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+Project Gutenberg's English Grammar in Familiar Lectures, by Samuel Kirkham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: English Grammar in Familiar Lectures
+
+Author: Samuel Kirkham
+
+Release Date: November 17, 2004 [EBook #14070]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH GRAMMAR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Karl Hagen, Susan Skinner and the PG Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+ENGLISH GRAMMER IN
+
+FAMILIAR LECTURES;
+
+ACCOMPANIED BY
+A COMPENDIUM
+EMBRACING
+
+A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING
+A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION,
+EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX,
+
+AND
+
+A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR,
+IN NOTES:
+
+TO WHICH ARE ADDED,
+
+AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES
+DESIGNED
+FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.
+
+BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.
+
+STEREOTYPE EDITION
+
+NEW YORK
+ROBERT B. COLLINS,
+254 PEARL STREET.
+
+
+
+
+_Southern District of New-York, ss_.
+
+BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 22d day of August, A.D. 1829, in the L.
+S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, Samuel
+Kirkham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title
+of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words
+following, to wit:
+
+"English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium,
+embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system of
+Punctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical
+Grammar in notes: to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the
+Exercises: designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. By
+Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved." In conformity
+to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled "an act for the
+encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and
+books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time
+therein mentioned." And also to an act entitled "an act supplementary to
+an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing
+the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of
+such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the
+benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching
+historical and other prints."
+
+FRED. J. BETTS,
+_Clerk of the Southern District of New-York._
+
+
+AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION,
+
+DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS
+
+BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.
+
+This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the first
+part of it, the _principles_ of reading are developed and explained in a
+scientific and _practical_ manner, and so familiarly illustrated in
+their application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile
+mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their design
+and use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both, in
+reading and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain.
+
+The last part of the work, contains _Selections_ from the greatest
+master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient and
+modern. Many of these selections are taken from the most elegant and
+classical American authors--writers whose noble productions have already
+shed an unfading lustre, and stamped immortality upon the literature of
+our country.--In the select part of the work, _rhetorical marks_ are
+also employed to point out the application of the principles laid down
+in the first part.--The very favorable reception of the work by the
+public, and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools, since its
+first publication in 1833, excites in the author the most sanguine hopes
+in regard to its future success.
+
+NOTICES.
+
+After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, that
+it is the only _successful_ attempt of the kind. The rules are copious,
+and the author's explanations and illustrations _are happily adapted to
+the comprehension of learners_. No school should be without this book,
+and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman who
+values the attainment of a just and forcible elocution.--_Pittsburgh
+Mer. April,_ 1834.
+
+Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and has
+followed them by illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon the
+inflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference of
+one inflection to another--a most admirable plan for such a work.
+Copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and the
+shades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness.
+The catechetical appendages of each chapter, give the work new value in
+a school, and the selections made for the exercise of scholars, evince
+good taste and judgment. _U.S. Gazette, Philadelphia, Sept_. 17, 1834.
+
+The Essay now before us, needs not depend on any former work of its
+author for a borrowed reputation; it has intrinsic merits of its own. It
+lays down principles clearly and concisely. It presents the reader with
+many new and judicious selections, both in prose and poetry; and
+altogether evinces great industry combined with taste and
+ingenuity.--_Courier of Upper Canada, York, Oct_. 12, 1833.
+
+Of the talent and judgment of Mr. Kirkham, we have already had occasion
+to speak in terms of honest praise. His work on Elocution raises him
+still higher in our estimation.--The book would be of great utility in
+schools--such a one as has long been wanted; and we are glad to see it
+forthcoming.--_Baltimore Visitor, July,_ 1833.
+
+Every facility for teaching Elocution, which I have so often needed, but
+never before found, is exactly furnished in this work:--principles are
+clearly and concisely laid down, and _are very happily adapted to the
+comprehension of the learner_. Thoroughly convinced of its utility, I
+shall lose no time in introducing it into my school. _Hartford, Conn.
+Aug._. 20, 1534. NATHANIEL WEBB.
+
+
+
+
+RECOMMENDATIONS.
+
+It is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new
+books have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be,
+for that work which rests more on its written testimonials, than on its
+intrinsic merits for support, asserts no claims to permanent patronage.
+But recommendations which analyze the merits of a work, and which, by
+exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are calculated to
+carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is
+meritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in
+this volume. The following are _some_ of the numerous testimonials which
+he has received, and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments
+to those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he is
+indebted for them. More than _six hundred_ others presented to the
+author, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has not
+room to insert.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following notice of this work is extracted from the "Western
+Review." This journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint,
+author of "Francis Berrian," "History and Geography of the Miss.
+Valley," and many other popular and valuable works.
+
+We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's "Grammar in familiar
+Lectures," but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehend
+the author's design, it is not so much to introduce new principles, as
+to render more easy and intelligible those which have been long
+established, and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate and
+thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been
+successful.
+
+It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting
+himself before the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as is
+consistent with his plan, avail himself of the authority of such as have
+written well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham has accordingly
+followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers on
+grammar, in the general principles of his science; endeavoring, at the
+same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the
+writings of that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The
+most useful matter contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced
+in this; but in the definitions and rules, it is simplified, and
+rendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray,
+in the general principles of his work, he has, in numerous instances,
+differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to be his own, and
+introducing some valuable improvements.
+
+Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes
+in syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode of
+explaining them, manner of parsing, manner of explaining some of the
+pronouns, and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of the
+science at one view, and is well calculated to afford assistance to
+learners.
+
+In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have
+endeavored to follow _the order of nature;_ and we are not able to see
+how he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the most
+important parts of speech, are first explained, and afterwards those
+which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. By
+following this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common among
+authors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of which
+they were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared the
+way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the
+science.
+
+In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, our
+author appears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the
+appearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness and
+perspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar objects,
+are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understanding
+of the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. The
+principles of the science _are simplified, and rendered so perfectly
+easy of comprehension,_ we should think no ordinary mind, having such
+help, could find them difficult. It is in this particular that the work
+appears to possess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot fail
+of being preferred to many others.
+
+It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of the
+amiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from
+the fifth edition.
+
+Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827.
+
+
+
+
+The following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly a
+distinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the "National Crisis."]
+
+As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine merit, it is with
+peculiar pleasure I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, in
+which Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on English
+Grammar. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practical
+knowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented which
+ought not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, in several
+instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr.
+Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits.
+The extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in
+Pittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere,
+are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of
+teaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow.
+
+The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" is
+predicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed;
+but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations
+accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which
+it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive
+stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are
+addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar,
+that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whatever
+system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must,
+I conceive, be productive of good results. In my humble opinion, the
+system of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligent
+pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of
+grammar, _in less than one-fourth_ part of the time usually devoted.
+
+My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, with the
+greater pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been
+so extensively practised in many parts of the western country.
+
+Cincinnati, April 26, 1826.
+
+
+
+
+From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa.
+
+Mr. Kirkham,--It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of
+youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have
+used many of the different systems of English grammar that have fallen
+in my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter,
+that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen.
+
+Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent; and
+experience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last
+twelve or thirteen months), that a scholar will learn more of the nature
+and principles of our language in _one quarter_, from your system, than
+in a _whole year_ from any other I had previously used. I do, therefore,
+most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, and
+especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language,
+are destitute of the advantages of an instructer.
+
+Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD.
+
+Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825.
+
+
+
+
+
+From Mr. N.R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled "The
+Hesperus."
+
+Mr. Kirkham,
+
+Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree
+of minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of
+the work as a grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have
+explained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to the
+capacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of your
+plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an
+_analytical development_ of grammatical principles, while it is
+calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the march
+of improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the
+literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will be
+speedily introduced into schools and academies.
+
+With respect, yours, N.R. SMITH, A.M.
+
+Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825.
+
+
+
+
+
+From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran
+Academy:--Extract.
+
+Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of "English
+Grammar in familiar Lectures," I am satisfied that the pre-eminent
+advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the
+public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which
+have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided _superiority over
+all other systems_, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the
+capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of
+communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he
+can easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principle
+that comes before him.
+
+In short, all the intricacies of the science are _elucidated so
+clearly_, I am confident that even a private learner, of common
+docility, can, by perusing this system attentively acquire a better
+practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in _three
+months_, than is ordinarily obtained in _one year_.
+
+Frederick, Md. Sept 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN.
+
+
+
+
+
+Extract: from De Witt Clinton, late Gov. of New-York.
+
+I consider the Compendium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a work
+deserving encouragement, and well calculated to facilitate the
+acquisition of this useful science. DE WITT CLINTON.
+
+Albany, Sept 25, 1824.
+
+
+
+
+
+S. Kirkham, Esq.--I have examined your Grammar with attention, and with
+a particular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fully
+satisfied, that it is the _best form_ in which Murray's principles have
+been given to the public. The lectures are ample, and given in so
+familiar and easy language, as to be readily understood, even by a
+_tyro_ in grammar.
+
+I feel it due to you to say, that I commenced the examination of your
+work, under _a strong prejudice against it,_ in consequence of the
+numerous "improved systems" with which the public has been inundated, of
+late, most of which are by no means improvements on Murray, but the
+productions of individuals whom a "_little grammar_ has rendered
+grammatically insane." My convictions, therefore, are the result of
+_investigation_. I wish you, Sir, success in your publication.
+
+Respectfully, EBER. WHEATON,
+
+Pr. of Mechanics' Society School
+
+With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham's English Grammar,
+we heartily concur.                               NATHAN STARK, Pr. Acad.
+                                              (Rev.) JOHN JOHNSTON,
+Newburgh, Aug. 4, 1829.    (Rev.) WM. S. HEYER,
+
+
+
+
+From the Rev. C.P. McIlvaine, and others.
+
+So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by Samuel
+Kirkham I am well satisfied that _it meets the wants_ of elementary
+schools in this branch, and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P.
+McILVAINE.
+
+Brooklyn, L.I. July 9, 1829.
+
+We fully concur in the above,    ANDREW HAGEMAN,
+                                                     E.M. JOHNSON.
+
+
+
+
+EXTRACT.
+
+From the partial examination which I have given Mr. S. Kirkham's English
+Grammar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the _best of
+the class I have ever seen,_ and as filling up an important and almost
+impassable chasm in works on grammatical science. D.L. CARROLL.
+
+Brooklyn, L.I. June 29, 1829.
+
+We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. B.B. HALLOCK,
+                                                 E. KINGSLEY,
+                                                 T.S. MAYBON.
+
+
+
+
+From A.W. Dodge, Esq.
+
+New-York, July 15, 1829.
+
+The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of
+instruction, must have taught him that the study of grammar, important
+as it is to every class of learners, is almost invariably a dry and
+uninteresting study to young beginners, and for the very obvious reason,
+that the systems in general use in the schools, are _far beyond_ the
+comprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is,
+that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as
+_tasks,_ and if committed at all, committed to _the memory, without
+enlightening their understandings;_ so that many a pupil who has _been
+through_ the English grammar, is totally unacquainted with the nature
+even of the simplest parts of speech.
+
+The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy these
+evils, and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously
+felt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of
+their own language. By a simple, familiar, and lucid method of treating
+the subject, he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable,
+pleasing and instructive. In one word, the grammar of Mr. Kirkham
+furnishes a _clew_ by which the youthful mind is guided through the
+intricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns and pronouns; and the path which has
+been heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardor of
+youth, and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its
+obstacles, is cleared of these obstructions by this _pioneer_ to the
+youthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with friendly _guide-boards
+to direct them in the right road_. The slightest perusal of the work
+alluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these
+remarks, and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to old
+rules and forms, that it will meet the wants of the community.
+
+ALLEN W. DODGE.
+
+Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829
+
+
+
+
+Having, for several years, been engaged in lecturing on the science of
+grammar and, during this period, having _thoroughly tested_ the merits
+of Mr. S. Kirkham's system of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures" by
+using it as a text-book for my classes, I take pleasure in giving this
+testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham has
+attempted to improve upon this branch of science, chiefly by unfolding
+and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and
+simple, as _to adapt them completely to the understanding_ of the young
+learner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to
+commit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practical
+examples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful in
+his attempt _in a pre-eminent degree_. I make this assertion under a
+full conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of
+the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this
+manual.
+
+The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the
+novel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying
+them, the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts of
+the subject, the facilities proffered by the "systematic mode of
+parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction and
+adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and
+critical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes," render
+this system of grammar _so decidedly superior to all others extant_,
+that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known.
+
+My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and
+witnessing its effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in
+saying, that a learner will, by studying this book _four months without
+a teacher_, obtain a more clear conception of the nature and proper
+construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in common
+schools and academies, _in five times four months_.
+
+It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been
+circulated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which
+have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country.
+
+I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in
+orthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and the
+improvements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about
+introducing into his ELEVENTH EDITION, will render it quite _an
+improvement on the former editions of this work_. H. WINCHESTER.
+
+From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy.
+
+
+
+
+
+I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar
+satisfaction. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation,
+give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To point
+out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other
+system can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present it
+is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially
+excellent and useful in other systems, while it is entirely free from
+that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much
+perplex and embarrass the learner.
+
+The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, _the simplicity of
+its method_, and _the plainness of its illustrations_. Being conducted
+by familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into
+agreeable contact by each lesson. Both are improved by the same task,
+without the slightest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there is
+anything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a conviction, this,
+which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be
+made. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a _practical_ one;
+and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be
+introduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment I
+can attest to the practicability of the plan which the author has
+adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the pains
+to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER.
+
+Albany, July 10, 1829.
+
+
+
+
+From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton,
+author of the "Western Calculator" and "Western Spelling-Book."
+
+Dear Sir,--I am much pleased with both the _plan_ and _execution_ of
+your "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a _systematic
+mode of parsing_, calculated alike to exercise the _understanding_ and
+_memory_ of the pupil, and also free the teacher from the _drudgery_ of
+continued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every
+_elementary_ school book ought to be--_plain, systematic_, and _easy_ to
+be understood.
+
+This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other
+improvements so judiciously introduced, gives it _a decisive
+superiority_ over the imperfect grammar of Murray, now so generally
+used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A.M.
+
+Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825.
+
+
+
+
+TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.
+
+The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first
+ventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which
+have waited it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason to
+anticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the
+demand for it would call forth _twenty-two thousand_ copies during the
+past year, the author would have considered the prediction extravagant
+and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled
+so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning,
+he has endeavored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his
+work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time and
+talents would permit.
+
+It is believed that the _tenth_ and _eleventh_ editions have been
+greatly improved; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not
+yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the
+disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being
+able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time,
+snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (_active_ as far
+as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its
+defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his
+credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope,
+that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed
+at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon
+him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and
+reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of
+self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be
+willing to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest; for
+he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the
+advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production,
+that may appear, and, two or three years hence, _revise_ his work, and
+present to the public another and a better edition.
