ is in the +nominative case, and _George_ is in the objective. Thus you perceive, +that _Case_ means the different state or situation of nouns with regard +to other words. + +It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall, +therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an +explanation of the participle and preposition. + +Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in the +nominative case _independent_, sometimes in the nominative case +absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and sometimes in the +nominative or objective case after the neuter to _be_, or after an +active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated in +Lecture X. and in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax. + +ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS. + +An active verb is _transitive_, when the action terminates on an object: +but + +An active verb is _intransitive_, when the action does _not_ terminate +on an object; as, John _walks_. + +You perceive that the verb _walks_, in this example, is _intransitive_, +because the action does not pass over to an object; that is, the action +is confined to the agent John. The following _sign_ will generally +enable you to distinguish a _transitive_ verb from an _intransitive_. +Any verb that will make sense with the words _a thing_ or _a person_, +after it, is _transitive_. Try these verbs by the sign, _love, help, +conquer, reach, subdue, overcome_. Thus, you can say, I love _a person_ +or _thing_--I can help _a person_ or _thing_--and so on. Hence you know +that these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make +sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following +examples: _smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly_. We cannot say, if we +mean to speak English, I smile a _person_ or _thing_--I go _a person_ or +_thing_:--hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive, but +intransitive. + +If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have a +clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs. +Before I close this subject, however, it is necessary farther to remark, +that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a +_mental_ or _moral_ action; and others, a _corporeal_ or _physical_ +action. Verbs expressing the different affections or operations of the +mind, denote moral actions; as, Brutus _loved_ his country; James +_hates_ vice; We _believe_ the tale:--to _repent_, to _relent_, to +_think_, to _reflect_, to _mourn_, to _muse_. Those expressing the +actions produced by matter, denote physical actions; as, The _dog hears_ +the bell; Virgil _wrote_ the Aenead; Columbus _discovered_ America;--to +_see_, to _feel_, to _taste_, to _smell_, to _run_, to _talk_, to _fly_, +to _strike_. In the sentence, Charles _resembles_ his father, the verb +_resembles_ does not appear to express any action at all; yet the +construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs, +are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an _active-transitive_ +verb, governing the noun _father_ in the objective case. This you may +easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a +_direct reference_ to its object. The following verbs are of this +character: _Have, own, retain_; as, I _have_ a book. + +Active _in_transitive verbs are frequently made _transitive_. When I +say, The birds _fly_, the verb _fly_ is _in_transitive; but when I say, +The boy _flies_ the kite, the verb _fly_ is _transitive_, and governs +the noun _kite_ in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive +verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse +_walks_ rapidly; The boy _runs_ swiftly; My friend _lives_ well; The man +_died_ of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are _in_transitive; +in the following they are _transitive_: The man _walks_ his horse; The +boy _ran_ a race; My friend _lives_ a holy life; Let me _die_ the death +of the righteous. + +The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deemed +sufficiently critical for practical purposes; but if we dip a little +deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do +not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has +drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost +every verb has either a _personal_ or a _verbal_ object, expressed or +implied. Verbal objects, which are the _effects_ or _productions_ +resulting from the actions, being necessarily implied, are seldom +expressed. + +The fire _burns_. If the fire burns, it must burn _wood, coal, tallow_, +or some other combustible substance. The man _laughs_. Laughs what? +Laughs _laughter_ or _laugh_. They _walk_; that is, They walk or take +_walks_. Rivers flow (move or roll _them-selves_ or their _waters_) +into the ocean. + + "I _sing_ the shady _regions_ of the west." + + "And _smile_ the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age." + +The child _wept itself_ sick; and then, by taking (or _sleeping_) a +short _nap_, it _slept itself_ quiet and well again. "He will soon +_sleep_ his everlasting _sleep"_; that is, "He will _sleep_ the _sleep_ +of death." + +Thinkers think _thoughts_; Talkers talk or employ _words, talk,_ or +_speeches_; The rain rains _rain_. "Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord +_rained fire_ and _brimstone_." "I must _go_ the whole _length_." "I +shall soon _go_ the _way_ of all the earth." + +Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attentively; +after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercises +containing nouns in the three cases, and active-transitive verbs. + + The printer _prints_ books. + +_Prints_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses +action--transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer" +to the object "books"--third pers. sing. numb. because the nominative +printer is with which it agrees. + +RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and +person_. + +Declined--1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. he +prints, or the printer prints, and so on. + +_Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort of +things,--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken +of--plur. num. it implies more than one--and in the objective case, it +is the object of the action, expressed by the active-transitive verb +"prints," and is governed by it according to + +RULE 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case_. + +The noun _books_ is thus declined--Sing. nom. book, poss. book's, obj. +book--Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books. + +RULE 20. Transitive verbs _govern_ the objective case; that is, they +_require_ the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case; and +this requisition is government. Pronouns have a particular _form_ to +suit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say, She _struck he_; I +gave the book _to they_. Why not? Because the genius of our language +requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition (_to_ is +a preposition) to assume that _form_ which we call the _objective_ form +or case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck _him_; I +gave the book to _them_.--Read, again, the illustration of "government" +on page 52. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +_Nom. case.--Trans. verb--Poss. case--Obj. case._ +Julius prints childrens' primers. +Harriet makes ladies' bonnets. +The servant beats the man's horse. +The horse kicks the servant's master. +The boy struck that man's child. +The child lost those boys' ball. +The tempest sunk those merchants' vessels. +Pope translated Homer's Illiad. +Cicero procured Milo's release. +Alexander conquered Darius' army. +Perry met the enemy's fleet. +Washington obtained his country's freedom. + + NOTE 1. The words _the, that, those_, and _his_, you need not parse. + 2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun + understood; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.] + +As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it becomes +necessary to present, in the next place, the declension of nouns, for +you must decline every noun you parse. _Declension_ means putting a noun +through the different cases: and you will notice, that the possessive +case varies from the nominative in its termination, or ending, but the +_objective_ case ends like the nominative. The nominative and objective +cases of nouns, must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in +the sentence, or by considering the office they perform. + +DECLENSION OF NOUNS. + + SING. PLUR. + +_Nom._ king kings +_Poss._ king's kings' +_Obj._ king. kings. + +_Nom._ man men +_Poss._ man's men's +_Obj._ man. men. + +Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding examples, (except +_the, that, those_, and _his_) you may proceed with me and parse the +examples in the following exercises, in which are presented nouns and +active-intransitive verbs. + + "My _flock increases_ yearly." + +_Flock_ is a noun, a name denoting animals--a noun of multitude, it +signifies many in one collective body--masculine and feminine gender, +denoting both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, it +denotes but one flock--and in the nominative case, it is the active +agent of the verb "increases," and governs it, according to RULE 3, _The +nominative case governs the verb_. (Decline it.) + +_Increases_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses +action--intransitive, the action does not pass over to an object--of the +third person, singular number, because its nominative "flock" conveys +_unity_ of idea, and it agrees with "flock" agreeably to + +RULE 10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, must have a +verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular_. + +"The divided _multitude_ hastily _disperse_." + +_Multitude_ is a noun, a name that denotes persons--a collective noun, +or noun of multitude, it signifies many--masculine and feminine gender, +it implies both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, it +represents but one multitude, or collective body; (but in another sense, +it is plural, as it conveys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more +_individuals_ than one;)--and in the nominative case, it is the actor +and subject of the verb "disperse," which it governs, according to RULE +3. _The nom. case governs the verb_.--Declined.--Sing. nom. multitude, +poss. multitude's, obj. multitude--Plur. nom. multitudes, poss. +multitudes', obj. multitudes. + +_Disperse_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses +action--intransitive, the action does not terminate on an object--third +person, plural number, because its nominative "multitude" conveys +plurality of idea; and it agrees with "multitude" agreeably to RULE 11. +_A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or +pronoun agreeing with it in the plural._ + +Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be +based on the principles of the language; and, therefore, it might, +perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application is +quite limited. In many instances, they will not apply to nouns of +multitude. The existence of such a thing as "unity or plurality of +idea," as applicable to nouns of this class, is _doubtful_. It is just +as correct to say, "The _meeting was_ divided in _its_ sentiments," as +to say, "The _meeting were_ divided in _their_ sentiments." Both are +equally supported by the genius of the language, and by the power of +custom. It is correct to say, either that, "The _fleet were_ dispersed;" +"The _council were_ unanimous;" "The _council were_ divided;" or that, +"The _fleet was_ dispersed;" "The _council was_ unanimous;" "The +_council was_ divided." But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some +instances, custom has decided in favor of a singular, and in others, of +a plural construction, connected with words of this class. For example; +custom gives a preference to the constructions, "My _people do_ not +consider;" "The _peasantry go_ barefoot;" "The _flock is_ his object;" +instead of, "_My people doth_ not consider;" "The _peasantry goes_ +barefoot;" "The _flock are_ his object." In instances like these, the +application of the foregoing rules _may_ be of some use; but the +constructions in which they do not apply, are probably more numerous +than those in which they do. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Nom. case. Intran. verb. Nom. case. Intran. verb. +Men labor. The sun sets. +Armies march. The moon rises. +Vessels sail. The stars twinkle. +Birds fly. The rain descends. +Clouds move. The river flows. +Multitudes perish. The nation mourns. + +Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number of words which +you parse, but on the _attention_ which you give the subject. _You may +parse the same exercises several times over._ + +For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present another + +DIVISION OF VERBS. + +Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive. + +A verb is transitive when the action affects an object; as, "Earthquakes +_rock_ kingdoms; thrones and palaces _are shaken_ down; and potentates, +princes, and subjects, _are buried_ in one common grave." + +The nominative to a passive verb, is the _object_, but not the _agent_, +of the action. + +A verb is intransitive when it has no object; as, "The waters _came_ +upon me;" "I _am_ he who _was_, and _is_, and _is_ to _come_." + +As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now put to you a +few questions, all of which you ought to be able to answer before you +proceed any farther. + +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +With what two general divisions of grammar does the second lecture +begin?--Of what does Etymology treat?--Of what does Syntax treat?--On +what is based the true principle of classification?--How do you +ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs?--What is meant by +its _manner_ of meaning?--Name the ten parts of speech.--Which of these +are considered the most important?--By what sign may a noun be +distinguished?--How many kinds of nouns are there?--What belong to +nouns?--What is gender?--How many genders have nouns?--What is +person?--How many persons have nouns?--What is number?--How many numbers +have nouns?--What is case?--How many cases have nouns?--Does case +consist in the _inflections_ of a noun?--How many kinds of verbs are +there?--By what sign may a verb be known?--What belong to verbs?--What +is synthesis?--What is analysis?--What is parsing?--Repeat the order of +parsing the noun.--Repeat the order of parsing the verb.--What rule do +you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case?--What rule, in +parsing a noun in the nominative case?--What rule applies in parsing a +verb?--What is meant by government?--Explain rules 3, 4, and 12.--By +what rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known?--By +what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive +verb?--Do transitive verbs ever express a _moral_ action?--Are +intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive?--Give some +examples of transitive verbs with _personal_ and _verbal_ objects.--What +rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case?--Explain rule +20.--In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying +_plurality_ of idea, what rule do you apply? + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. + +Whether the learner be required to answer the following questions, or +not, is, of course, left _discretionary_ with the teacher. The author +takes the liberty to suggest the expediency of _not_, generally, +enforcing such a requisition, _until the pupil goes through the book a +second time._ + +Name some participial nouns.--What are abstract nouns?--What is the +distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives?--What are natural +nouns?--Artificial nouns?--What is the distinction between _material_ +and _immaterial_ nouns?--Are nouns ever of the masculine and feminine +gender?--Give examples.--When are nouns, naturally neuter, converted +into the masculine or feminine gender?--Give examples.--Speak some nouns +that are always in the singular number.--Some that are always +plural.--Speak some that are in the same form in both numbers.--Name +_all_ the various ways of forming the plural number of nouns.--Of what +number are the nouns _news, means, alms_, and _amends_?--Name the +plurals to the following compound nouns, _handful, cupful, spoonful, +brother-in-law, court-martial_. + + + * * * * * + + + NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. + + Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research, + and critical investigation of original, constituent principles, + formations, and combinations, than the English language. The + legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive, + has, in some instances, been made to yield to that of philosophy, so + far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language + which refinement has introduced, to radical elements and + associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the + essential use for which language was intended. Were this + retrogressive mode of investigating and applying principles, to + obtain, among philologists, the ascendency over that which + accommodates the use of language to progressive refinement, it is + easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would, in a + short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the philosophy + of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of + philology as it applies to the present, progressive and refined + state of English literature, the great object contemplated by the + learned, in all ages, namely, the approximation of language, in + common with every thing else, to that point of perfection at which + it is the object of correct philology to arrive, would be + frustrated. + + The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and + visionaries who absurdly endeavor to teach modern English, by + rejecting the authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting + the learner back to the original combinations, and the detached, + disjointed, and barbarous constructions of our progenitors, both + prudence and reason, as well as a due regard for correct philology, + impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by bringing to their aid + a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic in the + swelling phrases, "philosophy, reason, and common sense," attempt to + overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of all + the labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously + occupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but error and + folly, will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited + by such consummate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for + those who employ our language as their vehicle of mental conference, + custom will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary. + If it would, improvement in English literature would soon be at an + end, and we should be tamely conducted back to the Vandalic age. + + As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is + evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of _grammatical + certainty_, it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a + view to expose the fallacy of so vague a criterion. + + All reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of + language for an ultimate result, must be conducted _a posteriori_. + Its office, according to the ordinary mode of treating the subject, + is to trace language to its origin, not for the purpose of + determining and fixing grammatical associations and dependances, + such as the agreement, government, and mutual relations of words, + but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the + first principles of the language, and arrive at the primitive + meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid + critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original + import of single words, has any relation to the syntactical + dependances and connexions of words in general;--to gain a knowledge + of which, is the leading object of the student in grammar. And, + furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such useless + vagaries, to show by what process, with their own systems, they can + communicate a practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict, + that, if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more + splendid in theory, than useful in practice. + + Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning + has any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the + power of association, custom has assigned to many words;--a + signification _essentially different_ from the original import. Were + this the case, and were the language now to be taught and understood + in compliance with the original import of words, it would have to + undergo a thorough change; to be analyzed, divided, and sub-divided, + almost _ad infinitum_. Indeed, there is the same propriety in + asserting that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our + language, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to + understand our vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that + their primitive meaning has an ascendency over the influence of the + principle of association in changing, and the power of custom in + determining, the import of words. Many of our words are derived from + the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages; + and the only use we can make of their originals, is to render them + subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general usage + has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the + advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language, + extend their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them, + and, with Horne Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions, + conjunctions, and interjections, as abbreviations of nouns and + verbs, but, on their own responsibility, apply them, in teaching the + language, _in compliance with their radical import_, and what would + such a course avail them against the power of custom, and the + influence of association and refinement? Let them show me one + grammarian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will + exhibit a "philosophical" miracle. They might as well undertake to + teach architecture, by having recourse to its origin, as + represented by booths and tents. In addition to this, when we + consider the great number of obsolete words, from which many now in + use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot be + ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been + changed by the principle of association, it is preposterous to + think, that a mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching + the language, is the one by which its significancy can be enforced, + its correctness determined, its use comprehended, and its + improvement extended. Before what commonly passes for a + philosophical manner of developing the language can successfully be + made the medium through which it can be comprehended, in all its + present combinations, relations, and dependances, it must undergo a + thorough retrogressive change, in all those combinations, relations, + and dependances, even to the last letter of the alphabet. And before + we can consent to this radical modification and retrograde ratio of + the English language, we must agree to revive the customs, the + habits, and the precise language of our progenitors, the Goths and + Vandals. Were all the advocates for the introduction of such + philosophical grammars into common schools, at once to enter on + their pilgrimage, and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity + of the ancient Britons, Picts, and Vandals, it is believed, that the + cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatly by their + loss, and that the good sense of the present age, would not allow + many of our best teachers to be of the party. + + The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of + investigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this + mode of analyzing and reducing it to practice, _it cannot, in this + age, be comprehended_ as the medium of thought. Were this method to + prevail, our present literal language would become a dead letter. Of + what avail is language, if it can not be understood? And how can it + be accommodated to the understanding, unless it receive the sanction + of common consent? Even if we admit that such a manner of unfolding + the principles of our language, is more rational and correct than + the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such a mode + of investigation and development, does not meet the necessities and + convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that + system which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their + origin, must unfold the whole in the same manner. But the student in + common schools and academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of + language up to its source, and there dive to the bottom of the + fountain for knowledge. Such labor ought not to be required of him. + His object is to become, not a philosophical antiquarian, but a + practical grammarian. If I comprehend the design (if they have any) + of our modern philosophical writers on this subject, it is to make + grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, arising out of + the genius of the language, and the nature of things, which the + learner, by the exercise of his _reasoning powers_, must reduce to + practice. His own judgment, _independent of grammar rules_, is to be + his guide in speaking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them + exclude from their systems, all exercises in what is called _false + Syntax_. But these profound philological dictators appear to have + overlooked the important consideration, that the great mass of + mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common schools, _can + never become philosophers;_ and, consequently, can never comprehend + and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of + grammar. I wish to see children treated as _reasoning_ beings. But + there should be a medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to + instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers and + logicians. + + To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising + the learner in correcting _false Syntax_, I need no other argument + than the interesting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labors, + in this department, have effected a complete revolution in the + English language, in point of verbal accuracy. Who does not know, + that the best writers of this day, are not guilty of _one_ + grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before Mr. + Murray flourished, are guilty of _five_? And what has produced this + important change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who + have studied "Mr. Murray's exercises in FALSE SYNTAX." If, then, + this view of the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater + portion of our philosophical grammars, are far more worthy the + attention of literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of + learners. + + Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, + exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought + proper, for the gratification of such, to intersperse through the + pages of this work under the head of "PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES," an + entire system of grammatical principles as deduced from what appears + to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical + investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhibited in the + body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it. + + _In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to + accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of this work. + Wherever such agreement exists, the system contained in these NOTES + will be deficient, and this deficiency may be supplied by adopting + the principles contained in the other parts of the work_. + + + * * * * * + + + OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. + + According to the method in which philosophical investigations of + language have generally been conducted, all our words should be + reduced to two classes; for it can be easily shown, that from the + noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. + They may even be reduced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, _express_ + actions; but they are intrinsically the mere _names_ of actions. The + idea of action or being communicated by them, as well as the + _meaning_ of words in general, is merely _inferential_. The + principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Horne Tooke, if + carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving + that we have but one part of speech. + + _Adnouns_ or _adjectives_ were originally nouns. _Sweet, red, + white_, are the _names_ of qualities, as well as _sweetness, + redness, whiteness_. The former differ from the latter only in their + _manner_ of signification. To denote that the name of some quality + or substance is to be used in connexion with some other name, or, + that this quality is to be _attributed_ to some other name, we + sometimes affix to it the termination _en, ed_, or _y;_ which + signifies _give, add,_ or _join_. When we employ the words wood_en_, + wooll_en_, wealth_y_, grass_y_, the terminations _en_ and _y_, by + their own intrinsic meaning, give notice that we intend to _give, + add, or join_, the names of some other substances in which are found + the properties or qualities of _wood, wool, wealth_, or _grass_. + + _Pronouns_ are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent + their disagreeable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the + verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and + conjunctions, are contractions of abbreviations of nouns and verbs. + _An_ (_a, one_, or _one_) comes from _ananad_, to add, to heap. + _The_ and _that_, from the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to get, assume. + _Lo_ is the imperative of _look_; _fy_, of _fian_, to hate; and + _welcome_ means, it is _well_ that you are _come. In_ comes from the + Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; and _about_, from + _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Through_ or _thorough_ is the + Teutonic noun _thuruh_, meaning passage, gate, door. _From_ is the + Anglo-Saxon noun _frum_, beginning, source, author. He came _from + (beginning)_ Batavia. _If_ (formerly written _gif, give, gin_) is + the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. I will + remain _if_ (_give_ or _grant that fact_) he will (_remain_.) _But_ + comes from the Saxon verb _beon-utan_, to be-out. I informed no one + _but (be-out, leave-out)_ my brother. + + This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the + manner in which, according to Horne Tooke's principles, the ten + parts of speech are reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed + to concede, that this is the _true_ principle of classification; nor + that it is any more _philosophical_ or _rational_ than one which + allows a more practical division and arrangement of words. What has + been generally received as "philosophical grammar," appears to + possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our + common, practical grammars. Query. Is not Mr. Murray's octavo + grammar more worthy the dignified title of a "Philosophical + Grammar," than Horne Tooke's "Diversions of Purley," or William S. + Cardell's treatises on language? What constitutes a _philosophical_ + treatise, on this, or on any other subject? _Wherein_ is there a + display of philosophy in a speculative, etymological performance, + which attempts to develop and explain the elements and primitive + meaning of words by tracing them to their origin, _superior_ to the + philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the + principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their + legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient + medium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts? Does + philosophy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in + order to _guess_ at the ancient construction and signification of + single words? or have such investigations, in reality, any thing to + do with _grammar_? + + Admitting that all the words of our language include, in their + _original_ signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it + does not follow, that they _now_ possess no other powers, and, in + their combinations and connexions in sentences, are employed for no + other purpose, than _barely_ to _name objects_. The _fact_ of the + case is, that words are variously combined and applied, to answer + the distinct and diversified purposes of _naming_ objects, + _asserting_ truths, _pointing out_ and _limiting_ objects, + _attributing qualities_ to objects, _connecting_ objects, and so on; + and on this _fact_ is founded the _true philosophical principle of + the classification of words_. Hence, an arrangement of words into + classes according to this principle, followed by a development and + illustration of the principles and rules that regulate us in the + proper use and application of words in oral and written discourse, + appears to approximate as near to a true definition _of + philosophical grammar_, as any I am capable of giving. + + _Nouns_, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless + constituted the original class of words; (if I may be allowed to + assume such a hypothesis as an _original_ class of words;) but the + ever-active principle of association, soon transformed nouns into + verbs, by making them, when employed in a particular manner, + expressive of affirmation. This same principle also operated in + appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qualities to other + names of objects; and in this way was constituted the class of words + called _adjectives_ or _attributes_. By the same principle were + formed all the other classes. + + In the following exposition of English grammar on scientific + principles, I shall divide words into seven classes; _Nouns_ or + _Names, Verbs, Adjectives, Adnouns_, or _Attributes, Adverbs, + Propositions, Pronouns_, and _Conjunctions_ or _Connectives_. + + For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work. + + + * * * * * + + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + Plausible arguments may be _advanced_, for rejecting _neuter_ and + passive verbs; but they have been found to be so convenient in + practice, that the theory which recognises them, has stood the test + of ages. If you tell the young learner, that, in the following + expressions, The church _rests_ on its foundation; The book _lies_ + on the desk; The boys _remain (are)_ idle, the nouns _church, book_, + and _boys_, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the verbs + _rests, lies, remain_, and _are_, are _active_, he will not believe + you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And + should you proceed further, and, by a labored and metaphysical + investigation and development of the laws of motion, attempt to + prove to him that "every portion of matter is influenced by + different, active principles, tending to produce change," and, + therefore, every thing in universal nature is _always_ acting, it is + not at all probable, that you could convince his _understanding_, in + opposition to the dearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to + learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend? + + Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical + grammar, the ingenious Horne Tooke stands pre-eminent; but, + unfortunately, his principal speculations on the verb, have never + met the public eye. William S. Cardell has also rendered himself + conspicuous in the philological field, by taking a bolder stand than + any of his predecessors. His view of the verb is novel, and + ingeniously supported. The following is the substance of his theory + + OF THE VERB. + + A verb is a word which expresses _action;_ as, Man _exists_; Trees + _grow_; Waters_flow_; Mountains _stand_; I _am_. + + All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one, + expressed or implied. The pillar _stands_; that is, it _keeps + itself_ in an erect or standing posture; it _upholds_ or _sustains + itself_ in that position. They _are_; i.e. they _air_ themselves, or + _breathe_ air; they _inspirit, vivify_, or _uphold_ themselves by + inhaling air. + + Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a persona + or verbal one implied. The clouds _move_; i.e. move _themselves_ + along. The troops _marched_ twenty miles a day; i.e. marched + _themselves_. The moon _shines_:--The moon _shines_ or _sheds_ a + _shining, sheen, lustre_, or _brightness_. The sparrow + _flies:--flies_ or _takes_ a _flight_. Talkers talk or speak _words_ + or _talk_; Walkers walk _walkings_ or _walks_; The rain rains + _rain_; Sitters sit or hold _sittings_ or _sessions_. + + To prove that there is no such thing as a neuter verb, the following + appear to be the strongest arguments adduced. + + 1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence; + but the component parts of every thing are at all times "influenced + by different, active principles, tending to produce change." Hence, + it follows, that no being or thing can be represented in a _neuter_ + or _non-acting state_. + + This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be + identified with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the + principles of physical science. The correctness of this position may + be doubted; but if it can be clearly demonstrated, that every + particle of matter is always in motion, it does not, by any means, + follow, that we cannot _speak of_ things in a state of quiescence. + What is _false_ in fact may be _correct_ in grammar. _The point + contested, is not whether things always_ act, _but whether, when we + assert or affirm something respecting them, we always_ represent + _them as acting_. + + 2. Verbs were _originally_ used to express the motions or changes of + things which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition, + were afterward applied, in the same way, to things whose actions + were not apparent. This assumption is untenable, and altogether + gratuitous. + + 3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood; and, as this + mood commands some one to _do_ something, any verb which adopts it, + must be active. Thus, in the common place phrases, "_Be_ there + quickly; _Stand_ out of my way; _Sit_ or _lie_ farther." + + It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an _active_ + sense; but it is certain, that they are not used according to their + proper, _literal_ meaning. When I tell a man, _literally_, to + _stand, sit_, or _lie_, by _moving_ he would disobey me; but when I + say, "_Stand_ out of my way," I employ the neuter verb _stand_, + instead of the active verb _move_ or _go_, and in a correspondent + sense. My meaning is, _Move_ yourself out of my way; or _take_ your + _stand_ somewhere else. This, however, does not prove that _stand_ + is properly used. If we choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we + can employ any _word_ in the language as an active-transitive verb. + _Be, sit_, and _lie_, may be explained in the same manner. + + 4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the + manner of _action_. They must, therefore, be considered active + verbs. The child _sleeps soundly_; He _sits genteelly_; They _live + contentedly_ and _happily_ together. + + The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By + using adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some + verbs are _not_ active. It is incorrect to say, I am _happily_; They + were _peacefully_; She remains _quietly_; The fields appear + _greenly_. These verbs in their common acceptation, do not express + _action_; for which reason we say, I am _happy_; They are + _peaceful_; &c. But in the expressions, The child sleeps _soundly_; + She sits _gracefully_; They live _happily_ and _contentedly_; we + employ the verbs _sleeps, sits_, and _live_, in an active sense. + When no action is intended, we say, They live _happy_ and + _contented_. + + If, on scientific principles, it can be proved that those verbs + generally denominated neuter, _originally_ expressed action, their + present, accepted meaning will still oppose the theory, for the + generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of _action_. + + Thus I have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of + the _modern_ theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to + estimate it according to its value. + + To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as + shall be found scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has + hitherto baffled the skill, and transcended the learning, of our + philosophical writers. If its essential quality, as is generally + supposed, is made to consist in _expressing affirmation_, it remains + still to be defined _when_ a verb _expresses_ affirmation. In + English, and in other languages, words appropriated to express + affirmation, are often used without any such force; our idea of + affirmation, in such instances, being the mere _inference of + custom_. + + In the sentence,--"_Think, love_, and _hate_, denote moral actions," + the words _think, love_, and _hate_, are nouns, because they are + mere _names_ of actions. So, when I say, "John, _write_--is an + irregular verb," the word _write_ is a noun; but when I say, "John, + _write_--your copy," _write_ is called a verb. + + Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb + in the other, when both constructions, until you pass beyond the + word write, are exactly alike? If write does not _express_ action in + the former sentence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it + is introduced in the same manner. On scientific principles, _write_ + must be considered a noun in the latter sentence, for it does not + _express_ action, or make an affirmation; but it merely _names_ the + action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is the + _inferential_ meaning. + + The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is + divested of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it + is always presented in its _noun-state_. + + If, after dinner, I say to a servant, "_Wine,"_ he infers, that I + wish him to bring me wine; but all this is not said. If I say, + _Bring_ some _wine_, he, in like manner, understands, that I wish + him to bring me wine; but all that is expressed, is the _name_ of + the action, and of the object of the action. In fact, as much is + done by _inference_, as by actual expression, in every branch of + language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by + words. + + It is generally conceded, that the termination of our verbs, _est, + eth, s, ed_, and, also, of the other parts of speech, were + originally separate words of distinct meaning; and that, although + they have been contracted, and, by the refinement of language, have + been made to coalesce with the words in connexion with which they + are employed, yet, in their present character of terminations, they + retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a verbal + name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing + adjunct; thus, _the_ (to take, hold) was the noun-state of the verb; + and when they used it as a verb, they added the termination _an_; + thus, the_an_. The termination added, was a sign that _affirmation_ + was intended. The same procedure has been adopted, and, in many + instances, is still practised, in our language. _An_, originally + affixed to our verbs, in the progress of refinement, was changed to + en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plural number of + our verbs was denoted by the termination, _en_; thus, they _weren_, + they _loven_; but, as these terminations do not supersede the + necessity of expressing the _subject_ of affirmation, as is the case + in the Latin and Greek verbs, they have been laid aside, as + unnecessary excrescences. For the same reason, we might, without any + disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our + verbs in the singular. + + In support of the position, that these terminations were once + separate words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote + the feminine gender of some nouns, we affix _ess_; as, heir_ess_, + instructr_ess. Ess_ is a contraction of the Hebrew noun _essa_, a + female. Of our verbs, the termination _est_ is a contraction of + _doest, eth_, of _doeth_, _s_ of _does_. We say, thou _dost_ or + _doest_ love; or thou _lovest_; i.e. _love-dost_, or _love-doest_. + Some believe these terminations to be contractions of _havest, + haveth, has_. We affix _ed_, a contraction of _dede_, to the present + tense of verbs to denote that the action named is _dede, did, doed_, + or _done_. + + _To_ and _do_ from the Gothic noun _taui_, signifying _act_ or + _effect_, are, according to Horne Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and + force; and when the custom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing + adjunct, began to be dropped, its place and meaning were generally + supplied by prefixing one of these. When I say, "I am going _to + walk,"_ the verbal or affirmative force is conveyed by the use of + _to_, meaning the same as _do_; and _walk_ is employed merely as a + verbal name; that is, I assert that I shall _do_ the act which I + name by the word _walk_, or the act of _walking_. + + Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious + than profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on + scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by + a verbalizing adjunct, it is in the _noun-state_, and does not + express affirmation, still this theory would be very inconvenient in + practice. + + I shall resume this subject in Lecture XI. + + + * * * * * + + +QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + +What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of +language? (page 32.)--Do the syntactical dependances and connexions of +words depend on their _original_ import?--Is the power of association +and custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of some +words?--Have words intrinsically a signification of their own; or is +their meaning _inferential_; i.e. such as _custom_ has assigned to them? +(page 38.)--On what _fact_ is based the true, philosophical principle of +classification?--Define philosophical grammar.--Which is supposed to be +the original part of speech?--How were the others formed from that?--How +many parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific development and +arrangement of the principles of our language?--Name them.--What +testimony have we that many things do not act? (page 43.)--Repeat some +of the arguments in favor of, and against, the principle which regards +all verbs as _active_.--In what moods are verbs used in their +_noun-state?_ (page 48.)--Give examples.--What is said of the +terminations _est, eth, s,_ and _en_, and of the words _to_ and _do?_ + +REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS. + +You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important part +of speech in our language; and to convince you of their importance, I +now tell you, that you cannot express a _thought_, or communicate an +_idea_, without making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbs +express, not only _the state_ or _manner of being_, but, likewise, all +the different _actions_ and _movements_ of all creatures and things, +whether animate or inanimate. As yet I have given you only a partial +description of this sort of words; but when you are better prepared to +comprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, and show +you the proper manner of using them. + +A word that is generally a _noun_, sometimes becomes a _verb_; and a +verb is frequently used as a _noun_. These changes depend on the sense +which the word conveys; or, rather, on the office it performs in the +sentence; that is the _manner_ in which it is applied to things. For +instance, _glory_ is generally a noun; as "The _glory_ of God's throne." +But if I say, I _glory_ in religion; or, He _glories_ in wickedness, the +word _glory_ becomes a verb. The _love_ of man is inconstant. In this +sentence, _love_ is a _noun_; in the next, it is a _verb_: They _love_ +virtue. He _walks_ swiftly; Scavengers _sweep_ the streets; The ship +_sails_ well. In these phrases, the words _walks, sweep_, and _sails_, +are verbs; in the following they are nouns: Those are pleasant _walks_; +He takes a broad _sweep_; The ship lowered her _sails_. + +Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian without +exercising your judgment. If you have sufficient resolution to do this, +you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of +the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations, +and the rules of syntax that apply to them; and, in a few weeks, be able +to speak and write accurately. But you must not take things for granted, +without examining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not a +mere _automaton_, or _boy-machine_; but a rational being. You ought, +therefore, to _think_ methodically, to _reason_ soundly, and to +_investigate_ every principle critically. Don't be afraid to _think for +yourself_. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You know not +the height to which you may soar in the scale of intellectual existence. +Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding perseverance; and if you do not +gain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to +drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base. + +EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. + +NOTE 1, TO RULE 12. A noun in the possessive case, should always be +distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision; as, The _nation's_ +glory. + +That girls book is cleaner than those boys books. + +Not correct, because the nouns _girls_ and _boys_ are both in the +possessive case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they +should be distinguished; thus, "_girl's, boys'"_ according to the +preceding NOTE. [Repeat the note.] + +Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. + +If the writer of this sentence meant _one_ ancestor, he should have +inserted the apostrophe after _r_, thus, "_ancestor's"_; if more than +one, after _s_, thus, _"ancestors'_ virtue;" but, by neglecting to place +the apostrophe, he has left his meaning ambiguous, and we cannot +ascertain it. This, and a thousand other mistakes you will often meet +with, demonstrate the truth of my declaration, namely, that "without the +knowledge and application of grammar rules, you will often speak and +write in such a manner as not to be _understood."_ You may now turn back +and re-examine the "illustration" of Rules 3, 4, and 12, on page 52, and +then correct the following examples about _five_ times over. + +A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's for mans +advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans interest and happiness. +They suffer for conscience's sake. He is reading Cowpers poems. James +bought Johnsons Dictionary. + +RULE 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. + +Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. Nothing +delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare not do it. They +reads well. + +I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all have +a harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the +habit of correcting errors by applying rules; for, by-and-by, you will +meet with errors in composition which you cannot correct, if you are +ignorant of the application of grammar rules. + +Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies to +the _verb_ and not to the noun; therefore, in these examples the verb is +ungrammatical. The noun _boys_, in the first sentence, is of the third +person _plural_, and the verb _improves_ is of the third person +_singular_; therefore, Rule 4th is violated, because the verb dues not +agree with its nominative in _number_. It should be, "boys _improve_." +The verb would then be _plural_, and agree with its nominative according +to the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does not agree in _person_ +with its nominative. _Thou_ is of the _second_ person, and _shuns_ is of +the _third_. It should be, "thou _shunnest_," &c. You may correct the +other sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in + +FALSE SYNTAX. + +A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of inhabitants +of the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing but vain and foolish +pursuits delight some persons. + + In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, + When our abundance make us wish for more. + + While ever and anon, there falls + Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls. + + + + +LECTURE III. + +OF ARTICLES. + +An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their signification; as, +_a_ man, _the_ woman. + +There are only two articles, _a_ or _an_, and _the. A_ or _an_ is called +the indefinite article. _The_ is called the definite article. + +The _indefinite article_ limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no +particular one; as, _a_ house. + +The _definite article_ generally limits the noun to a particular object, +or collection of objects; as, _the_ house, _the_ men. + +The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct part of +speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification of +words. _A_ and _the, this_ and _that, ten, few_, and _fourth_, and many +other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification of +the nouns to which they are joined. They might, therefore, with +propriety, be ranked under the general head of _Restrictives, Indexes_, +or _Defining Adjectives_. But, as there is a marked distinction in their +particular meaning and application, each class requires a separate +explanation. Hence, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting +their established classification, as articles, numerals, and +demonstratives, and by giving them _new_ names. The character and +application of _a_ and _the_ can be learned as soon when they are styled +_articles_, as when they are denominated _specifying_ or _defining +adjectives_. + +The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but two +articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_, you will know them wherever they occur. + +A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in +its _general_ sense; as, _"Fruit_ is abundant;" "_Gold_ is heavy;" +"_Man_ is born to trouble" Here we mean, fruit and gold _in general;_ +and _all men_, or _mankind_. + +When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to _one_ object, but to no +_particular_ one, we employ _a_ or _an_. If I say, "Give me _a_ pen;" +"Bring me _an_ apple;" you are at liberty to fetch _any_ pen or _any_ +apple you please. _A_ or _an_, then, is _indefinite_, because it leaves +the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far as regards the +person spoken to, _vague_, or _indeterminate_; that is, _not definite_. +But when reference is made to a _particular_ object, we employ _the_, +as, "Give me _the_ pen;" "Bring me _the_ apple, or _the_ apple." When +such a requisition is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen or +apple you please, but you must fetch the _particular_ pen or apple to +which you know me to refer. _The_ is, therefore, called the _definite_ +article. + +"_A_ star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known as a +_particular_ star, _definite_, and distinguished from all others, in the +mind of the _speaker_; but to the _hearer_, it is left, among the +thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, _undistinguished_ and +_indefinite_. But when the star has previously been made the subject of +discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer a +_definite_ object, and he says, "_The_ star appears;" that is, that +_particular_ star about which we were discoursing. + +"Solomon built _a_ temple." Did he build _any_ temple, _undetermined +which?_ No; it was a _particular_ temple, pre-eminently distinguished +from all others. But _how_ does it become a definite object in the mind +of the _hearer_? Certainly, not by the phrase, "_a_ temple," which +indicates _any_ temple, leaving it altogether _undetermined_ which; but +supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact +asserted, and it becomes to him, _in one respect only_, a definite and +particular temple, by means of the associated words, "Solomon built;" +that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, the +hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as _the one erected by +Solomon_. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be +unacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred to +a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther +explanation of it; thus, "Solomon built _a_ temple _on mount Zion_; and +that was _the_ temple _to which the Jews resorted to worship_." + + "_The_ lunatic, _the_ poet, and _the_ lover, + Are of imagination all compact." + +"_The_ horse is a noble animal;" "_The_ dog is a faithful creature;" +"_The_ wind blows;" "_The_ wolves were howling in _the_ woods." In these +examples, we do not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers, +horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these +_particular classes_ of things, in contradistinction to other objects or +classes. The phrase, "Neither _the_ one nor _the_ other," is an idiom of +the language. + + REMARKS.--This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular + with Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, + Murray, and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by + some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is + exceptionable, they by no means make it appear, that it ought, + therefore, to be rejected. + + Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place + with one that is more _convenient in practice_. Neither have they + adopted one _less_ exceptionable. The truth is, after all which can + be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive + and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by + men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These + exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the + imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else + of human invention, will always be _imperfect_. Consequently, a + _perfect_ system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A + _perfect_ grammar will not be produced, until some _perfect_ being + writes it for a _perfect_ language; and a perfect language will not + be constructed, until some _super-human_ agency is employed in its + production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not + _perfect_, are _exceptionable_. + + NOTES. + + 1. The article is _omitted_ before nouns implying the different + virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, + &c.; as, "_Modesty_ is becoming; _Falsehood_ is odious; _Grammar_ is + useful," &c. + + 2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns; as, _Barron_ killed + _Decatur_; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of + distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood; + as, "He is not _a_ Franklin; He is _a_ Lee, or of the family of + _the_ Lees; We sailed down _the_ (river) Missouri." + + 3. An _adjective_ is frequently placed between the article and the + noun with which the article agrees; as, "A _good_ boy; an + _industrious_ man." Sometimes the adjective precedes the article; + as, "As _great_ a man as Alexander; _Such_ a shame." + + 4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each + separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes + placed between the adjective _many_ and a singular noun; as, "Where + _many a rosebud_ rears its blushing head;" "Full _many a flower_ is + born to blush unseen." + + 5. The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to _adverbs_ in + the comparative or superlative degree; as, "_The more_ I examine it, + _the better_ I like it," "I like this _the least_ of any." + +You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have +committed this + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING + +_The order of parsing an_ Article, is--an article, and why?--definite or +indefinite, and why?--with what noun does it agree?