+
+The improvements in the _tenth_ edition, consisted mainly in the
+addition of many important principles; in rendering the illustrations
+more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid; in connecting more
+closely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the general
+principles adopted; and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammar
+interspersed in notes. The introduction into the ELEVENTH EDITION, of
+many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in orthography and
+orthoepy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of general
+additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render _this
+edition/,_ it is believed, _far preferable_ to any of the former
+editions of the work.
+
+Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition
+of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some
+investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of
+the community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of
+a kind of _philosophical mania;_ and to such these notes are
+respectfully submitted for just what _they_ may deem their real value.
+The author's own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no
+_material_ advantages to common learners; but that they may profitably
+engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of
+interest to the literary connoisseur.
+
+New-York, August 22, 1820.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+Address to the learner
+A, an, one
+And
+Adjectives
+Adverbs
+Agreement of words
+Anomalies
+Articles
+Because
+But, than, as
+Case
+  Nominative
+  Possessive
+  Objective
+  Nominative case independent
+  Nominative case absolute
+  Apposition of cases
+  Nominative and objective after the verb _to be_
+  Active, passive, and neuter nominatives
+Conjunctions
+Conjugation of regular verbs
+Derivation (all the philosophical notes treat of derivation)
+Etymology
+Exercises in false syntax
+  In punctuation
+Figures of speech
+Gender
+Government
+Grammar, general division of
+  Philosophical
+Have
+Idioms
+Interjections
+It
+If
+Key to the exercises
+Letters, sounds of
+Like
+Manner of meaning of words
+Moods
+  Signs of
+  Subjunctive
+Nouns
+  Gender of
+  Person of
+  Number of
+  Case of
+Orthography
+  Rules of
+Parsing
+Participles
+Poetry transposed
+Prepositions
+Pronouns
+  Personal
+  Compound personal
+  Adjective
+  Relative
+Pronunciation
+Prosody
+Provincialisms
+Punctuation
+Rhetoric
+Rules of syntax
+Sentences, definitions of simple and compound
+  Transposition of
+Standard of grammatical accuracy
+Syntax
+To
+Tenses
+  Signs of the
+The
+That
+Terminations
+Verbs
+  Active-transitive
+  Active-intransitive
+  Passive
+  Neuter
+  Defective
+  Auxiliary
+  Regular
+  Irregular
+  Compound
+Versification
+Worth
+What, which, who
+You
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and
+thrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has already
+employed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless he
+believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one
+of the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the public
+this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will
+be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded,
+must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no
+explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of
+arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are
+wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, with _them_ he
+will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent
+either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is
+willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always
+ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks
+nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical
+utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in
+facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement,
+_that_ will be its best apology.
+
+When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those
+learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so
+successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more
+especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who
+have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange
+those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy
+medium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little like
+presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so
+frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for
+their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the
+conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least,
+in _manner,_ if not in _matter_; and this conviction, he believes, will
+be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is
+admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our
+late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject
+intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the
+author considers a very important object, namely, _a systematic order of
+parsing;_ and nearly all have neglected to _develop and explain_ the
+principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great
+difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use.
+
+By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its
+_simplicity_; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal
+recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great
+advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct the
+literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to
+charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify
+him; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to
+accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of
+science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and
+removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way
+it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has
+hitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object
+is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended
+with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him
+a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and useful
+exercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to
+become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with
+their practical utility and application.
+
+Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these
+pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have
+been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at
+originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors
+whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his
+opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in
+the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in
+Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of
+policy, but from choice, to select his _principles_ chiefly from that
+work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views,
+the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied
+from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical
+advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so
+frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who
+have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able
+writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world
+as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves
+the credit due to another.
+
+The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to
+originality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who
+would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating,
+and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he
+happen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to _some_
+contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of
+plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits
+often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is not
+uncommon for the same thought to be strictly _original_ with many
+writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to
+shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of
+another; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of
+teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and
+arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding
+with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances,
+been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be
+pardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject a
+good idea _of his own,_ merely because some one else has, at some time
+or other, been blessed with the same thought.
+
+As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of
+ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work
+unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was
+desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important
+principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax,
+and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical
+purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of
+illustrations so full and intelligible, as _completely to adapt the
+principles to the capacities of common learners._ Whether this design
+has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the public
+to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it
+has become known, and the ready sale of _forty thousand_ copies, (though
+_without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,_) are
+favorable omens.
+
+In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author
+has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking
+blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the
+authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit,
+which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all
+former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and
+science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own
+invention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is
+powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be
+liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he has
+taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject
+critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he
+deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object
+he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others,
+consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the
+_method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the
+learner_. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: and
+he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own
+want of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious
+cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the
+language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the
+existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and,
+moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can
+never be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected
+because they admit of exceptions.--He who is thoroughly acquainted with
+the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth
+of these remarks.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be
+destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not
+have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which
+it accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the
+definitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of
+Lectures.
+
+HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.
+
+As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangement
+essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed
+improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be
+disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the
+order of parsing, will not consider it _new_, but blend it with those
+long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat
+similar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author
+considers a _regular systematic order_.
+
+The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to
+_interrogate_ the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse
+without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner
+ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no
+systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The _systematic_ order
+laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply
+every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses,
+without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing,
+he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the
+learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great
+relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method,
+are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted
+with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice,
+wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and
+recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of
+them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates
+the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the
+young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most
+important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying
+them in parsing.
+
+If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every
+teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the
+advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any
+former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the
+author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years,
+devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system,
+he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical
+knowledge of this abstruse science, in _two months_, than he could in
+_one year_ when he taught in the "old way." It is presumed that no
+instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the
+truth of this assertion.
+
+Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the
+transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will
+find that, although the author has not followed the common "artificial
+and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he
+has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of the
+understanding."
+
+The learner should commence, _not by committing and rehearsing_, but by
+reading attentively the first _two_ lectures several times over. He
+ought then to parse, according to the _systematic order_, the examples
+given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an
+opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the
+parts of speech included in the examples.
+
+The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but
+comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an
+"Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young
+student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very
+commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem
+rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of
+discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing _five_ words
+critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing _fifty_
+words superficially, and without understanding their various properties.
+The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing
+his pupils recite a single lesson of _definitions_ committed to memory,
+for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as
+they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the
+learner in school, as well as for the _private learner_, will be given
+in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a
+saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be
+disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to
+acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and
+desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized;
+but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the
+acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient
+ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its
+contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not
+be thrown upon _him._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to
+lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints
+by way of encouragement.
+
+Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to make
+himself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find it
+an easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer,
+is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of
+the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him
+communicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part of
+speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties,
+not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by
+giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of
+speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it,
+and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the
+rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other
+parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until
+the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may
+have been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress,
+on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and that
+teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an
+enviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM.
+
+
+
+
+FAMILIAR LECTURES
+
+ON
+
+ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LECTURE I
+
+
+DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.--ORTHOGRAPHY.
+
+TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.
+
+You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly
+pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of
+science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the
+impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of
+little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind,
+all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to
+convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a
+pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that
+directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the
+condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which
+alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of
+elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual
+existence;--of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and
+enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and
+every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these
+remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens
+the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is
+indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic
+of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even
+if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think
+it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses
+a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship,
+arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are
+highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so
+universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every
+situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;--when you speak,
+read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility.
+
+Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and
+correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately
+without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon
+convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste,
+may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire
+that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring
+errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross,
+which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be
+detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me,
+therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of
+grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or
+write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express
+their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it
+impossible for any one to _understand_ them: their language frequently
+amounts, not only to _bad_ sense, but _non_-sense. In other instances
+several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and
+what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so
+constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they
+intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your
+attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.
+
+The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way
+smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed,
+and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will
+find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is
+rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall,
+therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to
+illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you
+will be able, _if you exercise your mind,_ to understand its nature, and
+apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one
+useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you
+would probably be unable to comprehend.
+
+Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the
+sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either
+by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to
+inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all
+doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing,
+the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical
+construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by
+which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and
+distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing;
+and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any
+branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be
+understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be
+discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to
+meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to
+overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your
+studies, is to cultivate the habit of _thinking methodically and
+soundly_ on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention.
+Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to
+speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according
+to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This
+system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and
+strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a
+process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar
+communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.
+
+You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and
+knowledge;--an age in which science and the arts are marching onward
+with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;--a land on
+which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of
+the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or
+in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the
+mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich
+boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our
+fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so
+unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself,
+and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance.
+Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous
+people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our
+youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the
+grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a
+laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which
+leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the
+hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her
+crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned
+and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you
+will be happy.
+
+LANGUAGE.
+
+Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men
+and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and
+desires.
+
+Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken
+and written.
+
+NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which
+different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another.
+The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of
+their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The
+elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds;
+modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two
+savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their
+thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm
+and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into
+contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in
+the use of those _inarticulate_ sounds by which they express their
+thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a
+lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of
+a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.
+
+ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which
+mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.--In
+order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term _word,_ I
+will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.
+
+_Idea_. The _notices_ which we gain by sensation and perception, and
+which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and
+knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand
+upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call _coldness_.
+That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the
+mind, is called _perception;_ and the abstract notice itself, or notion
+you form of this sensation, is denominated an _idea_. This being
+premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.
+
+_Words_ are _articulate_ sounds, used by common consent, not as natural,
+but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in
+themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those
+ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them.
+In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the
+name _gold;_ not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness
+which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that
+sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there
+any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the
+word _gold_ would convey the same idea to the people of other countries
+as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make
+use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, _aurum_ denotes
+the same idea in Latin, and _or_ in French. Hence it follows, that it is
+by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.
+
+SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the
+human voice.
+
+_The voice_ is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis,
+(a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by
+the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.
+
+WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or
+characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined
+into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate
+sounds uttered by the voice.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GRAMMAR.
+
+
+GRAMMAR is the science of language.
+
+Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.
+
+UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all
+languages.
+
+PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular
+language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established
+practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,
+
+_The established practice of the best speakers and writers_ of any
+language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that
+language.
+
+By the phrase, _established practice,_ is implied reputable, national,
+and present usage. A usage becomes _good_ and _legal,_ when it has been
+long and generally adopted.
+
+_The best speakers and writers,_ or such as may be considered good
+authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high
+estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other
+literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid
+matter, and refined manner.
+
+In the grammar of a _perfect_ language, no rules should be admitted, but
+such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of
+that language and the nature of things; but our language being
+_im_-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a _practical_ treatise, like
+this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated
+by _custom_. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious
+custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great
+inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages
+which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are
+conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have
+power to control it.
+
+Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive
+advancement, _varied_ for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it
+assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give
+it. We are, therefore, as _rational_ and _practical_ grammarians,
+compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language
+as it _is_, and not as it _should be_, and bow to custom.
+
+PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of
+language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of
+thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words,
+and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our
+observance.
+
+PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words
+of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on
+scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and
+design, and enforces their application.
+
+PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the
+language, sanctioned by good usage.
+
+DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed
+in a definite form.
+
+RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial
+relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
+
+ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language
+with propriety.
+
+GRAMMAR teaches us _how to use words in a proper manner._ The most
+important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts
+to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what
+they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply
+them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were
+invented. _Grammar_, well understood, enables us to express our
+thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will
+defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that
+which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write
+our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a
+consideration of the highest moment.
+
+
+Grammar is divided into four parts;
+
+    1. ORTHOGRAPHY,
+    2. ETYMOLOGY,
+    3. SYNTAX,
+    4. PROSODY.
+
+ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of
+letters, and the just method of spelling words.
+
+ORTHOGRAPHY means _word-making_, or _spelling_. It teaches us the
+different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into
+syllables, and syllables into words.
+
+As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume
+you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just
+method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell
+long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather
+dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and
+analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can _spell correctly_, you
+may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.
+
+Orthography treats, 1st, of _Letters_, 2ndly, of _Syllables_, and 3dly,
+of _Words_.
+
+I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.
+
+The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters.
+
+They are divided into vowels and consonants.
+
+A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels
+are _a, e, i, o, u,_ and sometimes _w_ and _y_. _W_ and _y_ are
+consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other
+situation they are vowels.
+
+A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the
+help of a vowel; as, _b, d, f, l_. All letters except the vowels are
+consonants.
+
+Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.
+
+The mutes cannot be sounded _at all_ without the aid of a vowel. They
+are _b, p, t, d, k_, and _c_ and _g_ hard.
+
+The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are _f, l,
+m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft.
+
+Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are called _liquids_,
+because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were,
+into their sounds.
+
+
+A diphthong is the union of _two_ vowels, pronounced by a single impulse
+of the voice; as _oi_ in voice, _ou_ in sound.
+
+A triphthong is the union of _three_ vowels pronounced in like manner;
+as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view.
+
+A _proper_ diphthong has _both_ the vowels sounded; as, _ou_ in ounce.
+An _improper_ diphthong has only _one_ of the vowels sounded; as, _oa_
+in boat.
+
+II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single
+impulse of the voice; as, _a, an, ant_.
+
+A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two
+syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a
+word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.
+
+III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as
+signs of our ideas.
+
+Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.
+
+A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in
+the language; as, _man, good_.
+
+A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as,
+_manful, goodness_.
+
+There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words.
+The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant,
+en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were,
+originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been
+contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.
+
+
+OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
+
+A.--_A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in
+_ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italian
+sound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has the
+short sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_
+in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_.
+
+The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma,
+Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless
+excrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_.
+
+The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_;
+except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and some
+others.
+
+_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_,
+like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_.
+
+_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_.
+
+_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_.
+
+B.--_B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_.
+
+_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_,
+&c. except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before
+_t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c.
+
+C.--_C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end of
+syllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim,
+flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre,
+cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, and
+is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social,
+pronunciation_, &c.; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_.
+It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_.
+
+_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in words
+derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in
+_chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_.
+In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise,
+chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in
+_milch, bench, clinch_, &c.
+
+_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_,
+except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant,
+it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule,
+schism, yacht, drachm_.
+
+D.--_D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like
+_dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in
+_educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_.
+
+The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains
+its distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_
+are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed,
+walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. which are pronounced, _past, walkt,
+flasht, aimd, rold_.
+
+E.--_E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in
+_men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; and
+of short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in the
+unaccented terminations, _es, et, en_.
+
+F.--_F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_,
+which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, a
+calve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_
+head.
+
+G.--_G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and at
+the end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is soft
+before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get,
+gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_.
+
+H.--_H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silent
+after _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_.
+
+I.--_I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_.
+Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; and
+in other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words it
+has the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_.
+
+J.--_J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which it
+is pronounced like _y_.
+
+K.--_K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_,
+where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before
+_n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_.
+
+L.--_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It is
+often silent; as in _half, talk, almond_.
+
+M.--_M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in
+_comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_.
+
+N.--_N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the other
+a compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c., pronounced
+_angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in
+_hymn, autumn_.
+
+O.--_O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in
+_not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth,
+does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_,
+&c.
+
+P.--_P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in
+_cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in
+_psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_.
+
+_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in
+_nephew, Stephen_.
+
+Q.--_Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronounced
+like _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_.
+
+R.--_R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one;
+as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_
+is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_.
+
+S.--_S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at the
+beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister,
+sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent and
+another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in
+_expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accent
+and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier,
+usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_.
+
+T.--_T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accent
+precedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature,
+virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_
+before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in
+_salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c.
+and unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting also
+derivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_.
+
+_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in
+_thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c.
+
+U.--_U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in
+_dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It is
+pronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy,
+business_.
+
+V.--_V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_.
+
+W.--_W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo,
+beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and also
+in _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written after
+the _h_; as in _why, when, what_;--_hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as a
+vowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_.
+
+X.--_X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with the
+accent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accented
+syllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse,
+extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or
+_h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_.
+_X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greek
+original; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_.
+
+Y.--_Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York,
+yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the
+sound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system,
+party, pyramid_.
+
+Z.--_Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_.
+
+
+RULES FOR SPELLING.
+
+SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.
+
+The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they
+assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language.
+This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book
+and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.
+
+RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final or
+ending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff,
+mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this,
+us_, and _thus_.
+
+    _False Orthography for the learner to correct_.--Be thou like the
+    gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid.--The aged hero
+    comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam.--Shal
+    mortal man be more just than God?--Few know the value of health til
+    they lose it.--Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively
+    refined.
+
+      And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat
+      The vaulty heaven so high above our heads:
+      I have more care to stay, than wil to go.
+
+
+RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, never
+double the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as,
+_man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn,
+purr_, and _buzz_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--None ever went sadd from Fingal.--He rejoiced
+    over his sonn.--Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death.--Many a
+    trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth.
+
+      The weary sunn has made a golden sett,
+      And, by the bright track of his golden carr,
+      Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow.
+
+
+RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons of
+verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and
+superlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a
+_consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries;
+carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_.
+
+The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not be
+doubled; as, _carry, carrying_.
+
+But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above,
+it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; except
+in the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_,
+and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--Our fancys should be governed by reason.--Thou
+    wearyest thyself in vain.--He denyed himself all sinful pleasures.
+
+      Win straiing souls with modesty and love;
+      Cast none away.
+      The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty.
+      Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder
+        allies green.
+
+
+RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllable
+beginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant,
+is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_.
+
+But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very
+rarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy,
+joyless, joyful_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful
+    humors.--The vessel was heavyly laden.--When we act against
+    conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace.
+
+      Christiana, mayden of heroic mien!
+      Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!
+
+
+RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable,
+ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel,
+double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins
+with a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_.
+
+But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the last
+syllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer,
+an offering; maid, maiden_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--The business of to-day, should not be defered
+    till to-morrow.--That law is annuled.--When we have outstriped our
+    errors we have won the race.--By defering our repentance, we
+    accumulate our sorrows.--The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many
+    things which the heathen philosophers allowed.
+
+      At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow
+      Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below.--
+      Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound
+      Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground.
+
+RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or
+_ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fully
+skilful_.
+
+But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less,
+ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as,
+_harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--A chillness generally precedes a fever.--He is
+    wed to dullness.
+
+      The silent stranger stood amazed to see
+      Contempt of wealth and willful poverty.
+
+    Restlesness of mind impairs our peace.--The road to the blisful
+    regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king.--The arrows of
+    calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue.
+
+RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent
+_e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_;
+except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--Sedatness is becoming.
+
+      All these with ceasless praise his works behold.
+      Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives
+      Her ploughshare o'er creation!
+      ------Nature made a pause,
+      An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!
+
+RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination,
+_ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_.
+
+_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ is
+preceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry,
+merriment_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates
+    improvment.--Encouragment is greatest when we least need it.
+
+      To shun allurments is not hard,
+      To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared.
+
+RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_
+or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable;
+cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_
+in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with
+_able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--Knowledge is desireable.--Misconduct is
+    inexcuseable.--Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.--We
+    are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves.
+
+RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent
+_e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge,
+lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish
+    spirit.--An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected
+    with a servile and cringeing humor.
+
+      Conscience anticipateing time,
+      Already rues th' unacted crime.
+      One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs
+      Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas.
+
+RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the
+simple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight,
+thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions to
+this rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words,
+_wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_.
+
+    _False Orthography_.--The Jew's pasover was instituted in A.M.
+    2513.--They salute one another by touching their forheads.--That
+    which is some times expedient, is not allways so.
+
+      Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain,
+      There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man.
+      Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour,
+      There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower.
+        The head reclined, the loosened hair,
+        The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:--
+        See, he looks up; a wofull smile
+        Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile.
+
+
+You may now answer the following
+
+QUESTIONS.
+
+What is language?--How is language divided?--What is natural
+language?--What are the elements of natural language in man?--Wherein
+consists the language of brutes?--What is artificial language?--What is
+an idea?--What are words?--What is grammar?--What does Universal grammar
+explain?--Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?--What
+is the standard of grammatical accuracy?--What is Philosophical
+grammar?--What is Practical grammar?--What is a principle of grammar?--A
+definition?--A rule?--What is English grammar?--Into how many parts is
+grammar divided?--What does Orthography teach?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX
+
+
+LECTURE II
+
+OF NOUNS AND VERBS.
+
+ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their various
+modifications, and their derivation.
+
+SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their
+proper arrangement in a sentence.
+
+The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_.
+
+_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means
+_placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_.
+
+The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and
+their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to
+correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles
+unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a
+prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of
+Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes
+necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these
+two parts of grammar in connexion.
+
+Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the
+exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their
+whole history, including their application to things in accordance with
+the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply
+them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources,
+and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process
+altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would
+lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately
+derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages
+to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would
+become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one
+man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views
+of this part of grammar.
+
+1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words.
+
+2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to each
+class or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. By
+modifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, in
+consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one
+another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_,
+h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_,
+writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will be
+explained in their appropriate places.
+
+3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teaches
+you _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example,
+from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_,
+speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_.
+These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the
+last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other
+only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on
+the word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ who
+speak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_
+speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_
+speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_.
+
+The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the
+second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the
+Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of
+derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is
+the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is
+not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to
+trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the
+Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their
+meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but
+it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their
+connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in
+which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor
+in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but
+_at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are already
+derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound
+to take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without any
+regard to their ancient construction and application.
+
+CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be
+the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practical
+convenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a
+reference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words,
+nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they are
+at present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankind
+are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to
+communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the
+transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in
+short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_,
+or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by
+refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and
+elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every
+language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than
+in its barbarous state.
+
+The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the
+_original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ of
+meaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_.
+
+The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it
+represents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dips
+his _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word
+_paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painter
+uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to
+_name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and,
+lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a
+_verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these
+applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and
+thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took
+_water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants.
+
+ETYMOLOGY.
+
+Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words.
+
+THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic,
+and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been
+greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,
+Italian, and German languages.
+
+The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and
+words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may
+be estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words,
+called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE,
+ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, and
+INTERJECTION.
+
+Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are
+included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a
+knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these
+ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The
+_Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech;
+therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the
+interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you
+proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more
+labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become
+familiar with all the minor parts of speech.
+
+The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them with
+each other, and _express their actions_.
+
+_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ which
+denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and
+expressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions and
+being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised
+in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults,
+mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, that
+no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the
+foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in
+this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a
+greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the
+subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this
+arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words
+are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared
+to appreciate my arguments.
+
+
+OF NOUNS.
+
+A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston,
+knowledge_.
+
+Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is the
+name of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a
+_substance_ or a _quality_.
+
+_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The name
+of any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or
+which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun.
+_Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty,
+virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish
+this part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will be
+useful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that will
+make sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words by
+this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind,
+conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, and
+so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed;
+therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions to
+this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. These
+you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their
+_making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope,
+immortality_.
+
+    [1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is
+    almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal
+    and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that
+    which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also
+    frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly
+    _thing_." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature;
+    but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing.
+
+Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as
+its reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence,
+invisibility_.
+
+Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to
+their _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives,
+and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the
+concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to
+comprehend it.
+
+NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper.
+
+A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man,
+tree, river_.
+
+A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca,
+Ganges_.
+
+A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun of
+multitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_.
+
+The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For
+example: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_
+boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
+_individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you
+know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to all
+boys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
+individual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the name
+of a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_
+rivers.
+
+Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things,
+are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_,
+different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties.
+The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a
+common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper
+noun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are _common
+nouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes of
+things containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places,
+rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are _proper nouns_, because they denote
+_individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.
+
+_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns,
+because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, when
+applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to
+denote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common.
+The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance,
+demand your attentive and careful perusal.
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are
+    used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled
+    _the_ Washington of South America."
+
+    2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when
+    articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is
+    studious; _That_ girl is discreet." In such instances, they are
+    nearly equivalent to proper nouns.
+
+    3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following
+    classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament:
+    _Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing;
+    and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from
+    their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student
+    be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives,
+    both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be
+    necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts
+    of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_
+    (that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it
+    belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_
+    the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and
+    _white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a
+    distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in
+    reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper,
+    _white_ mouse.
+
+    4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and
+    sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which
+    appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of
+    things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial
+    nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house:
+    3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man,
+    woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things
+    inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following,
+    however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the
+    names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial
+    nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope,
+    immortality.
+
+To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case.
+
+GENDER.
+
+GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the
+masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.
+
+The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_.
+
+The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_.
+
+The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_.
+
+_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neither
+gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender
+means _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes,
+nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience,
+we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_
+gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only
+languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division
+of nouns.--The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther
+explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the
+following
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and
+    sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the
+    masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate,
+    neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c._ if doubtful, are
+    of the masculine _or_ feminine gender.
+
+    2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or
+    _personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender.
+    Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous
+    for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by
+    nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep,
+    winter, &c._ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are
+    conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or
+    which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon,
+    church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune,
+    virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c._ This principle for designating the
+    sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally
+    adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet
+    applies the sex according to his fancy.
+
+    The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:
+
+
+      1. _By different words_; as,
+
+      _Masculine_.      _Feminine_.
+      Bachelor             maid
+      Boar                 sow
+      Boy                  girl
+      Brother              sister
+      Buck                 doe
+      Bull                 cow
+      Cock                 hen
+      Dog                  bitch
+      Drake                duck
+      Earl                 countess
+      Father               mother
+      Friar                nun
+      Gander               goose
+      Hart                 roe
+      Horse                mare
+      Husband              wife
+      King                 queen
+      Lad                  lass
+      Lord                 lady
+      Man                  woman
+      Master               mistress
+      Milter               spawner
+      Nephew               niece
+      Ram                  ewe
+      Singer               songstress or singer
+      Sloven               slut
+      Son                  daughter
+      Stag                 hind
+      Uncle                aunt
+      Wizard               witch
+      Sir                  madam
+
+      2. _By a difference in termination_; as,
+      Abbot                abbess
+      Actor                actress
+      Administrator        administratrix
+      Adulterer            adulteress
+      Ambassador           ambassadress
+      Arbiter              arbitress
+      Auditor              auditress
+      Author               authoress
+      Baron                baroness
+      Benefactor           benefactress
+      Bridegroom           bride
+      Canon                canoness
+      Caterer              cateress
+      Chanter              chantress
+      Conductor            conductress
+      Count                countess
+      Czar                 czarina
+      Deacon               deaconess
+      Detracter            detractress
+      Director             directress
+      Duke                 dutchess
+      Elector              electress
+      Embassador           embassadress
+      Emperor              emperess
+      Enchanter            enchantress
+      Executor             executrix
+      Fornicator           fornicatress
+      God                  goddess
+      Governor             governess
+      Heir                 heiress
+      Hero                 heroine
+      Host                 hostess
+      Hunter               huntress
+      Inheritor            inheritress or inheritrix
+      Instructor           instructress
+      Jew                  Jewess
+      Lion                 lioness
+      Marquis              marchioness
+      Mayor                mayoress
+      Patron               patroness
+      Peer                 peeress
+      Poet                 poetess
+      Priest               priestess
+      Prince               princess
+      Prior                prioress
+      Prophet              prophetess
+      Proprietor           proprietress
+      Protector            protectress
+      Shepherd             shepherdess
+      Songster             songstress
+      Sorcerer             sorceress
+      Suiter               suitress
+      Sultan               sultaness or sultana
+      Tiger                tigress
+      Testator             testatrix
+      Traitor              traitress
+      Tutor                tutoress
+      Tyrant               tyranness
+      Victor               victress
+      Viscount             viscountess
+      Votary               votaress
+      Widower              widow
+
+      3. _By prefixing another word_; as,
+
+      A cock-sparrow        A hen-sparrow
+      A man-servant         A maid-servant
+      A he-goat             A she-goat
+      A he-bear             A she-bear
+      A male-child          A female-child
+      Male-descendants      Female-descendants
+
+
+PERSON.
+
+PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb.
+
+The _first person_ denotes the speaker.
+
+The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen,
+_earth!"_
+
+The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The
+_earth_ thirsts."
+
+Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks,
+the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be in
+the _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologists
+suppose the noun to be in the _first_ person:--"This may certify, that
+I, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident,
+that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_
+himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_.
+
+If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought
+is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed.
+If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the
+noun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him;
+that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_
+person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, have
+you seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the
+_third_.
+
+"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ of
+the sky?"
+
+"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship
+between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his
+wig-wam behind the western waters."
+
+  "Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies!
+   Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!"
+  "Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore
+   Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore."
+
+In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope,
+are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the
+nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain,
+friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth,
+bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person.
+
+NUMBER.
+
+Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two
+numbers, the singular and the plural.
+
+The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_.
+
+The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_.
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax,
+    barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness,
+    compassion, &c.; others only in the plural form; as, bellows,
+    scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers,
+    ides, pains, vespers, &c.
+
+    2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine;
+    and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species.
+
+    3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to
+    the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add
+    _es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes;
+    cargo, cargoes.
+
+    4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of
+    that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except
+    grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals
+    by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular
+    plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves.
+
+    5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the
+    same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty,
+    beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is
+    another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays;
+    attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys.
+
+    6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics,
+    hydraulics_, &c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns.
+
+    7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and
+    _amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in
+    signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiae are
+    always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti.
+
+    8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any
+    general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox,
+    oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse,
+    lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny,
+    pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play,_
+    dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species
+    is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as,
+    six _peas_, ten _fishes_.
+
+    9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful,
+    handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law,
+    brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial.
+
+    The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the
+    languages from which they are adopted.
+
+
+      _Singular_         _Plural._
+      Antithesis        antitheses
+      Apex              apices
+      Appendix          appendixes _or_ appendices
+      Arcanum           arcana
+      Automaton         automata
+      Axis              axes
+      Basis             bases
+      Beau              beaux _or_ beaus
+      Calx              calces _or_ calxes
+      Cherub            cherubim _or_ cherubs
+      Crisis            crises
+      Criterion         criteria
+      Datum             data
+      Diaeresis          diaereses
+      Desideratum       desiderata
+      Effluvium         effluvia
+      Ellipsis          ellipses
+      Emphasis          emphases
+      Encomium          encomia _or_ encomiums
+      Erratum           errata
+      Genius            genii [2]
+      Genus             genera
+      Hypothesis        hypotheses
+      Ignis fatuus,     ignes fatui
+      Index             indices _or_ indexes [3]
+      Lamina            laminae
+      Magus             magi
+      Memorandum        memoranda _or_ memorandums
+      Metamorphosis     metamorphoses
+      Parenthesis       parentheses
+      Phenomenon        phenomena
+      Radius            radii _or_ radiuses
+      Stamen            stamina
+      Seraph            seraphim _or_ seraphs
+      Stimulus          stimuli
+      Stratum           strata
+      Thesis            theses
+      Vertex            vertices
+      Vortex            vortices _or_ vortexes
+
+
+[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mental
+abilities.
+
+[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices,
+when referring to algebraic quantities.
+
+CASE.
+
+Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state,
+situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have
+three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.
+
+I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not in
+the _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but in
+the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming
+different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this
+definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning
+principles, founded in the nature of things.
+
+Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what
+is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the
+different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes.
+The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What,
+then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say
+he is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he is
+lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ to
+denote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a noun
+before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominative
+case_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it
+has another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_
+in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_
+gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is,
+therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the
+_boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of
+the action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when I
+say, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as
+_acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for which
+reason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns
+have three cases or positions.
+
+As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably
+connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them
+until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I
+will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in
+connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of
+the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.
+
+In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with
+each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ to
+the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of
+the first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely to
+name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for
+their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted,
+or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance,
+they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so
+on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow.
+Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be
+to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we
+call
+
+VERBS.
+
+A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_;
+I _rule_; I _am ruled_.
+
+Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are also
+divided into regular, irregular, and defective.
+
+The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifies
+a _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because it
+is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb
+and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The
+noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in
+order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most
+useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar.
+The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as
+you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.
+
+For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the
+verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as
+_convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent
+with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I
+shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle
+of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ to
+the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good
+definition.
+
+A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_.
+
+An _active verb_ expresses action; and
+
+The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _John
+writes_.
+
+In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_,
+because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_,
+therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And you
+know, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the
+_nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man
+walks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive that
+the words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and you
+cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and
+_warriors_, are in the _nominative case._
+
+As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it
+follows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This
+_actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative.
+_Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_
+but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the
+noun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject or
+nominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafter
+exemplified.
+
+A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _a
+state of being_; as, _John sits_.
+
+Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, as
+the _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominative
+case_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express
+_apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it represents
+John in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuter
+verb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that
+_neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter gender
+implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence,
+by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when applied
+to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_
+verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The
+man stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--the
+words _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and the
+nouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominative
+case_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, that
+when a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the
+_actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ an
+actor, but the _subject_ of the verb.
+
+Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms
+_exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man
+_stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_.
+
+I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguish
+the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its
+signification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is a
+verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to
+live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is a
+verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he
+writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will
+not make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, is
+nonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is
+worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_
+verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes
+used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.
+
+To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_.
+
+At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but
+hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties.
+And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the
+_intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions,
+you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such
+principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the
+time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get
+along _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one
+principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you
+for the next.
+
+NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the
+_actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed by
+the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or
+relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore,
+only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the same
+instant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ is
+here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and
+the verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs;
+therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing with
+its nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verb
+must be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verb
+ends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_;
+thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write.
+
+_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_,
+but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree
+with its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verb
+must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the
+_first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or pronoun which is its
+nominative.
+
+I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its
+nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You,
+They, are _personal pronouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and
+_singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing._; _He, She_, or
+_It_, is _third_ per. _sing._; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or
+_You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. These
+pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office
+that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb,
+they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb.
+
+Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as
+it is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.
+
+   _Singular_.                           _Plural_.
+
+1. _Per_. I walk,                     1. _Per_. We Walk,
+2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_,             2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk,
+3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_            3. _Per_. They walk, or
+               the boy walk_s_,                      the boys walk.
+               _or_ walk_eth_.
+
+This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, it
+is of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or
+_eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest,
+standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh,
+rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third person
+singular.
+
+I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb
+must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the
+nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the
+same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of _walk_,
+you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the _singular_,
+in order to agree in _form_ with the first, second, and third person of
+its nominative; but in the _plural_ it does not vary its endings from
+the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in _sense_ with its
+nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little
+mind, and you will perceive that _agreement_ and _government_ in
+language do not consist _merely_ in the _form_ of words. Now, is it not
+clear, that when I say, I _walk_, the verb walk is _singular_, because
+it expresses but _one_ action? And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it not
+equally apparent, that walk is _plural_, because it expresses _two_
+actions? In the sentence, Ten men _walk_, the verb _walk_ denotes _ten_
+actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there
+must be as many _actions_ as there are _actors_; and that the verb, when
+it has _no form_ or _ending_ to show it, is as strictly plural, as when
+it has.--So, in the phrase, _We_ walk, the verb walk is _first_ person,
+because it expresses the actions performed by the _speakers: Ye_ or
+_you_ walk, the verb is _second_ person, denoting the actions of the
+persons _spoken to;_ third person, _They_ walk. The verb, then, when
+correctly written, always agrees, in _sense_, with its nominative in
+number and person.
+
+At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be
+understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes
+necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been
+already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the
+possessive, and the objective.
+
+POSSESSIVE CASE. The _possessive case_ denotes the possessor of
+something; as, This is _John's_ horse. This expression implies, that
+_John_ is the _owner_ or _possessor_ of the horse; and, that horse is
+the _property_ which he possesses.
+
+When I say, These are the _men's_, and those, the _boys'_ hats, the two
+words, "boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning
+at all, that the boys _own_ or _possess_ the hats. "Samuel Badger sells
+_boys'_ hats." Who _owns_ the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact
+ascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats," which, taken by themselves,
+imply, not that they are _Mr. Badger's_ hats, nor that they are _for_
+boys, but that they are hats _of_, or _belonging to_, or _possessed by_
+boys. But we _infer_ from the _words connected_ with the phrase, "boys'
+hats," that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in
+the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated.
+
+In the phrases, _fine_ hats, _coarse_ hats, _high-crowned_ hats,
+_broad-brimmed_ hats, _woollen, new, ten, some, these, many_ hats, the
+words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or
+define the term _hats;_ but the term _boys'_ does not _describe_ or
+limit the meaning of _hats. Boys'_, therefore, is not, as some suppose,
+an adjective.
+
+"The _slave's_ master." Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The
+slave _has_ a master. If he _has_ him, then, he _possesses_ him;--he
+sustains that relation to him which we call possession.
+
+A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an
+apostrophe, and generally an _s_ after it; thus, _John's_, hat; the
+_boy's_ coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in _s_,
+the apostrophe is added, but no additional _s_; as, "_Boys'_ hats;
+_Eagles'_ wings." When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostrophe
+only is added; as, "For _goodness'_ sake; for _righteousness'_ sake;"
+except the word witness; as, "The _witness's_ testimony." When a noun in
+the possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but the
+apostrophe is retained; as, "For _conscience'_ sake."
+
+Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture
+_three_ times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to
+_remember_, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence
+over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three
+times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed
+in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume
+to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for,
+unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid
+progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my
+instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of
+grammar in a short time.--When you shall have complied with this
+requisition, you may commit the following _order of parsing a noun_, and
+_the order of parsing a verb_; and then you will be prepared to parse or
+analyze the following examples.
+
+ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.
+
+Do you recollect the meaning of the word _analysis?_ If you do not, I
+will explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is the
+reverse of synthesis. _Synthesis_ is the act of combining simples so as
+to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as to
+form syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to form
+sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is
+called synthetic. _Analysis_, on the contrary, is the act of
+decomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into
+its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles.
+Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is
+to separate from one another and classify the different words of which
+it is composed; and to analyze or _parse_ a word, means to enumerate and
+describe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations with
+respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its
+inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to
+be of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find
+it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct,
+errors in composition.
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+The _order of parsing_ a NOUN, is--a noun, and why?--common, proper, or
+collective, and why?--gender, and why?--person, and why?--number, and
+why?--case, and why?--RULE:--decline it.
+
+_The order of parsing_ a VERB, is--a verb, and why?--active, passive,
+or neuter, and why?--if _active_--transitive or intransitive, and
+why?--if _passive_--how is it formed?--regular, irregular, or defective,
+and why?--mood, and why?--tense, and why?--person and number, and
+why?--with what does it agree?--RULE:--conjugate it.
+
+I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by
+applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions
+given in the order. If you have _perfectly committed_ the order of
+parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, you
+cannot parse a verb _in full_, until you shall have had a more complete
+explanation of it.
+
+    _John's hand trembles_.
+
+_John's_ is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person--proper, the
+name of an individual--masculine gender, it denotes a male--third
+person, spoken of--singular number, it implies but one--and in the
+possessive case, it denotes possession--it is governed by the noun
+"hand," according to
+
+RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
+noun it possesses_.
+
+Declined--Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural--nom.
+Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns.
+
+_Hand_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort or
+species of things--neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex--third
+person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the
+nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "trembles," and
+governs it agreeably to
+
+RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb:_--that is, the nominative
+determines the number and person of the verb.
+
+Declined--Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands,
+poss. hands', obj. hands.
+
+_Trembles_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it expresses
+action--third person, singular number, because the nominative "hand" is
+with which it agrees, according to
+
+RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_.
+
+You must not say that the verb is of the third person because _it is
+spoken of_. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person,
+and singular or plural number, because its nominative is.
+
+Conjugated--First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou tremblest, 3 pers.
+he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we tremble, 2 pers.
+ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble.
+
+Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has over
+another, in causing that other word to be in some _particular case,
+number, person, mood_, or _tense_.
+
+ILLUSTRATION.
+
+RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb_.
+
+If you employ the pronoun _I_, which is of the _first_ person, singular
+number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers.
+sing, thus, I _smile_; and when your nominative is _second_ pers. sing,
+your verb must be; as, thou smil_est_. Why, in the latter instance, does
+the ending of the verb change to _est_? Because the nominative changes.
+And if your nominative is _third_ person, the verb will vary again;
+thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that _the
+nominative governs the verb_; that is, the nominative has power to
+change the _form_ and _meaning_ of the verb, in respect to num. and
+person. Government, thus far, is evinced in the _form_ of the words, as
+well as in the sense.
+
+RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_.
+
+It is improper to say, thou _hear_, the men _hears_. Why improper?
+Because _hear_ is _first_ pers. and the nominative _thou_ is _second_
+pers. _Hears_ is singular, and the nom. _men_ is _plural_. Rule 4th
+says, _The verb must agree with its nominative_. The expressions should,
+therefore, be, thou hear_est_, the men _hear_; and then the verb would
+_agree_ with its nominatives. But _why_ must the verb agree with its
+nominative? Why must we say, thou talk_est_, the man talks, men _talk_?
+Because the genius of our language, and the common consent of those who
+speak it, _require_ such a construction: and this _requisition_ amounts
+to a _law_ or _rule_. This _rule_, then, is founded in _the nature of
+things_, and sanctioned by _good usage_.
+
+RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
+noun which it possesses_.
+
+It is correct to say, The _man_ eats, _he_ eats; but we cannot say, the
+_man_ dog eats, _he_ dog eats. Why not? Because the man is here
+represented as the _possessor_, and _dog_, the _property_, or _thing
+possessed_; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to
+the possessor, the _thing_ which he is represented as possessing, the
+possessor shall take a particular form to show its _case_, or _relation
+to the property_; thus, The _man's_ dog eats, _his_ dog eats. You
+perceive, then, that the _added_ noun, denoting the thing possessed, has
+power _to change the form_ of the noun or pronoun denoting the
+possessor, according to RULE 12. thus, by adding dog in the preceding
+examples, _man_ is changed to _man's_, and _he_, to _his_.
+
+Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite
+familiar to you; and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and
+_systematically_, the following exercises. When you parse, you may
+spread the Compendium before you; and, if you have not already committed
+the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them.
+This mode of procedure will enable you to learn _all_ the definitions
+and rules by applying them to practice.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Rain descends--Rains descend--Snow falls--Snows fall--Thunder
+rolls--Thunders roll--Man's works decay--Men's labors cease--John's dog
+barks--Eliza's voice trembles--Julia's sister's child improves--Peter's
+cousin's horse limps.
+
+In the next place, I will parse a noun and a _neuter_ verb, which verb,
+you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect.
+
+    _"Birds repose_ on the branches of trees."
+
+_Birds_ is a noun, the name of a thing or creature--common, the name of
+a genus or class--masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males
+and females--third person, spoken of--plural number, it implies more
+than one--and in the nominative case, it is the _subject_ of the verb
+"repose," and governs it according to RULE 3. _The nominative case
+governs the verb_. Declined--Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird.
+Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds.
+
+_Repose_ is a verb, a word that signifies to _be_--neuter, it expresses
+neither action nor passion, but a state of being--third person, plural
+number, because the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees,
+agreeably to RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number
+and person_.
+
+Declined--1. pers. sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. pers. he
+reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or
+you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds repose.
+
+Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by
+_italics_, in the following
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+The _book lies_ on the desk--The _cloak hangs_ on the wall--_Man's days
+are_ few--_Cathmor's warriors sleep_ in death--_Caltho reposes_ in the
+narrow house--Jocund _day stands_ tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The
+_sunbeams rest_ on the grave where her _beauty sleeps_.
+
+You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that follow,
+_five or six times over_, if you please.
+
+OBJECTIVE CASE.--ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS.
+
+The _objective_ case expresses the object of an action or of a
+relation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or a
+preposition.
+
+A noun is in the objective case when it is the _object_ of something. At
+present I shall explain this case only as the object of an _action_; but
+when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also
+illustrate it as the object of a _relation_.