--RULE. + + "He is _the_ son of _a_ king." + +_The_ is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its +signification--definite, it limits the noun to a particular object--it +belongs to the noun "son," according to + +RULE 2. _The definite article_ the _belongs to nouns in the singular or +plural number_. + +_A_ is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its +signification--indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to +no particular one--it agrees with "king," agreeably to + +RULE 1. _The article_ a _or_ an _agrees with nouns in the singular +number only_. + + NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the + propriety of Rule 1, will appear. _A_ or _an_, (formerly written + _ane,)_ being equivalent to _one, any one_, or _some one_, cannot be + prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an + exception to this rule. _A_ is placed before a plural noun when any + of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun: + _few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million_; as, _a_ few + _men, a_ thousand _houses_, &c. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue +pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass. +Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. An +ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo +invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir +Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin +invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book. + +I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles, +which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable +you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to +answer the following + +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +How many articles are there?--In what sense is a noun taken, when it has +no article to limit it?--Repeat the _order_ of parsing an article.--What +rule applies in parsing the _definite_ article?--What rule in parsing +the _indefinite_? + + * * * * * + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + A, AN, THE. + + In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, _a_ and _the_ + belong to that class of adjectives denominated _definitives_ or + _restrictives_. + + _A, an, ane_, or _one_, is the past participle of _ananad_, to add, + to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is + _added, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned,)_ or made _one_. + + _The_ and _that_. According to Horne Tooke, _the_ is the imperative, + and _that_, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to + get, take, assume. _The_ and _that_ had, originally, the same + meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern + refinement. Hence, _that_, as well as _the_, was formerly used, + indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. + +Before what nouns is the article omitted?--Is the article _the_ ever +applied to adverbs?--Give examples.--What is the meaning of _a_ or _an_? +--When is _a_ or _an_ placed before a plural noun?--From what are _a, +the_, and _that_ derived? + +EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. + +NOTE TO RULE 1. _An_ is used before a vowel or silent _h_, and _a_ +before a consonant or _u_ long, and also before the word _one_. + +It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, +improper to say, _a_ apple, _a_ humble suppliant, _an_ hero, _an_ +university, because the word _apple_ begins with a vowel, and _h_ is not +sounded in the word _humble_, for which reasons _a_ should be _an_ in +the first two examples; but, as the _h_ is sounded in _hero_, and the +_u_ is long in _university, a_ ought to be prefixed to these words: +thus, _an_ apple, _an_ humble suppliant: _a_ hero, _a_ university. You +may correct the following + + +EXAMPLES. + +A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen, +an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard +saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an +horse. + +NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used +they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character; +as, "Gold is corrupting; _The_ sea is green; _A_ lion is bold." It would +be improper to say, _The_ gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is +bold. + +The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for +the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted. + +In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular +kind of _grass_ or _wheat_, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to +any particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are +speaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article _the_ +should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any +definite kind, quality, or number of _horses_ or _men_; but to horses +and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote _whole +species_, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence +should read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men." + +In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the +crops of _grass_ and _wheat_ now on the ground, which, in +contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as +_particular_ objects; therefore we should say, "_The_ grass looks +well; _The_ wheat is blighted." + +NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its _general_ sense, the article should +be omitted; as, "_Poetry_ is a pleasing art;" "_Oranges_ grow in New +Orleans." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + +Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How +does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of +the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper +for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way +unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the +four elements of the old philosophers. + + * * * * * + + + + +LECTURE IV. + +OF ADJECTIVES. + +An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind, +or to restrict its meaning; as, a _good_ man, a _bad_ man, _a free_ man, +an _unfortunate_ man, _one_ man, _forty_ men. + +In the phrases, a _good_ apple, a _bad_ apple, a _large_ apple, a +_small_ apple, a _red_ apple, a _white_ apple, a _green_ apple, a +_sweet_ apple, a _sour_ apple, a _bitter_ apple, a _round_ apple, a +_hard_ apple, a _soft_ apple, a _mellow_ apple, a _fair_ apple, a _May_ +apple, an _early_ apple, a _late_ apple, a _winter_ apple, a _crab_ +apple, a _thorn_ apple, a _well-tasted_ apple, an _ill-looking_ apple, a +_water-cored_ apple, you perceive that all those words in _italics_ are +adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun +apple, or it shows what _kind_ of an apple it is of which we are +speaking. + +The distinction between a _noun_ and an _adjective_ is very clear. A +noun is the _name_ of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the +_quality_ or _property_ of a thing. This is _fine cloth_. In this +example, the difference between the word denoting the _thing_, and that +denoting the _quality_ of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot +be at a loss to know, that the word _cloth_ expresses the _name_, and +_fine_, the _quality_, of the _thing_; consequently _fine_ must be an +_adjective_. If I say, He is a _wise_ man, a _prudent_ man, a _wicked_ +man, or an _ungrateful_ man, the words in _italics_ are adjectives, +because each expresses a _quality_ of the noun man. And, if I say, He is +a _tall_ man, a _short_ man, a _white_ man, a _black_ man, or a +_persecuted_ man, the words, _tall, short, white, black_, and +_persecuted_, are also adjectives, because they tell what _kind_ of a +man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some +particular property. + +Some adjectives _restrict_ or _limit_ the signification of the nouns to +which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called +_definitives_; as, _one_ era, _seven_ ages, the _first_ man, the _whole_ +mass, _no_ trouble, _those_ men, _that_ book, _all_ regions. + +Other adjectives _define_ or _describe_ nouns, or do both; as, _fine_ +silk, _blue_ paper, a _heavy_ shower, _pure_ water, _green_ mountains, +_bland_ breezes, _gurgling_ rills, _glass_ window, _window_ glass, +_beaver_ hats, _chip_ bonnets, _blackberry_ ridge, _Monroe_ garden, +_Juniata_ iron, _Cincinnati_ steam-mill. + +Some adjectives are _secondary_, and qualify other adjectives; as, +_pale_ red lining, _dark_ blue silk, _deep sea_ green sash, _soft_ iron +blooms, _red hot_ iron plate. + +You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those +_men_ are _tall_; A _lion_ is _bold_; The _weather_ is _calm_; The +_tree_ is three feet _thick_." + +Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other +parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word +that will make sense with the word _thing_ added, or with any other noun +following it, is an adjective; as, a _high_ thing, a _low_ thing, a +_hot_ thing, a _cold_ thing, an _unfinished_ thing, a _new-fashioned_ +thing:--or, a _pleasant_ prospect, a _long-deserted_ dwelling, an +_American_ soldier, a _Greek_ Testament. Are these words adjectives, +_distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?_ A distant +_object_ or _thing_, yonder _hill_, &c. They are. They will make sense +with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter +will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an +adjective by its _qualifying a noun or pronoun_. + +Most words ending in _ing_ are _present participles_. These are +frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make +sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after +them; as, a _pleasing_ thing, a _moving_ spectacle, _mouldering_ ruins. + +In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have +gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither +gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to _creatures_ +and _things_, and not to their _qualities_; therefore gender, person, +number, and case, are the properties of _nouns_, and _not_ of +adjectives. + +Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They +have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the +Superlative. + +The _positive degree_ expresses the quality of an object without any +increase or diminution; as, _good, wise, great_. + +The _comparative degree_ increases or lessens the positive in +signification; as, _better, wiser, greater, less wise_. + +The _superlative degree_ increases or lessens the positive to the +highest or lowest degree; as, _best, wisest, greatest, least wise_. + +COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. + +_More_ and _most_ form the comparative and superlative degrees by +increasing the positive; and _less_ and _least_, by diminishing it. + +Comparison by increasing the positive + +_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._ +great, greater, greatest. +wise, wiser, wisest. +holy, more holy most holy. +frugal, more frugal most frugal. + +Comparison by diminishing the positive. + +_Pos._ _Comp._ _Sup._ +wise, less wise least wise. +holy, less holy, least holy. +frugal, less frugal, least frugal. + +NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. + +Words used in counting, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the +_cardinal_ kind; as, _one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,_ &c. + +Words used in numbering, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the +_ordinal_ kind; as, _first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,_ +&c. + + NOTE. The words _many, few_, and _several_, as they always refer to + an indefinite number, may be properly called _numeral adjectives_ of + the indefinite kind. + + NOTES. + + 1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding + _r_, or _er_; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding + _st_, or _est_, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wise_r_, Sup. + wise_st_; rich, rich_er_, rich_est_; bold, bold_er_, bold_est_. The + adverbs, _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, when placed before the + adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com. _more_ wise, + Sup. _most_ wise; Pos. wise, Com. _less_ wise, Sup. _least_ wise. + + 2. _Monosyllables_ are generally compared by adding _er_ and _est; + dissyllables, trisyllables_, &c. by _more_ and _most_; as, mild, + milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more + virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in _y_; as, happy, + lovely; and in _le_ after a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables + accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of + _er_ and _est_; as, happi_er_, happi_est_; polit_er_, _polit_est_. + Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these + terminations. + + 3. When the positive ends in _d_, or _t_, preceded by a _single_ + vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and + superlative degrees; as red, _redder, reddest_; hot, _hotter, + hottest_. + + 4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding _most_ to the + end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, + uppermost, foremost. + + 5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very + common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better + of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of + comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, + less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or + next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or + eldest;" and a few others. + + 6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the + _superlative_ degree, because, by expressing a quality in the + highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative + signification: _chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just, + true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless, + unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, + eternal_. + + 7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising + from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as, + _well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular, + quadrangular, conical_, &c. + + 8. The termination _ish_ added to adjectives, expresses a slight + degree of quality below the comparative; as, _black, blackish; salt, + saltish. Very_, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of + quality, but not always a superlative degree. + +Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may +parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the +examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and +rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed, +please to commit the + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +_The order of parsing an_ ADJECTIVE, is--an adjective, and why?--compare +it--degree of comparison, and why?--to what noun does it belong?--RULE. + + That _great_ nation _was_ once _powerful_; but now it is _feeble_. + +_Great_ is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its +quality--pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest--it is in the positive +degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or +diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to + +RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or +understood_. + +_Was_ is a verb, a word that signifies to be--neuter, it expresses +neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being--third person +singular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitude +conveying _unity_ of idea--it agrees with "nation," agreeably to RULE +10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, may have a verb or +pronoun agreeing with it in the_ singular. + +_Powerful_ is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18. +_Feeble_ belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18. _Is_ is a +neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably to Rule 4. + + "Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men." + +_Four-hundred-thousand_ is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it +is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men," according to +Note 2, under Rule 18. _Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns +must agree in number with their adjectives_. + +If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which +you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the +foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without +any difficulty. + +_More_ is an adverb. _Of_ and _to_ are prepositions, governing the nouns +that follow them in the objective case. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. +Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large +ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less +burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions +offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No +composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass +looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes +a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful. +Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next +to Epaminondas. + +The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four +thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a +cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway. + + NOTE. _Like, Worth_. The adjective _like_ is a contraction of the + participle _likened_, and generally has the preposition _unto_ + understood after it. "She is _like_ [_unto_] her brother." "They are + _unlike_ [_to_] him." "The kingdom of heaven is _like_ [_likened_ or + made _like_] _unto_ a householder." + + The noun _worth_ has altogether dropped its associated words. "The + cloth is _worth_ ten dollars _a_ yard;" that is, The cloth is _of + the_ worth _of_ ten dollars _by the_ yard, or _for a, one_, or + _every yard_. + + Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an + ellipsis after _like, worth, ere, but, except_, and _than_, but + consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of + this work. + +REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS. + +A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its +noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood; +as, "The _virtuous_ [_persons_] and the _sincere_ [_persons_] are always +respected;" "Providence rewards the _good_ [_people,_] and punishes the +_bad_ [_people._]" + + "The _evil_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] that men do, lives after them; + "The _good_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] is oft-interred with their bones." + +But sometimes the adjective, by its _manner_ of meaning, becomes a noun, +and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief _good_;" "The +vast _immense_ [_immensity_] of space." + +Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of +adjectives, according to their _manner_ of meaning; as, "_Sea_ fish, +_iron_ mortar, _wine_ vessel, _gold_ watch, _corn_ field, _meadow_ +ground, _mountain_ height." + +The principle which recognises _custom_ as the standard of grammatical +accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only _six_ words, +and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the +genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be +correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, good_er_, good_est_; +bad, bad_der_, bad_dest_; little, littl_er_, littl_est_; much, +much_er_; much_est_." "By _this mean_;" "What _are_ the _news_." But such +a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish +it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the +good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as +in a thousand others, to yield to _custom_, and say, "Good, _better, +best_; bad, _worse, worst_; little, _less, least_; much, _more, most_;" +"By _this means_;" "What _is_ the _news_?" + +With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care +must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or +nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen +rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your +pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind _the meaning of the +words_ which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the +ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid +innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he +is _very_ wicked, or _exceedingly_ lavish, because the terms _wicked_ and +_lavish_ are adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the +words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man +_very_ honest, or _exceedingly_ just, for the words _honest_ and _just_, +literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is _honest_ or +_dishonest, just_ or _unjust_: there can be no medium or excess in this +respect. _Very_ correct, _very_ incorrect, _very_ right, _very_ wrong, +are common expressions; but they are not _literally_ proper. What is not +_correct_, must be _incorrect_; and that which is not _incorrect_, must +be _correct_: what is not _right_, must be _wrong_; and that which is +not _wrong_, must be _right_. To avoid that circumlocution which must +otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently +compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "The +_most established_ practice;" "The _most uncertain_ method;" "Irving, as +a writer, _is far more accurate_ than Addison;" "The metaphysical +investigations of our philosophical grammars, are _still more +incomprehensible_ to the learner." Comparisons like these, should +generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, +as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with +the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative. + +Comparative members of sentences, should be set in _direct opposition_ +to each other; as, "Pope was _rich_, but Goldsmith was _poor_." The +following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was _wiser_ than Cicero was +_eloquent_." "The principles of the reformation were _deeper_ in the +prince's mind than to be _easily eradicated_." This latter sentence +contains _no comparison_ at all; neither does it literally convey _any +meaning_. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my +teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would +imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiser +_than_ my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but +places himself in contradistinction to them. + +Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following + +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?--By what sign +may an adjective be known?--Are participles ever used as +adjectives?--Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to +adjectives?--How are they varied?--Name the three degrees of +comparison.--What effect have _less_ and _least_ in comparing +adjectives?--Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.--What rule +applies in parsing an adjective?--What rule in parsing a verb agreeing +with a noun of multitude conveying _unity_ of idea?--What Note should be +applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?--What Note +in parsing _numeral_ adjectives? + +QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat all the various ways of forming the +degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES.--Compare these +adjectives; _ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, much_ +or _many, near, late, old_.--Name some adjectives that are always in the +superlative, and never compared.--Are compound adjectives +compared?--What is said of the termination _ish_, and of the adverb +_very?_--When does an adjective become a noun?--What character does a +noun assume when placed before another noun?--How can you prove that +_custom_ is the standard of grammatical accuracy? + + * * * * * + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + ADNOUNS. + + _Adnoun_ or _Adjective_, comes from the Latin, _ad_ and _jicio_, to + _add to_. + + Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their + comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect + the former object, are called _adjectives_, or _attributes;_ and + those which effect the latter, _restrictives_. It is not, in all + cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should + be referred. Words which express simply the _qualities_ of nouns, + are adjectives; and such as denote their _situation_ or _number_, + are restrictives. + + Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs. + + Some consider the adjective, in its present application, _exactly_ + equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of + juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "A + _golden_ cup," say they, "is the same as a _gold_ cup, or a cup _of + gold_." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cup _of + gold_," may mean either a cup-_full_ of gold, or a cup _made_ of + gold. "An _oaken_ cask," signifies an _oak_ cask, or a cask _of + oak_; i.e. a cask _made_ of oak; but a _beer_ cask, and a cask _of + beer_, are two different things. A _virtuous_ son; a son _of + virtue_. + + The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to + consist in its both _naming_ a quality, and _attributing_ that + quality to some object. + + The terminations _en, ed_, and _ig_ (our modern _y_,) signifying + _give, add, join_, denote that the names of qualities to which they + are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such + qualities: wood-_en_, wood-_y_. See page 37. + + _Left_ is the past participle of the verb _leave_. Horne Tooke + defines _right_ to be that which is _ordered_ or _directed_. The + _right_ hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use + in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference, + the other is the _leaved, leav'd_, or _left_ hand; i.e. the one + _leaved_ or _left_. "The one shall be taken, and the other _(leaved) + left_." + + _Own_. Formerly a man's _own_ was what he _worked for, own_ being a + past participle of a verb signifying to _work_. + + _Restrictive_. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only + to singular nouns; such as _a_ or _an, another, one, this, that, + each, every, either_. Others, only to plural nouns; as, _these, + those, two, three, few, several, all_. But most restrictives, like + adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns: _first, + second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, + what_. + + _Numerals_. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by + the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost + extent of its signification. _Ten_ is the past participle of + _tynan_, to close, to shut in. The hands _tyned, tened_, closed, or + shut in, signified _ten_; for there numeration _closed_. To denote a + number greater than ten, we must begin again, _ten_ and _one, ten_ + and _two_, &c. + + _Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane_, is a compound of _two (twa, twae, + twee, twi, two_ or _dwo_ or _duo)_ and _one (ane, ain, an.)_ It + signifies _two_ units _joined, united, aned,_ or _oned. Twenty + (twa-ane-ten)_ signifies _two tens aned, oned_, or _united_. Things + _separated_ into parcels of twenty each, are called _scores. Score_ + is the past participle of _shear_, to _separate_. + + _The Ordinals_ are formed like abstract nouns in _eth. Fifth, + sixth_, or _tenth_ is the number which _fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth_, + or mak-_eth_ up the number _five, six_, or _ten_. + + Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in + which they were _originally_ employed, and suppose that all the + complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual + progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to + be reduced to _the standard of our forefathers_; appear not to have + sufficiently attended to the _changes_ which this principle of + association actually produces. As language is transmitted from + generation to generation, many words become the representatives of + ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they + undergo a change, not only in the _mode_ of their application, but + also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their + meaning must necessarily change as much, _at least_, as things + themselves change; but this variation in their import more + frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas + connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only + of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses + altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with + which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated. + + Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. + In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the + following language: "I, Paul, a _rascal_ of Jesus Christ, unto you + Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, + would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a _rascal? + Rascal_ formerly meant a _servant:_ one devoted to the interest of + another; but now it is nearly synonymous with _villain. Villain_ + once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term; + but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held + lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant, + "As you are an accomplished _villain_, I order that you receive L700 + out of the public treasury." The word _villain_, then, has given up + its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the + word _tenant_ having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of + words _changes_, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the + intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + +How are adnouns divided?--What constitutes the true character of an +adjective?--What are the signification and denotement of the +terminations, _en, ed_, and _ig?_--What do _left_ and _own_ +signify?--Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.--How +was numeration originally performed?--What is said of _twain, twenty, +score_, and the ordinal numbers?--What is said of the changes produced +in the meaning of words, by the principle of association? + +EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double _Comparatives_ +and _Superlatives_ should be avoided; such as, _worser, lesser, more_ +deeper, _more_ wickeder, &c.: _chiefest, supremest, perfectest, +rightest_; or _more_ perfect, _most_ perfect, _most_ supreme, &c. + + Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his + chiefest desire. + + He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to + rule the night. + +The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are +incorrect, because _supreme_ and _chief_ are in the superlative degree +without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes +them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme +dignity," and, "his chief desire." + +We can say, one thing is _less_ than another, or _smaller_ than another, +because the adjectives _less_ and _smaller_ are in the comparative +degree; but the phrase "_lesser_ light," in the second sentence, is +inaccurate. _Lesser_ is a double comparative, which, according to the +preceding Note, should be avoided. _Lesser_ is as incorrect as _badder, +gooder, worser_. "The _smaller_ light," would be less exceptionable. You +can correct the following without my assistance. Correct them _four_ +times over. + +The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of +imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the +faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most +sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, +He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong +proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness, +the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof +of the truer friendship. + + + + +LECTURE V. + +OF PARTICIPLES. + +A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature +of a verb, and also of an adjective. + +Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and +the compound. + +The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle denotes action or being +continued, but not perfected. It always ends in _ing_; as, _ruling, +being_: "I am _writing_ a letter." + +The _perfect_ participle denotes action or being perfected or finished. +When derived from a regular verb, it ends in _ed_, and corresponds with +the imperfect tense; as, _ruled, smiled:_ "The letter is _written_." + +The _compound_ participle implies action or being completed before the +time referred to. It is formed by placing _having_ before the perfect +participle; as, _having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written_ the +letter, he mailed it." + +The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_, which +signifies to _partake_: and this name is given to this part of speech, +because it _partakes_ of the nature of the verb and of the adjective. + +By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as +a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an +adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb, +and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is +believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to +entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the +connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also +the noun and the verb. + +All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs, +they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives, +they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the +sentences, The boatman is _crossing_ the river; I see a man _laboring_ +in the field; Charles is _standing_; you perceive that the participles +_crossing_ and _laboring_ express the actions of the boatman and the +man, and _standing_ the state of being of Charles. In these respects, +then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they +_describe_ the several nouns associated with them, like describing +adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties +of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which +are still going on; that is, _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ actions; for +which reason we call them _imperfect_ participles. + +Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the +imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, +they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated +_participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_ +stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar. +Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_, +describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where +the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this +descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is +_running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects, +as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well as +when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a +participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of +meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this +distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the +meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to +distinguish the one from the other. + +_Participles. Participial adjectives_. + +See the sun _setting_. See the _setting_ sun. +See the moon _rising_. See the _rising_ moon. +The wind is _roaring_. Hear the _roaring_ wind. +The twig is _broken_. The _broken_ twig fell. +The vessel _anchored_ in the The _anchored_ vessel spreads + bay, lost her mast. her sail. + +The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_; +as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived from +the verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in +_ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling, +uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you parse a word ending +in _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or +not. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word +_interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as +_un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle: +but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be able +very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of +speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the +verb. + +Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, +smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, +disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _having +learned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_, +and so on. + +You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceed +with me. + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is--a participle, and why?--from +what verb is it derived?--speak the three--present, perfect, or +compound, and why?--to what does it refer or belong?--RULE. + + "I saw a vessel _sailing"_ + +_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of +the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective--it comes from the verb +to sail--pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed--it is a +present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of +an unfinished action--and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject, +according to + +RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting +the subject or actor_. + + "Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow." + +_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express +its quality--it cannot, with propriety, be compared--- it belongs to the +noun "billow," agreeably to + +RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or +understood_. + +You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a +little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE. +Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with a +noun or pronoun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement; +but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing; +or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle +_sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a +plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in +both examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governed +by the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending +of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is +its nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_. + +In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates +to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse," +the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object of +the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and +it is governed by the participle beating, according to + +RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have from +which they are derived_. + +The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a +participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of +action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must +govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived. + +When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed +and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, +in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse +correctly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend for +definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again +the whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for +your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have +acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_ +more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in +your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying +these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical +knowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years. + +In the following examples, the words _purling, crusted, slumbering_, and +_twinkling_, are participial adjectives. _There_ and _its_ you may omit. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking. +The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long +rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching, +melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old +hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds +the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the +desert thistle bending there its lowly head. + +REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES. + +Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A good _understanding_; +Excellent _writing_; He made a good _beginning_, but a bad _ending_." + +Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best +authorities: "The goods are _selling_;" "The house is _building_;" "The +work is now _publishing_." A modern innovation, however, is likely to +supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods are _being sold_;" +"The house is _being built_;" "The work is now _being published_." + +You may now answer these +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +How many kinds of participles are there?--What is the ending of a +present participle?--What does a perfect participle denote?--With what +does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?--What is a +compound participle?--From what word is the term participle +derived?--Why is this part of speech thus named?--Wherein does this part +of speech partake of the nature of a verb?--Do all participles +participate the properties of adjectives?--In what respect?--When are +participles called _participial adjectives_?--Give examples.--How may a +present participle be known?--Repeat the order of parsing a +participle.--What rule applies in parsing a _present_ participle?--What +Rule in parsing a participial adjective?--Do participles vary in their +terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?--What Rule +applies in parsing a noun in the _objective case_, governed by a +participle?--Do participles ever become nouns?--Give examples. + + * * * * * + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination _ing, + ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies the same as the noun _being_. When + postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus + formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It + implies that what is meant by the verb, is _being_ continued. _En_ + is an alteration of _an_, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct; _ed_ is a + contraction of _dede_; and the terminations _d_ and _t_, are a + contraction of _ed_. Participles ending in _ed_ or _en_, usually + denote the _dodo, dede, doed, did, done_, or _finished_ state of + what is meant by the verb. The book is _printed_. It is a _print-ed_ + or _print-done_ book, or such a one as the _done_ act of _printing_ + has made it. The book is _written_; i.e. it has received the _done_ + or _finish-ed_ act of _writ-ing_ it. + + Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to + nouns. They might, therefore, be styled _verbal adjectives_. But + that theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a + sandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided more + by their _manner_ of meaning, and their _inferential_ meaning, than + by their primitive, essential signification. "I have a _broken_ + plate;" i.e. I have a plate--_broken_; "I have _broken_ a plate." If + there is no difference in the _essential_ meaning of the word + _broken_, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that + there is a wide difference in the meaning--_inferred_ by custom; + which difference depends on the _manner_ in which the term is + applied. The former construction denotes, that I _possess_ a plate + which was _broken_, (whether with or without my agency, is not + intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas, + the meaning of the latter is, that I _performed the act_ of reducing + the plate from a whole to a _broken_ state; and it is not intimated + whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that, + in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in + constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with + different parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishes + the propriety of retaining what we call the _perfect tense_ of the + verb. + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + +How are participles formed?--What does the imperfect part express?-- +What do perfect participles denote? + + * * * * * + + + + +LECTURE VI. + + +OF ADVERBS. + +An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of a _verb_, a_participle_, +an _adjective_, or another _adverb_. + +Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a _noun_. It qualifies any of the +four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others. + +To _modify_ or _qualify_, you know, means to produce some _change_. The +adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style _excels_ Irving's, the +proposition is affirmative, and the verb _excels_ expresses the +affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style _excels not_ Irving's, the +assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or +changes the meaning of the verb _excels_? You perceive that it is the +little word _not_. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the +sentence. _Not_, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb. + +When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it +generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is +performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the +phrases, The man rides _gracefully, awkwardly_, _badly, swiftly, +slowly_, &c.; or, I saw the man riding _swiftly, slowly, leisurely, very +fast_, &c., you perceive that the words _gracefully, awkwardly, very +fast_, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verb _rides_, or the participle +_riding_, because they express the _manner_ in which the action denoted +by the verb and participle, is done. + +In the phrases, The man rides _daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often, +sometimes, never_; or, The man rode _yesterday, heretofore, long since, +long ago, recently, lately, just now_ or, The man will ride _soon, +presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter_, you +perceive that all these words in _italics_, are adverbs, qualifying the +meaning of the verb, rides, because they express the _time_ of the +action denoted by the verb. + +Again, if I say, The man lives _here, near by, yonder, remote, far off, +somewhere, nowhere, everywhere_, &c., the words in _italics_ are adverbs +of _place_, because they tell where he lives. + +Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as, +_more_ wise, _most_ wise; or _more wisely, most wisely_. When an adverb +is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses _the degree_ +of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison. +Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective _skilful_ +is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb _more_ before the +adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to +the comparative; as, A _more_ skilful artist: and _most_ renders it +superlative; as, A _most_ skilful artist. And if we place more and most +before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, _more_ +skilfully, _most_ skilfully. + +COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. + +_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_. +soon sooner soonest. +often oftener oftenest. +much more most. +well better best. +far farther farthest. +wisely more wisely most wisely. +justly more justly most justly. +justly less justly least justly. + +You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find +it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in +the English language. I will, therefore, give you some _signs_ which +will assist you a little. + +Most words ending in _ly_ are adverbs; such as, _politely, gracefully, +judiciously_. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of +the questions, _how? how much? when?_ or _where?_ is an adverb; as, The +river flows _rapidly_; He walks _very fast_; He has gone _far away;_ but +he will _soon_ return; She sings _sweetly_; They learn _none at all_. +How, or in what manner does the river flow? _Rapidly_. How does he walk? +_Very fast_. Where has he gone? _Far away_. When will he return? _Soon_. +How does she sing? _Sweetly_. How much do they learn? _None at all_. +From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these +adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the +questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by +considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing +their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other +words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly +important. _Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly_, &c. are known to be +adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A _very_ good pen +writes _extremely well." Well_, in this sentence, is known to be an +adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb _writes; extremely_, by +its ending in _ly_, or by its being joined to the adverb _well_ to +qualify it; and _very_ is known as an adverb by its joining the +adjective _good_. + +Expressions like these, _none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long +since, at length, in vain_, when they are used to denote the _manner_ or +_time_ of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed +_adverbial phrases_. + +Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical +convenience, be reduced to particular classes. + +1. _Of Number;_ as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. + +2. _Of Order;_ as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c. + +3. _Of Place;_ as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, +nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, +backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c. + +4. _Of Time_. _Present_; as, Now, to-day, &c. _Past_; as, Already, +before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, +&c. _Future_; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, +henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long, +straightways, &c. _Time indefinite_; as, Oft, often, oft-times, +often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, +always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. + +5. _Of Quantity_; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, +enough, abundantly, &c. + +6. _Of Manner_ or _quality_; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, +quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and +they are generally formed by adding the termination _ly_ to an adjective +or a participle, or by changing _le_ into _ly;_ as, Bad, badly; +cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably. + +7. _Of Doubt_; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. + +8. _Of Affirmation_; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, +certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. + +9. _Of Negation_; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, +&c. + +10. _Of Interrogation_; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and +sometimes when, whence, where. + +11. _Of Comparison_; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, +least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. + + NOTES. + + 1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our + language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions + with the adverbs of place, _here, there, where_; as, Hereof, + thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, + whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein; + therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon, + hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c. + + 2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter _a_, + used instead of _at, an_, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, + aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance, + away, asunder, astray, &c. + +You will now please to read this lecture _four_ times over, and read +slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and +character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to +distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in +this sentence which you have just read, the words _slowly, carefully, +well_, and _frequently_, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in +the question I have just put to you, the words _now_ and _just_ are +adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in +reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading. + +In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely, +Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I +believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the +systematic order, _four_ times over. Those words in _italics_ are +adverbs. + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +_The order of parsing an_ ADVERB, is--an adverb, and why?--what +sort?--what does it qualify?--RULE. + +"My friend has returned _again_; but his health is _not very_ good." +_Again_, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb--of +time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined--it +qualifies the verb "has returned," according to + +Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other +adverbs_. + +_Not_ is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb--of +negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the +proposition from an affirmative to a negative--and it qualifies the +adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, &c_. + +_Very_ is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an +adjective--of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and +qualifies it according to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c_. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +The traveller described a lofty castle decaying _gradually. Very_ few +literary men _ever_ became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels +_not_ Homer. The Roman women, _once voluntarily_ contributed their +_most_ precious jewels to save the city. + +Many small streams uniting, form _very_ large rivers. The river Funza +falling _perpendicularly_ forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants +_always_ drive horses _very carefully_; negligent servants _often_ drive +horses _very carelessly_. Assiduous scholars improve _very fast_; idle +scholars learn _none at all_. Friendship _often_ ends in love; but love +in friendship, _never_. + +NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? _Not +yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far_, and _enough_, qualify +"have walked" understood; _perhaps_ qualifies _not_; and _quite_ +qualifies _far_. The adverbs _always_ and _carefully_ both qualify the +verb "drive:" the former expresses _time_, and the latter, _manner. +Once_ and _voluntarily_ qualify the verb "contributed;" the former +expresses _number_, and the latter, _manner_. The word _their_ you need +not parse. The active verb _to save_ has no nominative. The nouns _love_ +and _friendship_, following _in_, are in the objective case, and +governed by that preposition. + +REMARKS ON ADVERBS. + +When the words _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like, +are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are _adverbs_; but +when they appear single, they are commonly considered _conjunctions_. + +The words _when_ and _where_, and all others of the same nature, such as +_whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, +while, wherefore_, &c. may be properly called _adverbial conjunctions_, +because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of +adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of _time_ or _place_; of +conjunctions, as they _conjoin sentences_. + +There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and, +sometimes as adverbs; as, "_More_ men than women were there; I am _more_ +diligent than he." In the former sentence _more_ is evidently an +adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is +an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are +sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "_to-day's_ +lesson is longer than _yesterday's_." In this example, _to-day_ and +_yesterday_ are nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the +following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [_to +his] home yesterday_, and will set out again _to-day_." Here they are +nouns, if we supply _on_ before them. + +"Where _much [wealth, talent_, or something else] is given, _much +[increase, improvement_] will be required; _Much_ money has been +expended; It is _much_ better to write than starve." In the first two of +these examples, _much_ is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in +the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective _better_. In +short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its +_sense_, or by considering the _manner_ in which it is associated with +other words. + +An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an _adverb_ by this +rule: when a word qualifies a _noun_ or _pronoun_, it is an adjective, +but when it qualifies a _verb, participle, adjective_, or _adverb_, it +is an adverb. + +Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns +are understood. "He rides _about_;" that is, about the _town, country_, +or some-_thing_ else. "She was _near_ [the _act_ or _misfortune of_] +falling;" "But do not _after_ [that _time_ or _event_] lay the blame on +me." "He came _down_ [the _ascent_] from the hill;" "They lifted him +_up_ [the _ascent_] out of the pit." "The angels _above_;"--above +_us_--"Above these lower _heavens_, to us invisible, or dimly seen." + +Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax, +you may answer these + +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?--What parts of speech does it +qualify?--When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it +express?--When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it +generally express?--Compare some adverbs.--By what signs may an adverb +be known?--Give examples.--Repeat some _adverbial phrases_.--Name the +different classes of adverbs.--Repeat some of each class.--Repeat the +order of parsing an adverb.--What rule do you apply in parsing an +adverb? + +QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. + +Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with +adverbs of place.--Repeat some that are composed of the article _a_ and +nouns.--What part of speech are the words, _therefore, consequently_, +&c.?--What words are styled _adverbial conjunctions_?--Why are they so +called?--Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes +as an adverb?--Give examples.--What is said of _much_?--By what rule can +you distinguish an adjective from an adverb?--Do prepositions ever +become adverbs? + + * * * * * + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially + depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as + language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is + strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that + that nation which continues, through successive generations, + steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the + cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark + is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the + English language as their medium for the transmission of thought. + Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs + and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we + call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I + presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as + copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of + refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by + the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly + demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of + expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does + much for their benefit. + + Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or + more words; as, "He did it _here_," for, He did it _in this place; + there_, for, _in that place; where_, for, _in what place; now_, for, + _at this time. Why_ means _for what reason; how--in what mind, mood, + mode_, or _manner; exceedingly--to a great degree; very--in an + eminent degree; often_ and _seldom_ signify _many times, few times_. + + The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and + combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most + prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those in _ly_, a + contraction of _like. Gentleman-ly_, means _gentleman-like, like_ a + gentleman. We do not yet say, _ladily_, but _lady-like_. The north + Britons still say, _wiselike, manlike_, instead of, _wisely, manly_. + + _Quick_ comes from _gwick_, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verb + _gwiccian_, to vivify, give life. _Quick-ly_ or _live-ly_, means, in + a _quick-like_ or _life-like_ manner; in the manner of a creature + that has _life. Rapid-ly--rapid-like, like a rapid_; a _quick-ly_ or + _swift-ly_ running place in a stream. + + _Al-ways_, contraction of _in all ways_. By a slight transition, it + means _in_ or _at all times. Al-one_, contraction of _all-one. + On-ly--one-like. Al-so--all the same_ (thing.) _Ever_--an _age_. For + _ever_ and _ever_--for _ages_ and _ages_. Ever is not synonymous + with always. _Never_--_ne ever_. It signifies _no age, no period of + time. No_, contraction of _not. Not_, a modification of _no-thing, + noth-ing, naught_. "He is _not_ greater"--is greater _in + naught_--_in no thing_. + + _Adrift_ is the past part. _adrifed, adrif'd, adrift_; from the + Saxon _drifan_, or _adrifan_, to drive. _Ago_, formerly written + _ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, is the past part. of the verb _to + go_. It refers to time _gone by. Asunder_, the Saxon past part. + _asundren_, from the verb _sondrian_ or _asondrian_, to separate. + _Aloft--on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft_ being the Anglo-Saxon + word for _air_ or _clouds. Astray_, the part. of _straegan_, to + stray. _Awry_, part. of _wry than_, to writhe. + + _Needs_--_need-is_; anciently, _nedes_, nede is. + To-_wit_, the infinitive of _witan_, to know. It means, _to be + known_. _Ay_ or _yea_ signifies _have it, enjoy it. Yes_ is _ay-es_, + have, possess, enjoy _that_. Our corrupt _o-yes_ of the crier, is + the French imperative, _oyez_, hear, listen. _Straight way_--by a + straight way. _While--wheel_; period in which some thing _whiles_ or + _wheels_ itself round. _Till_--to while. _Per_, Latin,--the English + _by_. Perhaps--per haps, per chance. These examples of derivation + are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent + pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke." + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + +How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of +language?