+
+An active verb is _transitive_ when the action passes over from the
+subject or nominative to an object; as, Richard _strikes_ John.
+
+_Transitive_ means _passing_. In this sentence the action of the verb
+_strikes_ is _transitive_, because it _passes over_ from the nominative
+Richard to the object John; and you know that the noun John is in the
+_objective_ case, because it is _the object of the action_ expressed by
+the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For
+example: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that
+Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object in
+view. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileo
+invented what? The telescope. _Telescope_, then, is the real object of
+the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented; and, therefore,
+telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse _kicks_ the
+servant--Carpenters _build_ houses--Ossian _wrote_ poems--Columbus
+_discovered_ America--you readily perceive, that the verbs _kick, build,
+wrote_, and _discovered_, express transitive actions; and you cannot be
+at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case:--they are
+_servant, houses, poems_, and _America_.
+
+The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the
+following rule: the nominative _does something_; the objective _has
+something done to it_. The nominative generally comes _before_ the verb;
+and the objective, _after_ it. When I say, George struck the servant,
+_George_ is in the nominative, and _servant_ is in the objective case;
+but, when I say, The servant struck George, _servant_ is in the
+nominative case, and _George_ is in the objective. Thus you perceive,
+that _Case_ means the different state or situation of nouns with regard
+to other words.
+
+It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall,
+therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an
+explanation of the participle and preposition.
+
+Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in the
+nominative case _independent_, sometimes in the nominative case
+absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and sometimes in the
+nominative or objective case after the neuter to _be_, or after an
+active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated in
+Lecture X. and in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax.
+
+ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
+
+An active verb is _transitive_, when the action terminates on an object:
+but
+
+An active verb is _intransitive_, when the action does _not_ terminate
+on an object; as, John _walks_.
+
+You perceive that the verb _walks_, in this example, is _intransitive_,
+because the action does not pass over to an object; that is, the action
+is confined to the agent John. The following _sign_ will generally
+enable you to distinguish a _transitive_ verb from an _intransitive_.
+Any verb that will make sense with the words _a thing_ or _a person_,
+after it, is _transitive_. Try these verbs by the sign, _love, help,
+conquer, reach, subdue, overcome_. Thus, you can say, I love _a person_
+or _thing_--I can help _a person_ or _thing_--and so on. Hence you know
+that these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make
+sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following
+examples: _smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly_. We cannot say, if we
+mean to speak English, I smile a _person_ or _thing_--I go _a person_ or
+_thing_:--hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive, but
+intransitive.
+
+If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have a
+clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs.
+Before I close this subject, however, it is necessary farther to remark,
+that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a
+_mental_ or _moral_ action; and others, a _corporeal_ or _physical_
+action. Verbs expressing the different affections or operations of the
+mind, denote moral actions; as, Brutus _loved_ his country; James
+_hates_ vice; We _believe_ the tale:--to _repent_, to _relent_, to
+_think_, to _reflect_, to _mourn_, to _muse_. Those expressing the
+actions produced by matter, denote physical actions; as, The _dog hears_
+the bell; Virgil _wrote_ the Aenead; Columbus _discovered_ America;--to
+_see_, to _feel_, to _taste_, to _smell_, to _run_, to _talk_, to _fly_,
+to _strike_. In the sentence, Charles _resembles_ his father, the verb
+_resembles_ does not appear to express any action at all; yet the
+construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs,
+are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an _active-transitive_
+verb, governing the noun _father_ in the objective case. This you may
+easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a
+_direct reference_ to its object. The following verbs are of this
+character: _Have, own, retain_; as, I _have_ a book.
+
+Active _in_transitive verbs are frequently made _transitive_. When I
+say, The birds _fly_, the verb _fly_ is _in_transitive; but when I say,
+The boy _flies_ the kite, the verb _fly_ is _transitive_, and governs
+the noun _kite_ in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive
+verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse
+_walks_ rapidly; The boy _runs_ swiftly; My friend _lives_ well; The man
+_died_ of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are _in_transitive;
+in the following they are _transitive_: The man _walks_ his horse; The
+boy _ran_ a race; My friend _lives_ a holy life; Let me _die_ the death
+of the righteous.
+
+The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deemed
+sufficiently critical for practical purposes; but if we dip a little
+deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do
+not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has
+drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost
+every verb has either a _personal_ or a _verbal_ object, expressed or
+implied. Verbal objects, which are the _effects_ or _productions_
+resulting from the actions, being necessarily implied, are seldom
+expressed.
+
+The fire _burns_. If the fire burns, it must burn _wood, coal, tallow_,
+or some other combustible substance. The man _laughs_. Laughs what?
+Laughs _laughter_ or _laugh_. They _walk_; that is, They walk or take
+_walks_. Rivers flow (move or roll _them-selves_ or their _waters_)
+into the ocean.
+
+    "I _sing_ the shady _regions_ of the west."
+
+    "And _smile_ the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age."
+
+The child _wept itself_ sick; and then, by taking (or _sleeping_) a
+short _nap_, it _slept itself_ quiet and well again. "He will soon
+_sleep_ his everlasting _sleep"_; that is, "He will _sleep_ the _sleep_
+of death."
+
+Thinkers think _thoughts_; Talkers talk or employ _words, talk,_ or
+_speeches_; The rain rains _rain_. "Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord
+_rained fire_ and _brimstone_." "I must _go_ the whole _length_." "I
+shall soon _go_ the _way_ of all the earth."
+
+Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attentively;
+after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercises
+containing nouns in the three cases, and active-transitive verbs.
+
+    The printer _prints_ books.
+
+_Prints_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses
+action--transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer"
+to the object "books"--third pers. sing. numb. because the nominative
+printer is with which it agrees.
+
+RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and
+person_.
+
+Declined--1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. he
+prints, or the printer prints, and so on.
+
+_Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort of
+things,--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken
+of--plur. num. it implies more than one--and in the objective case, it
+is the object of the action, expressed by the active-transitive verb
+"prints," and is governed by it according to
+
+RULE 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case_.
+
+The noun _books_ is thus declined--Sing. nom. book, poss. book's, obj.
+book--Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books.
+
+RULE 20. Transitive verbs _govern_ the objective case; that is, they
+_require_ the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case; and
+this requisition is government. Pronouns have a particular _form_ to
+suit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say, She _struck he_; I
+gave the book _to they_. Why not? Because the genius of our language
+requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition (_to_ is
+a preposition) to assume that _form_ which we call the _objective_ form
+or case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck _him_; I
+gave the book to _them_.--Read, again, the illustration of "government"
+on page 52.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+_Nom. case.--Trans. verb--Poss. case--Obj. case._
+Julius prints childrens' primers.
+Harriet makes ladies' bonnets.
+The servant beats the man's horse.
+The horse kicks the servant's master.
+The boy struck that man's child.
+The child lost those boys' ball.
+The tempest sunk those merchants' vessels.
+Pope translated Homer's Illiad.
+Cicero procured Milo's release.
+Alexander conquered Darius' army.
+Perry met the enemy's fleet.
+Washington obtained his country's freedom.
+
+    NOTE 1. The words _the, that, those_, and _his_, you need not parse.
+    2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun
+    understood; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.]
+
+As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it becomes
+necessary to present, in the next place, the declension of nouns, for
+you must decline every noun you parse. _Declension_ means putting a noun
+through the different cases: and you will notice, that the possessive
+case varies from the nominative in its termination, or ending, but the
+_objective_ case ends like the nominative. The nominative and objective
+cases of nouns, must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in
+the sentence, or by considering the office they perform.
+
+DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
+
+         SING.     PLUR.
+
+_Nom._   king      kings
+_Poss._  king's    kings'
+_Obj._   king.     kings.
+
+_Nom._   man       men
+_Poss._  man's     men's
+_Obj._   man.      men.
+
+Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding examples, (except
+_the, that, those_, and _his_) you may proceed with me and parse the
+examples in the following exercises, in which are presented nouns and
+active-intransitive verbs.
+
+    "My _flock increases_ yearly."
+
+_Flock_ is a noun, a name denoting animals--a noun of multitude, it
+signifies many in one collective body--masculine and feminine gender,
+denoting both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, it
+denotes but one flock--and in the nominative case, it is the active
+agent of the verb "increases," and governs it, according to RULE 3, _The
+nominative case governs the verb_. (Decline it.)
+
+_Increases_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses
+action--intransitive, the action does not pass over to an object--of the
+third person, singular number, because its nominative "flock" conveys
+_unity_ of idea, and it agrees with "flock" agreeably to
+
+RULE 10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, must have a
+verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular_.
+
+"The divided _multitude_ hastily _disperse_."
+
+_Multitude_ is a noun, a name that denotes persons--a collective noun,
+or noun of multitude, it signifies many--masculine and feminine gender,
+it implies both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, it
+represents but one multitude, or collective body; (but in another sense,
+it is plural, as it conveys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more
+_individuals_ than one;)--and in the nominative case, it is the actor
+and subject of the verb "disperse," which it governs, according to RULE
+3. _The nom. case governs the verb_.--Declined.--Sing. nom. multitude,
+poss. multitude's, obj. multitude--Plur. nom. multitudes, poss.
+multitudes', obj. multitudes.
+
+_Disperse_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expresses
+action--intransitive, the action does not terminate on an object--third
+person, plural number, because its nominative "multitude" conveys
+plurality of idea; and it agrees with "multitude" agreeably to RULE 11.
+_A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or
+pronoun agreeing with it in the plural._
+
+Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be
+based on the principles of the language; and, therefore, it might,
+perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application is
+quite limited. In many instances, they will not apply to nouns of
+multitude. The existence of such a thing as "unity or plurality of
+idea," as applicable to nouns of this class, is _doubtful_. It is just
+as correct to say, "The _meeting was_ divided in _its_ sentiments," as
+to say, "The _meeting were_ divided in _their_ sentiments." Both are
+equally supported by the genius of the language, and by the power of
+custom. It is correct to say, either that, "The _fleet were_ dispersed;"
+"The _council were_ unanimous;" "The _council were_ divided;" or that,
+"The _fleet was_ dispersed;" "The _council was_ unanimous;" "The
+_council was_ divided." But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some
+instances, custom has decided in favor of a singular, and in others, of
+a plural construction, connected with words of this class. For example;
+custom gives a preference to the constructions, "My _people do_ not
+consider;" "The _peasantry go_ barefoot;" "The _flock is_ his object;"
+instead of, "_My people doth_ not consider;" "The _peasantry goes_
+barefoot;" "The _flock are_ his object." In instances like these, the
+application of the foregoing rules _may_ be of some use; but the
+constructions in which they do not apply, are probably more numerous
+than those in which they do.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Nom. case.    Intran. verb.   Nom. case.    Intran. verb.
+Men           labor.          The sun       sets.
+Armies        march.          The moon      rises.
+Vessels       sail.           The stars     twinkle.
+Birds         fly.            The rain      descends.
+Clouds        move.           The river     flows.
+Multitudes    perish.         The nation    mourns.
+
+Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number of words which
+you parse, but on the _attention_ which you give the subject. _You may
+parse the same exercises several times over._
+
+For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present another
+
+DIVISION OF VERBS.
+
+Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive.
+
+A verb is transitive when the action affects an object; as, "Earthquakes
+_rock_ kingdoms; thrones and palaces _are shaken_ down; and potentates,
+princes, and subjects, _are buried_ in one common grave."
+
+The nominative to a passive verb, is the _object_, but not the _agent_,
+of the action.
+
+A verb is intransitive when it has no object; as, "The waters _came_
+upon me;" "I _am_ he who _was_, and _is_, and _is_ to _come_."
+
+As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now put to you a
+few questions, all of which you ought to be able to answer before you
+proceed any farther.
+
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+With what two general divisions of grammar does the second lecture
+begin?--Of what does Etymology treat?--Of what does Syntax treat?--On
+what is based the true principle of classification?--How do you
+ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs?--What is meant by
+its _manner_ of meaning?--Name the ten parts of speech.--Which of these
+are considered the most important?--By what sign may a noun be
+distinguished?--How many kinds of nouns are there?--What belong to
+nouns?--What is gender?--How many genders have nouns?--What is
+person?--How many persons have nouns?--What is number?--How many numbers
+have nouns?--What is case?--How many cases have nouns?--Does case
+consist in the _inflections_ of a noun?--How many kinds of verbs are
+there?--By what sign may a verb be known?--What belong to verbs?--What
+is synthesis?--What is analysis?--What is parsing?--Repeat the order of
+parsing the noun.--Repeat the order of parsing the verb.--What rule do
+you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case?--What rule, in
+parsing a noun in the nominative case?--What rule applies in parsing a
+verb?--What is meant by government?--Explain rules 3, 4, and 12.--By
+what rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known?--By
+what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive
+verb?--Do transitive verbs ever express a _moral_ action?--Are
+intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive?--Give some
+examples of transitive verbs with _personal_ and _verbal_ objects.--What
+rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case?--Explain rule
+20.--In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying
+_plurality_ of idea, what rule do you apply?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.
+
+Whether the learner be required to answer the following questions, or
+not, is, of course, left _discretionary_ with the teacher. The author
+takes the liberty to suggest the expediency of _not_, generally,
+enforcing such a requisition, _until the pupil goes through the book a
+second time._
+
+Name some participial nouns.--What are abstract nouns?--What is the
+distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives?--What are natural
+nouns?--Artificial nouns?--What is the distinction between _material_
+and _immaterial_ nouns?--Are nouns ever of the masculine and feminine
+gender?--Give examples.--When are nouns, naturally neuter, converted
+into the masculine or feminine gender?--Give examples.--Speak some nouns
+that are always in the singular number.--Some that are always
+plural.--Speak some that are in the same form in both numbers.--Name
+_all_ the various ways of forming the plural number of nouns.--Of what
+number are the nouns _news, means, alms_, and _amends_?--Name the
+plurals to the following compound nouns, _handful, cupful, spoonful,
+brother-in-law, court-martial_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+    NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.
+
+    Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research,
+    and critical investigation of original, constituent principles,
+    formations, and combinations, than the English language. The
+    legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive,
+    has, in some instances, been made to yield to that of philosophy, so
+    far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language
+    which refinement has introduced, to radical elements and
+    associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the
+    essential use for which language was intended. Were this
+    retrogressive mode of investigating and applying principles, to
+    obtain, among philologists, the ascendency over that which
+    accommodates the use of language to progressive refinement, it is
+    easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would, in a
+    short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the philosophy
+    of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of
+    philology as it applies to the present, progressive and refined
+    state of English literature, the great object contemplated by the
+    learned, in all ages, namely, the approximation of language, in
+    common with every thing else, to that point of perfection at which
+    it is the object of correct philology to arrive, would be
+    frustrated.
+
+    The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and
+    visionaries who absurdly endeavor to teach modern English, by
+    rejecting the authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting
+    the learner back to the original combinations, and the detached,
+    disjointed, and barbarous constructions of our progenitors, both
+    prudence and reason, as well as a due regard for correct philology,
+    impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by bringing to their aid
+    a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic in the
+    swelling phrases, "philosophy, reason, and common sense," attempt to
+    overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of all
+    the labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously
+    occupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but error and
+    folly, will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited
+    by such consummate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for
+    those who employ our language as their vehicle of mental conference,
+    custom will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary.
+    If it would, improvement in English literature would soon be at an
+    end, and we should be tamely conducted back to the Vandalic age.
+
+    As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is
+    evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of _grammatical
+    certainty_, it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a
+    view to expose the fallacy of so vague a criterion.
+
+    All reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of
+    language for an ultimate result, must be conducted _a posteriori_.
+    Its office, according to the ordinary mode of treating the subject,
+    is to trace language to its origin, not for the purpose of
+    determining and fixing grammatical associations and dependances,
+    such as the agreement, government, and mutual relations of words,
+    but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the
+    first principles of the language, and arrive at the primitive
+    meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid
+    critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original
+    import of single words, has any relation to the syntactical
+    dependances and connexions of words in general;--to gain a knowledge
+    of which, is the leading object of the student in grammar. And,
+    furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such useless
+    vagaries, to show by what process, with their own systems, they can
+    communicate a practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict,
+    that, if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more
+    splendid in theory, than useful in practice.
+
+    Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning
+    has any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the
+    power of association, custom has assigned to many words;--a
+    signification _essentially different_ from the original import. Were
+    this the case, and were the language now to be taught and understood
+    in compliance with the original import of words, it would have to
+    undergo a thorough change; to be analyzed, divided, and sub-divided,
+    almost _ad infinitum_. Indeed, there is the same propriety in
+    asserting that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our
+    language, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to
+    understand our vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that
+    their primitive meaning has an ascendency over the influence of the
+    principle of association in changing, and the power of custom in
+    determining, the import of words. Many of our words are derived from
+    the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages;
+    and the only use we can make of their originals, is to render them
+    subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general usage
+    has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the
+    advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language,
+    extend their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them,
+    and, with Horne Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions,
+    conjunctions, and interjections, as abbreviations of nouns and
+    verbs, but, on their own responsibility, apply them, in teaching the
+    language, _in compliance with their radical import_, and what would
+    such a course avail them against the power of custom, and the
+    influence of association and refinement? Let them show me one
+    grammarian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will
+    exhibit a "philosophical" miracle. They might as well undertake to
+    teach architecture, by having recourse to its origin, as
+    represented by booths and tents. In addition to this, when we
+    consider the great number of obsolete words, from which many now in
+    use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot be
+    ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been
+    changed by the principle of association, it is preposterous to
+    think, that a mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching
+    the language, is the one by which its significancy can be enforced,
+    its correctness determined, its use comprehended, and its
+    improvement extended. Before what commonly passes for a
+    philosophical manner of developing the language can successfully be
+    made the medium through which it can be comprehended, in all its
+    present combinations, relations, and dependances, it must undergo a
+    thorough retrogressive change, in all those combinations, relations,
+    and dependances, even to the last letter of the alphabet. And before
+    we can consent to this radical modification and retrograde ratio of
+    the English language, we must agree to revive the customs, the
+    habits, and the precise language of our progenitors, the Goths and
+    Vandals. Were all the advocates for the introduction of such
+    philosophical grammars into common schools, at once to enter on
+    their pilgrimage, and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity
+    of the ancient Britons, Picts, and Vandals, it is believed, that the
+    cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatly by their
+    loss, and that the good sense of the present age, would not allow
+    many of our best teachers to be of the party.
+
+    The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of
+    investigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this
+    mode of analyzing and reducing it to practice, _it cannot, in this
+    age, be comprehended_ as the medium of thought. Were this method to
+    prevail, our present literal language would become a dead letter. Of
+    what avail is language, if it can not be understood? And how can it
+    be accommodated to the understanding, unless it receive the sanction
+    of common consent? Even if we admit that such a manner of unfolding
+    the principles of our language, is more rational and correct than
+    the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such a mode
+    of investigation and development, does not meet the necessities and
+    convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that
+    system which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their
+    origin, must unfold the whole in the same manner. But the student in
+    common schools and academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of
+    language up to its source, and there dive to the bottom of the
+    fountain for knowledge. Such labor ought not to be required of him.
+    His object is to become, not a philosophical antiquarian, but a
+    practical grammarian. If I comprehend the design (if they have any)
+    of our modern philosophical writers on this subject, it is to make
+    grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, arising out of
+    the genius of the language, and the nature of things, which the
+    learner, by the exercise of his _reasoning powers_, must reduce to
+    practice. His own judgment, _independent of grammar rules_, is to be
+    his guide in speaking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them
+    exclude from their systems, all exercises in what is called _false
+    Syntax_. But these profound philological dictators appear to have
+    overlooked the important consideration, that the great mass of
+    mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common schools, _can
+    never become philosophers;_ and, consequently, can never comprehend
+    and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of
+    grammar. I wish to see children treated as _reasoning_ beings. But
+    there should be a medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to
+    instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers and
+    logicians.
+
+    To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising
+    the learner in correcting _false Syntax_, I need no other argument
+    than the interesting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labors,
+    in this department, have effected a complete revolution in the
+    English language, in point of verbal accuracy. Who does not know,
+    that the best writers of this day, are not guilty of _one_
+    grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before Mr.
+    Murray flourished, are guilty of _five_? And what has produced this
+    important change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who
+    have studied "Mr. Murray's exercises in FALSE SYNTAX." If, then,
+    this view of the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater
+    portion of our philosophical grammars, are far more worthy the
+    attention of literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of
+    learners.
+
+    Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars,
+    exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought
+    proper, for the gratification of such, to intersperse through the
+    pages of this work under the head of "PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES," an
+    entire system of grammatical principles as deduced from what appears
+    to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical
+    investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhibited in the
+    body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it.
+
+    _In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to
+    accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of this work.
+    Wherever such agreement exists, the system contained in these NOTES
+    will be deficient, and this deficiency may be supplied by adopting
+    the principles contained in the other parts of the work_.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+    OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
+
+    According to the method in which philosophical investigations of
+    language have generally been conducted, all our words should be
+    reduced to two classes; for it can be easily shown, that from the
+    noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more.
+    They may even be reduced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, _express_
+    actions; but they are intrinsically the mere _names_ of actions. The
+    idea of action or being communicated by them, as well as the
+    _meaning_ of words in general, is merely _inferential_. The
+    principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Horne Tooke, if
+    carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving
+    that we have but one part of speech.
+
+    _Adnouns_ or _adjectives_ were originally nouns. _Sweet, red,
+    white_, are the _names_ of qualities, as well as _sweetness,
+    redness, whiteness_. The former differ from the latter only in their
+    _manner_ of signification. To denote that the name of some quality
+    or substance is to be used in connexion with some other name, or,
+    that this quality is to be _attributed_ to some other name, we
+    sometimes affix to it the termination _en, ed_, or _y;_ which
+    signifies _give, add,_ or _join_. When we employ the words wood_en_,
+    wooll_en_, wealth_y_, grass_y_, the terminations _en_ and _y_, by
+    their own intrinsic meaning, give notice that we intend to _give,
+    add, or join_, the names of some other substances in which are found
+    the properties or qualities of _wood, wool, wealth_, or _grass_.
+
+    _Pronouns_ are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent
+    their disagreeable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the
+    verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and
+    conjunctions, are contractions of abbreviations of nouns and verbs.
+    _An_ (_a, one_, or _one_) comes from _ananad_, to add, to heap.
+    _The_ and _that_, from the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to get, assume.
+    _Lo_ is the imperative of _look_; _fy_, of _fian_, to hate; and
+    _welcome_ means, it is _well_ that you are _come. In_ comes from the
+    Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; and _about_, from
+    _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Through_ or _thorough_ is the
+    Teutonic noun _thuruh_, meaning passage, gate, door. _From_ is the
+    Anglo-Saxon noun _frum_, beginning, source, author. He came _from
+    (beginning)_ Batavia. _If_ (formerly written _gif, give, gin_) is
+    the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. I will
+    remain _if_ (_give_ or _grant that fact_) he will (_remain_.) _But_
+    comes from the Saxon verb _beon-utan_, to be-out. I informed no one
+    _but (be-out, leave-out)_ my brother.
+
+    This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the
+    manner in which, according to Horne Tooke's principles, the ten
+    parts of speech are reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed
+    to concede, that this is the _true_ principle of classification; nor
+    that it is any more _philosophical_ or _rational_ than one which
+    allows a more practical division and arrangement of words. What has
+    been generally received as "philosophical grammar," appears to
+    possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our
+    common, practical grammars. Query. Is not Mr. Murray's octavo
+    grammar more worthy the dignified title of a "Philosophical
+    Grammar," than Horne Tooke's "Diversions of Purley," or William S.
+    Cardell's treatises on language? What constitutes a _philosophical_
+    treatise, on this, or on any other subject? _Wherein_ is there a
+    display of philosophy in a speculative, etymological performance,
+    which attempts to develop and explain the elements and primitive
+    meaning of words by tracing them to their origin, _superior_ to the
+    philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the
+    principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their
+    legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient
+    medium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts? Does
+    philosophy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in
+    order to _guess_ at the ancient construction and signification of
+    single words? or have such investigations, in reality, any thing to
+    do with _grammar_?
+
+    Admitting that all the words of our language include, in their
+    _original_ signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it
+    does not follow, that they _now_ possess no other powers, and, in
+    their combinations and connexions in sentences, are employed for no
+    other purpose, than _barely_ to _name objects_. The _fact_ of the
+    case is, that words are variously combined and applied, to answer
+    the distinct and diversified purposes of _naming_ objects,
+    _asserting_ truths, _pointing out_ and _limiting_ objects,
+    _attributing qualities_ to objects, _connecting_ objects, and so on;
+    and on this _fact_ is founded the _true philosophical principle of
+    the classification of words_. Hence, an arrangement of words into
+    classes according to this principle, followed by a development and
+    illustration of the principles and rules that regulate us in the
+    proper use and application of words in oral and written discourse,
+    appears to approximate as near to a true definition _of
+    philosophical grammar_, as any I am capable of giving.
+
+    _Nouns_, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless
+    constituted the original class of words; (if I may be allowed to
+    assume such a hypothesis as an _original_ class of words;) but the
+    ever-active principle of association, soon transformed nouns into
+    verbs, by making them, when employed in a particular manner,
+    expressive of affirmation. This same principle also operated in
+    appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qualities to other
+    names of objects; and in this way was constituted the class of words
+    called _adjectives_ or _attributes_. By the same principle were
+    formed all the other classes.
+
+    In the following exposition of English grammar on scientific
+    principles, I shall divide words into seven classes; _Nouns_ or
+    _Names, Verbs, Adjectives, Adnouns_, or _Attributes, Adverbs,
+    Propositions, Pronouns_, and _Conjunctions_ or _Connectives_.
+
+    For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    Plausible arguments may be _advanced_, for rejecting _neuter_ and
+    passive verbs; but they have been found to be so convenient in
+    practice, that the theory which recognises them, has stood the test
+    of ages. If you tell the young learner, that, in the following
+    expressions, The church _rests_ on its foundation; The book _lies_
+    on the desk; The boys _remain (are)_ idle, the nouns _church, book_,
+    and _boys_, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the verbs
+    _rests, lies, remain_, and _are_, are _active_, he will not believe
+    you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And
+    should you proceed further, and, by a labored and metaphysical
+    investigation and development of the laws of motion, attempt to
+    prove to him that "every portion of matter is influenced by
+    different, active principles, tending to produce change," and,
+    therefore, every thing in universal nature is _always_ acting, it is
+    not at all probable, that you could convince his _understanding_, in
+    opposition to the dearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to
+    learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend?
+
+    Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical
+    grammar, the ingenious Horne Tooke stands pre-eminent; but,
+    unfortunately, his principal speculations on the verb, have never
+    met the public eye. William S. Cardell has also rendered himself
+    conspicuous in the philological field, by taking a bolder stand than
+    any of his predecessors. His view of the verb is novel, and
+    ingeniously supported. The following is the substance of his theory
+
+    OF THE VERB.
+
+    A verb is a word which expresses _action;_ as, Man _exists_; Trees
+    _grow_; Waters_flow_; Mountains _stand_; I _am_.
+
+    All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one,
+    expressed or implied. The pillar _stands_; that is, it _keeps
+    itself_ in an erect or standing posture; it _upholds_ or _sustains
+    itself_ in that position. They _are_; i.e. they _air_ themselves, or
+    _breathe_ air; they _inspirit, vivify_, or _uphold_ themselves by
+    inhaling air.
+
+    Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a persona
+    or verbal one implied. The clouds _move_; i.e. move _themselves_
+    along. The troops _marched_ twenty miles a day; i.e. marched
+    _themselves_. The moon _shines_:--The moon _shines_ or _sheds_ a
+    _shining, sheen, lustre_, or _brightness_. The sparrow
+    _flies:--flies_ or _takes_ a _flight_. Talkers talk or speak _words_
+    or _talk_; Walkers walk _walkings_ or _walks_; The rain rains
+    _rain_; Sitters sit or hold _sittings_ or _sessions_.
+
+    To prove that there is no such thing as a neuter verb, the following
+    appear to be the strongest arguments adduced.
+
+    1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence;
+    but the component parts of every thing are at all times "influenced
+    by different, active principles, tending to produce change." Hence,
+    it follows, that no being or thing can be represented in a _neuter_
+    or _non-acting state_.
+
+    This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be
+    identified with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the
+    principles of physical science. The correctness of this position may
+    be doubted; but if it can be clearly demonstrated, that every
+    particle of matter is always in motion, it does not, by any means,
+    follow, that we cannot _speak of_ things in a state of quiescence.
+    What is _false_ in fact may be _correct_ in grammar. _The point
+    contested, is not whether things always_ act, _but whether, when we
+    assert or affirm something respecting them, we always_ represent
+    _them as acting_.
+
+    2. Verbs were _originally_ used to express the motions or changes of
+    things which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition,
+    were afterward applied, in the same way, to things whose actions
+    were not apparent. This assumption is untenable, and altogether
+    gratuitous.
+
+    3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood; and, as this
+    mood commands some one to _do_ something, any verb which adopts it,
+    must be active. Thus, in the common place phrases, "_Be_ there
+    quickly; _Stand_ out of my way; _Sit_ or _lie_ farther."