--Illustrate the fact.--What is said of _ly, like_, and +_quick_?--How are the following words composed, _always, alone, only, +also_?--What is the meaning of _ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, +aloft, astray, awry_?--Give the signification of _needs, to-wit, ye, +yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till_, and _per_. + +NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes, +in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient. + +EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. + +NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as +adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:--She +writes elegant; He is walking slow. + +The adjectives _indifferent, excellent_, and _miserable_, are here +improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of +adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. +The phrases should, therefore, be, "_indifferently_ honest, +_excellently_ well, _miserably_ poor." _Elegant_ and _slow_ are also +inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the +manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is +_the office_ of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes +_elegantly_; He is walking _slowly_." + +You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain +the principles that are violated. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + +He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent. + +She reads proper, and writes very neat. + +They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor. + +The lowering clouds are moving slow. + +He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give +offence. + +NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of +adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but +_suitably_ to his offence." + +The adverb _suitably_ is incorrect. It does not express the manner of +the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes the _quality_ of the +noun _terms_ understood; for which reason it should be an adjective, +_suitable_. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + +The man was slowly wandering about, _solitarily_ and distressed. + +He lived in a manner _agreeably_ to his condition. + +The study of Syntax should be _previously_ to that of Punctuation. + +He introduced himself in a manner very _abruptly_. + +_Conformably_ to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of +gesture. + +I saw him _previously_ to his arrival. + + + +LECTURE VII + + +OF PREPOSITIONS. + +A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the +relation between them. + +The term _preposition_ is derived from the two Latin words, _pre_, which +signifies _before_, and _pono, to place_. Prepositions are so called, +because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they +govern in the objective case. + +The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which +you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to +distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in +composition. + +A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. + +of, over, at, after, betwixt, +to, under, near, about, beside, +for, through, up, against, athwart, +by, above, down, unto, towards, +with, below, before, across, notwithstanding, +in, between, behind, around, out of, +into, beneath, off, amidst, instead of, +within, from, on upon, throughout, over against, +without, beyond, among, underneath, according to. + +This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions, +and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with +the _nature_ of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too, +you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes +any word belongs. + +By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it +performs a _double_ office in a sentence, namely, it _connects_ words, +and also shows a _relation_ between them. I will first show you the use +and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is +ripe--October, it is gathered--the field--men--who +go--hill--hill--baskets,--which they put the ears. You perceive, that in +this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us +fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear. +"When corn is ripe, _in_ October, it is gathered _in_ the field _by_ +men, who go _from_ hill _to_ hill _with_ baskets, _into_ which they put +the ears." + +From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language +would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various +words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but +nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this +office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.; +in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a +connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the +next place I will show you how prepositions express a _relation_ between +words. + +The boy's hat is _under_ his arm. In this expression, what relation does +the preposition _under_ show? You know that _hat_ and _arm_ are words +used as signs of two objects, or ideas; but _under_ is _not_ the sign of +a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the _relation_ +existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the +word _under_ is the sign of the _relation_ existing between particular +_ideas_, it also expresses a relation existing between the words _hat_ +and _arm_, which words are the representatives of those ideas. + +The boy holds his hat _in_ his hand. In this sentence the preposition +_in_ shows the relation existing between _hat_ and _hand_, or the +situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, +if I say, The boy's hat is _on_ his head, you perceive that _on_ shows +the relation between _hat_ and _head_. Again, in the expressions, The +boy threw his hat _up stairs_--_under_ the bed--_behind_ the +table--_through_ the window--_over_ the house--_across_ the +street--_into_ the water--and so on, you perceive that the several +prepositions express the different relations existing between the _hat_ +and the other nouns, _stairs, bed, table, window, house, street_, and +_water_. + +A preposition tells _where_ a thing is: thus, "The pear is on the +ground, _under_ the tree." + +Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do _not_ express an +action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle +does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the +objective case, because it is the object of the _relation_ expressed by +the preposition, and _not_ the object of an _action_. + +I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the _objective case_, +than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed +you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action _or_ of a +relation; and, also, that there are _three_ parts of speech which govern +nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, _active-transitive +verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs_, and _prepositions_. A +noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the +object of an action _and_ of a relation. It must be either the object of +an action _or_ of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, +that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or +participle, it is the object of an _action_; as, The tutor _instructs_ +his _pupils_; or, The tutor is _instructing_ his _pupils_; but whenever +a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a +_relation_; as, The tutor gives good instruction _to_ his _pupils_. + +Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review +this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously +recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your +book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course +will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish +to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of +the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an +unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have +learned thus far, you will understand _seven_ parts of speech; and only +_three_ more will remain to be learned. + +If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the +following _order_, and then proceed in parsing. + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +_The order of parsing a_ PREPOSITION, is--a preposition, and why?--what +does it connect?--what relation does it show? + +"He saw an antelope _in_ the _wilderness."_ + +_In_ is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show +the relation between them--it connects the words "antelope" and +"wilderness"--and shows the relation between them. + +_Wilderness_ is a noun, the name of a place--com. the name of a sort or +species--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken +of--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the objective case, it is the +object of a _relation_ expressed by the preposition "in," and governed +by it, according to + +RULE 31. _Prepositions govern the objective case_. + +The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before _he_; +Hand the paper to _they_. Prepositions _require_ the pronoun following +them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this +requisition amounts to _government_. Hence we say, "Stand before _him_;" +"Hand the paper to _them_." Every preposition expresses a relation, and +every relation must have an _object_: consequently, every preposition +must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most +excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause, +in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over +nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the +laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of +Egypt. + +A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious +man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like +swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. + +At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast; +and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards. + + Love still pursues an ever devious race, + True to the winding lineaments of grace. + + * * * * * + +NOTE.--The words _my_ and _and_ you need not parse. The noun "meteors," +following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by +_unto_ understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home" +is governed by _to_ understood, according to Rule 32. + +REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS. + +A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a +preposition understood; as, "Give _him_ that book;" that is, "Give that +book _to_ him;" "Ortugrul was one _day_ wandering," &c. that is, _on_ +one day. "Mercy gives _affliction_ a grace;" that is, Mercy gives a +grace _to_ affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32. + +To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is +requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of +_by_ and _with;_ as, "He walks _with_ a staff _by_ moonlight;" "He was +taken _by_ stratagem, and killed _with_ a sword." Put the one +preposition for the other, and say, "He walks _by_ a staff _with_ +moonlight;" "He was taken _with_ stratagem, and killed _by_ a sword;" +and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former +in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine. + +Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a _preposition;_ as, to +_up_hold, to _with_stand, to _over_look; and this composition gives a +new meaning to the verb; as, to _under_stand, to _with_draw, to +_for_give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, +and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not +less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all +instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the +verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as _a +part of the verb_. Thus, _to cast_ means _to throw_; but _to cast up_ an +account, signifies _to compute_ it; therefore _up_ is a part of the +verb. The phrases, _to fall on, to bear out, to give over_, convey very +different meanings from what they would if the prepositions _on, out_ +and _over_, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called _compound_ +verbs. + +You may now answer the following + +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +From what words is the term _preposition_ derived?--Why is it thus +named?--Repeat the list of prepositions.--Name the three parts of speech +that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.--When is a noun or +pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?--When is it the +object of a relation?--Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.--What +rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a +preposition?--Does every preposition require an objective case after +it?--Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition +understood?--Give examples.--What is said of verbs compounded of a verb +and preposition?--Give the origin and meaning of the prepositions +explained in the Philosophical Notes. + + + * * * * * + + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + _From_, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun + _frum_, beginning, source, author. "He came _from (beginning_) + Rochester." _Of_, he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and + Saxon noun _afora_, consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the + son _of (offspring_) David." _Of_ or _off_, in its modern + acceptation, signifies _disjoined, sundered_: A piece _of (off_) the + loaf, is, a piece _disjoined_, or _separated_ from the loaf. The + fragrance _of_ or _off_ the rose. + + _For_ signifies _cause_. "I write _for_ your satisfaction;" i.e. + your satisfaction being the _cause. By_ or _be_ is the imperative + _byth_, of the Saxon _beon_, to be. _With_, the imperative of + _withan_, to join; or, when equivalent to _by_, of _wyr-than_, to + be. "I will go _with_ him." "I, _join_ him, will go." _In_ comes + from the Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; a cave or + cell. _About_, from _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Among_ is + the past part. of _gamaengan_, to mingle. _Through_ or _thorough_ is + the Gothic substantive _dauro_, or the Teutonic _thuruh_. It means + passage, gate, door. + + _Before_--_be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-side, be-sides, be-neath_ + are formed by combining the imperative, _be_, with the nouns _fore, + hind, low, side, neath. Neath_--Saxon _neothan, neothe_, has the + same signification as _nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt_--_be_ and _twain_. + A dual preposition. _Be-yond_--_be-passed. Beyond_ a place, means, + _be passed_ that place. + _Notwithstanding--not-stand-ing-with, not-withstanding_. "Any order + to the contrary not-withstanding," (this order;) i.e. _not_ + effectually _withstanding_ or _opposing_ it. + + + * * * * * + + +LECTURE VIII. + +OF PRONOUNS. + +A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the +too frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, +sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence. + +The word _pronoun_ comes from the two Latin words, _pro_, which means +_for_, or _instead of_, and _nomen_, a _name_, or _noun._ Hence you +perceive, that _pronoun_ means _for a noun_, or _instead of a noun_. + +In the sentence, "The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful;" +you perceive, that the word _he_ is used instead of the noun _man;_ +consequently _he_ must be a _pronoun_. You observe, too, that, by making +use of the pronoun _he_ in this sentence, we avoid the _repetition_ of +the _noun_ man, for without the pronoun, the sentence would be rendered +thus, "The man is happy; _the man_ is benevolent; _the man_ is useful." + +By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pronouns +always _stand for_ nouns, but they do not always _avoid the repetition_ +of nouns. _Repetition_ means _repeating_ or mentioning the same thing +again. In the sentence, "I come to die for my country," the pronouns, +_I_ and _my, stand_ for the name of the person who speaks; but they do +not _avoid the repetition_ of that name, because the name or noun for +which the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the +_third_ person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which +they stand; but pronouns of the _first_ and _second_ person, sometimes +avoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not. + +A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its +importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. If +we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to express +ourselves in this manner: "A woman went to a man, and told the man that +the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers; as a gang +of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked +the woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend +the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a neighbor's." + +This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pronouns, we +can express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness: "A +woman went to a man, and told _him_, that _he_ was in great danger of +being murdered by a gang of robbers, _who_ had made preparations for +attacking _him. He_ thanked _her_ for _her_ kindness, and, as _he_ was +unable to defend _himself_, _he_ left _his_ house and went to a +neighbor's." + +If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss to +tell which words are pronouns; and you will observe too, that they all +stand for nouns. + +Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the _Personal_, the +_Adjective_, and the _Relative_ pronouns. They are all known by the +_lists_. + +1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the +relative, by their denoting the _person_ of the nouns for which they +stand. There are five of them; _I_, _thou, he, she, it_; with their +plurals, _We, ye_ or _you, they_. + +To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case. + +GENDER. When we speak of a _man_, we say, _he, his, him_; when we speak +of a _woman_, we say, _she, hers, her_; and when we speak of a _thing_, +we say _it_. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as well +as to nouns. Example; "The general, in gratitude to the lady, offered +_her his_ hand; but _she_, not knowing _him_, declined accepting _it_." +The pronouns _his_ and _him_, in this sentence, personate or represent +the noun _general_; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender: _her_ +and _she_ personate the _lady_; therefore, they are feminine: and _it_ +represents _hand_; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This +illustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gender +as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the +variation of the pronouns to express the sex, + +Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, +_he, she, it. He_ is masculine; _she_ is feminine; _it_ is neuter. + +You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons +are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of the +third. The reason is obvious. The first person, that is, the person +speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at the +same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present; +from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, +therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked +by a distinction of gender; but the third person, that is, the person or +thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarily +requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by a distinction +of gender. + +In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and +second person, and also to the plural number of the third person; but +these have no peculiar form to denote their gender; therefore they have +no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which they represent. + +PERSON. Pronouns have three persons in each number. + +_I_, is the first person } +_Thou_, is the second person } Singular. +_He, she_, or _it_, is the third person } + +_We_, is the first person } +_Ye_ or _you_, is the second person } Plural. +_They_, is the third person } + +This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you reflect, +that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse: +first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may +speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak +of some other person; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and +the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a +plural number. + +Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree, in person with +the nouns they represent; but pronouns of the first person, do not. +Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun; +but nouns are _never_ of the first person, therefore these pronouns +cannot agree in person with their nouns. + +NUMBER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and the +plural; as, _I, thou, he_; _we, ye_ or _you, they_. + +CASE. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the +objective. + +In the next place I will present to you the _declension_ of the personal +pronouns, which declension you must commit to memory before you proceed +any farther. + +The advantages resulting from the committing of the following +declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too +particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes +very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the +objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference +in termination; but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personal +pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By +studying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of the +pronouns, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers. + +DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + FIRST PERSON. +_Sing. _Plur_. +_Nom_. I, we, +_Poss_. my _or_ mine, our _or_ ours, +_Obj_. me. us. + +SECOND PERSON. +_Sing_. _Plur_. +_Nom_. thou, ye _or_ you, +_Poss_. thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours, +_Obj_. thee. you. + +THIRD PERSON. +_Mas. Sing._ _Plur_. +_Nom_, he, they, +_Poss_. his, their _or_ theirs, +_Obj_. him. them. + +THIRD PERSON. +_Fem. Sing._ _Plur_. +_Nom_. she, they, +_Poss_. her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs. +_Obj_. her. them. + +THIRD PERSON. +_Neut. Sing._ _Plur_. +_Nom_. it, they, +_Poss_. its, their _or_ theirs, +_Obj._ it. them. + + * * * * * + + NOTES. + + 1. When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, + myself, itself, themselves, &c. they are called _compound personal + pronouns_, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not + in the possessive. + + 2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned + by the frequent recurrence of the terminations _est, edst_, in the + adaptation of our verbs to the nominative _thou_, a modern + innovation which substitutes _you_ for _thou_, in familiar style, + has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to + the harmony of our colloquial style. _You_ was formerly restricted + to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a + singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that + when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word + retains its original _plural form_; and, therefore, the verb + connected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this + peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the erroneous + conclusion, that, because _you_ implies unity when it represents a + singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a + singular verb; as, "When _was you_ there?" "How far _was you_ from + the parties?" Such a construction, however, is not supported by + _good_ usage, nor by analogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to + say, We _am_, or we _is_. Were it, in any case, admissible to + connect a singular verb with _you_, the use of _was_ would still be + ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and + third persons, and _you_ is second person. _Wast_ being second + person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you + _wast_. We never use the singular of the present tense with + you:--you _art_, you _is_; you _walkest_, you _walks_. Why, then, + should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and + gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense + with this pronoun? In every point of view, the construction, "When + _were_ you there?" "How far _were_ you from the parties?" is + preferable to the other. + + 3. The words _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, are, by many, + denominated _possessive adjective pronouns_; but they always _stand + for_ nouns in the possessive case. They ought, therefore, to be + classed with the _personal_ pronouns. That principle of + classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would + also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives. + Example: "The lady gave the gentleman _her_ watch for _his_ horse." + In this sentence _her_ personates, or stands for, the noun "lady," + and _his_ represents "gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by + rendering the sentence thus, "The lady gave the gentleman the + _lady's_ watch for the _gentleman's_ horse." If _lady's_ and + _gentleman's_ are nouns, _her_ and _his_ must be personal pronouns. + The same remarks apply to _my, thy, our, your, their_ and _its_. + This view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate + and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their + non-existence, but it is believed, nevertheless, to be based on + sound reason and common sense. + + 4. _Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, have, by many + respectable grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases + of personal pronouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated + pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. It is + believed, however, that a little attention to the meaning and office + of these words, will clearly show the impropriety of both these + classifications. Those who pursue the former arrangement, allege, + that, in the examples, "You may imagine what kind of faith _theirs_ + was; My pleasures are past; _hers_ and _yours_ are to come; they + applauded his conduct, but condemned _hers_ and _yours_," the words + _theirs, hers_, and _yours_, are personal pronouns in the possessive + case, and governed by their respective nouns understood. To prove + this, they construct the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind + of faith _their faith_ was;--_her pleasures_ and _your pleasures_ + are to come;--but condemned _her conduct_ and _your conduct_;" or + thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them + was;--the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come;-- + but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these + constructions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their + purpose; for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they + are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the + nouns which we supply: thus, _theirs_ becomes, their faith: _hers_, + her pleasures; and _yours_, your pleasures. This evidently gives us + two words instead of, and altogether distinct from, the first; so + that, in parsing, _their faith_, we are not, in reality, analyzing + _theirs_, but two other words of which _theirs_ is the proper + representative. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the + impropriety of calling these words merely simple pronouns or nouns + in the nominative or objective case. Without attempting to develop + the original or intrinsic meaning of these pluralizing adjuncts, + _ne_ and _s_, which were, no doubt, formerly detached from the + pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes, + it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present application of + these pronouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person + possessing, but, also the thing possessed, which gives them a + _compound_ character. They may, therefore, be properly denominated + COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS; and, as they always perform a double + office in a sentence by representing two other words, and, + consequently, including two cases, they should, like the compound + relative _what_, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, "You + may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," _theirs_ is a compound + personal pronoun, equivalent to _their faith. Their_ is a pronoun, a + word used instead of a noun; personal, it personates the persons + spoken of, understood; third pers. plur. numb., &c.--and in the + possessive case, and governed by "faith," according to Rule 12. + _Faith_ is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. &c.--and in the + nominative case to "was," and governs it; Rule 3. Or, if we render + the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith _the faith of + them[4]_ was," _faith_ would be in the nominative case to "was," and + _them_ would be in the objective case, and governed by "of:" Rule + 31. + +[4] In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, +her, our your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more +clearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion, than this +latter construction of the word theirs? All admit, that, in the +construction, "The faith _of them_," the word _them_, is a personal +pronoun: and for this conclusive reason:--it represents a noun +understood. What, then, is _their_, in the phrase, "their faith?" Is +it not obvious, that, if _them_ is a personal pronoun, _their_ must +be, also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former. + + Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless + be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after + these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion + without proof; for, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied. + If the question be put, whose book? and the answer be, _mine, ours, + hers_, or _theirs_, the word book is included in such answer. Were + it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine _book_, ours _book_, + hers _book_, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be + giving a _double_ answer: but when the question is answered by a + noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but + implied; as, Whose book? John's, Richard's; that is, John's _book_; + Richard's _book_. + + This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the + compounds _what, whoever_, and _others_, is respectfully submitted + to the public; believing, that those who approve of a critical + analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be + disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among + the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interrogatory: If + _what_, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not _mine, + thine, his, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_? + + 5. _Mine_ and _thine_, instead of _my_ and _thy_, are used in solemn + style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent _h_; as, "Blot + out all _mine_ iniquities;" and when thus used, they are not + compound. _His_ always has the same form, whether simple or + compound; as, "Give John _his_ book; That desk is _his." Her_, when + placed before a noun, is in the possessive case; as, Take _her_ hat: + when standing alone, it is in the objective case; as, Give the hat + to _her_. + +When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the +_declension_ of the personal pronouns, you may commit the following +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +_The order of parsing a_ PERSONAL PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and +why?--personal, and why?--person, and why?--gender and number, and +why?--RULE: case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it. + +There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronouns +in their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse them +correctly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the +following are analyzed. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceive +that we apply only _one_ rule in parsing _I_ and _my_, and _two_ in +parsing _thou, him_, and _they_. + + "_I_ saw _my_ friend." + +_I_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it represents +the person speaking, understood--first person, it denotes the +speaker--singular number, it implies but one--and in the nominative +case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "saw," and governs +it, agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case gov. the verb_. Declined--first +pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. +our or ours, obj. us. + +_My_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it +personates the person speaking, understood--first pers. it denotes the +speaker--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the possessive case, it +denotes possession; it is governed by the noun "friend", agreeably to +RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the +noun it possesses_. Declined--first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or +mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. + + "Young man, _thou_ hast deserted thy companion, and left _him_ in + distress." + +_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it +personates "man"--second person, it represents the person spoken +to--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands, +according to RULE 13. _Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for +which they stand in gender and number_. + +_Thou_ is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of the +verb "hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case +governs the verb._ Declined--sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy +or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj. +you. + +_Him_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it +personates "companion"--third pers. it represents the person spoken +of--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "companion" is for which it +stands: RULE 13. _Pers. pro. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.)--_Him_ is in the +objective case, the object of the action expressed by the +active-transitive verb "hast left," and gov. by it: RULE 20. +_Active-trans. verbs gov. the obj. case_. Declined--third pers. mas. +gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. +their or theirs, obj. them. + + "Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat, but + _they_ dreaded the force of my arm." + +_They_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it +represents "chiefs"--third pers. it denotes the persons spoken of--mas. +gend. plur. num. because the noun "chiefs" is for which it stands: RULE +13. _Pers. Pron. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it +represents the actors and subject of the verb "dreaded," and governs it: +RULE 3. _The nom. case, gov. the verb_. Declined--third pers. mas. gend. +sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or +theirs, obj. them. + +NOTE. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, +(excepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are +understood; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. +But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and _two_ +Rules. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. My friends +visit me very often at my father's office. We improve ourselves by close +application. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by your +diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young +ladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove +his horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them. + +Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us: +its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmar +stood on its banks, with their glittering spears. We fought along the +vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in +the west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt them +with his hands: joy brightened his thoughts. + +NOTE. _Horace, Charles_, and _ladies_, are of the second person, and +nom. case _independent_: see RULE 5, and NOTE. The first _you_ is used +in the nom. poss. and obj. case.--It represents Charles, therefore it is +_singular_ in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, _you_ +personifies _ladies_, therefore it is _plural. Given_ is a perfect +participle. _You_ following given, is governed by _to_ understood, +according to NOTE 1, under Rule 32. _Run over_ is a compound verb. _And_ +is a conjunction. The first _its_ personates vale; the second _its_ +represents stream. + +You may now parse the following examples three times over. + +COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + + "Juliet, retain her paper, and present _yours_." + +_Yours_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor +and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _your paper_. _Your_ is a +pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates +"Juliet"--second person, it represents the person spoken to--fem. +gender, sing. number, (singular in sense, but _plural_ in form,) because +the noun Juliet is for which it stands: Rule 13. _Pers. Pron. +&c_.--_Your_ is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is +governed by "paper," according to Rule 12. _A noun or pron. &c._ (Repeat +the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) _Paper_ is a noun, the name of a +thing--common, the name of a sort of things--neuter gender, it denotes a +thing without sex--third person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but +one--and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by +the transitive verb "present," and governed by it: Rule 20. +_Active-transitive verbs govern the obj. case_. + +NOTE. Should it be objected, that _yours_ does not mean _your paper_, +any more than it means _your book, your house, your_ any thing, let it +be borne in mind, that pronouns have no _definite_ meaning, like other +words; but their _particular_ signification is always determined by the +nouns they represent. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Julia injured her book, and soiled mine: hers is better than mine. My +friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours: his deeds deserve reward; +yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past; thine are to come. We +leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are +kin. + +NOTE. _She_ understood, is nominative to _soiled_, in the first example; +and the substantive part of _mine_, after than, is nom. to _is_, +understood: Rule 35. The verbs _to secure_ and _to come_ have no +nominative. The pronouns _mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my_, +and _yours_, personate nouns understood. + +REMARKS ON _IT_. + +For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun _it_, many +grammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to +account for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It +is in great demand by writers of every description. They use it without +ceremony; either in the nominative or objective case; either to +represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns +in the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it +represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of +sentences taken in a mass. + +A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all +its mystery. _It_, formerly written _hit_, according to H. Tooke, is the +past participle of the Moeso-Gothic verb _haitan_. It means, _the said_, +and, therefore, like its near relative _that_, meaning, _the assumed_, +originally had no respect, in its application, to number, person, or +gender. "_It_ is a wholesome law;" i.e. _the_ _said_ (law) is a +wholesome law; or, _that_ (law) is a wholesome law;--_the assumed_ (law) +is a wholesome law. "_It_ is the man; I believe _it_ to be them:"--_the +said_ (man) is the man; _that_ (man) is the man: I believe _the said_ +(persons) to be them; I believe _that_ persons (according to the ancient +application of _that_) to be them. "_It_ happened on a summer's day, +that many people were assembled," &c.--Many people were assembled: _it, +that_, or _the said_ (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day. + +_It_, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred +to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. "How is +_it_ with you?" that is, "How is your _state_ or _condition_?" "_It_ +rains; _It_ freezes; _It_ is a hard winter;"--_The rain_ rains; _The +frost_ frosts or freezes; _The said_ (winter) is a hard winter. "_It_ is +delightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to +the end of their days." What is delightful? _To see brothers and sisters +living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this thing_, +is delightful. _It_, then, stands for all that part of the sentence +expressed in italics; and the sentence will admit of the following +construction; "To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end +of their days, is delightful." + + * * * * * + +OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. + +ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, or, more properly, SPECIFYING +ADJECTIVES, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some +distinct specification. + +Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. The +former _stand for_ nouns, and never belong to them; the latter _belong +to_ nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an +_adjective-pronoun_ cannot exist. _Each, every, either, this, that, +some, other_, and the residue, are pure adjectives. + +Those specifying adjectives commonly called Adjective Pronouns, may be +divided into three sorts; the _distributive_, the _demonstrative_, and +the _indefinite_. They are all known by the _lists_. + +I. The _distributive adjectives_ are those that denote the persons or +things that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. _List: +each, every, either_, and sometimes _neither_; as, "_Each_ of his +brothers is in a favorable situation;" "_Every_ man must account for +himself;" "_Neither_ of them is industrious." + +These distributives are words which are introduced into language in its +refined state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors of +thought. "_Man_ must account for himself;" "_Mankind_ must account for +themselves;" "_All men_ must account for themselves;" "_All men, women,_ +and _children,_ must account for themselves;" "_Every man_ must account +for himself." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth. +But the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the mind +to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of _every, distributes_ +them, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever is affirmed +of one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human +race. + +_Each_ relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of +the two, or every one of any number taken separately. + +_Every_ relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of +them all taken separately. + +_Either_ relates to _two_ persons or things taken separately, and +signifies the one or the other. "_Either_ of the _three_," is an +improper expression. It should be, "any of the three." + +_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other; as, +"_Neither_ of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more +than _two, none_ should be used instead of _neither_; as, "_None_ of my +friends was there." + + * * * * * + +II. The _demonstrative_ are those which precisely point out the subject +to which they relate. _List: this_ and _that_, and their plurals, +_these_ and _those_, and _former_ and _latter_; as, "_This_ is true +charity; "_that_ is only its image." + +There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application +of _the_ and _that_. When reference is made to a particular book, we +say, "Take _the_ book;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise, +we say, "Take _that_ book;" or, if it be near by, "Take _this_ book." +You perceive, then, that these demonstratives have all the force of the +definite article, and a little more. + +_This_ and _these_ refer to the nearest persons or things, _that_ and +_those_ to the most distant; as, "_These_ goods are superior to those." +_This_ and _these_ indicate the latter, or last mentioned; _that_ and +_those_, the former, or first mentioned; as, "Both _wealth_ and +_poverty_ are temptations; _that_ tends to excite pride, _this_, +discontent." + + "_Some_ place the bliss in action, _some_ in ease; + _Those_ call it pleasure, and contentment, _these_." + +_They, those_. As it is the office of the personal _they_ to represent a +noun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight +departure from analogy in the following application of it: "_They_ who +seek after wisdom, are sure to find her: _They_ that sow in tears, +sometimes reap in joy." This usage, however, is well established, and +_they_, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to +_those_. + + * * * * * + +III. The _indefinite_ are those which express their subjects in an +indefinite or general manner. _List: some, other, any, one, all, such, +both, same, another none_. Of these, _one_ and _other_ are declined like +nouns. _Another_ is declined, but wants the plural. + +The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the +meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade of +difference in meaning, we say, Give me _a_ paper, _one_ paper, _any_ +paper, _some_ paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaning +of the noun, they do not fix it to a _particular_ object. We therefore +call them indefinite. + +These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns +understood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly; as +"You may take _either_; He is pleased with _this_ book, but dislikes +_that_ (book;) _All_ (men) have sinned, but _some_ (men) have repented." + +The words, _one, other_, and _none_, are used in both numbers; and, when +they _stand for_ nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite +_pronouns_; as, "The great _ones_ of the world have their failings;" +"Some men increase in wealth, while _others_ decrease;" "_None_ escape." + +The word "ones," in the preceding example, does not belong to a noun +understood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The meaning is not "the +great one men, nor ones men," therefore _one_ is not an adjective +pronoun; but the meaning is, "The great _men_ of the world," therefore +_ones_ is a pronoun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun _men_ +understood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The word +_others_, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to +_other men_; and should be parsed like _mine, thine_, &c. See Note 4th, +page 100. + +I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some examples for you to +analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should be at a loss +for definitions and rules, please to refer to the compendium. But before +you proceed, you may commit the following + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +The order of parsing an ADJECTIVE PRONOUN, is--an adjective pronoun, and +why?--distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why?--to what +noun does it belong, or with what does it agree?--RULE. + +"_One_ man instructs many _others." One_ is an adjective pronoun, or +specifying adjective, it specifically points out a noun--indefinite, it +expresses its subject in an indefinite or general manner, and belongs to +the noun "man," according to RULE 19. _Adjective pronouns belong to +nouns, expressed or understood_. + +_Others_ is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective pronoun and +a noun, and is equivalent to _other men_. _Other_ is an adjective +pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noun--indefinite, it +expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, and belongs to _men_: +Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) _Men_ is a noun, a name denoting +persons--common, &c. (parse it in full;) and in the objective case, it +is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb +"instructs," and gov. by it: Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs, &c_. + + "_Those_ books are _mine_." + +_Those_ is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is referred +to--demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to which it +relates--and agrees with the noun "books" in the plural number, +according to NOTE 1, under Rule 19. _Adjective pronouns must agree in +number with their nouns_. + +_Mine_ is a compound personal pronoun, including both the possessor and +the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _my books_. _My_ is a pron. a +word used instead of a noun--personal, it stands for the name of the +person speaking--first person, it denotes the speaker--sing. number, it +implies but one--and in the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is +gov. by "books," according to Rule 12. (Repeat the rule, and decline +the pronoun.) _Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, &c. (parse +it in full;)--and in the nominative case after "are," according to RULE +21. _The verb_ to be _admits the same case after it as before it_. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little. +These men rank among the great ones of the world. That book belongs to +the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men labor, others labor not; the +former increase in wealth, the latter decrease. The boy wounded the old +bird, and stole the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of +those poor wretches complain of their miserable lot. + +NOTE. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, NOTE 2, undo +Rule 19, should be applied. + + * * * * * + +III. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrase +going before, which is called the antecedent. They are _who, which_, and +_that_. + +The word _antecedent_, comes from the two Latin words, _ante, before_, +and _cedo, to go_. Hence you perceive, that antecedent means going +before; thus, "The _man_ is happy _who_ lives virtuously; This is the +_lady who_ relieved my wants; _Thou who_ lovest wisdom, &c. _We who_ +speak from experience," &c. The relative who, in these sentences, +relates to the several words, _man, lady, thou_, and _we_, which words, +you observe, come before the relative: they are, therefore, properly +called antecedents. + +The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or number, like +a personal pronoun. When we use a personal pronoun, in speaking of a +man, we say _he_, and of a woman, _she_; in speaking of one person or +thing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on; +but there is no such variation of the relative. _Who_, in the first of +the preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third +pers. sing.; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the +third, it is of the second pers.; and in the fourth, it is of the first +pers. plur. num.; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each +example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar _form_ to +denote its gend. pers. and num., but it always agrees with its +antecedent _in sense_. Thus, when I say, The _man who_ writes, _who_ is +mas. gend. and sing.; but when I say, The _ladies who_ write, _who_ is +feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and num. of +the relative, you must always look at its antecedent. + +WHO, WHICH, and THAT. + +_Who_ is applied to _persons, which_ to _things_ and _brutes_; as, "He +is a _friend who_ is faithful in adversity; The _bird which_ sung so +sweetly, is flown; This is the _tree which_ produces no fruit." + +_That_ is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent +repetition of _who_ and _which_. It is applied both to persons and +things; as, "_He that_ acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a +_quality that_ highly adorns a woman." + + NOTES. + + 1. _Who_ should never be applied to animals. The following + application of it is erroneous:--"He is like a _least_ of prey, + _who_ destroys without pity." It should be, _that_ destroys, &c. + + 2. _Who_ should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say, + "The _child whom_ we have just seen," &c. It should be, "The child + _that_ we have just seen." + + 3. _Which_ may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one + person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as, + "_Which_ of the two? _Which_ of them is he?" + + 4. _That_, in preference to _who_ or _which_, is applied to persons + when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, + or by the pronominal adjective _same_; as, "Charles XII., king of + Sweden, was one of the _greatest_ madmen _that_ the world ever + saw;--He is the _same_ man _that_ we saw before." + + 5. _That_ is employed after the interrogative _who_, in cases like + the following; "Who _that_ has any sense of religion, would have + argued thus?" + +When the word _ever_ or _soever_ is annexed to a relative pronoun, the +combination is called a _compound pronoun_; as, _whoever_ or _whosoever, +whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_. + +DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +SINGULAR AND PLURAL. + +_Nom._ who, _Poss._ whose, _Obj._ whom. + " whoever, " whosever, " whomever. + " whosoever, " whosesoever, " whomsoever. + +_Which_ and _that_ are indeclinable, except that _whose_ is sometimes +used as the possessive case of _which_; as, "Is there any other doctrine +_whose_ followers are punished;" that is, the followers _of which_ are +punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers; +but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departure +from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their +applications, should be confined to rational beings. + +_That_ may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, +depending on the office which it performs in the sentence. + +_That_ is a relative only when it can be changed to _who_ or _which_ +without destroying the sense; as, "They _that_ (who) reprove us, may be +our best friends; From every thing _that_ (which) you see, derive +instruction." _That_ is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to, +or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as, +"Return _that_ book; _That_ belongs to me; Give me _that_." When _that_ +is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as, +"Take care _that_ every day be well employed." The word _that_, in this +last sentence, cannot be changed to _who_ or _which_ without destroying +the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither does +it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an +adjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a +conjunction. + +If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word _that_, +you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or an +adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and whenever +these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction. + +Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you +one example of affronted _that_, which may serve as a caution. The tutor +said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady +parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze. +This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is +strictly grammatical. The first _that_ is a noun; the second, a +conjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the +fifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh, +a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. +The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; The +tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that _which_ that +lady parsed, was not the that _which_ that gentleman requested her to +analyze. + +WHAT. + +_What_ is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent +and the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "This is _what_ +I wanted;" that is, _that which_, or, _the thing which_ I wanted. + +_What_ is compounded of _which that_. These words have been contracted +and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still +retained: _what--wh[ich--t]hat_; (_which-that_.) Anciently it appeared +in the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat_, +and finally, _what_. + +_What_ may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection. +When it is equivalent to _that which, the thing which_, or _those things +which_, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the +antecedent and the relative; as, "I will try _what_ (that which) can be +found in female delicacy; _What_ you recollect with most pleasure, are +the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, _those things which_ +you recollect, &c. + +When _what_ is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two +words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give +it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, +giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples, +_that_, the antecedent part of _what_, is in the obj. case, governed by +the verb "will try;" _which_, the relative part, is in the nom. case to +"can be found." "I have heard _what_ (i.e. _that which_, or _the thing +which_) has been alleged." + +_Whoever_ and _whosoever_ are also compound relatives, and should be +parsed like the compound _what_; as, "_Whoever_ takes that oath, is +bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, _whoever_ is equivalent to +_he who_, or, _the man who_; thus, "_He who_ takes that oath, is bound," +&c. + +_Who, which_, and _what_, when used in asking questions, are called +interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as, +_"Who_ is he? _Which_ is the person? _What_ are you doing?" + +Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word +or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as, +"_Whom_ did you see? The _preceptor. What_ have you done? _Nothing_." +Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification. +Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means +following, or coming after. _What_, when used as an interrogative, is +never compound. + +_What, which_, and _that_, when joined to nouns, are specifying +adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case, +but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or +indefinite kind; as, "Unto _which_ promise our twelve tribes hope to +come;" "_What_ misery the vicious endure! _What_ havock hast thou made, +foul monster, sin!" + +_What_ and _which_, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are +denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "_What man_ is +that? _Which road_ did he take?" + +_What, whatever_, and _whatsoever, which, whichever_, and _whichsoever_, +in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not +compound relatives; as, "In _what_ character Butler was admitted, is +unknown; Give him _what_ name you choose; Nature's care largely endows +_whatever_ happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take +_which_ course, or, _whichever_ course he will." These sentences may be +rendered thus; "_That_ character, or, _the_ character in _which_ Butler +was admitted, is unknown; Give him _that_ name, or, _the_ name _which_ +you choose; Nature's care endows _that_ happy man _who_ will deign, &c.; +Let him take _that_ course, or _the_ course _which_ he will." A compound +relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These +compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part +of each word being the article _the_, or the adjective pronoun, _that_; +therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives.--With +regard to the word _ever_ annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular +fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined, +_ever_ is entirely excluded from the sentence. + +_What_ is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But _what!_ is thy +servant a dog, that he should do this? _What!_ rob us of our right of +suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!" + +You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so +speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science; +but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your +future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle +elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober +thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative +pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily +comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very +important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or +five times over before you proceed to commit the following order. +Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you +please. + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +_The order of parsing a_ RELATIVE PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and +why?--relative, and why?--gender, person, and number, and +why?--RULE:--case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it. + + "This is the man _whom_ we saw." + +_Whom_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--relative, it relates +to "man" for its antecedent--mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because +the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to + +RULE 14. _Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, +person, and number. Whom_ is in the objective case, the object of the +action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by +it, agreeably to + +RULE 16. _When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the +relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its +own member of the sentence_. + +_Whom_, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs +it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline +_who_.) + + "From _what_ is recorded, he appears," &c. + +_What_ is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the +relative, and is equivalent to _that which_, or the _thing +which_--_Thing_, the antecedent part of _what_, is a noun, the name of a +thing--com. the name of a species--neuter gender, it has no sex--third +person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the obj. +case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from," +and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which +I refer.) _Which_, the relative part of _what_, is a pronoun, a word +used instead of a noun--relative, it relates to "thing" for its +antecedent--neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the +antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. _Rel +pron_. &c. _Which_ is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded," +agreeably to + +RULE 15. _The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no +nominative comes between it and the verb_. + + "_What_ have you learned? Nothing." + +_What_ is a pron. a word used, &c.--relative of the interrogative kind, +because it is used in asking a question--it refers to the word "nothing" +for its _subsequent_, according to + +RULE 17. _When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the +word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its +subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. +What_ is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent +"nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. _Rel. pron. agree_, &c.--It +is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive +verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. _When a nom_. +&c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule. + +NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative +when the answer to the question is _not_ expressed. + +WHO, WHICH, WHAT. + +Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. +The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance +with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded +according to their true character, they would be found to be very +simple, and, _doubtless_, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the +learner, would thereby be saved. + +Of the words called "relatives," _who_, only, is a pronoun; and this is +strictly _personal_; more so, indeed, if we except _I_ and _we_, than +any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. +It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. _I, thou, he, she, +it, we, ye, you_, and _they, relate_ to antecedents, as well as _who. +Which, that_, and _what_, are always adjectives. They never _stand for_, +but always _belong_ to nouns, either expressed or implied. They +_specify_, like many other adjectives, and _connect_ sentences. + +_Who_ supplies the place of _which_ or _what_ and its _personal noun_. +_Who_ came? i.e. _what man, what woman, what person;--which man, woman_, +or _person_, came? "They heard _what_ I said"--they heard _that_ (thing) +_which_ (thing) I said. "Take _what_ (or _whichever_) course you +please;"--take _that_ course _which_ (course) you please to take. +"_What_ have you done?" i.e. _what thing, act_, or _deed_ have you +done? "_Which thing_ I also did at Jerusalem." "_Which_ will you +take?"--_which book, hat_, or something else? "This is the tree _which_ +(tree) produces no fruit." "He _that_ (man, or _which_ man) acts wisely, +deserves praise." + +They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty +to adopt it, and parse accordingly. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, +learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities. +That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts +wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I +believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the +heart, also fortifies it. What doest[5] thou? Nothing. What book +have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry. +Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take? +Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he +said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, +take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this +republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her +liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the +world, is the enemy of God. + +[5] The second person singular of _do_, when used as a principal +verb, is spelled with an _e_; thus, "What thou _doest_, do quickly;" +but when employed as an auxiliary, the _e_ should be omitted; as, +"_Dost_ thou not _behold_ a rock with its head of heath?" + + NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and + the objective case, before the verb that governs it. _Whom_, in + every sentence except one, _house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him_, + the third _what_ and _which_, the relative part of the first _two + whats_, are all in the _objective_ case, and governed by the several + verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. _Tree_ is nom. + after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of + _whatever_, is nom. to "fortifies;" _which_, the relative part, is + nom. to "purifies." _Nothing_ is governed by _do_, and _poem_, by + _have_, understood. _Henry_ is nominative to _does_, understood. + _Whose_ and _John's_ are governed according to RULE 12. _I, thou, + you, him_, &c. represent nouns understood. _Him_, in the last + sentence but five, is governed by _declare_, and _I_ is nominative + to _declare. George_ and _Eliza_ are in the nominative case + independent: Rule 5. "_Whatever_ science," &c. is equivalent to, + _that_ science _which_ suits your taste;--"_whichever_ pattern;" + i.e. _that_ pattern _which_ pleases you best. _Whoever_ is a + compound relative; _he_, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will + behold." _Take_ agrees with _you_ understood. _Forsake_ is in the + infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25. + +REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS. + +_Which_ sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole +sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep +his commandments, _which_ is the whole duty of man." What is the whole +duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this +phrase is the antecedent to _which_. + +The conjunction _as_, when it follows _such, many_, or _same_, is +frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with _such +as_ have a refined taste;" that is, with _those who_, or _them who +have_, &c. "Let _such as_ presume to advise others, look well to their +own conduct;" that is, Let _those_, or _them who_ presume, &c. "_As many +as_ were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, _they, those_, or +_all who_ were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the _same_ testimonials +_as_ were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, _those_ testimonials +_which_ were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the +ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, _as_ will be found +to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with _such persons, as those +persons are who_ have a refined taste; Let _such persons, as those +persons are who_ presume," &c. + +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +From what words is the term pronoun derived?--Do pronouns always avoid +the repetition of nouns?--Name the three kinds of pronouns.--What +distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?--How many +personal pronouns are there?--Repeat them.--What belong to pronouns?--Is +gender applied to all the personal pronouns?--To which of them is it +applied?--Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to +denote their gender?--How many persons have pronouns?--Speak them in +their different persons.--How many numbers have pronouns?--How many +cases?--What are they?--Decline all the personal pronouns.--When _self_ +is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are +they used?--When is _you_ singular in sense?--Is it ever singular in +form?--Why are the words, _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, called +personal pronouns?--Why are the words, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, +yours, theirs_, denominated compound pers. pron.?--How do you parse +these compounds?--What is said of _others_?--Repeat the order of parsing +a personal pronoun.--What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the +first person, and in the nom. case?--What rule when the pronoun is in +the possessive case?--What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of +the second and third person?--What Rules in parsing the compounds, +_yours, ours, mine_, &c.?--What is said of the pronoun _it_? + +What are adjective pronouns?--Name the three kinds.--What does _each_ +relate to?--To what does _every_ relate?--To what does _either_ +relate?--What does _neither_ import?--To what do _this_ and _these_ +refer?--Give examples.--To what do _that_ and _those_ refer?--Give +examples.--Repeat all the adjective pronouns.--When adj. pronouns belong +to nouns understood, how are they parsed?--When they stand for, or +represent nouns, what are they called?--Give examples.--Repeat the +order of parsing an adj. pronoun.--What Rule do you apply in parsing +the indefinite adjective pronouns?--What Notes, in parsing the +distributives and demonstratives? + +What are relative pronouns?--Repeat them.--From what words is the term +antecedent derived?--What does _antecedent_ mean?--Are relatives varied +on account of gender, person, or number?--To what are _who_ and _which_ +applied?--To what is _that_ applied?--Should _who_ ever be applied to +irrational beings or children?--In what instances may _which_ be applied +to persons?--Decline the rel. pronouns.--Can _which_ and _that_ be +declined?--Is _that_ ever used as three parts of speech?--Give +examples.--What part of speech is the word _what_?--Is _what_ ever used +as three kinds of a pronoun?--Give examples.--What is said of +_whoever_?--What words are used as interrogative pronouns?--Give +examples.--When are the words, _what, which_, and _that_, called adj. +pron.?--When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?--What +is said of _whatever_ and _whichever_?--Is _what_ ever used as an +interjection?--Give examples.--Repeat the order of parsing a rel. +pron.--What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?--What Rules in +parsing a compound relative?--What Rules in parsing an +interrogative?--Does the relative _which_ ever relate to a sentence for +its antecedent?--When does the conjunction _as_ become a relative?--Give +examples. + +EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. + +NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it +must be in the nominative case. + +Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well? + +"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun _him_ is the subject of the +verb _will go_ understood, therefore him should be in the nominative +case, _he_, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) _Him_ and I +are connected by the conjunction _and_, and _him_ is in the obj. case, +and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) +In the second and third examples, _thee_ should be _thou_, according to +the NOTE. The verbs, _does_ and _is_, are of the third person, and the +nom. _thou_ is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the +second person, _dost do_ and _art_, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct +the other examples, _four_ times over. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + +Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is +careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the +man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater +proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was +there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of +honor bestowed upon him. + +NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of +nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with +the noun which they represent. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + +The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many +words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many +victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about +doing good, they are continually doing evil. + +In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be +omitted, according to Note 2. + +NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not +be used instead of _these_ and _those_. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + +Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men +their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons +deserves most credit? + +In all these examples, _those_ should be used in place of _them_. The +use of the personal, _them_, in such constructions, presents two +objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may +be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead. + + * * * * * + +LECTURE IX. + +OF CONJUNCTIONS. + +A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect +sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound +sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou _and_ he are +happy, _because_ you are good." + +Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in +different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human +thought. They belong to language only in its refined state. + +The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, _con_, which +signifies _together_, and _jungo_, to _join_. A conjunction, then, is a +word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully +comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite +that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and +a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect +sentences. + +A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense. + +A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb +which agrees with that nominative; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field." + +You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the +nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence +containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and +one _finite_ verb, (that is, a verb _not_ in the infinitive mood,) it is +a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences. + +A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences +connected together; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field, and _men reap_ it." + +This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences +joined together by the word _and_; which word, on account of its +connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence +without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat +grows in the field. Men reap it." + +The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. +After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish +to _add_ another, or several others, which are closely connected with +it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, +"The Georgians cultivate rice _and_ cotton;" that is, "They cultivate +rice _add_ cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of +the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: +thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The +conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes +connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the +preposition; as, "The sun _and (add)_ the planets constitute the solar +system." In this, which is a simple sentence, _and_ connects two +_words_. + +A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of +this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. +The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no +relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He +labors harder--more successfully--I do. That man is healthy--he is +temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with +conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, +He labors harder _and_ more successfully _than_ I do. That man is +healthy _because_ he is temperate. + +Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive. + +I. The Conjunction _Copulative_ serves to connect and continue a +sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a +supposition, or a cause; as, "Two _and_ three are five; I will go _if_ +he will accompany me; You are happy _because_ you are good." + +In the first of these examples, _and_ joins on a word that expresses an +_addition_; in the second, _if_ connects a member that implies a +_supposition_ or _condition_; and in the third, _because_ connects a +member that expresses a _cause_. + +II. The Conjunction _Disjunctive_ serves to connect and continue a +sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; +as, "They came with her, _but_ they went away without her." + +_But_ joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only +something added, but, also, _opposition_ of meaning. + +The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following _lists_, which +you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, +frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you +study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be +at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language. + +LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. + +_Copulative_. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, +wherefore, provided, besides. + +_Disjunctive_. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, +neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, +as well as. + +Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, +in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the +former; as, + +1. _Though_--_yet_ or _nevertheless_; as, "_Though_ he was rich, _yet_ +for our sakes he became poor." + +2. _Whether_--_or_; as, "_Whether_ he will go, _or_ not, I cannot tell." +It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or _no_." + +3. _Either_--_or_; as, "I will _either_ send it, _or_ bring it myself." + +4. _Neither--nor_; as, "_Neither_ thou _nor_ I can comprehend it." + +5. _As_--_as_; as, "She is _as_ amiable _as_ her sister." + +6. _As_--_so_; as, "_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be." + +7. _So_--_as_; as, "To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the +sanctuary." + +8. _So_--_that_; as, "He became _so_ vain, _that_ everyone disliked +him." + + NOTES. + + 1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple _sentences_ only, + and form them into compound _sentences_; such as, further, again, + besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple _members_ only, + so as to make them compound _members_; such as, than, lest, unless, + that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, + therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or + simple members. + + 2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect + sentences; as, "Blessed is the man _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_ + keepeth his commandments." + +You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five +times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may +parse the subsequent exercises. + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +_The order of parsing a_ CONJUNCTION, is--a conjunction, and +why?--copulative or disjunctive, and why?--what does it connect? + +"Wisdom _and_ virtue _form_ the good man's character." _And_ is a +conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in +this example it connects only words--copulative, it serves to connect +and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an +addition--it connects the words "wisdom and virtue." + +_Wisdom_ is a noun, the name of a thing--(You may parse it in +full.)--_Wisdom_ is one of the nominatives to the verb "form." + +_Virtue_ is a noun, the name, &c.--(Parse it in full:)--and in the nom. +case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and, +according to RULE 33. _Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the +same case_. + +_Form_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.--of the third +person, _plural_, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are +connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. _Two or more +nouns in the singular number, joined by_ copulative _conjunctions, must +have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ plural. + +"Wisdom _or_ folly _governs_ us." _Or_ is a conjunction, a word that is +chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects +words--disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the +sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of +meaning--it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly." + +_Governs_ is a verb, a word that signifies, &e.--of the third person, +singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to +RULE 9. _Two or more nouns singular, joined by_ disjunctive +_conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them +in the_ singular: + +If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules +presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For +example; in the sentence, "Orlando _and_ Thomas, _who study their +lessons, make_ rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns, +_Orlando_ and _Thomas_, are connected by the copulative conjunction +_and_, therefore the verb _make_, which agrees with them, is plural, +because it expresses the action of _both_ its nominatives or actors. And +you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _their_, and the noun +_lessons_, are _plural_, agreeing with the nouns _Orlando_ and _Thomas_, +according to RULE 8. The verb _study_ is plural, agreeing with _who_, +according to RULE 4. + +But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see +how the sentence will read: "Orlando _or_ Thomas, _who studies his +lesson, makes_ rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different +construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that +Orlando and Thomas, _both_ study and make rapid progress; but it +asserts, that either the one _or_ the other studies, and makes rapid +progress. Hence the verb _makes_ is singular, because it expresses the +action of the one _or_ the other of its nominatives. And you observe, +too, that the pronouns _who_ and _his_, and the noun _lesson_, are +likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando _or_ Thomas, agreeably +to RULE 9. _Studies_ is also singular, agreeing with _who_, according to +RULE 4. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, +admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, +because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their +teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, +improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind +happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and +interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. +Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as +Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions. + +NOTE. The verb _form_ is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, +connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb +_comfort_ agrees with _they_ for its nominative. It is connected to +_support_ by the conjunction _and_, agreeably to RULE 34. _Angels_ is +nom. to _are_ understood, and _Great Britain_ is nom. to _can boast_ +understood, according to RULE 35. + +REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. + +The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an +adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, _for_ it was in vain to resist;" +in this example, _for_ is a conjunction, because it connects the two +members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and +governs _victory_ in the objective case: "He contended _for_ victory +only." + +In the first of the following sentences, _since_ is a conjunction; in +the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "_Since_ +we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him _since_ that +time; Our friendship commenced long _since._" + +"He will repent _before_ he dies; Stand _before_ me; Why did you not +return _before_" [that or this _time_;] in the first of these three +examples, _before_ is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses +time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition. + +As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its +members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may +sometimes be at a loss to perceive the _connecting_ power of a +preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction +connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. +Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its +members are transposed; as, "_In_ the days of Joram, king of Israel, +flourished the prophet Elisha;" "_If_ thou seek the Lord, he will be +found of thee; but, _if_ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for +ever." + + "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay, + "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?" + +That the words _in, if_, and _when_, in these examples, connect the +members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will +obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, +and bring these particles _between_ the members which they connect: +thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished _in_ the days of Joram, king of +Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee _if_ thou seek him; but he will +cast thee off for ever _if_ thou forsake him:" + + "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, + "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay?" + +As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT +ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +From what words is the term conjunction derived?--What is a +sentence?--What is a simple sentence?--What is a compound +sentence?--Give examples.--In what respect do conjunctions and +prepositions agree in their nature?--How many sorts of conjunctions are +there?--Repeat the lists of conjunctions.--Repeat some conjunctions with +their corresponding conjunctions.--Do relative pronouns ever connect +sentences?--Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.--Do you apply any +Rule in parsing a conjunction?--What Rule should be applied in parsing +a noun or pronoun connected with another?--What Rule in parsing a verb +agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative +conjunction?--What Rule when the nouns are connected by a +disjunctive?--In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, +what Rule do you apply?--Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of +speech?--Give examples.--What is said of the words _for, since_, and +_before?_--What is said of the transposition of sentences? + + * * * * * + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + On scientific principles, our _connectives_, commonly denominated + prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the + distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions + unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are + derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, + in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives. + + "I wish you to believe, _that_ I would not wilfully hurt a fly." + Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction _that_, is + merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he + attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not + wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe _that [assertion_."] Now, + if we admit, that _that_ is an adjective in the latter construction, + it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, + nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former + construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached + sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer + transition of thought, and both the mode of employing _that_, and + its _inferential_ meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the + meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall + find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I + assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas, + by the former, I merely _wish you to believe_ that "I would not + wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not _affirm_, that as a fact. + + _That_ being the past part, of _thean_, to get, take, assume, by + rendering it as a _participle_, instead of an adjective, we should + come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully + hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the _assumed [fact_ or + _statement_;] or, the fact _assumed_ or _taken_." + + _If_, (formerly written _gif, give, gin_,) as previously stated, is + the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. In + imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers + are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will + go, _if_ he will accompany me:"--"He will accompany me. + _Grant_--_give_ that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of + ascertaining the _primitive_ meaning of this word, I have no + objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact + meaning and force of _if_ as it is applied in our modern, refined + state of the language? I _trow_ not. But, admitting we do, does this + prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously + adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be + denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself + correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him + familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern + refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed + by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and + rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, + detached sentences, employed _if_ as a verb when they used the + following circumlocution: "My son will reform. _Give that fact_. I + will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our + language, by using _if_ as a _conjunction_, (for I maintain that it + is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern + mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, + not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In + Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of + _gin_, a contraction of _given:_ thus, "I will pardon my son, _gin_ + he reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English? + + But perhaps the advocates of what _they_ call a philosophical + development of language, will say, that by their resolution of + sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they + mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I + cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as + in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:--we ought neither to + pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a + phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode + of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of + our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age. + + _But_ comes from the Saxon verb, _beon-utan_, to be-out. "All were + well _but (be-out, leave-out)_ the stranger." "Man is _but_ a reed, + floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed, + floating on the current of time; _but (be-out_ this fact) he is not + a stable being." + + _And--aned, an'd, and_, is the past part. of _ananad_, to add, join. + _A, an, ane_, or _one_, from the same verb, points out whatever is + _aned, oned_, or made _one. And_ also refers to the thing that is + _joined_ to, _added_ to, or _made one_ with, some other person or + thing mentioned. "Julius _and_ Harriet will make a happy pair." + Resolution: "Julius, Harriet _joined, united_, or _aned_, will make + a happy pair;" i.e. Harriet _made one_ with Julius; will make a + happy pair. + + _For_ means _cause_. + + _Because_--_be-cause_, is a compound of the verb _be_, and the noun + _cause_. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim, + _for_ I know it to be true;"--"I believe the maxim, _be-cause_ I + know it to be true;" i.e. the _cause_ of my belief, _be_, or _is_, I + know it to be true. + + _Nor_ is a contraction of _ne or. Ne_ is a contraction of _not_, and + _or_, of _other. Nor_ is, _not other_-wise: _not_ in the _other_ way + or manner. + + _Else_ is the imperative of _alesan, unless_, of _onlesan_, and + _lest_, the past part. of _lesan_, all signifying to dismiss, + release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished, _unless_ he + repent;"--"_Unless, release, give up_, (the fact) he repents he will + be punished." _Though_ is the imperative of the Saxon verb + _thafigan_, to allow, and _yet_ of _getan_, to get. _Yet_ is simply, + _get_; ancient _g_ is the modern _y_. "_Though_ he slay me, _yet_ + will I trust in him:--_Grant_ or _allow_ (the fact) he slay me, + _get_, or _retain_ (the opposite fact) I will trust in + him." + + * * * * * + +QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + +From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions +derived?--What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?--From what is each of +the following words derived, _that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, +unless, lest, though_, and _yet?_ + + + +LECTURE X. + + +OF INTERJECTIONS.--CASES OF NOUNS. + +INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the +speaker; as, "_Alas!_ I fear for life;" "_O_ death! where is thy sting?" + +Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling. +Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it +is not the representative of a _distinct_, idea. A word which denotes a +distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other +part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make +_noises_, when they have no useful information to communicate, are apt +to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions, +_la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing_, and the +like. + +Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by +their taking an exclamation point after them. + +A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS. + +1. Of _earnestness_ or _grief_; as, O! oh! ah! alas! +2. _Contempt;_ as, Pish! tush! +3. _Wonder;_ as, Heigh! really! strange! +4. _Calling;_ as, Hem! ho! halloo! +5. _Disgust_ or _aversion;_ as, Foh! fy! fudge! away! +6. _Attention_; as, Lo! behold! hark! +7. _Requesting silence_; as, Hush! hist! +8. _Salutation_; as, Welcome! hail! all hail! + + NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call an _interjective + phrase_; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the + extreme! what ingratitude! away with him! + +As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English +language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make +yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then +commit the + +SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. + +_The order of parsing an_ INTERJECTION, is--an interjection, and +why? + + "O virtue! how amiable thou art!" + +_O_ is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion +of the speaker. + +The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although +some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any +farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read +over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the +exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following +exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study +faithfully _six_ hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you +may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, +in _six weeks_; but if you study only _three_ hours in a day, it will +take you nearly _three months_ to acquire the same knowledge. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the +happiness of all around him. + +Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of every +virtue which it seems to hide. + +He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows +out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the +labyrinth of the most busy life. + +The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act; +but, alas! I fear the consequence. + + E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, + I set me down a pensive hour to spend; + And, placed on high, above the storm's career, + Look downward where a hundred realms appear:-- + Alas! the joys that fortune brings, + Are trifling, and decay; + And those who mind the paltry things, + More trifling still than they. + + NOTE. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, _which_ is + governed by the verb _to hide_, according to RULE 16. _He_ is nom. + to _carries; who_ is nom. to _plans. Follows_ agrees with _who_ + understood, and is connected to _plans_ by _and_; RULE 34. What did + the king give? A _reward to_ me. Then _reward_ is in the _obj_. + case, gov. by _gave_; RULE 20. _Me_ is gov. by _to_ understood; NOTE + 1, RULE 32. The phrase, _committing that barbarous act_, is gov. by + _for_; NOTE 2, under RULE 28. _Hour_ is in the _obj_. case, gov. by + _to spend_; RULE 20. _Look_ is connected to _set_ by _and_; RULE 34. + _Joys_ is nom. to _are. That_ is gov. by _brings_; RULE 16. _Those_ + is nom. to _are_ understood. _They_ is nom. to _are_ understood; + RULE 35. + +CASES OF NOUNS. + +In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation +of the cases of nouns; and, as they are, in many situations, a little +difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on this +subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples in +the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to +the remarks in the subjoined NOTE. Those remarks will assist you much in +analyzing. + +A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the +noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at the +sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, every +morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb to which _he_ is +nominative. What does _he_ do? He carries on a thread, &c. _He_, then, +is nominative to the verb _carries_. What does _who_ do? Who _plans_, +and who _follows_, &c. Then _who_ is nom. to _plans_, and _who_ +understood, is nominative to _follows_. + + "A soul without reflection, like a pile + Without inhabitant, to ruin runs." + +In order to find the verb to which the noun _soul_, in this sentence, is +the nominative, put the question; What does a _soul_ without reflection +do? Such, a soul _runs_ to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thus +you discover, that _soul_ is nominative to _runs_. + +When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural +order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, +and the objective, after it; but when the words of a sentence are +transposed; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it +frequently happens, that the nominative comes _after_, and the +objective, _before_ the verb; especially in poetry, or when a question +is asked: as, "Whence _arises_ the _misery_ of the present world?" "What +good _thing shall_ I _do_ to inherit eternal life?" Put these +expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will _precede_, +and the objective _follow_ its verb: thus, "The _misery_ of the present +world _arises_ whence; I _shall do_ what good _thing_ to inherit eternal +life." + + "Now came still _evening_ on, and twilight gray + Had, in her sober livery, all _things_ clad." + + "Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid _lore_ + With patience many a _year_ she bore." + +What did the _evening_ do? The evening _came on_. Gray _twilight_ had +clad what? Twilight had clad all _things_ in her sober livery. +_Evening_, then, is nom. to _came_, and the noun _things_ is in the +objective case, and gov. by _had clad_: RULE 20. What did _she_ bear? +She bore thy rigid _lore_ with patience, _for_, or _during_, many a +year. Hence you find, that _lore_ is in the objective case, and governed +by _bore_, according to RULE 20. _Year_ is gov. by _during_ understood: +RULE 32. + +A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in the +objective, and governed by a verb understood; as, "Lo, [_there is_] the +poor _Indian!_ whose untutored mind." "O, the _pain_ [_there is!_] the +_bliss_ [_there is_] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful +_nightingale_ [_was not sunk_."] "He thought as a _sage_ [_thinks_,] +though he felt as a _man_ [_feels_."] "His hopes, immortal, blow them +by, as _dust_ [_is blown by_."] Rule 35 applies to these last three +examples. + +In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns +which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun +may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it. + +OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. + +Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is in +the _nominative case independent_; as, "_James_, I desire you to study." + +You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to _James_ that +is, I speak to him; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either +expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative; therefore +you know that _James_ is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule +5. Recollect, that _whenever a noun is of the second person_, it is in +the nom. case independent; that is, independent of any verb; as, +_Selma_, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my _lord_, become a +churchman, better than ambition; O _Jerusalem, Jerusalem_, how often +would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her +chickens under her wings, but ye would not!--For a farther illustration +of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax. + + NOTE. When a pronoun of the _second_ person is in apposition with a + noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "_Thou traitor_, I + detest thee." + +OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. + +A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree +with it, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "The _sun being +risen_, we pursued our journey." + +_Sun_ is here placed before the participle "being risen," and has no +verb to agree with it; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute, +according to RULE 6. + +NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is always +of the _second_ person; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of +the _third_ person. + +2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence is +therefore incorrect; "Whose top shall tremble, _him_ descending," &c.; +it should be, _he_ descending. + +OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. + +Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are +put, by _apposition_, in the same case; as, "_Cicero_, the great +_orator, philosopher_, and _statesman_ of Rome, was murdered by Antony." + +_Apposition_, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names +added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the +first name mentioned. + +You perceive that _Cicero_, in the preceding example, is merely the +proper name of a man; but when I give him the three additional +appellations, and call him a great _orator, philosopher_, and +_statesman_, you understand what kind of a man he was; that is, by +giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as +a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss to +know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all +names given to the same person; therefore, if _Cicero_ was murdered, the +_orator_ was murdered, and the _philosopher_ was murdered, and the +_statesman_ was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person. + +Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in +_apposition_; as, He struck _Charles_ the _student_. Now it is obvious, +that, when he struck _Charles_, he struck the _student_, because Charles +was the _student_, and the _student_ was _Charles_; therefore the noun +_student_ is in the objective case, governed by "struck," and put by +apposition with Charles, according to RULE 7. + +Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be +prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically. + +PARSING. + + "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore." + +_Maid_ is a noun, the name of a person--- com. the name of a sort--fem. +gender, it denotes a female--second pers. spoken to--sing. num. it +implies but one--and in the nominative case independent, because it is +addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to + +RULE 5. _When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put +in the nominative case independent_. + + "The _general_ being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to + depart." + +_General_ is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full:)--and in the +nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle +"being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to + +RULE 6. _A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being +independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case +absolute_. + + _"Thou man_ of God, flee to the land of Judah." + +_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it +personates "man"--second pers. spoken to--mas. gender, sing. num. +because the noun "man" is for which it stands; RULE 13 (Repeat the +Rule.)--_Thou_ is in the nominative case independent and put by +_apposition_ with _man_, because it signifies the same thing, according +to + +RULE 7. _Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same +thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case_. + +_Man_ is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. _Flee_ +agrees with _thou_ understood. + + "Lo! _Newton, priest_ of Nature, shines afar, + Scans the wide world, and numbers every star." + +_Newton_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to +"shines." RULE 3. + +_Priest_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the +actor and subject of the verb "shines," and put by apposition with +"Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7. +(Repeat the Rule.) + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +_Turn_ from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of light, +celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker's +wondrous power. O king! _live_ for ever. The murmur of thy streams, O +Lora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods, +Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock +with its head of heath? Three aged pines bend from its face; green is +the plain at its feet; there the flower of the mountain grows, and +shades its white head in the breeze. + +The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got +into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had +conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great +haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled +away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the +frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin excepted; (that is, +sin being excepted.) + +In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha. +Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. _Come_, peace of mind, delightful +guest! and _dwell_ with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, _lend_ me your +ears. + + Soul of the just, companion of the dead! + Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled? + Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, + There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower:-- + The world was sad, the garden was a wild, + And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled. + + NOTE. Those verbs in _italics_, in the preceding examples, are all + in the imperative mood, and _second_ person, agreeing with _thou, + ye_, or _you_, understood. _House of Israel_ is a noun of multitude. + _Was routed_ and _must be done_ are passive verbs. _Art fled_ is a + neuter verb in a passive form. _Clothed_ is a perfect participle. + _Till_ is an adverbial conjunction. + +When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in the +foregoing exercises, you may answer the following + +QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. + +Repeat the list of interjections.--Repeat some interjective +phrases.--Repeat the order of parsing an interjection.--In order to +find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you put?--Give +examples.--Is the nominative case ever placed after the +verb?--When?--Give examples.--Does the objective case ever come before +the verb?--Give examples.--Is a noun ever nom. to a verb +understood?--Give examples.--When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case +independent?--Give examples.--Are nouns of the _second_ person always in +the nom. case independent?--When a pronoun is put by apposition with a +noun independent, in what case is it?--When is a noun or pronoun in the +nom. case absolute?--Give examples.--When are nouns or nouns and +pronouns put, by apposition, in the same case?--Give examples.--In +parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should +be applied?--In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule?--What Rule in +parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition?--Do real interjections belong +to written language?--(_Phil. Notes_.)--From what are the following +words derived, _pish, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu!_ + + * * * * * + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + The term INTERJECTION is applied to those _inarticulate_ sounds + employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but + emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings + in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by + the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting + and neighing, by the sheep in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the + dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in + hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words; but, as + _written_ words are the ocular representatives of _articulate_ + sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote _inarticulate_ or + _indistinct noises_. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural + language; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, + _real_ interjections are not a part of written language. + + The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily + shown by tracing them to their roots. + + _Pish_ and _pshaw_ are the Anglo-Saxon _paec, paeca_; and are + equivalent to _trumpery_! i.e. _tromperie_, from _tromper_. + + _Fy_ or _fie_ is the imperative, _foe_, the past tense, and _foh_ or + _faugh_, the past part. of the Saxon verb _fian_, to hate. + _Lo_ is the imperative of _look. Halt_ is the imperative of + _healden_, to hold. _Farewell--fare-well_, is a compound of _faran_, + to go, and the adverb _well_. It means, to _go well. + Welcome--well-come_, signifies, it is _well_ that you are _come. + Adieu_ comes from the French _a Dieu_, to God; meaning, I commend + you _to God_. + + * * * * * + + +LECTURE XI. + + +OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. + +You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledge +of nine parts of speech; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the +most important one of all; I mean the VERB. I will, therefore, commence +this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of +verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over +Lecture II., and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the +verb; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and +tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself +involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an +obstruction to impede your progress. + +I. OF THE MOODS. + +The MOOD or MODE of a verb means the _manner_ in which its action, +passion, or being, is represented. + +When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the _declarative_ or +_indicative_ mode; as, The man _walks_; but sometimes the action or +occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must not +declare it positively, but I must adopt another _mode_ of expression; +thus, _If_ the man _walk_, he will refresh himself with the bland +breezes. This second mode or manner of representing the action, is +called the _subjunctive_ or _conditional_ mode. + +Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to _declare_ a +thing, nor to represent the action in a _doubtful_ or _conditional_ +manner; but we wish to _command_ some one to act. We then use the +_imperative_ or _commanding_ mode, and say, _Walk_, sir. And when we do +not wish to command a man to act, we sometimes allude to his _power_ or +_ability_ to act. This fourth mode of representing action, is called the +_potential_ mode; as, He _can walk_; He _could walk_. The fifth and last +mode, called the _infinitive_ or _unlimited_ mode, we employ in +expressing action in an unlimited manner; that is, without confining it, +in respect to number and person, to any particular agent; as, _To walk, +to ride_. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of +representing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary +according to the different intentions of the mind. + +Were we to assign a particular name to _every_ change in the mode or +manner of representing action or being, the number of moods in our +language would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of division +and arrangement, if followed out in detail, would lead to great +perplexity, without producing any beneficial result. The division of Mr. +Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He has +fourteen moods; his _interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, +precautive, requisitive, enunciative_, &c. But as far as philosophical +accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned, +it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I am +not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it; but what +arrangement cannot be objected to? + +There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the +Imperative, the Potential, and the Infinitive. + +The INDICATIVE MOOD simply indicates or declares a thing; as, "He +_writes_;" or it asks a question; as, "_Does_ he _write_? Who _wrote_ +that?" + +The term _indicative_, comes from the Latin _indico_, to _declare_. +Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to _declare_ +things, whether positively or negatively; thus, _positively_, He _came_ +with me; _negatively_, He _came not_ with me. But in order to avoid a +multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicative +mood in asking a question; as, Who _came_ with you? + +The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in +conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order. +This mood, however, differs materially from the indicative in sense; +therefore you ought to make yourself well acquainted with the nature of +the indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive. + +The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubtful +or conditional manner or, + +When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt, +motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD; as, "_If_ +he _study_, he will improve; I will respect him, _though_ he _chide_ me; +He will not be pardoned, _unless_ he _repent; _Had_ he _been_ there, he +would have conquered;" (that is, _if_ he _had been_ there.) + +The conjunctions _if, though, unless_, in the preceding examples, +express condition, doubt, &c.; therefore, the verbs _study, chide, +repent_, and _had been_, are in the subjunctive mood. + + NOTE 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in + some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the + preceding examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the + fourth, a verb in the potential. + + 2. Whenever the conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether, + lest_, or any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that + follow them are in the subjunctive mood; as, "_If_ he _ride_ out + every day, his health will probably improve;" that is, if he _shall_ + or _should_ ride out hereafter. But when these conjunctions do not + imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in the indicative, + or some other mood; as, "_Though_ he _rides_ out daily, his health + is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, + are explained in the conjugation of the verb to _love_. See page. + +The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or +permitting; as, _"Depart_ thou; _Remember_ my admonitions; _Tarry_ +awhile longer; _Go_ in peace." + +The verb _depart_ expresses a command; _remember_ exhorts; _tarry_ +expresses entreaty; and _go_, permission; therefore they are all in the +imperative mood. + +The _imperative_, from _impero_, to command, is literally that mood of +the verb used in _commanding;_ but its technical meaning in grammar is +extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, entreating, and +permitting. + +A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person, though +never varied in its terminations, agreeing with _thou, ye_, or _you_, +either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this mood by the +sense; recollect, however, that the nominative is always _second_ +person, and frequently understood; as, George, _give_ me my hat; that +is, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it is +generally placed after the verb; as, Go _thou_; Depart _ye_; or between +the auxiliary and the verb; as, Do _thou_ go; Do _ye_ depart. (_Do_ is +the auxiliary.) + +The POTENTIAL MOOD implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power, +will, or obligation; as, "It _may rain_; He _may go_ or _stay_; We _must +eat_ and _drink_; I _can ride_; He _would walk_; They _should learn_." + +In the first of these examples, the auxiliary _may_ implies possibility; +in the second it implies liberty; that is, he is at liberty to go or to +stay; in the third, _must_ denotes necessity; _can_ denotes power or +ability; _would_ implies will or inclination; that is, he had a _mind_ +to walk; and _should_ implies obligation. Hence you perceive, that the +verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, can ride, world walk, and +should learn, are in the _potential_ mood. + + NOTE 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the + subjunctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, + contingency, supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may, + in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as, "_If_ I _could + deceive_ him, I should abhor it; _Though_ he _should increase_ in + wealth, he would not be charitable." I _could deceive_, is in the + potential; _If_ I _could deceive_, is in the subjunctive mood. + + 2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking + a question; as, "May I go? Could you understand him? Must we die?" + +The INFINITIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a general +and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither person +nor number; as, _"To speak, to walk_." + +_Infinitive_ means _unconfined_, or _unlimited_. This mood is called the +infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nominative. +A verb in any other mood is limited; that is, it must agree in number +and person with its nominative; but a verb in this mood has _no_ +nominative, therefore, it never changes its termination, except to form +the perfect tense. Now you understand why all verbs are called _finite_ +or _limited_, excepting those in the infinitive mood. + + NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood + before the verb; as, "Let me proceed;" that is, Let me _to_ proceed. + See RULE 25. _To_ is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this + mood; thus, _to_ ride, _to_ rule; but it should be parsed with the + verb, and as a part of it. + +If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that when I +say, I _write_, the verb is in the indicative mood; but when I say, _if_ +I write, or, _unless_ I write, &c. the verb is in the subjunctive mood; +_write_ thou, or _write_ ye or you, the imperative; I _may write_, I +_must write_, I _could write, &c._ the potential; and _to write_, the +infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may be employed in the +same manner. + + * * * * * + +II. OF THE TENSES. + +TENSE means time. + +Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the +Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses. + +The PRESENT TENSE represents an action or event as taking place at the +time in which it is mentioned; as, "I _smile_; I _see_; I _am seen_." + + NOTE 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions + continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time; as, + "He _rides_ out every morning." + + 2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of + persons long since dead; as, "Seneca _reasons_ and _moralizes_ well; + An honest man _is_ the noblest work of God." + + 3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, _when, before, + after, as soon as_, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the + relative time of a future action; as, "_When_ he _arrives_ we shall + hear the news." + +The IMPERFECT TENSE denotes a past action or event, however distant; +or, + +The IMPERFECT TENSE represents an action or event as past and finished, +but without defining the precise time of its completion; as, "I _loved_ +her for her modesty and virtue; They _were_ travelling post when he +_met_ them." + +In these examples, the verbs _loved_ and _met_ express past and +_finished_ actions, and therefore constitute a _perfect_ tense as +strictly as any form of the verb in our language; but, as they do not +define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tense +may properly be denominated an _indefinite past_. By defining the +present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an _imperfect_ +tense in the expression, _were travelling_. This course, however, would +not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the +participle. Hence it follows, that the terms _imperfect_ and _perfect_, +as applied to this and the next succeeding tense, are not altogether +significant of their true character; but if you learn to apply these +tenses _correctly_, the propriety or impropriety of their names is not a +consideration of very great moment. + +The PERFECT TENSE denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the +present; as, "I _have_ finished my letter." + +The verb _have finished_, in this example, signifies that the action, +though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately +preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the present. +Under this view of the subject, the term _perfect_ may be properly +applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the completion of the +action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of its +accomplishment. + +The PLUPERFECT TENSE represents a past action or event that transpired +before some other past time specified; as, "I _had finished_ my letter +before my brother arrived." + +You observe that the verb _had finished_, in this example, represents +one _past_ action, and the arrival of my brother, another _past_ action; +therefore _had finished_ is in the pluperfect tense, because the action +took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified +in the same sentence. + +The FIRST FUTURE TENSE denotes a future action or event; as "I _will +finish_; I _shall finish_ my letter." + +The SECOND FUTURE TENSE represents a future action that will be fully +accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event; +as, "I _shall have finished_ my letter when my brother arrives." + +This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper use of the +second future tense. The verb "shall have finished" implies a future +action that will be completely finished, at or before the time of the +other future event denoted by the phrase, "_when_ my brother _arrives_." + + NOTE. What is sometimes called the _Inceptive_ future, is expressed + thus, "I am going _to write_;" "I am about _to write_." Future time + is also indicated by placing the infinitive present immediately + after the indicative present of the verb _to be_; thus, "I am _to + write_;" "Harrison is _to be_, or ought _to be_, commander in + chief;" "Harrison is _to command_ the army." + +You may now read what is said respecting the moods and tenses several +times over, and then you may learn to _conjugate_ a verb. But, before +you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, you will please to commit the +following paragraph on the _Auxiliary_ verbs and, also, the _signs_ of +the moods and tenses; and, in conjugating, you must pay particular +attention to the manner in which these signs are applied. + +OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. + +AUXILIARY or HELPING VERBS are those by the help of which the English +verbs are principally conjugated. _May, can, must, might, could, would, +should,_ and _shall_, are always auxiliaries; _do, be, have_, and +_will_, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs. + +The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjugation. + +SIGNS OF THE MOODS. + +The _Indicative_ Mood is known by the _sense_, or by its having _no +sign_, except in asking a question; as, "Who _loves_ you?" + +The conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether_, and _lest_, are +generally signs of the _Subjunctive_; as, "_If_ I _love; unless_ I +_love_," &c. + +A verb is generally known to be in, the _Imperative_ Mood by its +agreeing with _thou_, or _ye_ or _you_, understood; as, _"Love_ virtue, +_and follow_ her steps;" that is, love _thou_, or love _ye_ or _you_; +follow _thou_, &c. + +_May, can_, and _must, might, could, would_, and _should_, are signs of +the _Potential_ Mood; as, "I _may_ love; I _must_ love; I _should_ +love," &c. + +_To_ is the sign of the _Infinitive_; as, "_To_ love, _to_ smile, _to_ +hate, _to_ walk." + +SIGNS OF THE TENSES. + +The first form of the verb is the sign of the present tense; as, _love, +smile, hate, walk_. + +_Ed_--the imperfect tense of regular verbs; as, _loved, smiled, hated, +walked_. + +_Have_--the perfect; as, _have_ loved. + +_Had_--the pluperfect; as, _had_ loved. _Shall_ or _will_--the first +future; as, _shall_ love, or _will_ love; _shall_ smile, _will_ smile. + +_Shall_ or _will have_--the second future; as, _shall have_ loved, or +_will have_ loved. + + NOTE. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will + notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. + +Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advantage, as to +commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceed +farther than to the subjunctive mood. If you do, the supposed Herculean +task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a few +hours of pleasant pastime. + +The Indicative Mood has _six_ tenses. +The Subjunctive has also _six_ tenses. +The Imperative has only _one_ tense. +The Potential has _four_ tenses. +The Infinitive has _two_ tenses. + +CONJUGATION OF VERBS. + +The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of +its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. + +The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the _active voice_; and +that of a passive verb, the _passive voice_. + +Verbs are called Regular when they form their imperfect tense of the +indicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the present +tense _ed_, or _d_ only when the verb ends in _e_; as, + +Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle +I favor. I favor_ed_. favor_ed_. +I love. I love_d_, love_d_. + +A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner. + +TO LOVE.--INDICATIVE MOOD. + +Present Tense. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. _Pers_. I love, 1. We love, +2. _Pers_. Thou lovest, 2. Ye _or_ you love, +3. _Pers_. He, she, _or_ it, loveth 3. They love. + _or_ loves. + +When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary _do_ +should precede the verb in the present tense: thus, + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I do love, 1. We do love, +2. Thou dost love, 2. Ye _or_ you do love, +3. He doth _or_ does love. 3. They do love. + +Imperfect Tense. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I loved, 1. We loved, +2. Thou lovedst, 2. Ye _or_ you loved, +3. He loved. 3. They loved. + +Or by-prefixing _did_ to the present: thus, + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I did love 1. We did love, +2. Thou didst love, 2. Ye _or_ you did love, +3. He did love. 3. They did love. + +Perfect Tense. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, +2. Thou hast loved, 2. Ye _or_ you have loved, +3. He hath _or_ has loved. 3. They have loved. + +Pluperfect Tense. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, +2. Thou hadst loved, 2. Ye _or_ you had loved, +3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. + +First Future Tense. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I shall _or_ will love, 1. We shall _or_ will love, +2. Thou shalt _or_ wilt love, 2. Ye _or_ you shall _or_ will + love, +3. He shall _or_ will love, 3. They shall _or_ will love. + +Second Future Tense. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, +2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye _or_ you will have loved, +3. He will have loved, 3. They will have loved. + + NOTE. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called _simple_ tenses; + as, I _love;_ I _loved;_ but those formed by the help of + auxiliaries, are denominated _compound_ tenses; as, I _have loved;_ + I _had loved_, &c. + +This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the +application of the _signs_ of the _tenses_, which signs ought to be +perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. By looking +again at the conjugation, you will notice, that _have_, placed before +the perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect tense; _had_, the +pluperfect; _shall_ or _will_, the first future, and so on. + +Now speak each of the verbs, _love, hate, walk, smile, rule_, and +_conquer_, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the +pronoun _I_ before it; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. +sing. I love; imperf. I loved; perf. I have loved; and so on, through +all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation of the verb in +the indicative mood, you will find no difficulty in conjugating it +through those that follow, for in the conjugation through all the moods, +there is a great similarity. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. + +Present Tense, or elliptical future.--_Conjunctive form_. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. If I love, 1. If we love, +2. If thou love, 2. If ye _or_ you love, +3. If he love. 3. If they love. + +Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and you will +observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form in the +subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, does not vary +its termination on account of number or person. This is called the +_conjunctive_ form of the verb; but sometimes the verb in the +subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the same manner as it +is in the indicative, with this exception, _if, though, unless_, or some +other conjunction, is prefixed; as, + +_Indicative form_. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. If I love, 1. If we love, +2. If thou lovest, 2. If ye _or_ you love, +3. If he loves, 3. If they love. + +The following general rule will direct you when to use the _conjunctive_ +form of the verb, and when the _indicative_. When a verb in the +subjunctive mood, present tense, has a _future_ signification, or a +reference to _future_ time, the conjunctive form should be used; as, "If +thou _prosper_, thou shouldst be thankful;" "He will maintain his +principles, though he _lose_ his estate;" that is, If thou _shalt_ or +_shouldst_ prosper; though he _shall_ or _should_ lose, &c. But when a +verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has _no_ reference to +future time, the indicative form ought to be used; as, "Unless he +_means_ what he says, he is doubly faithless." By this you perceive, +that when a verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a +future signification, an _auxiliary_ is always understood before it, for +which reason, in this construction, the termination of the principal +verb never varies; us, "He will not become eminent, unless he _exert_ +himself;" that is, unless he _shall_ exert, or _should_ exert himself. +This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called the _elliptical +future_. + +The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses +of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the same tenses of +the indicative, with this exception; in the subjunctive mood, a +conjunction implying doubt, &c. is prefixed to the verb. In the second +future tense of this mood, the verb is conjugated thus: + +Second Future Tense. + + _Singular._ _Plural_. + +1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, +2. If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, +3. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. + +Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will readily +perceive the distinction between the two conjugations. + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. + +_Singular._ _Plural_. +2. Love, _or_ love thou, _or_ do 2. Love, _or_ love ye _or_ you, _or_ + thou love. do ye _or_ you love. + + NOTE. We cannot command, exhort, &c. either in _past_ or _future_ + time; therefore a verb in this mood is always in the _present_ + tense. + +POTENTIAL MOOD. + +Present Tense. + + _Singular._ _Plural_. + +1. I may, can, _or_ must love, 1. We may, can, or must love, +2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must 2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ + love, must love, +3. He may, can, _or_ must love. 3. They may, can, _or_ must love. + +Imperfect Tense. + +_Singular._ _Plural_. + +1. I might, could, would, _or_ 1. We might, could, would, _or_ + should love, should love, +2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye _or_ you might, could, + wouldst, _or_ shouldst love, would, _or_ should love, +3. He might, could, would, _or_ 3. They might, could, would, + should love, _or_ should love. + +Perfect Tense. + +_Singular._ _Plural_. + +1. I may, can, _or_ must have 1. We may, can, _or_ must have + loved, loved, +2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must 2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ + have loved, must have loved, +3. He may, can, _or_ must 3. They may, can, _or_ must + have loved. have loved. + +Pluperfect Tense. + +_Singular._ _Plural_. + +1. I might, could, would, 1. We might, could, would, + _or_ should have loved, _or_ should have loved, +2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Ye _or_ you might, could, + _or_ shouldst have loved, would, _or_ should have loved, +3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, + _or_ should have loved, _or_ should have loved. + +By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood, +you will find it very easy; thus, you will notice, that whenever any of +the auxiliaries, _may, can_, or _must_, is placed before a verb, that +verb is in the potential mood, _present_ tense; _might, could, would_, +or _should_, renders it in the potential mood, _imperfect_ tense; _may, +can_, or _must have_, the _perfect_ tense; and _might, could, would_, or +_should have_, the _pluperfect_ tense. + +INFINITIVE MOOD. + +Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved. + +PARTICIPLES. + +Present _or_ imperfect, Loving. +Perfect _or_ passive, Loved. +Compound, Having loved. + + NOTE. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly + with the imperfect tense; yet the former may, at all times, be + distinguished from the latter, by the following rule: In + composition, the imperfect tense of a verb _always_ has a + nominative, either expressed or implied: the perfect participle + _never_ has. + +For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall have +learned to conjugate the verb _to love_, you will be able to conjugate +all the regular verbs in the English language, for they are all +conjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the following +direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb. +Conjugate the verb _love_ through all the moods and tenses, in the first +person singular, with the pronoun _I_ before it, and speak the +Participles: thus, Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I +_love_, imperf. tense, I _loved_; perf. tense, I _have loved_; and so +on, through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers. +sing, with the pronoun _thou_ before it, through all the moods and +tenses; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou +_lovest_; imperf. tense, thou _lovedst_; and so on, through the whole. +After that, conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with _he_ before it; +and then in the first pers. plural, with _we_ before it, in like manner +through all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may, +at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you +will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance, +induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate +your progress. + +When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may conjugate the +following verbs in the same manner; which will enable you, hereafter, to +tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesitation: _walk, hate, +smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate, melt, shun, fail_. + + * * * * * + + + PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + + The changes in the termination of words, in all languages, have been + formed by the _coalescence_ of words of appropriate meaning. This + subject was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the + purpose of showing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number + and person, of English verbs, do not solely depend on inflection. + + The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the + Hebrew verb, are still considered pronouns; and, by those who have + investigated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has + been adopted in the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in + the Hebrew. Some languages have carried this process to a very great + extent. Ours is remarkable for the small number of its inflections. + But they who reject the passive verb, and those moods and tenses + which are formed by employing what are called "auxiliary verbs," + _because they are formed of two or more verbs_, do not appear to + reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit, that walk-_eth_, and + walk-_ed_, are tenses, because each is but one word, and to reject + _have_ walked, and _will_ walk, as tenses, because each is composed + of two words. _Eth_, as previously shown, is a contraction of + _doeth_, or _haveth_, and _ed_, of _dede, dodo, doed_, or _did_; + and, therefore, walk-_eth_; i.e. walk-_doeth_, or _doeth_-walk, and + walk-_ed_; i.e. walk-_did_, or _doed_ or _did_-walk, are, when + analyzed, as strictly compound, as _will_ walk, _shall_ walk, and + _have_ walked. The only difference in the formation of these tenses, + is, that in the two former, the associated verbs have been + contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in the two + latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words. + + If it be said that _will walk_ is composed of two words, each of + which conveys a distinct idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by + itself, the same argument with all its force, may be applied to + walk-_eth_, walk-_ed_, walk-_did_, or _did_ walk. The result of all + the investigations of this subject, appears to settle down into the + hackneyed truism, that the passive verbs, and the moods and tenses, + of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations either + prefixed or postfixed, and of other languages, by the association of + auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been contracted and made to + coalesce as _terminations_. The auxiliary, when contracted into a + _terminating syllable,_ retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning, + as much as when associated with a verb by juxtaposition: + consequently, an "auxiliary verb" may form a part of a mood or + tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a _terminating + syllable_. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the + auxiliaries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the + same principle, bound to extend their dissecting-knife _to every + compound word in the language_. + + Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of + the theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, + formed by the aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to + show that this theory, and this _only_, will subserve the purposes + of the practical grammarian. + + As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the + exact meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the + student to combine and employ them properly in framing sentences, + and as those _combinations_ which go by the name of compound tenses + and passive verbs, are necessary in writing and discourse, it + follows, conclusively, that that theory which does not explain these + verbs in their _combined_ state, cannot teach the student the + correct use and application of the verbs of our language. By such an + arrangement, he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases, + _shall have walked, might have gone, have seen_, instead of, _shall + walk, might go_, and _saw_; because this theory has nothing to do + with the combining of verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or + writer's own good sense must guide him in combining these verbs, + and, therefore, that the directions of the grammarian are + unnecessary, it must be recollected, that such an argument would + bear, equally, against every principle of grammar whatever. In + short, the theory of the compound tenses, and of the passive verb, + appears to be so firmly based in the genius of our language, and so + practically important to the student, as to defy all the engines of + the paralogistic speculator, and the philosophical quibbler, to + batter it down. + + But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, that it is + encumbered with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity, + which are avoided by the _simple_ process of exploding the passive + verb, and reducing the number of the moods to three, and of the + tenses to two. It is certain, however, that if we reject the _names_ + of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the _names_ of the + potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing + and discourse we must still employ those _verbal combinations_ which + form them; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of + employing such combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the + old theory, which _names_ them, as by the new, which gives them _no + name_. + + On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the + _future_ tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately; but, + as illustrated on page 79, the combined words which form our perfect + and pluperfect tenses have an _associated_ meaning, which is + destroyed by analyzing each word separately. That arrangement, + therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears to be, not only + _unphilosophical_, but inconsistent and inaccurate. + + For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their + adoption, too, a modernized _philosophical_ theory of the moods and + tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and + useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has + the advantage of being _new_; and, moreover, it sounds _large_, and + will make the _commonalty stare_. Let it be distinctly understood, + that you teach _"philosophical grammar, founded on reason and common + sense_," and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the + good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast + improvements of the age. + + MOOD. + + Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly + included under the _indicative_, the _subjunctive_, and the + _potential_,) the imperative, and the infinitive.--For definitions, + refer to the body of the work. + + TENSE OR TIME. + + Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. A verb + expressing action commenced and not completed, is in the present + tense; as, "Religion _soars_: it _has_ gained many victories: it + _will_ [to] _carry_ its votaries to the blissful regions." + + When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense; as, + "This page (the Bible) God _hung_ out of heaven, and _retired_." + + A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the + _present_ tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. + The _command_ must _necessarily_ be given in time present, although + its _fulfilment_ must be future. John, what are you doing? Learning + my task. Why do you learn it? Because my preceptor _commanded_ me to + do so. When _did_ he command you? _Yesterday_.--Not _now_, of + course. + + That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to + be given in _future_ time, and that the _fulfilment_ of the command, + though future, has nothing to do with the tense or time of the + command itself, are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross + absurdity of those who identify the time of the fulfilment with + that of the command. + + * * * * * + + EXERCISES IN PARSING. + + You _may read_ the book which I _have printed_. _May_, an irregular + active verb, signifying "to have and to exercise might or strength," + indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur. agreeing with its nom. + _you. Read_, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. tense, + with the sign _to_ understood, referring to _you_ as its agent. + _Have_, an active verb, signifying to _possess_, indic. present, and + having for its object, book understood after "which." _Printed_, a + perf. participle, referring to book understood. + + Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, _would have been laughed at, had_ + they _essayed_ to _thrust_ any thing like our modernized + philosophical grammar down the throats of their contemporaries. + + _Would_, an active verb, signifying "to exercise volition," in the + past tense of the indicative. _Have_, a verb, in the infinitive, + _to_ understood. _Been_, a perfect part. of to _be_, referring to + Johnson, Blair, and Lowth. _Laughed at_, perf. part, of to _laugh + at_, referring to the same as _been. Had_, active verb, in the past + tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. _they. Essayed_, + perf. part, referring to they. + Call this "_philosophical_ parsing, on reasoning principles, + according to the original laws of nature and of thought," and the + _pill_ will be swallowed, by pedants and their dupes, with the + greatest ease imaginable. + + + * * * * * + + +LECTURE XII. + +OF IRREGULAR VERBS. + +Irregular verbs are those that do not form +their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the +addition of _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense; as, + +_Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perf. or Pass. Part._ +I write I wrote written +I begin I began begun +I go I went gone + +The following is a list of the _irregular_ verbs. Those marked with an R +are sometimes conjugated _regularly_. + +_Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perf. or Pass. Part._ +Abide abode abode +Am was been +Arise arose arisen +Awake awoke, R. awaked +Bear, _to bring forth_ bare born +Bear, _to carry_ bore borne +Beat beat beaten, beat +Begin began begun +Bend bent bent +Bereave bereft, R. bereft, R. +Beseech besought besought +Bid bade, bid bidden, bid +Bind bound bound +Bite bit bitten, bit +Bleed bled bled +Blow blew blown +Break broke broken +Breed bred bred +Bring brought brought +Build built built +Burst burst, R. burst, R. +Buy bought bought +Cast cast cast +Catch caught, R. caught, R. +Chide chid chidden, chid +Choose chose chosen +Cleave, _to adhere_ clave, R. cleaved +Cleave, _to split_ cleft cleft, + _or_ + clove cloven +Cling clung clung +Clothe clothed clad, R. +Come came come +Cost cost cost +Crow crew, R. crowed +Creep crept crept +Cut cut cut +Dare, _to venture_ durst dared +Dare, _to challenge_ REGULAR +Deal dealt, R. dealt, R. +Dig dug, R. dug, R. +Do did done +Draw drew drawn +Drive drove driven +Drink drank drunk, drank[6] +Dwell dwelt, R. dwelt, R. +Eat eat, ate eaten +Fall fell fallen +Feed fed fed +Feel felt felt +Fight fought fought +Find found found +Flee fled fled +Fling flung flung +Fly flew flown +Forget forgot forgotten +Forsake forsook forsaken +Freeze froze frozen +Get got got[7] +Gild gilt, R. gilt, R. +Gird girt, R. girt, R. +Give gave given +Go went gone +Grave graved graven, R. +Grind ground ground +Grow grew grown +Have had had +Hang hung, R. hung, R. +Hear heard heard +Hew hewed hewn, R. +Hide hid hidden, hid +Hit hit hit +Hold held held +Hurt hurt hurt +Keep kept kept +Knit knit, R. knit, R. +Know knew known +Lade laded laden +Lay laid laid +Lead led led +Leave left left +Lend lent lent +Let let let +Lie, _to lie down_ lay lain +Load loaded laden, R. +Lose lost lost +Make made made +Meet met met +Mow mowed mown, R. +Pay paid paid +Put put put +Read read read +Rend rent rent +Rid rid rid +Ride rode rode, ridden[8] +Ring rung, rang rung +Rise rose risen +Rive rived riven +Run ran run +Saw sawed sawn, R. +Say said said +See saw seen +Seek sought sought +Sell sold sold +Send sent sent +Set set set +Shake shook shaken +Shape shaped shaped, shapen +Shave shaved shaven, R. +Shear sheared shorn +Shed shed shed +Shine shone, R. shone, R. +Show showed shown +Shoe shod shod +Shoot shot shot +Shrink shrunk shrunk +Shred shred shred +Shut shut shut +Sing sung, sang[9] sung +Sink sunk, sank[9] sunk +Sit sat set +Slay slew slain +Sleep slept slept +Slide slid slidden +Sling slung slung +Slink slunk slunk +Slit slit, R. slit +Smite smote smitten +Sow sowed sown, R. +Speak spoke spoken +Speed sped sped +Spend spent spent +Spill spilt, R. spilt, R. +Spin spun spun +Spit spit, spat spit, spitten [10] +Split split split +Spread spread spread +Spring sprung, sprang sprung +Stand stood stood +Steal stole stolen +Stick stuck stuck +Sting stung stung +Stink stunk stunk +Stride strode, strid stridden +Strike struck struck _or_ stricken +String strung strung +Strive strove striven +Strow strowed strown, +_or_ _or_ strowed _or_ +strew strewed strewed +Sweat swet, R. swet, R. +Swear swore sworn +Swell swelled swollen, R. +Swim swum, swam swum +Swing swung swung +Take took taken +Teach taught taught +Tear tore torn +Tell told told +Think thought thought +Thrive throve, R. thriven +Throw threw thrown +Thrust thrust thrust +Tread trod trodden +Wax waxed waxen, R. +Wear wore worn +Weave wove woven +Wet wet wet, R. +Weep wept wept +Win won won +Wind wound wound +Work wrought, wrought, + worked worked +Wring wrung wrung +Write wrote written + +[6] The men were drunk; i.e. inebriated. The toasts were drank. + +[7] Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, is still in +good use. + +[8] Ridden is nearly obsolete. + +[9] Sang and sank should not be used in familiar style. + +[10] Spitten is nearly obsolete. + +In familiar writing and discourse, the following, and some other verbs, +are often improperly terminated by _t_ instead of _ed_; as, "learnt, +spelt, spilt, stopt, latcht." They should be, "learned, spelled, spilled, +stopped, latched." + +You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs, in a manner similar +to the conjugation of regular verbs: _arise, begin, bind, do, go, grow, +run, lend, teach, write_. Thus, to _arise_--Indicative mood, pres. +tense, first person, sing. I arise; imperf. tense, I arose; perf. tense, +I have arisen, and so on, through all the moods, and all the tenses of +each mood; and then speak the participles: thus, pres. arising, perf. +arisen, comp. having arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verb +in the second person sing. through all the moods and tenses; and then in +the third person sing. and in the first pers. plural. After that, you +may proceed in the same manner with the words _begin, bind_, &c. + +Now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures _four_ or _five_ times over, +and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be prepared to +parse the following verbs in full; and I presume, all the other parts of +speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer to the Compendium for +definitions and rules, if you cannot repeat them without, I will now +parse a verb, and describe all its properties by applying the +definitions and rules according to the systematic order. + + "We _could_ not _accomplish_ the business." + +_Could accomplish_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it +expresses action--transitive, the action passes over from the nom. "we" +to the object "business"--regular, it will form its imperfect tense of +the indic. mood and perf. part, in _ed_--potential mood, it implies +possibility or power--imperfect tense, it denotes past time however +distant--first pers. plural, because the nom. "we" is with which it +agrees, agreeably to RULE 4. _A verb must agree_, &c. Conjugated--Indic. +mood, present tense, first pers. sing. I accomplish; imperfect tense, I +accomplished; perfect, I have accomplished; pluperfect, I had +accomplished; and so on.--Speak it in the person of each tense through +all the moods, and conjugate, in the same manner, every verb you parse. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +_These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses_. + +I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson badly. John, +do you write a good hand? Those ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but +they did not despatch it. Have you seen the gentleman to whom I gave the +book? He has gone. They had received the news before the messenger +arrived. When will those persons return? My friend shall receive his +reward. He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow. + +If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies he does +not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished his work, by +midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, obey my precepts, unless +you wish to injure yourself. Remember what is told you. The physician +may administer the medicine, but Providence only can bless it. I told, +him that he might go, but he would not. He might have gone last week, +had he conducted himself properly; (that is, _if he had conducted_, &c.) +Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let me hear you +repeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, whatever task may be +allotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, let us consider +how little we deserve. To die for one's country, is glorious. How can we +become wise? To seek God is wisdom. What is true greatness? Active +benevolence. A good man is a great man. + + NOTE 1. _Man_, following _great_, and _what_, in the last two + examples, are nom. after _is_: RULE 21. _To seek God_, and _to die + for one's country_, are members of sentences, each put as the nom. + case to _is_ respectively: RULE 24. The verb _to correct_ is the + infinitive mood absolute: NOTE under RULE 23. _May be allotted_ is a + passive verb, agreeing with _which_, the relative part of _whatever. + That_, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing with + _task_; and _task_ is governed by _study._ _Hear_, following _let_, + and _repeat_, following _hear_, are in the infinitive mood without + the sign _to_, according to RULE 25. _To recite_ is governed by + _prepare_: RULE 23. _Is told_, is a passive verb, agreeing with + _which_, the relative part of _whatever_; and _you_, following, is + governed by _to_ understood: NOTE 1, under RULE 32. + + 2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not + expressed, you must say it represents some person or thing + understood. + +LECTURE XIII. + +OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. + +I. AUXILIARY VERBS. + +Before you attend to the following additional remarks on the Auxiliary +Verbs, you will do well to read again what is said respecting them in +Lecture XI. page 140. The short account there given, and their +application in conjugating verbs, have already made them quite familiar +to you; and you have undoubtedly observed, that, without their help, we +cannot conjugate any verb in any of the tenses, except the present and +imperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of +the imperative and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses, +they are brought into requisition. + +Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation; that is, they +are used only in some of the moods and tenses; and when unconnected with +principal verbs, they are conjugated in the following manner: + +MAY. +Pres. Tense _Sing_. I may, thou mayst, he may. + _Plur_. We may, ye _or_ you may, they may. + +Imperf. _Sing_. I might, thou mightst, he might. +Tense. _Plur_. We might, ye _or_ you might, they might. + +CAN. +Pres. _Sing_. I can, thou canst, he can. +Tense. _Plur_. We can, ye _or_ you can, they can. + +Imperf. _Sing_. I could, thou couldst, he could. +Tense. _Plur_. We could, ye _or_ you could, they could. + +WILL. +Pres. _Sing_. I will, thou wilt, he will. +Tense. _Plur_. We will, ye _or_ you will, they will. + +Imperf. _Sing_. I would, thou wouldst, he would. +Tense. _Plur_. We would, ye _or_ you would, they would. + +SHALL. +Pres. _Sing_. I shall, thou shalt, he shall. +Tense. _Plur_. We shall, ye _or_ you shall, they shall. + +Imperf. _Sing_. I should, thou shouldst, he should. +Tense. _Plur_. We should, ye _or_ you should, they should. + +TO DO. +Pres. _Sing_. I do, thou dost _or_ doest, he doth _or_ does. +Tense. _Plur_. We do, ye _or_ you do, they do. + +Imperf. _Sing_. I did, thou didst, he did. +Tense. _Plur_. We did, ye _or_ you did, they did. + _Participles_. Pres. doing. Perf. done. + +TO BE. +Pres. _Sing_. I am, thou art, he is. +Tense. _Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are. + +Imperf. _Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was. +Tense. _Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were. + _Participles_. Pres. being. Perf. been. + +TO HAVE. +Pres. _Sing_. I have, thou hast, he hath _or_ has. +Tense. _Plur_. We have, ye _or_ you have, they have. + +Imperf. _Sing_. I had, thou hadst, he had. +Tense. _Plur_. We had, ye _or_ you had, they had. + _Participles_. Pres. having. Perf. had. + +_Do, be, have_, and _will_, are sometimes used as principal verbs; and +when employed as such, _do, be_, and _have_, may be conjugated, by the +help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses. + +DO. The different tenses of _do_, in the several moods, are thus formed: +Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I do; imperfect tense, I +did; perf. I have done; pluperfect, I had done; first future, I shall or +will do; sec. fut. I shall have done. Subjunctive mood, pres. tense, If +I do; imperf. if I did; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential, +pres. I may, can, or must do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do; perf. to +have done. Participles, pres. doing; perf. done; compound, having done. + +HAVE. _Have_ is in great demand. No verb can be conjugated through all +the moods and tenses without it. _Have_, when used as a principal verb, +is doubled in some of the past tenses, and becomes an auxiliary to +itself; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I have; +imperf. tense, I had; perf. I have had; pluperf. I had had; first fut. I +shall or will have; sec. fut. I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if +I have; imperf. if I had; perf. if I have had; pluperf. if I had had; +first fut. if I shall or will have; sec. fut. if I shall have had. +Imper. mood, have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have; +imperf. I might, could, would, or should have; perf. I may, can, or must +have had; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had. +Infinitive, present, to have; perf. to have had. Participles, pres. +having; perf. had; compound, having had. + +BE. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation of the +irregular, neuter verb, _Be_, which is an auxiliary whenever it is +placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every other +situation, it is a _principal_ verb. + +TO BE.--INDICATIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense. +_Sing_. I am, thou art, he, she, _or_ it is. +_Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are. + +Imperf. Tense. +_Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was. +_Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were. + +Perf. Tense. +_Sing_. I have been, thou hast been, he hath _or_ has been. +_Plur_. We have been, ye _or_ you have been, they have been. + +Plup. Tense. +_Sing_. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been. +_Plur_. We had been, ye _or_ you had been, they had been. + +First Fut. T. +_Sing_, I shall _or_ will be, thou shalt _or_ wilt be, + he shall _or_ will be. +_Plur_. We shall _or_ will be, you shall _or_ will be, + they shall _or_ will be. + +Second Fut. T. +_Sing_. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been. +_Plur_. We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense. +_Sing_. If I be, if thou be, if he be. +_Plur_. If we be, if ye _or_ you be, if they be. + +Imperf. Tense. +_Sing_. If I were, if thou wert, if he were. +_Plur_. If we were, if ye _or_ you were, if they were. + +The neuter verb to _be_, and all passive verbs, have two forms in the +imperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present; therefore, the +following rule may serve to direct you in the proper use of each form. +When the sentence implies doubt, supposition, &c. and the neuter verb +_be_, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to present or future +time, and is either followed or preceded by another verb in the +imperfect of the potential mood, the _conjunctive_ form of the imperfect +tense must be employed; as, "_If_ he _were_ here, we _should_ rejoice +together;" "She _might_ go, _were_ she so disposed." But when there is +no reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither followed +nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the _indicative_ +form of the imperfect tense must be used; as, "_If_ he _was_ ill, he did +not make it known;" "_Whether_ he _was_ absent or present, is a matter +of no consequence." The general rule for using the conjunctive form of +the verb, is presented on page 145. See, also, page 135. + +The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctive +mood, are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of +the indicative. The second future is conjugated thus: + +Second Fut. T. +_Sing_. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall. &c +_Plur_. If we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c. + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense. +_Sing_. Be, _or_ be thou, _or_ do thou be. +_Plur_. Be, _or_ be ye _or_ you, or do ye _or_ you be. + +POTENTIAL MOOD. +Pres. Tense +_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must be, + he may, can, _or_ must be. +_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be, ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ must be, + they may, can, _or_ must be. +Imperf. Tense. +_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be, thou mightest, &c. +_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should be, you might, &c. + +Perf. Tense +_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c. +_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been, you may, can, _or_ must be, &c. + +Pluper. Tense. +_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been, thou, &c. +_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been, you, &c. + +INFINITIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been. + +PARTICIPLES. +Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound, Having been. + +This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by far the +most important verb in our language, for it is more frequently used than +any other; many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated with +it, and, without its aid, no passive verb can be conjugated. You ought, +therefore, to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes, +before you proceed any farther. + + * * * * * + +II. PASSIVE VERBS. + +The _cases of nouns_ are a fruitful theme for investigation and +discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has +frequently engaged our attention; and, now, in introducing to your +notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both interesting and +profitable to present one more view of the nominative case. + +Every sentence, you recollect, must have one _finite_ verb, or more than +one, and one _nominative_, either expressed or implied, for, without +them, no sentence can exist. + +The _nominative_ is the _actor_ or _subject_ concerning which the verb +makes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nominatives, _active, +passive_, and _neuter_. + +The nominative to an _active_ verb, is _active_, because it _produces_ +an action, and the nominative to a _passive_ verb, is _passive_, because +it _receives_ or _endures_ the action expressed by the verb; for, + +A Passive Verb denotes action _received_ or _endured_ by the person or +thing which is the nominative; as, "The _boy is beaten_ by his father." + +You perceive, that the nominative _boy_, in this example, is not +represented as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of the action expressed +by the verb _is beaten_; that is, the boy _receives_ or _endures_ the +action performed by his father; therefore _boy_ is a _passive_ +nominative. And you observe, too, that the verb _is beaten_, denotes the +_action_ received or endured by the nominative; therefore _is beaten_ is +a _passive_ verb. + +If I say, John _kicked_ the horse, John is an active nominative, because +he performed or produced the action; but if I say, John _was kicked_ by +the horse, John is a passive nominative, because he received or endured +the action. + +The nominative to a _neuter_ verb, is _neuter_, because it does not +produce an action nor receive one; as, John _sits_ in the chair. John is +here connected with the neuter verb _sits_, which expresses simply the +state of being of its nominative, therefore _John_ is a neuter +nominative. + +I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by a +few examples. + +I. Of ACTIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ beats the dog; The _lady_ +sings; The _ball_ rolls; The _man_ walks." + +II. Of PASSIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ is beaten; The _lady_ is +loved; The _ball_ is rolled; The _man_ was killed." + +III. Of NEUTER NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ remains idle; The _lady_ is +beautiful; The _ball_ lies on the ground; The _man_ lives in town." +You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs. + +Passive Verbs are called _regular_ when they end in _ed_; as, was +_loved_; was _conquered_. + +All Passive Verbs _are formed_ by adding the _perfect participle_ of an +active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb _to be_. + +If you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb after +this neuter verb _be_, in any mood or tense, you will have a _passive_ +verb in the same mood and tense that the verb _be_ would be in if the +participle were not used; as, I am _slighted_; I was _slighted_; he will +be _slighted_; If I be _slighted_; I may, can, _or_ must be _slighted_, +&c. Hence you perceive, that when you shall have learned the conjugation +of the verb _be_, you will be able to conjugate any passive verb in the +English language. + +The regular passive verb to _be loved_, which is formed by adding the +perfect participle _loved_ to the neuter verb to _be_, is conjugated in +the following manner: + +TO BE LOVED.--INDICATIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense +_Sing_. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. +_Plur_. We are loved, ye _or_ you are loved, they are loved. + +Imperf. Tense. +_Sing_. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved. +_Plur_. We were loved, ye _or_ you were loved, they were loved. + +Perfect Tense. +_Sing_. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved. +_Plur_. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c. + +Pluper. Tense +_Sing_. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c. +_Plur_. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, &c. + +First Future. +_Sing_. I shall _or_ will be loved, thou shall _or_ wilt be loved, he, &c. +_Plur_. We shall _or_ will be loved, you shall _or_ will be loved, they, &c. + +First Future. +_Sing_. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c. +_Plur_. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense +_Sing_. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved. +_Plur_. If we be loved, if ye _or_ you be loved, if they be loved. + +Imperf. Tense. +_Sing_. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. +_Plur_. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved. + +This mood has six tenses:--See conjugation of the verb to _be_. + +IMPERATIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense. +_Sing_. Be thou loved, _or_ do thou be loved. +_Plur_. Be ye _or_ you loved, _or_ do ye be loved. + +POTENTIAL MOOD. +Pres. Tense. +_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be loved, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must, &c. +_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be loved, you may, can, _or_ must, &c. + +Imperf. Tense. +_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be loved, thou mightst, &c. +_Plur_. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye _or_ you, &c. + +Perfect Tense. +_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c. +_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been loved, you may, can, &c. + +Plup. Tense. +_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, thou +mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst have +_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, you +might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, they, &c. + +INFINITIVE MOOD. +Pres. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tense. To have been loved. + +PARTICIPLES. +Present, Being loved. Perfect _or_ Passive, Loved. +Compound, Having been loved. + + NOTE. This conjugation of the passive verb _to be loved_, is called + the _passive, voice_ of the regular active-transitive verb _to + love_. + +Now conjugate the following passive verbs; that is, speak them in the +first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all the moods, and +speak the participles; "to be loved, to be rejected, to be slighted, to +be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to be sought, to be taken." + + NOTE 1. When the perfect participle of an _intransitive_ verb is + joined to the neuter verb _to be_, the combination is not a passive + verb, but a _neuter_ verb in a _passive form_; as, "He _is gone_; + The birds _are flown_; The boy _is_ grown_; My friend _is arrived_." + The following mode of construction, is, in general, to be preferred; + "He _has_ gone; The birds _have_ flown; The boy _has_ grown; My + Friend _has_ arrived." + + 2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present + participle to the auxiliary verb _to be_, through all its + variations; as, instead of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c., + we may say, I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, &c.; + and, instead of, I taught, &c.; I was teaching, &c. This mode of + conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or state of + being; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and + contributes to the harmony and precision of language. When the + present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb + to be, the two words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated + an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, as the case may + be; as, "I am writing a letter; He is walking:" and when the present + participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, they term the + combination a neuter verb; as, "I am sitting; He is standing." + Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately. + Either mode may be adopted. + + * * * * * + +III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. + +DEFECTIVE VERBS are those which are used only in some of the moods and +tenses. + +The principal of them are these. + +_Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perfect or Passive Participle + is wanting_. + +May, might. ------------ +Can, could. ------------ +Will, would. ------------ +Shall, should. ------------ +Must, must. ------------ +Ought, ought. ------------ +----- quoth. ------------ + + NOTE. _Must_ and _ought_ are not varied. _Ought_ and _quoth_ are + never used as auxiliaries. _Ought_ is always followed by a verb in + the infinitive mood, which verb determines its tenses. _Ought_ is in + the _present_ tense when the infinitive following it is in the + present; as, "He _ought_ to do it;" and _ought_ is in the + _imperfect_ tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive; + as, "He _ought_ to have done it." + +Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, you may +read over the last _three_ lectures carefully and attentively; and as +soon as you become acquainted with all that has been presented, you will +understand nearly all the principles and regular constructions of our +language. In parsing a verb, or any other part of speech, be careful to +pursue the _systematic order_, and to conjugate every verb until you +become familiar with all the moods and tenses. + + "He _should have been punished_ before he committed that atrocious + deed." + +_Should have been punished_ is a verb, a word that signifies to +do--passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom.--it is +formed by adding the perfect part, _punished_ to the neuter verb to +_be_--regular, the perf. part, ends in _ed_--potential mood, it implies +obligation, &c.--pluperfect tense, it denotes a past act which was prior +to the other past time specified by "committed"--third pers. sing. +num. because the nom. "he" is with which it agrees: RULE 4. _The verb +must agree_, &c.--Conjugated, Indic. mood, pres. tense, he is punished; +imperf. tense, he was punished; perf. tense, he has been punished; and +so on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak the +participles. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Columbus discovered America. America was discovered by Columbus. The +preceptor is writing a letter. The letter is written by the preceptor. +The work can be done. The house would have been built ere this, had he +fulfilled his promise. If I be beaten by that man, he will be punished. +Young man, if you wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous. +Being ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. He is reading +Homer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become more +ingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honored for his benevolent +deeds. This ought ye to have done. + +ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +All the most important principles of the science, together with many of +the rules, have now been presented and illustrated. But before you +proceed to analyze the following exercises, you may turn over a few +pages, and you will find all the rules presented in a body. Please to +examine them critically, and parse the _examples_ under each rule and +note. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate the +respective rules and notes under which they are placed; hence, by paying +particular attention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to +comprehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes. + +As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the _definitions_ +so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit them in parsing; +but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. When you parse without +applying the definitions, you may proceed in the following manner: + + "Mercy is the true badge of nobility." + +_Mercy_ is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, singular +number, and in the nominative case to "is:" RULE 3. _The nominative case +governs the verb_. + +_Is_ is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, third +person, singular number, agreeing with "mercy," according to RULE 4. +_The verb must agree_, &c. + +_The_ is a definite article, belonging to "badge," in the singular +number: RULE 2. _The definite article_ the, &c. + +_True_ is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the noun +"badge:" RULE 18. _Adjectives belong_, &c. + +_Badge_ is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular number, and +in the nominative case _after_ "is," and put by apposition with "mercy," +according to RULE 21. _The verb to be may have the same case after it as +before it_. + +_Of_ is a preposition, connecting "badge" and "nobility," and showing +the relation between them. + +_Nobility_ is a noun of multitude, mas. and fem. gender, third person, +sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by "of:" RULE 31. _Prepositions +govern the objective case_. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss. + +What I forfeit for myself is a trifle; that my indiscretions should +reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart. + +Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the duke of +Northumberland. + +King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and people of Rome +as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia. + +Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts; and from what +is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to have proved, +what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of violence, cruelty, and +blood. + +Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits know. + +He that formed the ear, can he not hear? + +He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. + + NOTE 1. _Learn_, in the first of the preceding examples, is a + transitive verb, because the action passes over from the nom. _you_ + understood, to _the rest of the sentence_ for its object: RULE 24. + In the next example, _that my indiscretions should reach my + posterity_, is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to the + verb _wounds_, according to the same Rule. + + 2. The noun _sacrifice_, in the third example, is nom. after the + active-intransitive verb _fell_: RULE 22. The noun _proprietors_, in + the next sentence, is in the objective case, and put by apposition + with _senate_ and _people_: RULE 7, or governed by _consider_, + understood, according to RULE 35. + + 3. In the fifth example, _what_, following _proved_, is a compound + relative. _Thing_, the antecedent part, is in the nom. case after + _to be_, understood, and put by apposition with _he_, according to + RULE 21, and NOTE. _Which_, the relative part, is in the obj. case + after _to be_ expressed, and put by apposition with _him_, according + to the same RULE. _Man_ is in the obj. case, put by apposition with + _which_: RULE 7. The latter part of the sentence may be _literally_ + rendered thus: He plainly appears to have proved _to be that base + character which_ the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a _man_ of + violence, cruelty, and blood. The antecedent part of the first + _what_, in the next sentence, is governed by _hides_; and _which_, + the relative part, is governed by _know_ understood. The antecedent + part of the second _what_, is governed by _hides_ understood, and + the relative part is governed by _know_ expressed. + + 4. The first _he_, in the seventh example, is, in the opinion of + some, nom. to _can hear_ understood; but Mr. N.R. Smith, a + distinguished and acute grammarian, suggests the propriety of + rendering the sentence thus; "He that formed the ear, _formed it to + hear_; can he not hear?" The first _he_, in the last example, is + redundant; yet the construction is sometimes admissible, for the + expression is more forcible than it would be to say, "Let him hear + who hath ears to hear;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr. + Smith, the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus; "He + that hath ears, _hath ears_ to hear; let him hear." + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. +_Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies_. + +1. "The wall is three _feet_ high." +2. "His son is eight _years_ old." +3. "My knife is worth a _shilling_." +4. "She is worth _him_ and all his _connexions_." +5. "He has been there three _times_." +6. "The hat cost ten _dollars_." +7. "The load weighs a _tun_." +8. "The spar measures ninety _feet_." + +REMARKS.--_Anomaly_ is derived from the Greek, _a_, without, and +_omales_, similar; that is, _without similarity_. Some give its +derivation thus; _anomaly_, from the Latin, _ab_, from, or out of, and +_norma_, a rule, or law, means an _outlaw_; a mode of expression that +departs from the rules, laws, or _general_ usages of the language; a +construction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, it is a general rule +of the language, that adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding +_r_, or _er_, and _st_, or _est_, to the positive degree; but good, +_better, best_; bad, _worse, worst_, are not compared according to the +general rule. They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns +is generally formed by adding s to the singular: man, _men_; woman, +_women_; child, _children_; penny, _pence_, are anomalies. The use of +_news, means, alms_ and _amends_, in the singular, constitutes +anomalies. Anomalous constructions are correct according to custom; but, +as they are departures from general rules, by them they cannot be +analyzed. + +An _idiom_, Latin _idioma_, a construction peculiar to a language, may +be an anomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expression which is not an +anomaly, can be analyzed. + +_Feet_ and _years_, in the 1st and 2d examples, are not in the +nominative after _is_, according to Rule 21, because they are not in +apposition with the respective nouns that precede the verb; but the +constructions are anomalous; and, therefore, no rule can be applied to +analyze them. The same ideas, however; can be conveyed by a legitimate +construction which can be analyzed; thus, "The _height_ of the wall is +three _feet_;" "The _age_ of my son is eight _years_." + +An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; but +sometimes it is very difficult to decide whether a construction is +anomalous or not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally +considered anomalies; but if we supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted in +doing, the associated words which modern refinement has dropped, they +will cease to be anomalies; thus, "My knife is _of the_ worth _of_ a +shilling;" "--_of the_ worth _of_ him," &c. "He has been there _for_ +three times;" as we say, "I was unwell _for_ three days, after I +arrived;" or, "I was unwell three days." Thus it appears, that by +tracing back, _for_ a few centuries, what the merely modern English +scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be +discovered, which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly. + +On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living +language, the most able philologists can never be agreed; because many +usages will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently, +be disposed of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a +sentence may be treated as an anomaly; by others who contend for, and +supply, an ellipsis, the same sentence may be analyzed according to the +ellipsis supplied; whilst others, who deny both the elliptical and +anomalous character of the sentence, construct a rule by which to +analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the principle contained in +that sentence only. This last mode of procedure, inasmuch as it requires +us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the language, +appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It appears to +be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility. + +The verbs, _cost, weighs_, and _measures_, in the 6th, 7th, and 8th +examples, may be considered as transitive. See remarks on _resemble, +have, own_, &c., page 56. + +EXAMPLES. + +1. "And God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." "Let us +make man." "Let us bow before the Lord." "Let high-born seraphs tune the +lyre." + +2. "_Be it_ enacted." "_Be it_ remembered." _"Blessed be he_ that +blesseth thee; and _cursed be he_ that curseth thee." "My soul, turn +from them:--_turn we_ to survey," &c. + +3. "_Methinks_ I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him." +"_Methought_ I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep." "I was there +just thirty _years ago_." + +4. "Their laws and their manners, generally _speaking_, were extremely +rude." "_Considering_ their means, they have effected much." + +5. + + "Ah _me!_ nor hope nor life remains." + "_Me_ miserable! which way shall I fly?" + +6. + + "O _happiness!_ our being's end and aim! + Good, pleasure, ease, content! whatever thy name, + That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh. + For which we bear to live, or dare to die."-- + +The verb _let_, in the idiomatic examples under number 1, has no +nominative specified, and is left applicable to a nominative of the +first, second, or third person, and of either number. Every action +necessarily depends on an agent or moving cause; and hence it follows, +that the verb, in such constructions, has a nominative understood; but +as that nominative is not particularly _pointed out_, the constructions +may be considered anomalous. + +Instead of saying, "_Let_ it [_to_] be enacted;" or, "It _is_ or _shall_ +be enacted;" "_Let_ him [_to_] be blessed;" or, "He _shall_ be blessed;" +"_Let us_ turn to survey," &c.; the verbs, _be enacted, be blessed, +turn_, &c. according to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license, +are used in the _imperative_, agreeing with a nominative of the first or +third person. + +The phrases, _methinks_ and _methought_, are anomalies, in which the +objective pronoun _me_, in the _first_ person, is used in place of a +nominative, and takes a verb after it in the _third_ person. _Him_ was +anciently used in the same manner; as, "_him thute_, him thought." There +was a period when these constructions were not anomalies in our +language. Formerly, what we call the _objective_ cases of our pronouns, +were employed in the same manner as our present _nominatives_ are. _Ago_ +is a contraction of _agone_, the past part. of to _go_. Before this +participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun _years_ preceding it, +was in the nominative case absolute; but now the construction amounts to +an anomaly. The expressions, "generally speaking," and "considering +their means," under number 4, are idiomatical and anomalous, the +subjects to the participles not being specified. + +According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and +prepositions require the _objective_ case of a noun or pronoun after +them; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we +say, that these parts of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52, +57, and 94. The same principle applies to the interjection. +Interjections require the _objective_ case of a pronoun of the first +person after them; but the _nominative_ of a noun or pronoun of the +second or third person; as, "Ah _me!_ Oh _thou!_ O my _country!_" To +say, then, that interjections _require_ particular cases after them, is +synonymous with saying, that they _govern_ those cases; and this office +of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs +in the Latin and many other languages. In the examples under number 5, +the first _me_ is in the objective after "ah," and the second _me_, +after _ah_ understood; thus, "Ah miserable me!" according to NOTE 2, +under Rule 5.--_Happiness_, under number 6, is nom. independent; Rule 5, +or in the nom. after _O_, according to this Note. The principle +contained in the note, proves that every noun of the second person is in +the _nominative_ case; for, as the pronoun of the second person, in such +a situation, is always nominative, which is shown by its _form_, it +logically follows that the noun, under such circumstances, although it +has _no form_ to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case as +the pronoun. "Good, pleasure, ease, content, _that_," the antecedent +part of "whatever," and _which_, the relative part, are nom. after _art_ +understood; Rule 21, and _name_ is nom. to _be_ understood. + +The second line may be rendered thus; Whether thou art good, or whether +thou art pleasure, &c. or _be_ thy _name_ that [thing] which [ever +thing] it may be: putting _be_ in the imperative, agreeing with _name_ +in the third person. _Something_ is nominative after _art_ understood. + +EXAMPLES. + +1. "All were well _but_ the _stranger_." "I saw nobody but the +_stranger_." "All had returned but he." "None but the _brave_ deserve +the fair." "The thing they can't _but_ purpose, they postpone." "This +life, at best, is _but_ a dream." "It affords _but_ a scanty measure of +enjoyment." "If he _but_ touch the hills, they will smoke." "Man is +_but_ a reed, floating on the current of time." + +2. "Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content." + +3. "Open your hand _wide_." "The apples boil _soft_." "The purest clay +is that which burns _white_." "Drink _deep_, or taste not the Pierian +spring." + +4. "_What though_ the swelling surge thou see?" &c. "_What if_ the foot, +ordain'd the dust to tread?" &c. + +REMARKS.--According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of our +most critical philologists, _but_ is _always_ a disjunctive conjunction; +and agreeably to the same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as a +preposition, would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule 35. They +maintain, that its legitimate and undeviating office is, to join on a +member of a sentence which _expresses opposition of meaning_, and +thereby forms an exception to, or takes from the universality of, the +proposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence. That it +sustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples under +number 1, will be shown by the following resolution of them.--"All were +well but the _stranger [was not well_."] "I saw nobody but [_I saw_] the +_stranger_." "None deserve the fair but the _brave_ [_deserve the +fair_."] "They postpone the thing which [_they ought to do, and do not] +but_ which [_thing_] they cannot avoid purposing to do." "This life, at +best, [_is not a reality,] but_ it is a dream. It [_affords not +unbounded fruition] but_ it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment." "If +he _touch_ the hills, _but exert no greater power upon them_, they will +smoke;"--"If _he exert no greater power upon the hills, but [be-out this +fact_] if he touch them, they will smoke." "Man _is not a stable being, +but_ he is a reed, floating on the current of time." This method of +analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, is too much on the plan +of our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their rage for ancient +constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern associated +meaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be more +consistent with the _modern_ use of the word, to consider it an _adverb_ +in constructions like the following: "If he _but (only, merely)_ touch +the hills they will smoke." + +_Except_ and _near_, in examples like the following, are generally +construed as prepositions: "All went _except him_;" "She stands _near +them_." But many contend, that when we employ _but_ instead of _except_, +in such constructions, a _nominative_ should follow: "All went _but he +[did not go_."] On this point and many others, _custom_ is _variable_; +but the period will doubtless arrive, when _but, worth_, and _like_, +will be considered prepositions, and, in constructions like the +foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. This will not be +the case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis after +these words is entirely dropped. + +_Poverty_, under number 2, is governed by the preposition +_notwithstanding_, Rule 31. The adjectives _wide, soft, white_, and +_deep_, under number 3, not only express the quality of nouns, but also +qualify verbs: Note 4, under Rule 18.--_What_, in the phrases "what +though" and "what if," is an interrogative in the objective case, and +governed by the verb _matters_ understood, or by some other verb; thus, +"What matters it--what dost thou fear, though thou see the swelling +surge?" "What would you think, if the foot, which is ordained to tread +the dust, aspired to be the head?" + +In the following examples, the same word is used as several parts of +speech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to comprehend the meaning, +and by supplying what is understood, you will be able to analyze them +correctly. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +I like what you dislike. +Every creature loves its like. +Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful. +Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it. +Thought flies swifter than light. +He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. +Hail often proves destructive to vegetation. +I was happy to hail him as my friend. +Hail! beauteous stranger of the wood. +The more I examine the work, the better I like it. +Johnson is a better writer than Sterne. +Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. +We may expect a calm after a storm. +To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. +Damp air is unwholesome. +Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. +Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. +Much money has been expended. +Of him to whom much is given, much will be required. +It is much better to give than to receive. +Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult. +Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong. +They wrong themselves as well as their friends. + +I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing in poetry, +as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental exertion than +parsing in prose, will be found a more delightful and profitable +exercise. In this kind of analysis, in order to come at the meaning of +the author, you will find it necessary to _transpose_ his language, and +supply what is understood; and then you will have the literal meaning in +prose. + +EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +APOSTROPHE TO HOPE.--CAMPBELL. + + Eternal Hope! when yonder spheres sublime + Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time, + Thy joyous youth began:--but not to fade.-- + When all the sister planets have decayed; + When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, + And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below; + Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile, + And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile! + +TRANSPOSED. + +Eternal Hope! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime spheres pealed +their first notes to sound the march of time:--but it began not to +fade.--Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over the ruins, when all the sister +planets shall have decayed; and thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's +funeral pile, when wrapt in flames, the realms of ether glow, and +Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below. + +ADDRESS TO ADVERSITY.--GRAY. + + Daughter of heaven, relentless power, + Thou tamer of the human breast, + Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour, + The bad affright, afflict the best! + The gen'rous spark extinct revive; + Teach me to love and to forgive; + Exact my own defects to scan: + What others are to feel; and know myself a man. + +TRANSPOSED. + +Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the human breast, +whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright the bad, and afflict the +best! Revive thou in me the generous, extinct spark; and teach thou me +to love others, and to forgive them; and teach thou me to scan my own +defects exactly, or critically: and teach thou me that which others are +to feel; and make thou me to know myself to be a man. + +ADDRESS TO THE ALMIGHTY.--POPE. + + What conscience dictates to be done, + Or warns me not to do, + This teach me more than hell to shun, + That more than heav'n pursue. + +TRANSPOSED. + +O God, teach thou me to pursue that (_the thing_) which conscience +dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven; and teach thou +me to shun this (_the thing_) which conscience warns me not to do, more +cautiously than I would shun hell. + +TRIALS OF VIRTUE.--MERRICK. + + For see, ah! see, while yet her ways + With doubtful step I tread, + A hostile world its terrors raise, + Its snares delusive spread. + O how shall I, with heart prepared, + Those terrors learn to meet? + How, from the thousand snares to guard + My unexperienced feet? + +TRANSPOSED. + +For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world _to_ raise its terrors, and +see thou a hostile world _to_ spread its delusive snares, while I yet +tread her (_virtue's_) ways with doubtful steps. + +O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepared heart? How +shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from the thousand snares of +the world? + +THE MORNING IN SUMMER.--THOMPSON. + + Short is the doubtful empire of the night; + And soon, observant of approaching day, + The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews, + At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east, + Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow, + And from before the lustre of her face + White break the clouds away. + +TRANSPOSED. + +The doubtful empire of the night is short; and the meek-eyed morn, +(_which is the_) mother of dews, observant of approaching day, soon +appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the dappled east, till the +widening glow spreads far over ether, and the white clouds break away +from before the lustre of her face. + +NATURE BOUNTIFUL.--AKENSIDE. + + --Nature's care, to all her children just, + With richest treasures, and an ample state, + Endows at large whatever happy man + Will deign to use them. + +TRANSPOSED. + +Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely endows, with +richest treasures and an ample state, that happy man who will deign to +use them. + + NOTE. _What_, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedent + part is gov. by _teach_ understood; and the relative part by _to + feel_ expressed. _To shun_ and _to pursue_, in the third example, + are in the infinitive mood, gov. by _than_, according to a NOTE + under Rule 23. _Faint_ and _from_, in the 5th example, are adverbs. + An adverb, in poetry, is often written in the form of an adjective. + _Whatever_, in the last sentence, is a compound pronoun, and is + equivalent to _that_ and _who. That_ is an adj. pron. belonging to + "man;" _who_ is nom. to "will deign;" and _ever_ is excluded from + the sentence in sense. See page 113. Parse these examples as they + are transposed, and you will find the analysis very easy. + +ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. + +GOLD, NOT GENUINE WEALTH. + + Where, thy true treasure? Gold says, "not in me;" + And, "not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor. + +TRANSPOSED. + +Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, "It is not in me;" and the +Diamond says, "It is not in me." Gold is poor. + +SOURCE OF FRIENDSHIP.--DR. YOUNG. + + Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find + A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. + +TRANSPOSED. + +Lorenzo, repress thou pride; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in him +who has already found a friend in thee. + +TRUE GREATNESS.--POPE. + + Who noble ends by noble means obtains, + Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, + Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed + Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. + +TRANSPOSED. + +That man is great indeed, let him _to_ reign like unto good Aurelius, or +let him _to_ bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noble +means; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble ends by +noble means, smiles in exile or in chains. + +INVOCATION.--POLLOK. + + Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom + All things seem as they are, inspire my song; + My eye unscale: me what is substance teach; + And shadow what, while I of things to come, + As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase + Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant. + +TRANSPOSED. + +Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom all things seem to be as they +really are, inspire thou my song; and unscale thou my eyes: teach thou +_to_ me the thing which is substance; and teach thou _to_ me the thing +which is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, as one sings +of things which are past rehearsing. Grant thou _to_ me thought and +phraseology which shall severely sift out the whole idea. + +THE VOYAGE OF LIFE. + + How few, favored by ev'ry element, + With swelling sails make good the promised port, + With all their wishes freighted! Yet ev'n these, + Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain. + Free from misfortune, not from nature free, + They still are men; and when is man secure? + As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years + Beats down their strength; their numberless escapes + In ruin end: and, now, their proud success + But plants new terrors on the victor's brow. + What pain, to quit the world just made their own! + Their nests so deeply downed and built so high!-- + Too low they build, who build beneath the stars. + +TRANSPOSED. + +How few persons, favored by every element, safely make the promised port +with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freighted! Yet even these +few persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishes +freighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet +(_though_ and _yet_, corresponding conjunctions, form only _one_ +connexion) they are not free from the course of nature, for they still +are men; and when is man secure? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm is +to the mariner.--The rush of years beats down their strength; (_that is, +the strength of these few_;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin: +and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor's +brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have made +it to be their own world; when their nests are built so high, and when +they are downed so deeply!--They who build beneath the stars, build too +low for their own safety. + +REFLECTIONS ON A SCULL.--LORD BYRON. + + Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps. + Is that a temple, where a God may dwell? + Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell! + Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall, + Its chambers desolate, and portals foul; + Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall, + The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. + Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, + The gay recess of wisdom and of wit, + And passion's host, that never brooked control. + Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ, + People this lonely tower, this tenement refit? + +TRANSPOSED. + +Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, +where a God may dwell? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered +cell! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall, +and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals:--yes, this scull +was once ambition's airy hall; (_it was_) the dome of thought, the +palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, +the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never +brooked control. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists +have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refit this +tenement? + +For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the +English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted, +that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisition +the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend +more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable that +your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis +of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you +ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just +presented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose. + +Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax, +you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you +have the subject-matter already stored in your mind. + + * * * * * + + + + +LECTURE XIV. + + +OF DERIVATION. + +At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that Etymology +treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, important as it +is, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar. +In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequently +agitated; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtless +be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word +is derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn +back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in +the PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. + +1. Nouns are derived from verbs. +2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs. +3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. +4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. +5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. + +1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes "lover;" from +"to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver," &c. + +In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to +determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from +the verb, _viz_. "Love, to love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to +sleep; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act," &c. + +2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs; +as, from the noun _salt_, comes "to salt;" from the adjective _warm_, +"to warm;" and from the adverb _forward_, "to forward." Sometimes they +are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant; as, +from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding _en_; as, from "length, to +lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten; +bright, to brighten." + +3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner: adjectives +denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding _y_; as, from "Health, +healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c. + +Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are +derived from nouns by adding _en_; as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden; +wool, woollen," &c. + +Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding _ful_; +as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," &c. + +Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are +derived from nouns by adding _some_; as, from "Light, lightsome; +trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome," &c. + +Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding _less_; as, +from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, joyless," &c. + +Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding _ly_; as, +from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c. + +Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns by +adding _ish_ to them; which termination when added to adjectives, +imports diminution, or lessening the quality; as, "White, whitish;" i.e. +somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency +to a character; as, "Child, childish; thief, thievish." + +Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination +_able_; and those adjectives signify capacity; as, "Answer, answerable; +to change, changeable." + +4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the +termination _ness_; as, "White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimes +by adding _th_ or _t_, and making a small change in some of the letters; +as, "Long, length; high, height." + +5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding _ly_, or +changing _le_ into _ly_; and denote the same quality as the adjectives +from which they are derived; as, from "base," comes "basely;" from +"slow, slowly;" from "able, ably." + +There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it +would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. The +primitive words of every language are very few; the derivatives form +much the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here. + +Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations +_hood_ or _head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment_, and _age_. + +Nouns ending in _hood_ or _head_, are such as signify character or +qualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c. + +Nouns ending in _ship_, are those that signify office, employment, +state, or condition; as, "Lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some +nouns in _ship_ are derived from adjectives; as, "Hard, hardship," &c. + +Nouns which end in _ery_, signify action or habit; as, "Slavery, +foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives; as, +"Brave, bravery," &c. + +Nouns ending in _wick, rick_, and _dom_, denote dominion, jurisdiction, +or condition; as, "Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c. + +Nouns which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession; as, +"Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in _ment_ and _age_, come +generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit; as, +"Commandment," "usage." + +Some nouns ending in _ard_, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and +denote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard." + +Some nouns have the form of diminutives; but these are not many. They +are formed by adding the terminations _kin, ling, ing, ock, el_, and the +like; as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; +cock, cockerel," &c. + +OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES. + +I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of +Latin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as +prefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be better +qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition +of which they enter, and of which they form a material part. + +I. LATIN PREFIXES. + +_A, ab, abs_--signify from or away; as, _a-vert_, to turn from; +_ab-ject_, to throw away; _abs-tract_, to draw away. + +_Ad_--to or at; as, _ad-here_, to stick to; _ad-mire_, to wonder at. + +_Ante_--means before; as, _ante-cedent_, going before. + +_Circum_--signifies round, about; as, _circum-navigate_, to sail round. + +_Con, com, co, col_--together; as, _con-join_, to join together; +_com-press_, to press together; _co-operate_, to work together; +_col-lapse_, to fall together. + +_Contra_--against; as, _contra-dict_, to speak against. + +_De_--from, down; as, _de-duct_, to take from; _de-scend_, to go down. + +_Di, dis_--asunder, away; as, _di-lacerate_, to tear asunder; +_dis-miss_, to send away. + +_E, ef, ex_--out; as, _e-ject_, to throw out; _ef-flux_, to flow out; +_ex-clude_, to shut out. + +_Extra_--beyond; as, _extra-ordinary_, beyond what is ordinary. + +_In, im, il, ir_--(_in_, Gothic, _inna_, a cave or cell;) as, _in-fuse_, +to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, +commonly reverse their meaning; as, _in-sufficient, im-polite, +il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute_. + +_Inter_--between; as, _inter-pose_, to put between. + +_Intro_--within, into; _intro-vert_, to turn within; _intro-duce_, to +lead into. + +_Ob, op_--denote opposition; as, _ob-ject_, to bring against; _op-pugn_, +to oppose. + +_Per_--through, by; as, _per-ambulate_, to walk through; _per-haps_, by +haps. + +_Post_--after; as, _post-script_, written after; _post-fix_, placed +after. + +_Prae, pre_--before; as, _pre-fix_, to fix before. + +_Pro_--for, forth, forward; as, _pro-noun_, for a noun; _pro-tend_, to +stretch forth; _pro-ject_, to shoot forward. + +_Praeter_--past, beyond; as, _preter-perfect_, pastperfect; +_preter-natural_, beyond the course of nature. + +_Re_--again or back; as, _re-peruse_, to peruse again; _re-trade_, to +trade back. + +_Retro--_backwards; as, _retro-spective_, looking backwards. + +_Se_--aside, apart; as, _se-duce_, to draw aside. + +_Sub_--under; as, _sub-scribe_, to write under, or _sub-sign_. + +_Subter_--under; as, _subter-fluous_, flowing under. + +_Super_--above or over; as, _super-scribe_, to write above; +_super-vise_, to overlook. + +_Trans_--over, beyond, from one place to another; as, _trans-port_, to +carry over; _trans-gress_, to pass beyond. + +II. GREEK PREFIXES. + +_A_--signifies privation; as, _anonymous_, without name. + +_Amphi_--both or two; as, _amphi-bious_, partaking of both or two +natures, + +_Anti_--against; as, _anti-masonry_, against masonry. + +_Dia_--through; as, _dia-meter_, line passing through a circle. + +_Hyper_--over; as, _hyper-critical_, over or too critical. + +_Hypo_--under, implying concealment or disguise; as, _hypo-crite_, one +dissembling his real character. + +_Meta--_denotes change or transmutation; as, _meta-morphose_, to change +the shape. + +_Para_--contrary or against; as, _para-dox_, a thing contrary to +received opinion. + +_Peri_--round about; as, _peri-phrasis_, circumlocution. + +_Syn, syl, sym_--together; as, _syn-tax_, a placing together; _syn-od_, +a meeting or coming together; _syl-lable_, that portion of a word which +is taken together; _sym-pathy_, fellow-feeling, or feeling together. + + + +RULES OF SYNTAX, + +WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. + + +The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and +government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. + +SYNTAX consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_. + +CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, +person, number, or case. + +For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53. + +For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and +members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167. + +The principal parts of a simple sentence are the _nominative_ or +subject, the _verb_ or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, +and the _object_, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A +wise _man governs_ his _passions_." In this sentence, _man_ is the +subject; _governs_, the attribute; and _passions_ the object. + +A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a +part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. + +ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid +disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas +concisely, and with strength and elegance. + +In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed +form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary +consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know +are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this +work, you must look over the whole. + +You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in +false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors +without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should +be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are +erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages. + +RULE I. + +The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns in the _singular_ number only, +individually or collectively; as, "_A_ star, _an_ eagle, _a_ score, _a_ +thousand." + +RULE II. + +The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the _singular_ or +_plural_ number; as, "_The_ star, _the_ stars; _the_ hat, _the_ hats." + + NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by + the use or omission of the article _a_. If I say, "He behaved with + _a_ little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He + behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the + former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him. + When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and + mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, + "There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most + of them. + + 2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of _every_ or + _each_; as, "They cost five shillings _a_ dozen;" that is, '_every_ + dozen.' + + "A man he was to all the country dear, + And passing rich with forty pounds _a_ year!" + + that is, '_every_ year.' + + 3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various + qualities of things individually different, though alike in name, + the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to + the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "_A_ + black and _a_ white calf," signifies, A black _calf_, and a white + _calf_; but "_A_ black and white calf," describes the two colors of + _one_ calf. + +RULE III. + +The nominative case governs the verb; as, "_I_ learn, _thou_ learnest, +_he_ learns, _they_ learn." + +RULE IV. + +The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The +bird _sings_, the birds _sing_, thou _singest_." + + NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have + a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is, + Awake _ye_; arise _ye_. + + 2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be + considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with + that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin _is_ + death; His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion _were_ + dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_." + +EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. + +Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. +Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. +So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. +The sincere is always esteemed. +Not one of them are happy. +What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them? +Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give +consolation. +The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of +nature; are without limit. +A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. +Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve +him. +In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. + + O thou, my voice inspire, + Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. +_Note_ 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, + And never, never be to Heaven resigned? + +He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great +abilities to manage the business. + +_Note 2_. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. +His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. + +RULE V. + +When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the +nominative case _independent_; as, "_Plato_, thou reasonest well;" "Do, +_Trim_, said my uncle Toby." + + NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it. + + 2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the + _first_ person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun + of the _second_ or _third_ person; as, "Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O! + _virtue_." + +RULE VI. + +A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of +the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, +"_Shame being lost_; all virtue is lost;" "The _sun being risen_, we +travelled on." + + NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and + independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as, + "To whom thus _Adam_;" that is, _spoke_. + + + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Him Destroyed, + Or won to what may work his utter loss, + All this will follow soon. + + _Note_.--Two substantives, when they come together, and do not + signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. + +Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted +as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit. + +RULE VII. + +Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are +put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "_Paul_, the _apostle;_" +"_Joram_, the _king;_" "_Solomon_, the _son_ of David, _king_ of Israel, +wrote many proverbs." + + NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as, + "The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library--_(which + was) a misfortune_ that greatly depressed him." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things. + +The pronoun _he_ in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative +case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and +put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective +case, _him_, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the +following.) + + I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited. + + They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. + + It was John, him who preached repentance. + + Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were + both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of + Independence. + + Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is + variously described by historians. + +RULE VIII. + +Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, +connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and +pronouns, agreeing with them in the _plural_; as, "Socrates _and_ Plato +_were_ wise; _they_ were eminent _philosophers_." + + NOTE 1. When _each_ or _every_ relates to two or more nominatives in + the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must + agree with each of them in the singular; as, "_Every_ leaf, _and + every_ twig, _and every_ drop of water, _teems_ with life." + + 2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another + noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the + verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity + with humility, _renders its_ possessor truly amiable;" "The General, + also, in conjunction with the officers, _has_ applied for redress." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large + quantities. + +Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb _grow_ +is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, +"coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the +copulative conjunction, _and_; therefore the verb should be plural, +_grow_; and then it would agree with coffee _and_ sugar, according to +Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun _it_, as it represents both the +nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, _they_, agreeably to +Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar _grow_ in +the West Indies: _they are_ exported in large quantities." + + Time and tide waits for no man. + + Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. + + Life and health is both uncertain. + + Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. + + The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, + affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. + + What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think + you have no need of assistance? + + Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. + + Why is whiteness and coldness in snow? + + Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind + it continually upon thy heart. + + Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes + of the judicious. + + There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists, + which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect. + +EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. + + Every man, woman, and child, were numbered. + +Not proper; for, although _and_ couples things together so as to present +the whole at one view, yet _every_ has a contrary effect: it distributes +them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. _Were_ +numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "_was_ numbered," in the +singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.) + + When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and + every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light. + +RULE IX. + +Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, +connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and +pronouns, agreeing with them in the _singular_; as, "Neither John _nor_ +James _has_ learned _his_ lesson." + + NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different + persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in + person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou _or_ I + _am_ in fault; I _or_ thou _art_ to blame; I, _or_ thou, _or_ he, + _is_ the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am + to blame or thou art," &c. + + 2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and + a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, + which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither + poverty _nor riches_ were injurious to him;" "I _or_ they were + offended by it." + +Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. + +The verb, _have_ caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the +plural, because it expresses the action, not of _both_, but of either +the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the +singular, _has_ caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance _or_ +negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.) + + A circle or a square are the same in idea. + + Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry. + + Neither of them are remarkable for precision. + + Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely + as they are moved. + + When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the + sincerity of friendship is proved. + + Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own + hands. + + Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for + they may be thy own lot. + + The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy. + +RULE X. + +A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying _unity_ of idea, +generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _singular_; as, +"The _meeting was_ large, and _it_ held three hours." + + NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + The nation are powerful. + + The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. + + The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The + flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the + shepherd's care. + + That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble. + +RULE XI. + +A noun of multitude, conveying _plurality_ of idea, must have a verb or +pronoun agreeing with it in the _plural_; as, "The _council were_ +divided in _their_ sentiments." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + My people doth not consider. + + The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. + + The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the + business to the general meeting. + + The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. + +RULE XII. + +A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it +possesses; as, "_Man's_ happiness;" "_Its_ value is great." + + NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the + possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only; + as, "The _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal; The _bishop of Landaff's_ + excellent book; The _captain of the guard's_ house." This usage, + however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally + convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is _the + governor of Ohio's_ house!" + + 2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow + each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally + annexed to the last only; as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake; + _John_ the _Baptist's_ head; The canal was built in consequence of + _De Witt Clinton_ the _governor's_ advice." + + But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, + the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and + understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old + _patron_ and _benefactor_." + + 3. _Its_, the possessive case of _it_, is often improperly used for + _'tis_, or, _it is_; as, "_Its_ my book: _Its_ his," &c.; instead + of, _"It is_ my book; or, _'Tis_ my book; _It is_ his; or, _'Tis_ + his." + + 4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the + possessive case, as, "In case of his _majesty's dying_ without + issue, &c.; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c.; I remember + _its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At _my coming_ in he said," + &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be + considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28. + + 5. Phrases like these, "A work of _Washington Irving's_; A brother + of _Joseph's_; A friend of _mine_; A neighbor of _yours_," do not, + as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two + possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (_out + of_, or, _among the number of) Washington Irving's works_; that is, + One of the works of _Washington Irving_; One of the brothers _of + Joseph_; One friend _of my friends_; One neighbor of _your + neighbors_." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Homers works are much admired. + + Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord. + + James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829. + + _Note_ 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer + great calamities. + + This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. + + _Note_ 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. + + The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's. + + _Note_ 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. + + Much depends on this rule being observed. + + The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay + it before the council. + +RULE XIII. + +Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in +_gender_ and _number_; as, "_John_ writes, and _he_ will soon write +well." + + NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, + is always _plural in form_; therefore the verb connected with it + should be plural; as, "My friend, you _were_ mistaken." See pages + and + +FALSE SYNTAX + + Every man will be rewarded according to their works. + +Incorrect, because the pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender or +number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13, +is violated. _Their_ should be _his_; and then the pronoun would be of +the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with _man_, according to +Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.) + + An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience. + + Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. + + Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in + the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. + + No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation. + + _Note_. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of + censure. + + Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was + you from the defendant? + + +RULE XIV. + +Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in _gender_, _person_, +and _number_; as, "Thou _who lovest_ wisdom;" "I _who speak_ from +experience." + + NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of + different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person + with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man + _who command_ you;" or, "I am the man _who commands_ you." The + meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear, + if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the _man_." + + When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the + preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence; + as, "I am the _Lord, that maketh_ all things; _that stretcheth_ + forth the heavens alone; _that spreadeth_ abroad the earth by + myself," &c. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it. + + The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost + their lives by this means. + + Thou great First Cause, least understood! + + Who all my sense confined. + + _Note, 2d part_. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and + brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees. + +RULE XV. + +The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative +comes between it and the verb; as, "The master _who_ taught us, was +eminent." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish + him. + + This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor. + +RULE XVI. + +When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative +is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own +member of the sentence; as, "He _whom_ I _serve_, is eternal." + + NOTE 1. _Who, which, what_, the relative _that_, and their + compounds, _whomever, whomsoever_, &c., though in the objective + case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He _whom_ ye _seek_, + has gone hence." + + 2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, + either expressed or implied; as, "_Who_ steals my purse, steals + trash;" that is, _he_ who. + + 3. The pronouns _whichsoever, whatsoever_, and the like, are + sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the + corresponding nouns; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ the _king_ cast + his eyes," &c. + + 4. The pronoun _what_ is sometimes improperly used instead of the + conjunction _that;_ as, "He would not believe but _what_ I was in + fault." It should be "but _that_," &c. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + That is the friend who I sincerely esteem. + +Not proper, because _who_, which is the object of the action expressed +by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to +be _whom_, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem, +according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)--and, also, according to Rule +20. "That is the friend _whom_ I sincerely esteem." + + They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. + + From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be + estimated. + + He is a man who I greatly respect. + + Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and + who we ought to be grateful to. + + They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of + fortune. + + Who did you walk with? + + Who did you see there? + + Who did you give the book to? + +RULE XVII. + +When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the +word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its +_subsequent_, which subsequent must agree in _case_ with the +interrogative; as, "_Whose_ book is that? _Joseph's;" "Who_ gave you +this? _John_." + + NOTE. Whether the interrogative _really refers_ to a subsequent or + not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree + in case with the interrogative. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a + bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street. + + Who walked with you? My brother and him. + + Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me. + +RULE XVIII. + +Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as, +"He is a _good_, as well as a _wise_ man." + + NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am + _miserable; He_ is _industrious_." + + 2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in + number with their adjectives, when of the _cardinal_ kind; as, "Ten + _feet_; Eighty _fathoms_." But some anomalous and figurative + expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of _forty + sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle_." + + 3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or + to a part of a sentence; as, "_To see_ is _pleasant_; To be blind is + _unfortunate_; To die for our country is _glorious_." + + 4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other + adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of + things in connexion with the action by which that quality is + produced; as, "_Red hot_ iron; _Pale blue_ lining; _Deep sea-green_ + sash; The apples boil _soft_; Open your hand _wide_; The clay burns + _white_; The fire burns _blue_; The eggs boil _hard_." + + 5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is + understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as, + "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly. + + 6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; + as, "A tract of _good_ land." + + 7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not + literally admit of comparison; such as, _more impossible, most + impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect_, &c. See REMARKS on + adjectives, page 76. + + 8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, + it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are + compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the + _taller_ of the two; Her specimen is the _best_ of the three." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + _Note_ 2. The boat carries thirty tun. + + The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth. + + _Note_ 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of + furniture. + + My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land. + + _Note_ 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more + incomprehensible. + + It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. + + This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before. + + _Note_ 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest? + + I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three. + +RULE XIX. + +Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "_Any_ +man, _all_ men." + + NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number + with their nouns; as, "_This_ book, _these_ books; _that_ sort, + _those_ sorts." + + 2. The pronominal adjectives, _each, every, either, neither, + another_, and _one_, agree with nouns in the singular number only; + as, "_Each_ man, _every_ person, _another_ lesson;" unless the + plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "_Every_ six months." + + 3. _Either_ is often improperly employed instead of _each;_ as, "The + king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat _either_ of + them on his throne." _Each_ signifies _both_ taken separately; + _either_ implies only _the one_ or _the other_ taken + disjunctively:--"sat _each_ on _his_ throne." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + _Note_ 1. Those sort of favors do real injury. + + They have been playing this two hours. + + These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one + or more persons enter the garden. + + _Note_ 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. + + There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible. + + Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws + of morality and religion. + + _Note_ 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life. + + Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. + +RULE XX. + +Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered +_Pompey_;" "Columbus discovered _America_;" "Truth ennobles _her_." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. + +_Ye_, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of +the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and +therefore it should be _you_, in the objective case. _You_ would then be +governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20. _Active-transitive +verbs govern the objective case_. + + Who did they entertain so freely? + + They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, + cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. + + He and they we know, but who are ye? + + She that is negligent, reprove sharply. + + He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit. + + Who did they send on that mission? + + They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love. + +RULE XXI. + +The verb _to be_ may have the same case after it as before it; as, "_I_ +am the _man_;" "I believe _it_ to have been _them;_" "_He_ is the +_thief_." + + NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb + _to be_, signify the _same thing_, they are _in apposition_, and, + therefore, in the _same case_. Rule 21 is predicated on the + principle contained in Rule 7. + + 2. The verb _to be_ is often understood; as, "The Lord made _me + man_; He made _him what_ he was;" that is, "The Lord made me _to be_ + man; He made him _to be that which_ he was." "They desired me to + call _them brethren_;" i.e. _by the name of_ brethren. "They named + _him John_;" i.e. _by the name of_ John; or, by the _name_ John; + putting these two nouns in _apposition_. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + I know it to be they. + +Improper, because _it_ is in the objective case before the verb "to be," +and _they_ is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is +violated. _They_ is in apposition with _it_, therefore _they_ should be +_them_, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the +Rule.) + + Be composed, it is me. + + I would not act thus, if I were him. + + Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed. + + Who do you fancy him to to be? + + Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am? + + If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been? + + He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him. + +RULE XXII. + +Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb _to become_, and other +neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both +words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "_Tom_ struts a +_soldier_;" "_Will_ sneaks a _scrivener_;" "_He_ was called _Cesar_;" +"The _general_ was saluted _emperor_;" "_They_ have become _fools_." + + NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive + form, and govern the objective case; as, "_To dream_ a _dream; To + run_ a _race; To walk_ the _horse; To dance_ the _child; To fly_ the + _kite_." + + 2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not + literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a + passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an _objective_ + case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition: + thus, "_Pitticus_ was offered a large _sum_ by the king;" "_She_ was + promised _them_ (the _jewels_) by her mother;" "_I_ was asked a + _question_." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the + idiom of our language, to say, "A large _sum_ was offered _to + Pitticus_;" "_They_ were promised _(to) her_;" "A _question_ was put + _to me_." + + 3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of + compound active verbs. To _smile_, to _wonder_, to _dream_, are + intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice; + but, to _smile on_, to _wonder at_, to _dream of_, are compound + active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice; + as, "He _was smiled on_ by fortune; The accident is not _to be + wondered at_;" + + "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, + "Than _are dreamed of_ in your philosophy." + +RULE XXIII. + +A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, +adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "_Cease_ to do evil;" "We all +have our _talent_ to be improved;" "She is _eager_ to learn;" "They are +_preparing_ to go;" "Let _him_ do it." + +ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of _government_ referred to in this +rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the +peculiar manner in which _cease_ is introduced, _requires_ or _compels_ +us to put the verb _do_ in the infinitive mood; and, according to the +genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus +connected with _cease_, in any other mood, unless we change the +construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that _cease_ governs the +mood of the verb _do_. Similar remarks may be applied to the words +_talent_, _eager_, _preparing_, and _him_, in the respective examples +under the rule. + +Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood +invariably to the preposition _to_ prefixed, which word they do not, of +course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some +plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If +we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, +the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, +answer all practical purposes. + +RULE. + +A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its +subject or actor. + +ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to _thou_ +understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to _talent_; "to +learn," to _she_; "to go," to _they_; and "to do," refers to _him_. + + NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest + of the sentence; as, "_To confess_ the truth, I was in fault." + + 2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or + adverbs; as, "An object so high _as to be_ invisible;" "He is wise + _enough to deceive_;" "The army is _about to march_." + +RULE XXIV. + +The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the +nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb; +as, "_To play_ is pleasant;" "Boys love _to play_;" "_That warm climates +shorten life_, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider _how +near he approaches to his end_." + + NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly + omitted; as, "I heard him _say_ it;" instead of, "to _say_ it." + +RULE XXV. + +The verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _need_, _make_, _see_, _hear_, +_feel_, _help_, _let_, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood +without the sign _to_ prefixed; as, "He bids me _come_;" "I dare +_engage_;" "Let me _go_;" "Help me _do it_;" i.e. _to come_, _to go_, +_to do_ it, &c. "He is _hearing_ me _recite_." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Bid him to come. + + He durst not to do it without permission. + + Hear him to read his lesson. + + It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the + one, and to reject the other. + + It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal. + + I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. + +RULE XXVI. + +Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they +are derived; as, "I saw the tutor _instructing_ his _pupils_." + + NOTE. The present participle with the definite article _the_ before + it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition _of_ after it. + _The_ and _of_ must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By _the_ + observing _of_ truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing + truth," &c. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + _Note_. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it. + + The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings, + belong to Providence alone. + + These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid + mistakes. + +RULE XXVII. + +The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the +subject or actor; as, "I see a _boy running_." + +RULE XXVIII. + +The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or +pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy _abused_." + + NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as + before them; as, "_Pontius Pilate_ being _Governor_ of Judea, and + _Herod_ being _Tetrarch_," &c. + + 2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a + substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject + of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "_Taking from + another without his knowledge or assent_, is called stealing; He + studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_; I cannot fail of + _having money_, &c.; By _promising much and performing but little_, + we become despicable." + + 3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular + verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken + that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He + begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he + came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect + tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed + instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;' + 'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.' + 'He would have spoke;'--_spoken_. 'He overrun his + guide;'--_overran_. 'The sun had rose;'--_risen_. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + I seen him. I have saw many a one. + +_Seen_ is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the +imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I _saw_ him," according to +Note 3, _Have saw_ is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed +instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed +by combining the auxiliary _have_ with its perfect participle: therefore +the sentence should be written thus, "I have _seen_ many a one:" Note 3. + + _Note_ 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he + come home. + + Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to + Europe long ago. + + The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. + + Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. + + The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. + + He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the + same subject. + +RULE XXIX. + +Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, +"A _very good_ pen _writes extremely well_;" "By _living temperately_," +&c. + + NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, + after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a + _very sensible_ discourse, and was _attentively_ heard." + + 2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses + _quality_, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses _manner_, + an adverb should be used; as, "She looks _cold;_ She looks _coldly_ + on him; He feels _warm;_ He feels _warmly_ the insult offered to + him." If the verb _to be_ can be substituted for the one employed, + an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks _[is] + cold_; The hay smells _[is] sweet_; The fields look _[are] green_; + The apples taste _[are] sour_; The wind blows _[is] fresh_." + + 3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs _here, there_, and + _where_, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs _hither, + thither, whither_; thus, "He came _here [hither]_ hastily;" "They + rode _there [thither]_ in two hours;" "_Where [whither]_ will he + go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far + sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible. + + 4. The use of _where_, instead of _in which_, in constructions like + the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76, + formed a charter, _where [in which]_ their rights are boldly + asserted." + + 5. As the adverbs _hence, thence_, and _whence_, literally supply + the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism + in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "_From whence_ + it follows;" "He came _from thence_ since morning." Better, + "_whence_ it follows;" "He came _thence_." The following phrases are + also exceptionable: "The _then_ ministry;" "The _above_ argument;" + "Ask me _never_ so much dowry;" "Charm he _never_ so wisely." + Better, "The ministry _of that time_ or _period_;" "The _preceding_ + argument;" "_Ever_ so much dowry;" "_Ever_ so wisely." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + _Note_ 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to + remonstrate. + + He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. + + These things should be never separated. + + We may happily live, though our possessions are small. + +RULE XXX. + +Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an +affirmative; as, "Such things are _not un_common;" i.e. they are common. + + NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another + word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as, + "His language, though inelegant, is _not un_grammatical;" that is, + it is grammatical. + + But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to + an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a + _negative_ meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: + "I can_not_ by _no_ means allow him what his argument must prove." + It should be, "I cannot by _any_ means," &c., or, "I _can_ by _no_ + means." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + _Note, 2d part_. I don't know nothing about it. + + I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her. + + Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. + + There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. + + Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. + + +RULE XXXI. + +Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went _from_ Utica _to_ +Rome, and then passed _through_ Redfield." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Each is accountable for hisself. + + They settled it among theirselves. + + It is not I who he is displeased with. + + Who did you go with? + + Who did you receive instruction from? + + +RULE XXXII. + +_Home_, and nouns signifying _distance_, time _when_, _how long_, &c. +are generally governed by a preposition _understood_; as, "The horse ran +a mile;" "He came _home_ last June;" "My friend lived four _years_ at +college;" that is, ran _through the space of_ a mile; or, ran _over a +space called_ a mile; _to_ his home _in_ last June; _during_ four years, +&c. + + NOTE 1. The prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood, + chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] _me_ a book; Get [for] + _him_ some paper." + + 2. _To_ or _unto_, is, by some, supposed to be understood after + _like_ and _unlike_; as, "He is _like_ [unto] his brother; She is + _unlike_ [to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom + of the language, and maintain that _like_ governs the objective + following it. + + 3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or + value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one + thousand _miles_ long; She is ten _years_ old; My hat is worth ten + _dollars_." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163. + + +RULE XXXIII. + +Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The +master taught _her_ and _me_ to write;" "_He_ and _she_ are associates." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + My brother and him are grammarians. + + You and me enjoy great privileges. + + Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned + without me. + + Between you and I there is a great disparity of years. + + +RULE XXXIV. + +Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If +thou sincerely _desire, and_ earnestly _pursue_ virtue, she _will_ +assuredly _be found_ by thee, _and prove_ a rich reward." + + NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by + conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He _may return_, + but _he will_ not _tarry_." + + 2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the + subjunctive mood after them; as, "_If_ he _study_, he will improve." + See pages 135, 145, and 155. + + 3. The conjunctions _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _whether_, + and _lest_, generally require the subjunctive mood after them. + + 4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no + doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "_As_ virtue _advances, so_ + vice _recedes_." + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him? + + Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. + + _Note_ 1. He has gone home, but may return. + + The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more. + + _Note_ 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains. + + If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. + + +RULE XXXV. + +A noun or pronoun following the conjunction _than_, _as_, or _but_, is +nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or +understood; as, "Thou art wiser _than_ I [_am_."] "I saw nobody _but_ +[_I saw_] him." + + NOTE 1. The conjunction _as_, when it is connected with _such_, + _many_, or _same_, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a + _relative pronoun_; as, "Let _such_ as presume to advise others," + &c.; that is, Let _them who_, &c. See page 116. + + 2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, + which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically; + as "Wo is me;" that is, _to_ me; "To sleep all night;" i.e. + _through_ all _the_ night; "He has gone a journey;" i.e. _on_ a + journey; "They walked a league;" i.e. _over a space called_ a + league. + + 3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its + force, they must be expressed. + + 4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, + we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or + sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should + correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction + throughout should be carefully preserved. + +FALSE SYNTAX. + + They are much greater gainers than me. + + They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian + than them. + + They were all well but him. + + None were rewarded but him and me. + + Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray. + +REMARKS ON THE TENSES. + +1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, _in point of +time_, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be +observed. + +Instead of saying, "The Lord _hath given_, and the Lord _hath taken_ +away;" we should say, "The Lord _gave_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away." +Instead of, "I _remember_ the family more than twenty years;" it should +be, "I _have remembered_ the family more than twenty years." + +2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and +of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is +this very general one; _Observe what the sense necessarily requires_. + +To say, "I _have_ visited Washington last summer; I _have seen_ the work +more than a month ago," is not good _sense_. The constructions should +be, "I _visited_ Washington, &c.; I _saw_ the work, &c." "This mode of +expression _has been_ formerly much admired:"--"_was_ formerly much +admired." "If I _had have_ been there;" "If I _had have_ seen him;" +"_Had_ you _have_ known him," are solecisms too gross to need +correction. We can say, I _have_ been, I _had_ been; but what sort of a +tense is, _had have been_? To place _had_ before the _defective_ verb +ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:--"_had_ ought, _hadn't_ +ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of _theirn_, _hern_, and +_hizzen_, _tother_, _furder_, _baynt_, _this ere_, I _seed_ it, I +_tell'd_ him. + +3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in +which it took place; remains, the _imperfect_ tense should be used; but +if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare +that the thing has been done, the _perfect_ tense should be employed. + +Thus, we say, "Philosophers _made_ great discoveries in the last +century;" "He _was_ much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the +present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the _perfect_ +tense; as, "Philosophers _have made_ great discoveries in the present +century;" "He _has been_ much afflicted this year;" "I _have read_ the +president's message this week;" "We _have heard_ important news this +morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this +week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year, +week, and day, of which I speak. + +In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is +connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the +author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries +ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect +tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may +say, "They _have_, in all ages, _claimed_ great powers;" because the +general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly +say, "The Druid priests _have claimed_ great powers;" because that order +is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests +_claimed_ great powers." + +The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper +use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to +Philadelphia." It should be, "_was_ recently at Philadelphia;" because +the adverb _recently_ refers to a time completely past, without any +allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I +have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charles _has_ grown, since I +_saw_ him," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for +its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for its _having been_ so long +postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the +city:"--"They _had_ arrived." + +"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of +it." It should be, "will _have completed_ the building," &c. "This +curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for +more than fifty years past:"--"_has been_ preserved, and _been_ shown to +strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"--"I _would_ rather write +than beg." + +"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul +was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be, +"because he _would know_; or, _being willing to know,_" &c. "The blind +man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I +might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, +_may_ would be preferable to _might_. "I feared that I should have lost +the parcel, before I arrived:"--"that I should _lose_." "It would have +afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if +I could _have performed_ it;" or, "It _would afford_ me no satisfaction, +if I _could perform_ it." "This dedication may serve for almost any book +that has, is, or shall be published:"--"that _has been_, or _will be +published_." + +4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with +propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we +express. + +Verbs expressive of _hope_, _desire_, _intention_, or _command_, ought +to be followed by the PRESENT tense of the _Infinitive mood_. + +"Last week I intended to _have written_," is improper. The intention of +writing was then _present_ with me; and, therefore, the construction +should be, "I intended _to write_." The following examples are also +inaccurate; "I found him better than I expected _to have found_ him;" +"My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, _to have +withdrawn_ my wealth to another country." They should be, "expected _to +find_ him;" "_to withdraw_ my wealth." + +"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose +name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itself _to have been +written_," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." +Corrected, "_To have seen_ him;" or, "_To see_ him _would afford_ me +pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who +heard them:"--"were sufficient _to satisfy_." "History painters would +have found it difficult to have invented such a species of +beings:"--"_to invent_ such a species." + +5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the _present_ +tense. + +Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty _were_ equal +to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever +_was_ useful, _was_ good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue +_was_ always advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "_are_ equal +to twenty;" "whatever _is_ useful, _is_ good;" "virtue _is_ always +advantageous." + +EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. + + We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity. + + On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among + men. + + The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts. + + Is it me or him who you requested to go? + + Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he + sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. + + There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them. + + By exercising of our memories, they are improved. + + The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were + wholly consumed. + + Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will + not recommend us to the wise and good. + + The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. + + They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be + lightly esteemed. + + I intended to have called last week, but could not. + + The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. + + The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper. + + I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew + Jackson, he who is now president. + + Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. + + The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. + + It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. + + I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with + me, if he could. + + Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the + nature of the religion which they reject. + + If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned. + + Education is not attended to properly in Spain. + + He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it. + + He has little more of the great man besides the title. + + Richard acted very independent on the occasion. + + We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. + + The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. + + His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw. + + Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they + will go out of themselves. + + Those two authors have each of them their merit. + + Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, + Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. + + A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with + wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if + they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry. + + A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. + + The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. + + If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be + too indolent to improve. + + It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow. + + Beauty and innocence should be never separated. + + Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will + have much to fear and little to hope. + + Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in + their knowledge of the Scriptures. + + Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these + are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences. + + An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. + + To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek + revenge, is the duty of a Christian. + + The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his + pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. + + There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline + him to offend. + + This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection. + + They that honor me, them will I honor. + + Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves. + + Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, + that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens. + + Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall + deliver us from it in due time. + + That writer has given us an account of the manner in which + Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens. + + Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your + attention. + + In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless + professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America. + + I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. + + I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again + disappointed. + + Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three. + + If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he + has visited that renowned watering place. + + I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler + than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest + virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man. + + The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. + + He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy. + + The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been. + + Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; + and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. + + If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth + he not leave the ninety and nine, &c.? + + He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it + better. + + The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have + looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid + ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt + a propensity to adore their Creator. + + * * * * * + +CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS. + +OBSERVATION 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk +and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common +sense:--"Sing the _two first_ and _three last_ verses." Just as if there +could be more than _one_ first and _one_ last. There may be a _first +two_, a _second two_, &c.; a _first three_, a _second three_, a _last +three_. "Within the _two last_ centuries;" "The second syllable of the +_three first_ words;" "The _three first_ of these orthoepists have no +rule by which their pronunciation is regulated:"--"the _last two_ +centuries;" "the _first three_ words;" "the _first three_ of these +orthoepists." + +2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "The +higher the river, the _swifter_ it flows;" "James learns _easier_ than +Juliet; he sees _deeper_ into the millstone than she:"--"the _more +swiftly_ it flows;" "learns _more easily_; _farther_ into the +millstone." "He conducted the _boldest_ of any:"--"the _most boldly_." + +3. _More_ requires _than_ after it. The following sentences are +therefore improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, _as_ +Cinthio;" "Richard is more active, but not so studious, _as_ his +companion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these +constructions, will show their gross impropriety: thus, "He was more +beloved _as_ Cinthio;" "Richard is more active _as_ his companion," &c. + +4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally _substitutes_ for +two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will you +accompany me to Europe next summer?" _"Yes."_ "Do you believe that the +voyage will restore your health?" _"No."_ In these examples, the adverbs +_yes_ and _no_, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do +not qualify any words understood. _Yes_, in this instance, literally +means, _"I will accompany you to Europe next summer;"_ and _no_, _"I do +not believe that the voyage will restore my health."_ Many other adverbs +are often employed in a similar manner. + +_"Firstly,"_ is often improperly used instead of the adverb _first;_ "a +_good deal_," instead of, _much_, or, a _great deal_. + +5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of _such_ and _so_. +The former may be employed in expressing _quality_; the latter, in +expressing a _degree_ of the quality; as, "_Such_ a temper is seldom +found;" "_So_ bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples, +_so_ should be used instead of _such:_ "He is _such_ an extravagant +young man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw _such_ +large trees." + +The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to +be imitated. "On page _forty-five;"_ "Look at page +_nineteen_;"--_forty-fifth, nineteenth_. + +6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard +should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our +language and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been actuated +from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" "He +should have profited from those golden precepts;" "It is connected to +John with the conjunction _and_;" "Aware that there is, in the minds of +many, a strong predilection in favor of established usages;" "He was +made much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of going;" "The rain has been +falling of a long time;" "It is a work deserving of encouragement." +These examples may be corrected thus, "actuated _by_ the conviction;" +"_by_ those golden precepts;" "_by_ the conjunction and;" "predilection +_for_;" "much _of_ at Argos;" "_on_ going;" "falling a long time;" +"deserving encouragement." + +7. The preposition _to_ is used before nouns of place, where they follow +verbs or participles of motion; as, "I went _to_ Washington." But _at_ +is employed after the verb _to be_; as, "I have been _at_ Washington;" +"He has been _to_ New York, _to_ home," &c. are improper. The +preposition _in_ is set before countries, cities, and large towns; "He +lives _in_ France, _in_ London, _in_ Philadelphia, _in_ Rochester." But +before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant +countries, _at_ is commonly used; as, "He lives _at_ Park-place;" "She +resides _at_ Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, "They +live _in_ New Orleans, or, _at_ New Orleans." + +8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be +employed as active agents. The following are solecisms: "This house to +let;" "Horses and carriages to let;" "Congress has much business to +perform this session;" because the agents, _house_, _horses_ and +_carriages_, and _business_, which are really _passive_, are, according +to these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be, +"This house to _be_ let;" "Horses and carriages to _be_ let;" "much +business to _be performed_." + +9. AMBIGUITY.--"Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not +_literally_ correct, for _wisdom_ is certainly more to be desired than +_nothing_; but, as a figurative expression, it is well established and +unexceptionable. + +"A crow is a large black bird:"--a large, _black--bird_. + +"I saw a horse--fly through the window:"--I saw a _horsefly_. + +"I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass." I saw, +through a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail. + +"One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see with half +an eye, how the world goes. + +"A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea +shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the members and +circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's _search to the +sea shore;_ whereas, he meant, "A _large stone, which,_ after a long +search, I happened _to find by the sea shore,_ served me for an anchor." + +"I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice +_only_ those called personal pronouns. + +10. TAUTOLOGY.--Avoid words which add no thing to the sense; such as, +"_Now_ extant, _free_ gratis, _slow_ mope, _cold_ snow, a _hot_ sun, a +_flowing_ stream, a _dull_ blockhead, _wise_ sages." "I am just going to +go there;" I am _about_ to go. + +11. ABSURDITIES AND IMPROPRIETIES.--"I can learn him many things." + +It ought to be, "I can _teach_ him." To _learn_, is to _acquire_ or +_receive_ information; to _teach_, means to _communicate_ it. + +"I don't think it is so." You _do think_, that it is _not_ so. + +_Ever, always._ "I have ever been of this mind." I have _always_ been. +_Ever_ and _always_ are not synonymous. _Ever_ refers to _one_ +indefinite period of time; as, "If he _ever_ become rich:" _always_ +means _at all times_. + +_Excuse, pardon._ The former signifies to release from an obligation +which refers to the future; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime +that is past. "Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday:" _pardon_ me. + +_Remember, recollect._ We _remember_ a thing which we retain in our +mind; we _recollect_ it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have +power to call it back. + +_Defect, deficiency._ A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts, +is _defective;_ a total absence of the thing, is a _deficiency_. + +This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. + + * * * * * + +CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. + +From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the +following are selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's +Dictionary. + +INCORRECT. CORRECT. +Abridgement Abridgment +abscision abcission +achievment achievement +adze addice +agriculturalist agriculturist +ancle ankle +attornies attorneys +baise baize +bason basin +bass base +bombazin bombasin +boose bouse +boult bolt +buccaneer bucanier +burthen burden +bye by +calimanco calamanco +camblet camlet +camphire camphor +canvas canvass +carcase carcass +centinel sentinel +chace chase +chalibeate chalybeate +chamelion chameleon +chimist chemist +chimistry chemistry +cholic colic +chuse choose +cimetar cimeter +clench clinch +cloke cloak +cobler cobbler +chimnies chimneys +chesnut chestnut +clue clew +connection connexion +corset corslet +cypher cipher +cyphering ciphering +dactyl dactyle +develope develop +dipthong diphthong +dispatch despatch +doat dote +drouth drought +embitter imbitter +embody imbody +enquire inquire +enquirer inquirer +enquiry inquiry +ensnare insnare +enterprize enterprise +enthral inthrall +entrench intrench +entrenchment intrenchment +entrust intrust +enwrap inwrap +epaulette epaulet +etherial ethereal +faggot fagot +fasset faucet +fellon felon +fie fy +germ germe +goslin gosling +gimblet gimlet +grey gray +halloe halloo +highth height +hindrance hinderance +honied honeyed +impale empale +inclose enclose +inclosure enclosure +indict endict +indictment endictment +indorse endorse +indorsement endorsement +instructor instructer +insure ensure +insurance ensurance +judgement judgment +laquey lackey +laste last +licence license +loth loath +lothsome loathsome +malcontent malecontent +maneuver manoeuvre +merchandize merchandise +misprison misprision +monies moneys +monied moneyed +negociate negotiate +negociation negotiation +noviciate novitiate +ouse ooze +opake opaque +paroxism paroxysm +partizan partisan +patronize patronise +phrenzy phrensy +pinchers pincers +plow plough +poney pony +potatoe potato +quere query +recognize recognise +reindeer raindeer +reinforce re-enforce +restive restiff +ribbon riband +rince rinse +sadler saddler +sallad salad +sceptic skeptic +sceptical skeptical +scepticism skepticism +segar cigar +seignor seignior +serjeant sergeant +shoar shore +soothe sooth +staunch stanch +streight straight +suitor suiter +sythe scythe +tatler tattler +thresh thrash +thwak thwack +tipler tippler +tranquility tranquillity +tripthong triphthong +trissyllable trisyllable +valice valise +vallies valleys +vise vice +vollies volleys +waggon wagon +warrantee warranty +whoopingcough hoopingcough +woe wo +yeast yest + + +CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. + +The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people, +as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to +_Cobb's Dictionary_, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of the +mispronunciations given are _provincial_. + + 1 2 3 4 1 4 1 4 1 3 5 6 1 4 +Fate, far, fall, fat--me, met--pine, pin--no, nor, not, move--tube, tub, + 7 34 37 +bull--oil--found---_th_in--THIS. + + +ORTHOGRAPHY. IMPROPER. PRONOUNCED. + 4 1 4 4 +Again a-gane' a-gen' + 4 1 4 4 +Against a-ganste' a-genst + 4 1 4 1 +Ally al'le al'li' + 1 2 +Are are ar + 4 4 1 1 +Azure azh'ur a'zhure + 1 1 +Bade bade bad + 1 11 +Beard bard beerd + 4 11 4 +Been ben or been bin + 22 11 +Bleat blaat bleet + 1 34 +Boil bile boil + 4 4 5 4 +Bonnet bun'net bon'nit + 2 66 +Brooch brotsh brootsh + 4 3 4 4 +Canal ka-nawl' ka-nal' + 4 4 +Catch ketsh katsh + 4 1 3 1 +Causeway kros'wa kawz'wa + 4 4 1 4 +Chalice kal'is tshal'is + 4 1 +Chasten tshas'tn tshase'sn + 4 1 4 1 +Chimney tshim'ble tshim'ne + 3 1 +Chine tshime tshine + 34 1 +Choir koir kwire + 4 4 1 1 +Clevy klev'is klev've + 4 4 +Clinch klensh klinsh + 5 4 5 4 +Column kol'yum kol'lum + 5 4 4 4 +Combat kom'bat kum'bat + 5 1 5 4 +Comma kom'me kom'ma + 1 4 3 4 +Coquet ko-kwet' ko-ket' + 3 1 +Corps korps kore + 4 4 4 4 +Cover kiv'ur kuv'ur + 11 4 +Deaf deef def + 1 4 4 1 1 4 +Decisive de-sis'iv de-si'siv + 1 5 1 1 +Depot de'pot de-po' + 4 1 1 1 1 +Depute dep'u-tize de-pute' + 4 1 1 1 1 4 +Deputed dep'u-tizd de-pu'ted + 1 1 1 1 +Design de-zine' de-sine' + 4 4 +Dint dent dint + 1 5 4 +Docile do'slle dos'sil + 4 4 4 4 +Disgust dis-gust' diz-gust' + 4 1 4 1 +Dismay dis-ma' diz-ma' + 4 1 4 1 +Disown dis-one' diz-one' + 1 4 +Dost dost dust + 1 4 +Doth do_th_ du_th_ + 66 4 +Does dooz duz + 11 1 +Drain dreen drane + 37 37 +Drought drou_th_ drout + 37 4 37 +Drowned dround'ed dround + 4 1 4 4 +Ductile duk'tile duk'til + 1 4 +Edge aje edje + 1 1 4 +Either i'THur e'THur + 4 4 4 4 +English eng'lish ing'glish + 1 1 1 1 +Era e're e'ra + 1 1 +Ere ere are + 1 4 +Fasten fas'tn fas'sn + 4 7 11 7 +Fearful fer'ful feer'ful + 4 4 4 1 +Figure fig'gur fig'ure + 4 11 +Fiend fend feend + 4 4 +First fust furst + 34 1 1 1 1 +Foliage foil'aje fo'le-aje + 3 4 3 1 +Fortune for'tshun for'tshune + 3 4 3 1 +Fortnight fort'nit fort'nite + 37 37 4 +Fountain foun'tn foun'tin + 4 4 4 1 +Fracture frak'tshur frak'tshure + 1 4 1 4 +Fragrance frag'ranse fra'granse + 1 1 1 4 +Futile fu'tile fu'til + 4 4 4 4 +Gather geTH'ur gaTH'ur + 4 4 +Get git get + 4 4 +Girth gurt ger_th_ + 66 1 +Goal gool gole + 1 1 4 1 4 +Going gone _or_ go'in go'ing + 66 1 +Gold goold gold + 66 4 +Gum goom gum + 1 4 4 +Grudge be-gretsh' grudje + 4 4 4 4 +Gypsum gip'sum jip'sum + 4 4 +Has hez haz + 1 4 +Have have hav + 11 4 +Heard heerd herd + 4 4 2 +Hearth hur_th_ or ha_th_ har_th_ + 4 4 +Hiss siss hiss + 1 34 +Hoist histe hoist + 4 1 1 1 +Homely hum'ble home'le + 4 66 +Hoof huf hoof + 3 4 5 4 +Hostler haws'lur os'lur + 4 4 +Humble hum'bl um'bl + 11 4 4 4 +Jesting jeest'in jest'ing + 4 4 +Kettle kit'tl ket'tl + 4 4 4 1 +Lecture lek'tshur lek'tshure + 4 4 1 1 +Leisure lezh'ur le'zhure + 4 4 1 4 +Lever lev'er le'vur + 4 4 +Lid led lid + 1 5 1 4 +Lilach la'lok li'lak + 66 1 +Loam loom lome + 1 66 +Loo lu loo + 1 1 4 1 +Maintain mane-tane' men-tane' + 1 4 1 4 +Matron mat'run ma'trun + 1 1 4 1 +Mermaid mare'made mer'made + 37 37 +Mountain moun'tn moun'tin + 1 4 1 1 +Nature na'tshur na'tshure + 1 4 1 4 +Neither ni'THur ne'THur + 1 11 1 1 +Oblige o-bleeje' o-blije' + 1 11 5 1 +Oblique o-bleek' ob-like' + 5 5 +Of of ov + 1 34 +Oil ile oil + 5 4 1 1 1 +Only on'le _or_ un'le one'le + 1 4 4 4 +Panther pane'tur pan'_th_ur + 4 4 1 4 +Parent par'ent pa'rent + 2 4 2 4 +Partner pard'nur part'nur + 2 4 4 1 +Pasture pas'tshur pas'tshure + 4 4 1 4 +Patron pat'run pa'trun + 4 4 4 4 +Pincers pinsh'urz pin'surz + 4 4 +Pith pe_th_ pi_th_ + 11 1 +Plait pleet plate + 1 1 4 +Poem pome po'em + 1 34 +Point pinte point + 5 4 4 +Pother poTH'ur puTH'ur + 4 4 1 4 +Precept pres'sept pre'sept + 1 1 4 4 +Preface pre'fase pref'fas + 1 1 4 1 +Prelude pre'lude prel'ude + 1 4 5 4 +Process pro'ses pros'ses + 1 4 5 4 +Product pro'dukt prod'ukt + 1 4 5 4 +Progress pro'gres prog'res + 1 1 1 11 +Profile pro'file pro-feel' + 4 4 4 4 +Pumpion pungk'in pump'yun + 4 7 +Put put (verb) put + 1 34 +Quoit kwate kwoit + 1 1 4 1 +Rapine ra'pine rap'in + 1 11 +Rear rare reer + 4 1 4 4 +Reptile rep'tile rep'til + 4 4 +Rid red rid + 1 1 +Rind rine rind + 4 4 +Rinse rense rinse + 5 4 5 4 +Rosin roz'um roz'in + 87 1 66 11 +Routine rou tene roo-teen' + 4 66 +Roof ruff roof + 4 4 1 4 +Sacred sak'red sa'kred + 1 4 +Said sade sed + 4 4 +Sat set sat + 1 4 +Says saze sez + 2 1 +Scarce skarse skarse + 4 1 4 1 +Schedule sked'ule sed'jule + 4 4 +Shut shet shut + 4 4 +Since sense sinse + 4 11 +Sleek slik sleek + 4 4 1 4 +Sliver sliv'vur sli'vur + 3 7 1 7 +Slothful slaw_th_'ful slo_th_'ful + 4 66 +Soot sut soot + 4 4 1 2 +Spikenard spig'nut spike'nard + 1 34 +Spoil spile spoil + 4 4 11 2 +Steelyard stil'yurdz steel'yard + 5 4 +Stamp stomp stamp + 4 4 +Stint stent stint + 1 1 +Sword sword sord + 1 5 4 4 +Synod si'nod sin'ud + 1 1 4 1 +Therefore THare'fore THer'fore + 4 4 +Thill fil _th_il + 1 66 +To to too + 37 66 +Tour tour toor + 4 4 +Treble trib'bl treb'bl + 1 3 1 4 +Towards to-wardz' to'urdz + 5 1 1 1 +Trophy trof'fe tro'fe + 1 1 1 1 +Tuesday tshuz'de tuze'de + 4 4 4 1 +Verdure vur'jur ver'jure + 1 4 4 11 +Vizier vi'zhur viz'yeer + 5 4 5 1 +Volume vol'lum vol'yume + 1 4 +Were ware wer + 1 1 +Yea ya ye + 4 4 +Yes yes yis + 11 33 4 +Yest yeest _or_ eest yest + 4 4 +Yet yit yet + 1 66 +You yu yoo + 1 66 +Your yure yoor + 1 66 +Youth yu_th_ yoo_th_ + 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 4 +Ague and fever fe'vurn-a'gur a'gu-and fe'vur + 3 4 1 4 4 1 +Alternate awl-ter'nate al-ter'nate + 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 +Annunciate an-nun'shate an-nun'she-ate + 4 1 4 4 1 4 +Andiron hand'i-urn and'i-urn + 4 1 1 4 4 1 11 +Antipodes an'te-podz an-tip'o-deez + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +Apparent ap-par'ent ap-pa'rent + 2 1 4 4 2 3 4 1 +Architecture artsh'e-tek-tshur ar'-ke-tek-tshure + 4 4 4 4 4 4 +Assumption as-sump'shun as-sum'shun + 3 4 4 1 3 4 4 1 +Auxiliary awks-il'a-re awg-zil'ya-re + 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 +Certiorari sash-ur-ar'ur ser-she-o-ra'ri + 4 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 +Christianity kris-tshan'e-te kris-tshe-an'e-te + 4 4 1 4 4 4 +Clandestine klan-des'tine klan-des'tin + 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 +Coadjutor ko-ad'ju-tur ko-ad-ju'tur + 5 4 1 4 5 4 1 4 +Compendium kom-pen'de-um kom-pen'je-um + 5 4 1 1 4 1 +Connoisseur kon-nis-sure' ko-nes-sare' + 1 1 4 4 1 4 +Courteous kore'te-us kur'tshe-us + 4 4 4 4 4 4 +Coverlet kuv'ur-lid kuv'ur-let + 37 4 1 37 4 4 +Cowardice kou'urd-ise kou'urd-is + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Decrepit de-krip'id de-krep'it + 4 5 1 1 5 1 +Demonstrate dem'on-strate de-mon'strate + 1 4 4 4 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Desideratum de-sid-er-at'um de-sid-e-ra'tum + 1 4 1 1 4 +Diamond di'mund di'a-mund + 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 +Discrepance dis-krep'an-se dis'kre-panse + 4 4 1 4 4 4 +Disfranchise dis-fran'tschize dis-fran'tschiz + 4 5 4 4 5 4 +Dishonest dis-on'est diz-on'est + 4 3 4 4 3 4 +Disorder dis-or'dur diz-or'dur + 1 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 +Electrify e-lek'tur-ize e-lek'tre-fi + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +Emaciate e-ma'shate e-ma'she-ate + 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 +Expatiate eks-pa'shate eks-pa'she-ate + 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 +Expiatory eks-pi'a-to-re eks'pe-a-tur-re + 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 +Extempore eks-tem'pore eks-tem'po-re + 4 1 1 4 1 4 +Feminine fem'e-nine fem'e-nin + 4 4 1 1 4 1 +Frequently frek'went-le fre'kwent-le + 4 1 1 4 1 4 +Genuine jen'u-ine jen'u-in + 2 11 2 1 4 +Guardian gar-deen' gyar'de-an + 4 4 4 4 4 4 +Gymnastic gim-nas'tik jim-nas'tik + 4 1 1 4 4 1 66 4 +Hallelujah hal-le-lu'ja hal-le-loo'ya + 5 4 4 5 3 4 +Hospital hos'pit-al os'pe-tal + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Humorous hu'mur-us yu'mur-us + 1 1 1 1 4 +Idea i-de' i-de'a + 4 1 4 4 4 1 3 4 +Ignoramus ig-no-ram'us ig-no-ra'mus + 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 4 +Indecorous in-dek'o-rus in-de-ko'rus + 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 +Irradiate ir-rad'e-ate ir-ra'de-ate + 4 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 +Literati lit-er-at'i lit-er-a'ti + 1 1 4 4 1 4 +Maintenance mane-tane'anse men-'te-nanse + 4 1 1 4 1 4 +Masculine mas'ku-line mas'ku-lin + 4 4 1 + mur'kan-tile } + 4 4 11 } 4 4 4 +Mercantile mur-kan-teel'} mer'kan-til + 4 4 4 } + mur-kan'til } + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +Meliorate me-li'o-rate me'le-o-rate + 1 4 1 4 5 4 1 4 +Molestation mo-les-ta'shun mol-es-ta'shun + 1 1 4 1 1 4 +Museum mu'ze-um mu-ze'um + 1 4 4 4 4 4 +National na'shun-al nash'un-al + 1 4 4 1 5 4 1 1 +Nomenclature no-men'kla-ture nom-en-kla'tshure + 5 1 4 5 1 4 4 +Nominative nom'e-tiv nom'e-na-tiv + 5 5 1 4 5 4 4 4 +Obstreperous ob-strop'pu-lus ob-strep'er-us + 5 2 1 5 1 1 +Octavo ok-ta'vo ok-ta'vo + 5 1 1 1 5 4 4 1 +Oratory or'a-to-re or'a-tur-re + 1 4 1 4 4 1 +Parentage pa'rent-aje par'ent-aje + 2 4 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 +Partiality par-shal'le-te par-she-al'le-te + 1 4 1 4 4 4 +Patronage pa'trun-aje pat'run-ije + 4 1 2 1 1 2 +Patriarch pat're-ark pa'tre-ark + 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Patriot pat're-ut pa'tre-ut + 4 1 4 4 1 1 4 4 +Patriotism pat're-ut-izm pa'tre-ut-izm + 1 5 1 4 1 5 1 4 +Philologist fi-lol'lo-jist fe-lol'lo-jist + 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1 +Philosophy fi-los'o-fe fe-los'o-fe + 1 1 5 1 4 4 1 5 1 4 +Philosophical fi-lo-sof'ik-al fil-o-zof'e-kal + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Plagiarism pla'ga-rizm pla'ja-rizm + 5 4 5 4 +Possess pos-ses' poz-zes' + 5 4 1 5 4 1 +Possessive pos-ses'siv poz-zes'siv + 5 4 4 5 4 4 +Possession pos-sesh'un poz-zesh'un + 1 4 4 4 1 4 4 +Preventive pre-vent'a-tiv pre-vent'iv + 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Pronunciation pro-nun-se-a'shun pro-nun-she-a'shun + 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4 +Propitiation pro-pis-e-a'shun pro-pish-e-a'shun + 5 1 1 5 1 1 +Prophecy prov'e-si (noun) prof'e-se (noun) + 5 1 1 5 1 5 +Prophesy prov'e-si (verb) prof'e-si (verb) + 1 1 1 1 1 +Ratio ra'sho ra'she-o + 1 4 4 4 4 4 +Rational ra'shun-al rash'un-al + 1 4 4 1 4 4 +Sacrament sa'kra-ment sak'ra-ment + 1 1 1 4 1 1 +Sacrifice sa'kre-fize, sak're-fize + 4 + _or_ (fis) + 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 +Stereotype ster'o-tipe ste're-o-tipe + 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 +Stupendous stu-pen'du-us, stu-pen'dus + 1 4 + stu-pen'jus + 1 5 1 1 4 1 4 +Synonyme se-non'e-me sin'o-nim + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +Transparent trans-par'ent trans-pa'rent + 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 1 +Transparency trans-par'en-se trans-pa'ren-se + 1 4 1 4 1 4 4 +Tremendous tre-men'du-us, tre-men'dus + 1 4 1 + tre-men'jus + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +Verbatim ver-bat'im ver-ba'tim + 5 2 1 5 1 1 +Volcano vol-ka'no vol-ka'no + 4 1 4 11 +Whiffletree hwip'pl-tre hwif'fl-tree + + NOTE 1.--When the words _learned_, _blessed_, _loved,_ &c. are + used as participial adjectives, the termination _ed_ should + generally be pronounced as a separate syllable; as, "A _learn-ed_ + man; The _bless-ed_ Redeemer;" but when they are employed as verbs, + the _ed_ is contracted in pronunciation; as, "He _learn'd_ his + lesson; They are _lov'd;_ I have _walk'd_." + + 2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables + expressed in the _italic_ characters: Eu ro _pe_ an, hy me _ne_ al, + Ce sa _re_ a, co ad _ju_ tor, ep i cu _re_ an, _in_ ter est ed, _in_ + ter est ing, _rep_ a ra ble, _rec_ og nise, _leg_ is la ture, _ob_ + li ga to ry, in _com_ pa ra ble, ir _rep_ a ra ble, in _ex_ o ra + ble. In a large class of words, the vowels _a_, _e_, and _ai_, + should be pronounced like long _a_ in _late_; such as, _fare_, + _rare_, _there_, _their_, _where_, _air_, _chair_, _compare_, + _declare_, &c. In the words _person_, _perfect_, _mercy_, + _interpret_, _determine_, and the like, the vowel _e_ before _r_, is + often _erroneously_ sounded like short _u_. Its proper sound is that + of _e_ in _met_, _pet_, _imperative_. + + 3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words _sky_, _kind_, + _guide_, &c. it appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is + believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar, is the + _correct_ one, and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by Mr. + John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds + 11 1 1 + in skei, kyind, gyide, are adopted by the common mass, and + _perverted_ by those who, in their unnatural and affected + pronunciation of these words, say, + 1 1 1 1 1 1 + ske-i; ke-inde, ge-ide. This latter mode of pronouncing them in two + syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words + _boil_, _toil_, in two + 3 4 3 4 + syllables; thus, bo-il, to-il. + +4. _My_, _wind_. When _my_ is contrasted with _thy_, _his_, _her_, _your_, + 1 1 +&c, it is pronounced, mi: in all other situations, it is pronounced, me; +as, "_My [me]_ son, give ear to _my [me]_ counsel." When _wind_ ends a +line in poetry, and is made to rhyme with _mind_, _bind_, kind_, &c. it is + 1 4 +pronounced, wind; but, in other situations, it is pronounced, wind. + + "Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutored mind + Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the _wind_." + + + + +PROVINCIALISMS. + + +CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES. + +As each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its locality +in some one section or other of our country, it is hoped that these +corrections will be found useful in the districts to which the various +phrases respectively belong. + +IMPROPER. CORRECT. + +Aint Are not +haint have not +taint 'tis not +haint are not +maint may not +wont will not +wer'nt were not +waunt was not +woodent would not +mussent must not +izzent is not +wazzent was not +hezzent has not +doozzent does not +tizzent 'tis not +whool who will + don't + can't + i'll + 'tis + + +COMMON IN NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK. + + 4 +Akst askt + 4 4 +ben bin + 4 2 +hul hole + 4 1 +hum home + 4 1 +stun stone + 66 4 +dooz duz + 2 4 +glass glass + 2 4 +mass mass + 2 4 +brass brass + 2 4 +pass pass + 3 2 +flawnt flant + 4 4 +hiz'zn hiz + 37 37 4 +hou'zn houz'iz +1 4 1 4 +an'shent ane'tshent +1 4 1 1 +an'jel ane'jel + 4 4 1 4 +dan'jur dane'jur + 4 4 1 4 +stran'jur strane'jur + 2 4 1 4 +tscham'bur tshame'bur + 1 4 1 1 +na'tur na'tshure + 4 4 4 4 1 4 +nat'ur-el natsh'u-ral + 3 4 3 1 +for'tin for'tshune + 3 1 1 3 1 1 +for'tew-nate for'tshu-nate + 4 1 4 1 +vur'tew ver'tshu + 4 1 4 4 1 4 +vur'tew-us ver'tshu-us +1 1 4 4 1 4 +ak'tew-el ak'tschu-al +4 1 1 4 1 1 +ed'ew-kate ed'ju-kate + 4 4 2 4 +faTH'ur fa'THur +heft weight +stoop porch +stent task +helve handle +muss disorder +dump unload +scup swing +shay gig or chaise +cutter one-horse sleigh +staddle sapling +foxy reddish +suple spry or supple + +IN PENNSYLVANIA. + +Strenth strength +lenth length +brenth breadth +ort ought +nan what +wisht wish +wunst once +ouch oh +cheer chair +spook ghost +furnentz opposite +wanity vanity +in wain in vain +ornary ordinary +for by to spare +we bit small piece +disremember do not remember + +IRISH. + + 66 1 +Door dore + 66 1 +floor flore +5 4 +ond and + 5 55 +loss looz + 66 1 +koorse korse + 66 1 +soorse sorse + 4 66 +till too + 4 7 +put put + 4 7 +fut fut +4 66 4 54 +a-koont' ak-kount' + 4 4 7 4 +pul'pit pul'pit + 1 4 3 +pare'sun par'sn + +IMPROPER. CORRECT. + +MD. VA. KY. MISS. &c. + + 2 1 +THar THare + 2 1 +whar hware + 2 1 +bar [bear] bare + 2 4 +war wer + 37 1 +mout mite [might] + 1 1 4 +gwine go'ing + 4 4 4 +shet or shut rid + 1 5 1 1 4 4 +tote or fotch kar're, fetsh, or bring + 1 4 +hop'd helpt + 4 66 2 4 4 +ca-hoot' part'nur-ship + 3 66 5 +mar'bl moov off + + NOTE, _Clever_, _pretty_, _ugly_, _curious_, _expect_, _guess_, and + _reckon_, though correct English words, have, among the common + people of New England and New York, a provincial application and + meaning. With them, a _clever_ man, is one of a gentle and obliging + disposition; instead of, a man of distinguished talents and profound + acquirements. _Pretty_ and _ugly_, they apply to the _disposition_ + of a person, instead of, to his _external appearance_. In these + states, one will often hear, "I _guess_ it rains," when the speaker + _knows_ this to be a fact, and, therefore, _guessing_ is uncalled + for. "I _expect_ I can go;" or, "I _reckon_ I can;" instead of, "I + _suppose_ or _presume_." In New England, a clergyman is often called + a _minister_, in New York, a _priest_, and south of N.Y. a _parson_. + The last is preferable. + +NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK. CORRECTED. +I be goin. He lives to hum. I _am_ going. He lives _at_ home. + +Hese ben to hum this two weeks. _He has been at home these_ + 2 weeks. + +You haddent ought to do it. Yes You ought _not_ to do it. +had ought. _Certainly_ I ought. + +Taint no better than hizzen. _'Tis_ no better than _his_. + +Izzent that are line writ well? _Is not_ that line well _written_? + +Tizzent no better than this ere. _It is_ no better, or it is + _not any_ better than his. + +The keows be gone to hum, neow, The _cows are_ gone _home_, and +and I'mer goin arter um. _I am going after them_. + +He'll be here, derights, and, bring He _will_ here, directly, and bring +yourn and thairn. yours and theirs. + +He touched the stun which I shew He touched the _stone_ which I +him, an di guess it made him sithe, _showed_ him and it made him +for twas cissing hot. _sigh_, for _it was hissing_ hot. + +Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for Go, Nathaniel, and cut a _sapling_, +to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter to make a _lever of_. I _was about_ +go, daddy. to go, or _intending_ to go + _immediately_, father. + +Where shell I dump my cart, square? Where _shall_ I _unload_ my cart? +Dump it yender. Whats the heft of _Yonder_. _What is_ the _weight_ +your load? of your load? + +When ju git hum from Hafford? When _did you return from +A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye? Hartford_? A _fortnight_ ago. _It +Ju see my Danel, whose sot up a is possible! Did_you see my _son +tarvern there? No. Hede gone afore Daniel, who has opened a public +I got there. O, the pesky criter! house_ there? No. _He had left +Hele soon be up a stump. before_ I _arrived_ there. O, the + _paltry fellow! He will_ soon _come + to naught._ + +My frinds supurb mansion is _My friend's_ superb mansion is +delightfully sitewated on a nate-eral delightfully _situated_ on a +mound of considerable hithe. It hez _natural_ mound of considerable +a long stoop in front; but it is furder _height_. It _has_ a long _porch_ +from the city than I'de like my hum. in front; but it is _farther_ from + the city than _I would_ like to + _reside_. + +I know'd the gal was drownded, and I _knew_ the _girl had been +I tell'd the inquisitdoners, that ize drowned_, and I _told_ the _jury +nither geestin nor jokin about it; but of inquest_, that _I was_ +if they'd permit me to give em my _not jesting_ about it; but, _by +ideze, they'd obleege me. So I permitting_ me to _give them_ my +parsevered, and carried my pinte. You _view of the subject_, they _would +don't say so. Be you from Barkshire? oblige_ me. So, I _persevered_, +I be. Neow I swan! if I aint clean and _gained_ my _point. Indeed! +beat. Are_ you from _Berkshire_? I _am. + Really_!I _am surprised_. + +You baint from the Jarseys, be ye? _Are_ you from _New Jersey_? Yes, +Yes. Gosh! then I guess you kneow Then I _presume_ you _know how_ +heow to tend tarvern. to tend _a tavern_. + + +IN PENNSYLVANIA. CORRECTED + +I seen him. Have you saw him I _saw_ him. Have you _seen_ him? +Yes, I have saw him wunst; and that Yes, _once_; and that was before +was before you seed him. you _saw_ him. + +I done my task. Have you did I _have_ done my task. Have you +yours? No, but I be to do it. _done_ yours? No, but I _must_. + +I be to be there. He know'd me. I _shall_ be there; or, I _must_ + be there. He _knew_ me. + +Leave me be, for Ime afear'd. _Let_ me be, for I _am afraid_. + +I never took notice to it. I never took notice _of_ it: or, + better thus, I never _noticed_ it. + +I wish I haddent did it; howsumever, I wish I _had not done_ it: +I don't keer: they cant skeer me. _however, I disregard them_. They + _cannot scare_ me. + +Give me them there books. Give me _those_ books. + +He ort to go; so he ort. He _ought_ to go, _really_. + +No he orten. He _ought_ not. + +Dont scrouge me. Don't _crowd_ me. + +I diddent go to do it. I _did not intend_ to do it. + +Aint that a good hand write? _Is not_ that _beautiful writing_? + +Nan? I know'd what he meant, but _What_? I _knew_ what he meant, but +I never let on. I _kept that to myself_. + +It is a long mile to town. Ah! I It is a _little over_ a mile to +thought 'twas unle a short mile. town. Ah! I _supposed it to be less + than_ a mile. + + +IRISH. CORRECTED. + +Not here the day; he went till _He is_ not here to-day. He went +Pittsburg. _to_ Pittsburg. + +Let us be after pairsing a wee bit. Let us _parse_ a _little_. + +Where did you loss it? Where did you _lose_ it? + + +MD. VA. KY. OR MISS. CORRECTED. + +Carry the horse to water. _Lead_ the horse to water; or, + water the horse. + +Tote the wood to the river. _Carry_ the wood to the river. + +Have you focht the water? Have you _fetched_, or _brought_, + the water? + +I've made 200 bushels of corn this I _have raised_ 200 bushels of corn +year. this year. + +He has run against a snag. He has _got into difficulty_. + +Is that your plunder, stranger? Is that your _baggage, sir_? + +He will soon come of that habit. He will soon _overcome_, or _get + rid of_, that habit. + +I war thar, and I seen his boat was I _was there_, and I _saw that_ his +loadend too heavy. boat was too _heavily laden_, or + _loaded_. + +Whar you gwine. _Where are_ you _going_? + +Hese in cohoot with me. _He is_ in _partnership_ with me. + +Did you get shet of your tobacca? Did you _get rid_, or _dispose_ + of, your _tobacco_? + +Who hoped you to sell it? Who _helped_ you to sell it? + + + + +PROSODY. + + +PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages +of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence, +in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution. + +Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the true +pronunciation of words, comprising _accent_, _quantity_, _emphasis_, +_pause_, and _tone_; and the second, the laws of _versification_. + +_Accent_. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a +particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard +than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word _presume_, +the stress of the voice must be on the letter _u_ and the second +syllable, _sume_, which syllable takes the accent. + +Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. For +the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a +secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the +principal accent; as, _'tes ti mo' ni'al_, _a ban'don 'ing._ + +_Quantity_. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied +in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. + +A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which +causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following +letters; as, "Fall, bale, mood, house, feature." + +A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes +the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ant, +bonnet, hunger." + +A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in +pronouncing it; thus, "mate" and "note" should be pronounced as +slowly again as "mat" and "not." + +_Emphasis_. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the +voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to +lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the +sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a +particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. + +Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution. + +_Pauses_. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total +cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a +measurable space of time. + +_Tones_. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting +in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound +which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. + +Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affect +sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse. + + + +PUNCTUATION. + +PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or +parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the different +pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. + +The _Comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _Semicolon_, a pause +double that of the comma; the _Colon_, double that of the semicolon; and +the _Period_, double that of the colon. + +Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted +with the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction of +members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This +custom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read +their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After +the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction +were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a +considerable time. + +As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while +manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of +conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the +art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the points +did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, +were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now +used, became established, when learning and refinement had made +considerable progress. + +As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical +construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part +of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of +exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary +taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly +merit our particular attention. + +The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation, +and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is +established by the single fact, that _the meaning of a sentence is often +totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points_. To +illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might be +selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurton +having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:" +"Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, +has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up +about six feet high, &c." Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to +sea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with a +short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c." + +Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him +to understand what is meant by an _adjunct_, _a simple sentence_, and a +_compound sentence_. + +An _adjunct_ or _imperfect phrase_ contains no assertion, or does not +amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious of +praise;" "in the pursuit of commerce."--For the definition of a +sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119. + +When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same +manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is +compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are +adjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their _health_ and _fortune_, at the +_shrine_ of vanity, _pride_, and _extravagance_." But when the adjuncts +are connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is +simple; as, "Grass of an excellent _quality_, is produced in great +_abundance_ in the northern regions of our country." + + +COMMA. + +RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be +separated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with living +creatures." + +_Exercises in Punctuation_.--Idleness is the great fomenter of all +corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his +way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness. + +RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is +accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a +comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste _of the present +age_, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English +language;" "Too many _of the pretended friendships of youth_, are mere +combinations in pleasure." + +_Exercises_.--The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction +to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a +real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society +serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good. + +RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence, +is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be +distinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, _in many +respects,_ very imperfect. It is, _therefore,_ not much approved." But +when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better to +omit the comma; as, "Flattery is _certainly_ pernicious;" "There is +_surely_ a pleasure in beneficence." + +_Exercises_.--Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness +is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your +failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and +ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience +disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed +behavior can always hide the real character. + +RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition when +accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My +_son_, give me thy heart;" "Dear _Sir_, I write to express my gratitude +for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my _friends_, for your +many favors;" "_Paul_, the _apostle_, of the Gentiles, was eminent for +his zeal and knowledge;" "The _butterfly_, _child_ of the summer, +flutters in the sun." + +But if _two_ nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if +they form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, _"Paul_ +the _apostle_, suffered martyrdom;" "The _statesman Jefferson_, wrote +the declaration of Independence." + +_Exercises_.--Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all +generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. +Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of +vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the +balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great +Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch +Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety. + +RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute +with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, +generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple +sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, +"_His father dying_, he succeeded to the estate;" "_To confess the +truth_, I was in fault;" "The king, _approving the plan_, put it in +execution;" "He, _having finished his academical course_, has returned +home, _to prosecute his professional studies_." + +_Exercises_.--Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To +enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His +talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him +conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and +constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose +one family assembled under the eye of one common Father. + +RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing +commas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and the +dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of +serious reflections." + +Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, +connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated by +commas; as, "The husband, wife,[11] and children,[12] suffered extremely;" +"In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;" +"David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, and +loving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" "Success generally +depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we +undertake." + +[11] The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so +obvious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any _writer_, +possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I +am bold to affirm, that it is observed by every correct reader and +speaker; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated +by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who are +influenced by their pernicious example; thus, "The head, the heart +and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing +good." Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is +understood? It would be doing no greater violence to the principles +of elocution; thus, "The head the heart and the hands, should be, +&c." or thus, "The head the heart, and the hands, should be +employed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where +the conjunction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where +the conjunction is understood? And, since this is the case, what +fair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation? +"The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and +actively employed in doing good;" "She is a woman, gentle, sensible, +well-educated, and religious." + +[12] As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between +the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it; +but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the +noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such +instances, is properly omitted; thus, "David was a brave, wise, and +_pious_ man." + +Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring +in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must be +separated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtue +supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth, +needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." + +_Exercises._--We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the +mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the +understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man +from his rank in creation. + +Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a +youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder +brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and +esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. +An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true +lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking +are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great +business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and +talking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously +comprehends the whole of our duty. + +In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of +decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle +trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy +person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain. + +RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentences +connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is +restricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by +a comma; as, "Wisdom is better than riches;" "No preacher is so +successful as thee;" "He accepted _what_ I had rejected;" "Self-denial +is the _sacrifice which_ virtue must make;" "Subtract from many modern +poets _all that_ may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;" +"Give it to the _man whom_ you most esteem." In this last example, the +assertion is not of "man in general," but of "the man whom you most +esteem." + +But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly +inserted before the relative; as, "_Man_, _who_ is born of a woman, is of +few days and full of trouble;" "There is no _charm_ in the female sex, +_which_ can supply the place of virtue." + +This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative +is understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is, +"privileges _which_ you enjoy." + +_Exercises._--How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! The +friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. +Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur +censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most +innocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils which +occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary. + +The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in +its just proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected +civility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable +charm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw +yesterday. + +RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction +expressed, they must not be separated; as, "Libertines call religion, +bigotry _or_ superstition;" "True worth is modest _and_ retired;" "The +study of natural history, expands _and_ elevates the mind;" "Some men +sin deliberately and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs, +the pairs only should be separated; as, "There is a natural difference +between merit _and_ demerit, virtue _and_ vice, wisdom _and_ folly;" +"Whether we eat _or_ drink, labor _or_ sleep, we should be temperate." + +But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may be +separated by a comma; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable +rhapsodies, _or_ dangerous incentives to evil." + +_Exercises_.--Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. +True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior. +Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the +undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless +simple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the +strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds. + +RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, in +some instances, be inserted; as, "From law arises security; from +security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." But in others, it is +better to omit the comma; "No station is so high, no power so great, no +character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of +rashness, malice, and envy." + +_Exercises_.--As a companion he was severe and satirical; as a friend +captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer +there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled +away without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age +miserable. + +RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb, +and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma is +generally omitted; as, "I suppose _he is at rest_;" changed, "I suppose +_him to be at rest_." + +But when the verb _to be_ is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, +which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb +_to be_ is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma; as, "The +most obvious remedy is, _to withdraw from all associations with bad +men_;" "The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to +withdraw from all associations with bad men." + +_Exercises._--They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the +man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned +by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be +condemned by our own hearts. + +NOTES. + + 1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the + member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to + require a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, _and_, + before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This + rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers; as, + "If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; _but_ if thou + forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever;" "_But_ if the parts + connected are not short, a comma may be inserted." + + 2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and + having a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, "To + relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the + innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble + employments." + + 3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the + form of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, "It + hurts a man's pride to say, _I do not know_;" "Plutarch calls lying, + _the vice of slaves_." + + 4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some + marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma; as, + + "Tho' _deep_, yet _clear_; tho' _gentle_, yet not _dull_; + _Strong_, without _rage_; without _o'erflowing_, _full_." + + "Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only + in union _with_, but in opposition _to_, the views and conduct of + each other." + + Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is + single, the comma may be omitted; as, "Many states were in alliance + _with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome." + + The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer + to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the + _threatening_, and at the _approach_, _of_ a cruel and lingering + death;" "He was not only the _king_, but _the father of_ his + people." + + 5. The words, "as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, + formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the + next place, in short," and all other words and phrases of a similar + kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma; _as_, + "Remember thy best friend; _formerly_, the supporter of thy infancy; + _now_, the guardian of thy youth;" "He feared want; _hence_, he + overvalued riches;" "_So_, if youth be trifled away," &c. "_Again_, + we must, have food and clothing;" "_Finally_, let us conclude." + +The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, to +suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for +inserting the comma; but in applying these rules, great regard must be +paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which +they bear to one another. + + +SEMICOLON. + +The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more +parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, +nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which are +distinguished by a colon. + +RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself +give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes +when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding +one, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples: "As the desire +of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable +part of our species; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is +governed by vanity and folly;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains his +own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around +him;" "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom." + +_Exercises_.--The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of +falsehood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and +friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly +happiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery as +there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there +is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness. + + But all subsists by elemental strife + And passions are the elements of life. + +RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or +proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction _as;_ as +in the following instance: Prepositions govern the objective case; as, +"She gave the book _to_ him." + + NOTE. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuists + employ the colon, instead of the semicolon. + + +COLON. + +The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts +less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon; +but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. + +RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed +by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, the +colon may be properly employed; as, "Nature felt her inability to +extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealed +the plan of divine interposition and aid." "Great works are performed, +not by strength, but by perseverance: yonder palace was raised by single +stones; yet you see its height and spaciousness." + +_Exercises._--The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice +superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with +bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness +which loads it with tediousness and disgust. + +When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we behold +there? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents +itself. + +RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still +greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or +concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied; as, "A divine +legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor, +stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual +rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath +awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the +world, which support integrity, and check guilt." + + +PERIOD. + +When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected +with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close; +as, "Fear God." "Honor the patriot." "Respect virtue." + +In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practice among +our best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences connected by +conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period; as, "Recreations, +though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to +keep them within a due and limited province. _But_ such as are of an +irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished +from every well-regulated mind." + +The period should follow every abbreviated word; as, "A.D. N.B. U.S. Va. +Md. Viz. Col. Mr." + +DASH. + +The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers, +may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off +abruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is an +unexpected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected +once--but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If acting conformably to the +will of our Creator;--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;--if +securing our own happiness;--are objects of the highest moment: then we +are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of +religion and virtue." + +A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if +the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such +length as the sense only can determine. + + "Here lies the great--False marble, where? + "Nothing but sordid dust lies here." + + +INTERROGATORY POINT. + +The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative +sentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?" + + NOTE. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where + it is only said, that a question has been asked; as, "The Cyprians + asked me, why I wept." + + +EXCLAMATORY POINT. + +The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, +surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations and addresses; +as, "How much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "What is more amiable than +virtue!" "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Hear me, O Lord! for thy +loving kindness is great!" + + +PARENTHESIS. + +A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be +omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "To gain a +posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name +besides?) from oblivion." + + "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) + "Virtue alone is happiness below." + + NOTE. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the + voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a + point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the + sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were not used. + It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member + has that precedes it; as "He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) + who is not jealous when, he has partners of love." + + "Or why so long (in life if long can be) + "Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?" + +Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an +exception to this rule; as, "If I grant his request, (and who could +refuse it?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment." + + +APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION. + +The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the +possessive case of a noun; as, "_'tis_, for _it is_; _tho,'_ for +_though_; _o'er_, for _over_;" "A _man's_ poverty." + +A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language; as, +"The proper study of mankind is man." + +When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of that +person should be designated by a quotation; as, At my coming in, he +said, "You and the physician are come too late." A quotation contained +within another, should be distinguished by two _single_ commas; as, +"Always remember this ancient maxim 'Know thyself.'" + + +DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS. + +It is proper to begin with a capital, + +1. The first word of every sentence. + +2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c.; as, "James, +Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron;" "God, Jehovah, the Almighty the Supreme +Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit." + +3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nouns +which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun _I_ and the +interjection _O_, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian, +English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Poems; I write; Hear, +O earth!" + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +VERSIFICATION. + +POETRY is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination. + +VERSIFICATION, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particular +number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according to +particular laws. + +RHYME is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one +line, to the sound of the last syllable in another; as, + + "O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue _sea_, + "Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as _free_." + +BLANK VERSE consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers, +but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines which +constitutes rhyme. + +POETICAL FEET consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of a +number of accented and unaccented syllables. + +They are called _feet_, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it +were, _steps_ along through the verse in a measured pace. + +All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and are +reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as +follows: + +DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. +A Trochee - u A Dactyle - u u +An Iambus u - An Amphibrach u - u +A Spondee - - An Anapaest u u - +A Pyrrhic u u A Tribrach u u u + +A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as, +Hateful, pettish: + +Restless mortals toil for naught. + +An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as, +Betray, consist: + +The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay. + +A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter +unaccented; as, Laborer, possible: + +From the low pleasures of this fallen nature. + +An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last +accented; as, Contravene, acquiesce: + +at the close of the day when the hamlet is still. + +A Spondee; as, The pale moon: a Pyrrhic; as, on the tall +tree: an Amphibrach; as, Delightful: a Tribrach; as, +Numerable. + + +RHETORIC. + +GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly. + +RHETORIC teaches us to express them with force and elegance. + +The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in +constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of +words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most +advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various +kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are +principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of +grammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the +liberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and +belles-lettres. + + +COMPOSITION. + +It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that _good sense_ is +the foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well, +will scarcely write ill upon it. + +Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of +good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her +province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and +appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of +expression. It ought to be his aim, + + "To mark the point where sense and dulness meet." + +STYLE.--PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION. + +STYLE is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by +means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds, +and of the order in which they are produced. + +The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads. +_perspicuity_ and _ornament_. + +PERSPICUITY, which is considered the fundamental quality of a good +style, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases; and, +secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respect +to words and phrases, it requires these three qualities, _purity_, +_propriety,_ and _precision._ + +_Purity_ of language consists in the use of such words and such +constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition to +words and phrases belonging to other languages, or which are obsolete or +new-coined, or employed without proper authority. + +_Propriety_ is the choice of those words which the best usage has +appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. It implies +their correct and judicious application, in opposition to low +expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of +the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union of purity and +propriety, which renders style graceful and perspicuous. + +_Precision_, from _praecidere_, to cut off, signifies retrenching all +superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit +neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be +conveyed. + + +STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. + +A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in every +species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or minute in our +attention to it. + +Elegance of style requires us generally to _avoid_, many short or long +sentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member to +another; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a +long sentence. + +The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are _Unity_, +_Clearness_, _Strength_, and _Harmony_. + +UNITY is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentence +implies an arrangement of words in which only _one_ proposition is +expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts; but these parts ought to be +so closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not of +many objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, the +following rules may be useful. + +1. _In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little +as possible._ In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, +which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the +end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this +rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was +saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." +In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by +shifting so frequently the place and the person, the _vessel_, the +_shore_, _we_, _they_, _I_ and _who_, they appear in so disunited a +view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is +restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to +anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who +received me with the greatest kindness." + +2. _Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, +that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences._ The +violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is +safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is +overloaded and confused. + +3. _Avoid all unnecessary parentheses_. + +CLEARNESS. _Ambiguity_, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a +bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words. + +A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that _those words or +members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to +each other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relation +clearly appear._ This rule ought to be observed, + +1. _In the position of adverbs._ "By greatness," says Mr. Addison, "I do +not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a +whole view." The improper situation of the adverb _only_, in this +sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb _mean_, whereas the author +intended to have it qualify the phrase, _a single object;_ thus, "By +greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object _only_, but the +largeness of a whole view." + +2. _In the position of phrases and members._ "Are these designs which +any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, +ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designs +which any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, _in +any circumstances_, _in any situation_, to avow?" + +3. _In the position of pronouns._ The reference of a pronoun to its +noun, should always be _so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it:_ +otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm +ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which +nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly +Father." _Which_, in this sentence, grammatically refers to _treasures;_ +and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence +should have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping +up treasures, to arm ourselves against the _accidents_ of life, against +_which_ nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly +Father." + +STRENGTH. By the _strength_ of a sentence is meant such an arrangement +of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best +advantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force. + +1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to _take +from it all redundant words and members._ Whatever can be easily +supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with +deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is better than to say, +"_Being_ content with deserving a triumph." &c. "They returned back +again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from +this snort sentence _five_ which are were expletives, it will be much +more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they +came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a +hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter +and adorn the fruit. + +2. _Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all +the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required_. In +compositions of an elevated character, the _relative_ should generally +be inserted. An injudicious repetition of _and_ enfeebles style; but +when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from +each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage; +thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, _and_ reason, +_and_ liberty, would fall with him." + +3. _Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in +which they will make the most striking impression_. + +4. _Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance +one above another_. In a sentence of two members, the longer should +generally be the concluding one. + +5. _Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any +inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical_. + +6. _Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a +resemblance in the language and construction should be observed_. + + * * * * * + +FIGURES OF SPEECH. + +Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted +either by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply some +departure from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a manner +more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures +have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of _Words_, +and Figures of _Thought_. + +Figures of Words are called _Tropes_, and consist in a word's being +employed to signify something that is different from its original +meaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure. + +When we say of a person, that he has a fine _taste_ in wines, the word +taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a +fine _taste_ for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word +figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is +simple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth +_light_ in _darkness_," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative +style, _light_ is put in the place of _comfort_, and _darkness_ is used +to suggest the idea of _adversity_. + +The following are the most important figures: + +1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to +another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form. + +When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a +_pillar_ which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a +comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the _pillar_ +of the state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter +construction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made +in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote +comparison. + +Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in +vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, +&c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled +wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c. + +Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American +Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs +the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud _pillar_ of their +independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral _fabric_ lies in +ruins." + +2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued; or it is several +metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind +of parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the same +manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape. + +The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th +psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a +vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the +heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause +it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered +with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly +cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the +river." + +3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects, +whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form. + +Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like +those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their +springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about +Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The music of Caryl +was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the +soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the +shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun." + + "The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold, + And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold; + And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, + When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee." + +4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect +for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for +the thing signified. + +When we say, "They read _Milton_," the cause is put for the effect, +meaning "Milton's _works_." "Gray hairs should be respected;" here the +effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," _old age_, which +produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is +substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the _chair_;" that +is, the person in the chair. + +5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or a +part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in +general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise +object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche. + +Thus, "A fleet of twenty _sail_, instead of, _ships_." "The _horse_ is a +noble animal;" "The _dog_ is a faithful creature:" here an individual is +put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the _person_, and +the "waves" for the _sea_. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a +subject; as "Youth" for the _young_, the "deep" for the _sea_. + +6. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPOEIA is that figure by which we attribute +life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "The ground _thirsts_ +for rain," or, "the earth _smiles_ with plenty;" when we speak of +"ambition's being _restless_," or, "a disease's being _deceitful_;" such +expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the +properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate. + +The following are fine examples of this figure: + + "Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old _Ocean smiles_;" + + "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and + the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." + +7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as +if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made +to a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O +_death!_ where is thy sting? O _grave!_ where is thy victory?" + + "Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore; bend thy + fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, + when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu." + +8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on +the contrast or opposition, of two objects. + +_Example._ "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to _increase_ his +_stores_, but to _diminish_ his _desires."_ + +9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond its +natural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow as +a snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles. + + "I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted + fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud + of mist on the bills." + +10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use +the present tense, and describe it as actually, passing before our eyes. + +11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a +question; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or +deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a +question. + +Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he +should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it? +and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it +good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice +like him?" + +12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such a surprise, +admiration, joy, grief, and the like. + + "O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" + "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be + at rest!" + +13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts; +not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can +reprove one for his negligence, by saying, "You have taken great care, +indeed." + +The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests +of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said. +Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or +he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked." + +14. AMPLIFICATION or CLIMAX consists in heightening all the +circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a +strong light. + +Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a +crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to +scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name, +then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?" + + +KEY. + +_Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes_. + +RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin _hardens_ men in it. Great pains +_have_ been taken, &c.--_is_ seldom found. The sincere _are_, &c.--_is_ +happy. What _avail_, &c.--Disappointments _sink_--the renewal of hope +_gives_, &c.--_is_ without limit, _has_ been conferred upon us.--Thou +_canst_ not heal--but thou _mayst_ do, &c.--_consists_ the happiness, +&c.--Who _touchedst_, or _didst touch_ Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. + +_Note 1._ And _wilt thou_ never be to Heaven resigned?--And _who_ had +great abilities, &c. + +_Note 2._ Are peace and honor.--_was_ controversy. + +RULE 7. _Them_ that you visited.--_him_ that was mentioned.--_he_ who +preached repentance, &c.--_they_ who died.--_he_ who succeeded. + +RULE 8. Time and tide _wait,_ &c.--_remove_ mountains.--_are_ both +uncertain.--_dwell_ with, &c.--_affect_ the mind, &c.--What _signify_ +the counsel and care, &c.--_are_ now perished.--Why _are_ whiteness and +coldness, &c.--bind _them_ continually, &c.--render _their_ possessor, +&c.--There _are_ error and discrepance--which _show_, &c. + +RULE 9. _Is_ the same in idea.--_is_ in the porphyry.--_is_ remarkable, +&c.--which _moves_ merely as _it is_ moved.--_affects_ us, &c.--Man's +happiness or misery _is_, in a great measure, &c.--for _it_ may be, +&c.--_was_ blameworthy. + +RULE 10. The nation _is_ powerful.--The fleet _was_ seen, &c.--The +church _has_, &c.--_is_, or ought to be, the _object_, &c.--_it_ is +feeble. + +RULE 11. My people _do_, &c.--The multitude eagerly _pursue_ pleasure as +_their_, &c.--_were_ divided in _their_ sentiments, and _they have_ +referred, &c.--The people _rejoice_--give _them_ sorrow. + +RULE 12. _Homer's_ works are, &c.--_Asa's_ heart. _James Hart's_ book. + +_Note 1._ It was the _men_, _women_, and children's lot, &c. or, _It was +the lot of_ the men, women, and children.--_Peter_, _John_, and +Andrew's, &c. + +_Note 2._ This is _Campbell_ the poet's production; or, _The production +of Campbell, &c._--The silk was purchased at Brown's the _mercer_ and +_haberdasher._ + +_Note_ 4. The _pupil's_ composing, &c.--_rule's_ being observed.--of the +_president's_ neglecting to lay it before the council. + +RULE 13. Of _his_ audience.--put _it_ on Jacob.--sprinkle _them_--and +they shall, &c.--of _his_ reputation. + +_Note_. You were blamed; you _were_ worthy.--where _were_ you?--how fat +_were_ you? + +RULE 14. Who _hast_ been, &c.--_who is_ the sixth _that has_ lost _his +life_ by this means. + +Who all my sense _confinedst;_ or, _didst confine_. + +_Note_. And _who broughtest_ him forth out of Ur. + +RULE 15, _Who_ shall be sent, &c.--This is the man _who_, &c. + +RULE 16. They _to whom_ much is given, &c.--_with whom_ you associate +&c.--_whom_ I greatly respect, &c.--_whom_ we ought to love, and _to +whom_, &c--They _whom_ conscience, &c.--With _whom_ did you +walk?--_Whom_ did you see?--To _whom_ did you give the book? + +RULE 17. Who gave John those books? _We_.--_him_ who lives in Pearl +street--My brother and _he_.--_She_ and _I_. + +RULE 18: _Note_ 2. Thirty _tuns_.--twenty _feet_--one hundred _fathoms_. + +_Note_ 6. He bought a pair of _new_ shoes--piece of _elegant_ +furniture.--pair of _fine_ horses--tract of _poor_ land. + +_Note_ 7. Are still more _difficult to be comprehended_.--most +_doubtful_, or _precarious_ way, &c.--_This model comes nearer +perfection than any I_, &c. + +RULE 19: _Note. That_ sort.--_these_ two hours.--_This_ kind, &c.--He +saw one _person_, or more _than one_, enter the garden. + +_Note_ 2. Better than _himself_.--_is_ so small.--_his_ station may be, +_is_ bound by the laws. + +_Note_ 3. On _each_ side, &c.--took _each_ his censer. + +RULE 20. _Whom_ did they, &c.--They _whom_ opulence,--_whom_ luxury, +&c.--_Him_ and _them_ we know, &c.--_Her_ that is negligent, &c.--my +brother and _me_ &c.--_Whom_ did they send, &c.--_Them whom_ he, &c. + +RULE 21. It is _I_.--If I were _he_.--it is _he_, indeed.--_Whom_ do +you, &c.--_Who_ do men say, &c.--and _who_ say ye, &c.--_whom_ do you +imagine it to have been?--it was _I_; but you knew that it was _he_. + +RULE 25. Bid him _come_--durst not _do_ it.--Hear him _read,_ &c.--makes +us _approve_ and _reject_, &c.--better _to_ live--than _to_ outlive, +&c.--_to_ wrestle. + +RULE 26: _Note_. The taking _of_ pains: or, without taking pains, +&c.--The changing _of_ times,--the removing and setting up _of_ kings. + +RULE 28: _Note_ 3. He _did_ me--I had _written_--he _came_ +home.--_befallen_ my cousin--he would have _gone_.--already _risen_.--is +_begun_.--is _spoken_.--would have _written_--had they _written_, &c. + +RULE 29: _Note_ 1. It cannot, _therefore_, be, &c.--he was _not often_ +pleasing.--should _never_ be separated.--We may live _happily_, &c. + +RULE 30: _Note_. I don't know _any thing_; or, I _know_ nothing, &c.--I +did not see _anybody_; or, I saw _nobody_, &c.--Nothing ever _affects_ +her.--_and_ take no shape _or_ semblance, &c.--There _can_ be nothing, +&c.--_Neither_ precept _nor_ discipline is so forcible as example. + +RULE 31. For _himself_.--among _themselves_.--_with whom_ he is, +&c.--_With whom_ did, &c.--_From whom_ did you receive instruction? + +RULE 33. My brother and _he_, &c.--You and _I_, &c. _He_ and I--John and +_he_, &c.--Between you and _me_, &c. + +RULE 34. And _entreat_ me, &c.--and _acting_ differently, &c. + +_Note_ 1. But _he_ may return--but _he_ will write no more. + +_Note_ 2. Unless it _rain_.--If he _acquire_ riches, &c. + +RULE 35. Than _I_--as well as _he_, than _they_.--but _he_.--but _he_ +and _I_.--but _them_ who had gone astray. + +_Promiscuous Examples_.--_Him_ who is from eternity, &c.--_depends_ all +the happiness,--which _exists_, &c.--the enemies _whom_, &c.--Is it _I_ +or _he whom_ you requested?--Though great _have_ been,--sincerely +_acknowledge_.--There _was_, in the metropolis.--exercising our +memories.--_was_ consumed.--Affluence _may_ give--but _it_ will not.--of +this world often choke.--_Them_ that honor,--and _they_ that despise.--I +intended _to call_ last week.--the fields look _fresh_ and _gay_.--very +_neatly, finely woven_ paper.--where I _saw_ Gen. Andrew Jackson, _him_ +who.--Take the _first two_,--_last three_.--thirty _feet_ high.--_a_ +union,--_a_ hypothesis.--I have _seen_ him _to whom_ you wrote, he would +have _come_ back, or _returned_.--_understands_ the nature,--he +_rejects_.--If thou _study_,--thou _wilt_ become.--is not _properly_ +attended to.--He _knew_.--therefore, to _have_ done it,--_than_ the +title.--very _independently_.--duty to _do_.--my _friend's_ +entering.--is the _best_ specimen, or it _comes nearer_ perfection _than +any_, &c.--blow _them_, will go, &c.--_Each of those two authors has +his_ merit.--_Reason's_ whole,--_lie_ in.--_strikes_ the mind,--than if +_the parts had been adjusted_,--with _perfect_ symmetry. + +Satire _does_ not carry in _it_.--_composes_ the triangle.--_persons'_ +opportunities were _ever_.--It _has been_ reported.--should _never_ +be.--situation _in which_.--_is_ thoroughly versed in _his_.--_are_ the +soul,--_follows_ little.--An army _presents_.--_are_ the _duties_ of a +christian.--happier than _he_.--_always_ have _inclined_, and _which +always_ will incline him to offend.--which _require_ great.--_Them_ that +honor me, will I.--_has_ opinions peculiar to _itself_.--that _it may_ +be said _he attained_ monarchical.--_hast_ permitted,--_wilt_ +deliver.--_was_ formerly propagated.--the measure _is_,--unworthy +your.--_were_ faithless.--After I _had_ visited.--nor shall _I_, +consent.--Yesterday I intended to _walk_ out, but _was_.--_make_ or +_are_ thirteen,--_leave_ three.--If he _go_,--make _the eighth time_ +that he _will have_ visited.--_is_ nobler.--was possessed, or _that +ever_ can be.--one great _edifice_,--smaller _ones_.--honesty _is_.--it +to _be_.--_will_ follow me,--I _shall_ dwell.--_is_ gone astray.--he +could, not _have done_.--_feeling_ a propensity. + + +PUNCTUATION. + +COMMA. + +_Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation_. + +RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human +heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery +is a sign of littleness. + +RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to +future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real +defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves +to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good. + +RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is, +in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your +failings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and +ignorance, under costly attire. The best men often experience +disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed +behavior can always hide the real character. + +RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. +Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou +expect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance? +Death, the king of terrors, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm of +life, sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius, the great Chinese +philosopher, was eminently good, as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph +is an illustrious example of true piety. + +RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. To +enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. +His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering +him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and +constant spirit, will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose +one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father. + +KEY TO THE EXERCISES. + +RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the +mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the +understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man +from his rank in creation. + +Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a +youth. He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his +elder brother. The man of virtue and honor, will be trusted, relied +upon, and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous, +and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is +just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading, +writing, and thinking, are the indispensable qualifications of a good +student. The great business of life is, to be employed in doing justly, +loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God. To live soberly, +righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty. + +In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are +causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute +promptly. An idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is +corrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously, affectionately +admonished, but in vain. + +RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friendships +of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what is +set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. A man +who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words +that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our +complaints of the world, are wholly imaginary. + +The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object +in its just proportion, and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected +civility which springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable +charm. The Lord, whom I serve, is eternal. This, is the man we saw +yesterday. + +RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. True +friendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behavior. +Health and peace, a moderate fortune, and a few friends, sum up all the +undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless, +simple and sincere, uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the +strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds. + +RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical; as a friend, +captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer +there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be +trifled away without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old +age, miserable. + +RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man. +I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned by +our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be +condemned by our own hearts. + +SEMICOLON. + +RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path; that of falsehood is +a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship; +hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness, +which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery; as there are +worldly honors, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is a +worldly wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness. + + But all subsists by elemental strife; + And passions are the elements of life. + +COLON. + +RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition, +and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad +passions; superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; idleness, +which loads it with tediousness and disgust. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of English Grammar in Familiar Lectures +by Samuel Kirkham + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 14070.txt or 14070.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/0/7/14070/ + +Produced by Karl Hagen, Susan Skinner and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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