+
+    It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an _active_
+    sense; but it is certain, that they are not used according to their
+    proper, _literal_ meaning. When I tell a man, _literally_, to
+    _stand, sit_, or _lie_, by _moving_ he would disobey me; but when I
+    say, "_Stand_ out of my way," I employ the neuter verb _stand_,
+    instead of the active verb _move_ or _go_, and in a correspondent
+    sense. My meaning is, _Move_ yourself out of my way; or _take_ your
+    _stand_ somewhere else. This, however, does not prove that _stand_
+    is properly used. If we choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we
+    can employ any _word_ in the language as an active-transitive verb.
+    _Be, sit_, and _lie_, may be explained in the same manner.
+
+    4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the
+    manner of _action_. They must, therefore, be considered active
+    verbs. The child _sleeps soundly_; He _sits genteelly_; They _live
+    contentedly_ and _happily_ together.
+
+    The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By
+    using adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some
+    verbs are _not_ active. It is incorrect to say, I am _happily_; They
+    were _peacefully_; She remains _quietly_; The fields appear
+    _greenly_. These verbs in their common acceptation, do not express
+    _action_; for which reason we say, I am _happy_; They are
+    _peaceful_; &c. But in the expressions, The child sleeps _soundly_;
+    She sits _gracefully_; They live _happily_ and _contentedly_; we
+    employ the verbs _sleeps, sits_, and _live_, in an active sense.
+    When no action is intended, we say, They live _happy_ and
+    _contented_.
+
+    If, on scientific principles, it can be proved that those verbs
+    generally denominated neuter, _originally_ expressed action, their
+    present, accepted meaning will still oppose the theory, for the
+    generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of _action_.
+
+    Thus I have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of
+    the _modern_ theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to
+    estimate it according to its value.
+
+    To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as
+    shall be found scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has
+    hitherto baffled the skill, and transcended the learning, of our
+    philosophical writers. If its essential quality, as is generally
+    supposed, is made to consist in _expressing affirmation_, it remains
+    still to be defined _when_ a verb _expresses_ affirmation. In
+    English, and in other languages, words appropriated to express
+    affirmation, are often used without any such force; our idea of
+    affirmation, in such instances, being the mere _inference of
+    custom_.
+
+    In the sentence,--"_Think, love_, and _hate_, denote moral actions,"
+    the words _think, love_, and _hate_, are nouns, because they are
+    mere _names_ of actions. So, when I say, "John, _write_--is an
+    irregular verb," the word _write_ is a noun; but when I say, "John,
+    _write_--your copy," _write_ is called a verb.
+
+    Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb
+    in the other, when both constructions, until you pass beyond the
+    word write, are exactly alike? If write does not _express_ action in
+    the former sentence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it
+    is introduced in the same manner. On scientific principles, _write_
+    must be considered a noun in the latter sentence, for it does not
+    _express_ action, or make an affirmation; but it merely _names_ the
+    action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is the
+    _inferential_ meaning.
+
+    The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is
+    divested of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it
+    is always presented in its _noun-state_.
+
+    If, after dinner, I say to a servant, "_Wine,"_ he infers, that I
+    wish him to bring me wine; but all this is not said. If I say,
+    _Bring_ some _wine_, he, in like manner, understands, that I wish
+    him to bring me wine; but all that is expressed, is the _name_ of
+    the action, and of the object of the action. In fact, as much is
+    done by _inference_, as by actual expression, in every branch of
+    language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by
+    words.
+
+    It is generally conceded, that the termination of our verbs, _est,
+    eth, s, ed_, and, also, of the other parts of speech, were
+    originally separate words of distinct meaning; and that, although
+    they have been contracted, and, by the refinement of language, have
+    been made to coalesce with the words in connexion with which they
+    are employed, yet, in their present character of terminations, they
+    retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a verbal
+    name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing
+    adjunct; thus, _the_ (to take, hold) was the noun-state of the verb;
+    and when they used it as a verb, they added the termination _an_;
+    thus, the_an_. The termination added, was a sign that _affirmation_
+    was intended. The same procedure has been adopted, and, in many
+    instances, is still practised, in our language. _An_, originally
+    affixed to our verbs, in the progress of refinement, was changed to
+    en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plural number of
+    our verbs was denoted by the termination, _en_; thus, they _weren_,
+    they _loven_; but, as these terminations do not supersede the
+    necessity of expressing the _subject_ of affirmation, as is the case
+    in the Latin and Greek verbs, they have been laid aside, as
+    unnecessary excrescences. For the same reason, we might, without any
+    disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our
+    verbs in the singular.
+
+    In support of the position, that these terminations were once
+    separate words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote
+    the feminine gender of some nouns, we affix _ess_; as, heir_ess_,
+    instructr_ess. Ess_ is a contraction of the Hebrew noun _essa_, a
+    female. Of our verbs, the termination _est_ is a contraction of
+    _doest, eth_, of _doeth_, _s_ of _does_. We say, thou _dost_ or
+    _doest_ love; or thou _lovest_; i.e. _love-dost_, or _love-doest_.
+    Some believe these terminations to be contractions of _havest,
+    haveth, has_. We affix _ed_, a contraction of _dede_, to the present
+    tense of verbs to denote that the action named is _dede, did, doed_,
+    or _done_.
+
+    _To_ and _do_ from the Gothic noun _taui_, signifying _act_ or
+    _effect_, are, according to Horne Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and
+    force; and when the custom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing
+    adjunct, began to be dropped, its place and meaning were generally
+    supplied by prefixing one of these. When I say, "I am going _to
+    walk,"_ the verbal or affirmative force is conveyed by the use of
+    _to_, meaning the same as _do_; and _walk_ is employed merely as a
+    verbal name; that is, I assert that I shall _do_ the act which I
+    name by the word _walk_, or the act of _walking_.
+
+    Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious
+    than profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on
+    scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by
+    a verbalizing adjunct, it is in the _noun-state_, and does not
+    express affirmation, still this theory would be very inconvenient in
+    practice.
+
+    I shall resume this subject in Lecture XI.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of
+language? (page 32.)--Do the syntactical dependances and connexions of
+words depend on their _original_ import?--Is the power of association
+and custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of some
+words?--Have words intrinsically a signification of their own; or is
+their meaning _inferential_; i.e. such as _custom_ has assigned to them?
+(page 38.)--On what _fact_ is based the true, philosophical principle of
+classification?--Define philosophical grammar.--Which is supposed to be
+the original part of speech?--How were the others formed from that?--How
+many parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific development and
+arrangement of the principles of our language?--Name them.--What
+testimony have we that many things do not act? (page 43.)--Repeat some
+of the arguments in favor of, and against, the principle which regards
+all verbs as _active_.--In what moods are verbs used in their
+_noun-state?_ (page 48.)--Give examples.--What is said of the
+terminations _est, eth, s,_ and _en_, and of the words _to_ and _do?_
+
+REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS.
+
+You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important part
+of speech in our language; and to convince you of their importance, I
+now tell you, that you cannot express a _thought_, or communicate an
+_idea_, without making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbs
+express, not only _the state_ or _manner of being_, but, likewise, all
+the different _actions_ and _movements_ of all creatures and things,
+whether animate or inanimate. As yet I have given you only a partial
+description of this sort of words; but when you are better prepared to
+comprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, and show
+you the proper manner of using them.
+
+A word that is generally a _noun_, sometimes becomes a _verb_; and a
+verb is frequently used as a _noun_. These changes depend on the sense
+which the word conveys; or, rather, on the office it performs in the
+sentence; that is the _manner_ in which it is applied to things. For
+instance, _glory_ is generally a noun; as "The _glory_ of God's throne."
+But if I say, I _glory_ in religion; or, He _glories_ in wickedness, the
+word _glory_ becomes a verb. The _love_ of man is inconstant. In this
+sentence, _love_ is a _noun_; in the next, it is a _verb_: They _love_
+virtue. He _walks_ swiftly; Scavengers _sweep_ the streets; The ship
+_sails_ well. In these phrases, the words _walks, sweep_, and _sails_,
+are verbs; in the following they are nouns: Those are pleasant _walks_;
+He takes a broad _sweep_; The ship lowered her _sails_.
+
+Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian without
+exercising your judgment. If you have sufficient resolution to do this,
+you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of
+the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations,
+and the rules of syntax that apply to them; and, in a few weeks, be able
+to speak and write accurately. But you must not take things for granted,
+without examining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not a
+mere _automaton_, or _boy-machine_; but a rational being. You ought,
+therefore, to _think_ methodically, to _reason_ soundly, and to
+_investigate_ every principle critically. Don't be afraid to _think for
+yourself_. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You know not
+the height to which you may soar in the scale of intellectual existence.
+Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding perseverance; and if you do not
+gain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to
+drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base.
+
+EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+NOTE 1, TO RULE 12. A noun in the possessive case, should always be
+distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision; as, The _nation's_
+glory.
+
+That girls book is cleaner than those boys books.
+
+Not correct, because the nouns _girls_ and _boys_ are both in the
+possessive case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they
+should be distinguished; thus, "_girl's, boys'"_ according to the
+preceding NOTE. [Repeat the note.]
+
+Thy ancestors virtue is not thine.
+
+If the writer of this sentence meant _one_ ancestor, he should have
+inserted the apostrophe after _r_, thus, "_ancestor's"_; if more than
+one, after _s_, thus, _"ancestors'_ virtue;" but, by neglecting to place
+the apostrophe, he has left his meaning ambiguous, and we cannot
+ascertain it. This, and a thousand other mistakes you will often meet
+with, demonstrate the truth of my declaration, namely, that "without the
+knowledge and application of grammar rules, you will often speak and
+write in such a manner as not to be _understood."_ You may now turn back
+and re-examine the "illustration" of Rules 3, 4, and 12, on page 52, and
+then correct the following examples about _five_ times over.
+
+A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's for mans
+advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans interest and happiness.
+They suffer for conscience's sake. He is reading Cowpers poems. James
+bought Johnsons Dictionary.
+
+RULE 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person.
+
+Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. Nothing
+delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare not do it. They
+reads well.
+
+I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all have
+a harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the
+habit of correcting errors by applying rules; for, by-and-by, you will
+meet with errors in composition which you cannot correct, if you are
+ignorant of the application of grammar rules.
+
+Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies to
+the _verb_ and not to the noun; therefore, in these examples the verb is
+ungrammatical. The noun _boys_, in the first sentence, is of the third
+person _plural_, and the verb _improves_ is of the third person
+_singular_; therefore, Rule 4th is violated, because the verb dues not
+agree with its nominative in _number_. It should be, "boys _improve_."
+The verb would then be _plural_, and agree with its nominative according
+to the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does not agree in _person_
+with its nominative. _Thou_ is of the _second_ person, and _shuns_ is of
+the _third_. It should be, "thou _shunnest_," &c. You may correct the
+other sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of inhabitants
+of the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing but vain and foolish
+pursuits delight some persons.
+
+  In vain our flocks and fields increase our store,
+  When our abundance make us wish for more.
+
+  While ever and anon, there falls
+  Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE III.
+
+OF ARTICLES.
+
+An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their signification; as,
+_a_ man, _the_ woman.
+
+There are only two articles, _a_ or _an_, and _the. A_ or _an_ is called
+the indefinite article. _The_ is called the definite article.
+
+The _indefinite article_ limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no
+particular one; as, _a_ house.
+
+The _definite article_ generally limits the noun to a particular object,
+or collection of objects; as, _the_ house, _the_ men.
+
+The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct part of
+speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification of
+words. _A_ and _the, this_ and _that, ten, few_, and _fourth_, and many
+other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification of
+the nouns to which they are joined. They might, therefore, with
+propriety, be ranked under the general head of _Restrictives, Indexes_,
+or _Defining Adjectives_. But, as there is a marked distinction in their
+particular meaning and application, each class requires a separate
+explanation. Hence, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting
+their established classification, as articles, numerals, and
+demonstratives, and by giving them _new_ names. The character and
+application of _a_ and _the_ can be learned as soon when they are styled
+_articles_, as when they are denominated _specifying_ or _defining
+adjectives_.
+
+The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but two
+articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_, you will know them wherever they occur.
+
+A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in
+its _general_ sense; as, _"Fruit_ is abundant;" "_Gold_ is heavy;"
+"_Man_ is born to trouble" Here we mean, fruit and gold _in general;_
+and _all men_, or _mankind_.
+
+When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to _one_ object, but to no
+_particular_ one, we employ _a_ or _an_. If I say, "Give me _a_ pen;"
+"Bring me _an_ apple;" you are at liberty to fetch _any_ pen or _any_
+apple you please. _A_ or _an_, then, is _indefinite_, because it leaves
+the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far as regards the
+person spoken to, _vague_, or _indeterminate_; that is, _not definite_.
+But when reference is made to a _particular_ object, we employ _the_,
+as, "Give me _the_ pen;" "Bring me _the_ apple, or _the_ apple." When
+such a requisition is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen or
+apple you please, but you must fetch the _particular_ pen or apple to
+which you know me to refer. _The_ is, therefore, called the _definite_
+article.
+
+"_A_ star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known as a
+_particular_ star, _definite_, and distinguished from all others, in the
+mind of the _speaker_; but to the _hearer_, it is left, among the
+thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, _undistinguished_ and
+_indefinite_. But when the star has previously been made the subject of
+discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer a
+_definite_ object, and he says, "_The_ star appears;" that is, that
+_particular_ star about which we were discoursing.
+
+"Solomon built _a_ temple." Did he build _any_ temple, _undetermined
+which?_ No; it was a _particular_ temple, pre-eminently distinguished
+from all others. But _how_ does it become a definite object in the mind
+of the _hearer_? Certainly, not by the phrase, "_a_ temple," which
+indicates _any_ temple, leaving it altogether _undetermined_ which; but
+supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact
+asserted, and it becomes to him, _in one respect only_, a definite and
+particular temple, by means of the associated words, "Solomon built;"
+that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, the
+hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as _the one erected by
+Solomon_. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be
+unacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred to
+a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther
+explanation of it; thus, "Solomon built _a_ temple _on mount Zion_; and
+that was _the_ temple _to which the Jews resorted to worship_."
+
+  "_The_ lunatic, _the_ poet, and _the_ lover,
+  Are of imagination all compact."
+
+"_The_ horse is a noble animal;" "_The_ dog is a faithful creature;"
+"_The_ wind blows;" "_The_ wolves were howling in _the_ woods." In these
+examples, we do not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers,
+horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these
+_particular classes_ of things, in contradistinction to other objects or
+classes. The phrase, "Neither _the_ one nor _the_ other," is an idiom of
+the language.
+
+    REMARKS.--This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular
+    with Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote,
+    Murray, and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by
+    some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is
+    exceptionable, they by no means make it appear, that it ought,
+    therefore, to be rejected.
+
+    Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place
+    with one that is more _convenient in practice_. Neither have they
+    adopted one _less_ exceptionable. The truth is, after all which can
+    be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive
+    and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by
+    men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These
+    exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the
+    imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else
+    of human invention, will always be _imperfect_. Consequently, a
+    _perfect_ system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A
+    _perfect_ grammar will not be produced, until some _perfect_ being
+    writes it for a _perfect_ language; and a perfect language will not
+    be constructed, until some _super-human_ agency is employed in its
+    production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not
+    _perfect_, are _exceptionable_.
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. The article is _omitted_ before nouns implying the different
+    virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs,
+    &c.; as, "_Modesty_ is becoming; _Falsehood_ is odious; _Grammar_ is
+    useful," &c.
+
+    2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns; as, _Barron_ killed
+    _Decatur_; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of
+    distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood;
+    as, "He is not _a_ Franklin; He is _a_ Lee, or of the family of
+    _the_ Lees; We sailed down _the_ (river) Missouri."
+
+    3. An _adjective_ is frequently placed between the article and the
+    noun with which the article agrees; as, "A _good_ boy; an
+    _industrious_ man." Sometimes the adjective precedes the article;
+    as, "As _great_ a man as Alexander; _Such_ a shame."
+
+    4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each
+    separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes
+    placed between the adjective _many_ and a singular noun; as, "Where
+    _many a rosebud_ rears its blushing head;" "Full _many a flower_ is
+    born to blush unseen."
+
+    5. The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to _adverbs_ in
+    the comparative or superlative degree; as, "_The more_ I examine it,
+    _the better_ I like it," "I like this _the least_ of any."
+
+You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have
+committed this
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING
+
+_The order of parsing an_ Article, is--an article, and why?--definite or
+indefinite, and why?--with what noun does it agree?--RULE.
+
+    "He is _the_ son of _a_ king."
+
+_The_ is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its
+signification--definite, it limits the noun to a particular object--it
+belongs to the noun "son," according to
+
+RULE 2. _The definite article_ the _belongs to nouns in the singular or
+plural number_.
+
+_A_ is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its
+signification--indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to
+no particular one--it agrees with "king," agreeably to
+
+RULE 1. _The article_ a _or_ an _agrees with nouns in the singular
+number only_.
+
+    NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the
+    propriety of Rule 1, will appear. _A_ or _an_, (formerly written
+    _ane,)_ being equivalent to _one, any one_, or _some one_, cannot be
+    prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an
+    exception to this rule. _A_ is placed before a plural noun when any
+    of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun:
+    _few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million_; as, _a_ few
+    _men, a_ thousand _houses_, &c.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue
+pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass.
+Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. An
+ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo
+invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir
+Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin
+invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book.
+
+I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles,
+which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable
+you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to
+answer the following
+
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+How many articles are there?--In what sense is a noun taken, when it has
+no article to limit it?--Repeat the _order_ of parsing an article.--What
+rule applies in parsing the _definite_ article?--What rule in parsing
+the _indefinite_?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    A, AN, THE.
+
+    In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, _a_ and _the_
+    belong to that class of adjectives denominated _definitives_ or
+    _restrictives_.
+
+    _A, an, ane_, or _one_, is the past participle of _ananad_, to add,
+    to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is
+    _added, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned,)_ or made _one_.
+
+    _The_ and _that_. According to Horne Tooke, _the_ is the imperative,
+    and _that_, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to
+    get, take, assume. _The_ and _that_ had, originally, the same
+    meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern
+    refinement. Hence, _that_, as well as _the_, was formerly used,
+    indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.
+
+Before what nouns is the article omitted?--Is the article _the_ ever
+applied to adverbs?--Give examples.--What is the meaning of _a_ or _an_?
+--When is _a_ or _an_ placed before a plural noun?--From what are _a,
+the_, and _that_ derived?
+
+EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+NOTE TO RULE 1. _An_ is used before a vowel or silent _h_, and _a_
+before a consonant or _u_ long, and also before the word _one_.
+
+It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note,
+improper to say, _a_ apple, _a_ humble suppliant, _an_ hero, _an_
+university, because the word _apple_ begins with a vowel, and _h_ is not
+sounded in the word _humble_, for which reasons _a_ should be _an_ in
+the first two examples; but, as the _h_ is sounded in _hero_, and the
+_u_ is long in _university, a_ ought to be prefixed to these words:
+thus, _an_ apple, _an_ humble suppliant: _a_ hero, _a_ university. You
+may correct the following
+
+
+EXAMPLES.
+
+A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen,
+an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard
+saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an
+horse.
+
+NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used
+they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character;
+as, "Gold is corrupting; _The_ sea is green; _A_ lion is bold." It would
+be improper to say, _The_ gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is
+bold.
+
+The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for
+the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted.
+
+In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular
+kind of _grass_ or _wheat_, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to
+any particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are
+speaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article _the_
+should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to any
+definite kind, quality, or number of _horses_ or _men_; but to horses
+and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote _whole
+species_, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentence
+should read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men."
+
+In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the
+crops of _grass_ and _wheat_ now on the ground, which, in
+contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as
+_particular_ objects; therefore we should say, "_The_ grass looks
+well; _The_ wheat is blighted."
+
+NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its _general_ sense, the article should
+be omitted; as, "_Poetry_ is a pleasing art;" "_Oranges_ grow in New
+Orleans."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How
+does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of
+the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper
+for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way
+unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the
+four elements of the old philosophers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE IV.
+
+OF ADJECTIVES.
+
+An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind,
+or to restrict its meaning; as, a _good_ man, a _bad_ man, _a free_ man,
+an _unfortunate_ man, _one_ man, _forty_ men.
+
+In the phrases, a _good_ apple, a _bad_ apple, a _large_ apple, a
+_small_ apple, a _red_ apple, a _white_ apple, a _green_ apple, a
+_sweet_ apple, a _sour_ apple, a _bitter_ apple, a _round_ apple, a
+_hard_ apple, a _soft_ apple, a _mellow_ apple, a _fair_ apple, a _May_
+apple, an _early_ apple, a _late_ apple, a _winter_ apple, a _crab_
+apple, a _thorn_ apple, a _well-tasted_ apple, an _ill-looking_ apple, a
+_water-cored_ apple, you perceive that all those words in _italics_ are
+adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun
+apple, or it shows what _kind_ of an apple it is of which we are
+speaking.
+
+The distinction between a _noun_ and an _adjective_ is very clear. A
+noun is the _name_ of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the
+_quality_ or _property_ of a thing. This is _fine cloth_. In this
+example, the difference between the word denoting the _thing_, and that
+denoting the _quality_ of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot
+be at a loss to know, that the word _cloth_ expresses the _name_, and
+_fine_, the _quality_, of the _thing_; consequently _fine_ must be an
+_adjective_. If I say, He is a _wise_ man, a _prudent_ man, a _wicked_
+man, or an _ungrateful_ man, the words in _italics_ are adjectives,
+because each expresses a _quality_ of the noun man. And, if I say, He is
+a _tall_ man, a _short_ man, a _white_ man, a _black_ man, or a
+_persecuted_ man, the words, _tall, short, white, black_, and
+_persecuted_, are also adjectives, because they tell what _kind_ of a
+man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some
+particular property.
+
+Some adjectives _restrict_ or _limit_ the signification of the nouns to
+which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called
+_definitives_; as, _one_ era, _seven_ ages, the _first_ man, the _whole_
+mass, _no_ trouble, _those_ men, _that_ book, _all_ regions.
+
+Other adjectives _define_ or _describe_ nouns, or do both; as, _fine_
+silk, _blue_ paper, a _heavy_ shower, _pure_ water, _green_ mountains,
+_bland_ breezes, _gurgling_ rills, _glass_ window, _window_ glass,
+_beaver_ hats, _chip_ bonnets, _blackberry_ ridge, _Monroe_ garden,
+_Juniata_ iron, _Cincinnati_ steam-mill.
+
+Some adjectives are _secondary_, and qualify other adjectives; as,
+_pale_ red lining, _dark_ blue silk, _deep sea_ green sash, _soft_ iron
+blooms, _red hot_ iron plate.
+
+You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those
+_men_ are _tall_; A _lion_ is _bold_; The _weather_ is _calm_; The
+_tree_ is three feet _thick_."
+
+Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other
+parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word
+that will make sense with the word _thing_ added, or with any other noun
+following it, is an adjective; as, a _high_ thing, a _low_ thing, a
+_hot_ thing, a _cold_ thing, an _unfinished_ thing, a _new-fashioned_
+thing:--or, a _pleasant_ prospect, a _long-deserted_ dwelling, an
+_American_ soldier, a _Greek_ Testament. Are these words adjectives,
+_distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?_ A distant
+_object_ or _thing_, yonder _hill_, &c. They are. They will make sense
+with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter
+will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an
+adjective by its _qualifying a noun or pronoun_.
+
+Most words ending in _ing_ are _present participles_. These are
+frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make
+sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after
+them; as, a _pleasing_ thing, a _moving_ spectacle, _mouldering_ ruins.
+
+In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have
+gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither
+gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to _creatures_
+and _things_, and not to their _qualities_; therefore gender, person,
+number, and case, are the properties of _nouns_, and _not_ of
+adjectives.
+
+Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They
+have three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the
+Superlative.
+
+The _positive degree_ expresses the quality of an object without any
+increase or diminution; as, _good, wise, great_.
+
+The _comparative degree_ increases or lessens the positive in
+signification; as, _better, wiser, greater, less wise_.
+
+The _superlative degree_ increases or lessens the positive to the
+highest or lowest degree; as, _best, wisest, greatest, least wise_.
+
+COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
+
+_More_ and _most_ form the comparative and superlative degrees by
+increasing the positive; and _less_ and _least_, by diminishing it.
+
+Comparison by increasing the positive
+
+_Pos._         _Comp._         _Sup._
+great,        greater,        greatest.
+wise,         wiser,          wisest.
+holy,         more holy       most holy.
+frugal,       more frugal     most frugal.
+
+Comparison by diminishing the positive.
+
+_Pos._         _Comp._         _Sup._
+wise,         less wise       least wise.
+holy,         less holy,      least holy.
+frugal,       less frugal,    least frugal.
+
+NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
+
+Words used in counting, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the
+_cardinal_ kind; as, _one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty,_ &c.
+
+Words used in numbering, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the
+_ordinal_ kind; as, _first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth,_
+&c.
+
+    NOTE. The words _many, few_, and _several_, as they always refer to
+    an indefinite number, may be properly called _numeral adjectives_ of
+    the indefinite kind.
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding
+    _r_, or _er_; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding
+    _st_, or _est_, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wise_r_, Sup.
+    wise_st_; rich, rich_er_, rich_est_; bold, bold_er_, bold_est_. The
+    adverbs, _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, when placed before the
+    adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. wise, Com. _more_ wise,
+    Sup. _most_ wise; Pos. wise, Com. _less_ wise, Sup. _least_ wise.
+
+    2. _Monosyllables_ are generally compared by adding _er_ and _est;
+    dissyllables, trisyllables_, &c. by _more_ and _most_; as, mild,
+    milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more
+    virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in _y_; as, happy,
+    lovely; and in _le_ after a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables
+    accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of
+    _er_ and _est_; as, happi_er_, happi_est_; polit_er_, _polit_est_.
+    Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these
+    terminations.
+
+    3. When the positive ends in _d_, or _t_, preceded by a _single_
+    vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and
+    superlative degrees; as red, _redder, reddest_; hot, _hotter,
+    hottest_.
+
+    4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding _most_ to the
+    end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost,
+    uppermost, foremost.
+
+    5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very
+    common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better
+    of analogy,) that are irregular in forming the degrees of
+    comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little,
+    less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or
+    next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or
+    eldest;" and a few others.
+
+    6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the
+    _superlative_ degree, because, by expressing a quality in the
+    highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative
+    signification: _chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just,
+    true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless,
+    unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise,
+    eternal_.
+
+    7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising
+    from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as,
+    _well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular,
+    quadrangular, conical_, &c.
+
+    8. The termination _ish_ added to adjectives, expresses a slight
+    degree of quality below the comparative; as, _black, blackish; salt,
+    saltish. Very_, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of
+    quality, but not always a superlative degree.
+
+Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may
+parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the
+examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and
+rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed,
+please to commit the
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+_The order of parsing an_ ADJECTIVE, is--an adjective, and why?--compare
+it--degree of comparison, and why?--to what noun does it belong?--RULE.
+
+    That _great_ nation _was_ once _powerful_; but now it is _feeble_.
+
+_Great_ is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its
+quality--pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest--it is in the positive
+degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or
+diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to
+
+RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
+understood_.
+
+_Was_ is a verb, a word that signifies to be--neuter, it expresses
+neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being--third person
+singular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitude
+conveying _unity_ of idea--it agrees with "nation," agreeably to RULE
+10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, may have a verb or
+pronoun agreeing with it in the_ singular.
+
+_Powerful_ is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18.
+_Feeble_ belongs to "it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18. _Is_ is a
+neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably to Rule 4.
+
+    "Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men."
+
+_Four-hundred-thousand_ is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it
+is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men," according to
+Note 2, under Rule 18. _Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns
+must agree in number with their adjectives_.
+
+If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which
+you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the
+foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without
+any difficulty.
+
+_More_ is an adverb. _Of_ and _to_ are prepositions, governing the nouns
+that follow them in the objective case.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING. A benevolent man helps indigent beggars.
+Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large
+ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less
+burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions
+offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No
+composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass
+looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes
+a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful.
+Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next
+to Epaminondas.
+
+The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four
+thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a
+cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway.
+
+    NOTE. _Like, Worth_. The adjective _like_ is a contraction of the
+    participle _likened_, and generally has the preposition _unto_
+    understood after it. "She is _like_ [_unto_] her brother." "They are
+    _unlike_ [_to_] him." "The kingdom of heaven is _like_ [_likened_ or
+    made _like_] _unto_ a householder."
+
+    The noun _worth_ has altogether dropped its associated words. "The
+    cloth is _worth_ ten dollars _a_ yard;" that is, The cloth is _of
+    the_ worth _of_ ten dollars _by the_ yard, or _for a, one_, or
+    _every yard_.
+
+    Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an
+    ellipsis after _like, worth, ere, but, except_, and _than_, but
+    consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of
+    this work.
+
+REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.
+
+A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its
+noun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood;
+as, "The _virtuous_ [_persons_] and the _sincere_ [_persons_] are always
+respected;" "Providence rewards the _good_ [_people,_] and punishes the
+_bad_ [_people._]"
+
+  "The _evil_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] that men do, lives after them;
+  "The _good_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] is oft-interred with their bones."
+
+But sometimes the adjective, by its _manner_ of meaning, becomes a noun,
+and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief _good_;" "The
+vast _immense_ [_immensity_] of space."
+
+Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of
+adjectives, according to their _manner_ of meaning; as, "_Sea_ fish,
+_iron_ mortar, _wine_ vessel, _gold_ watch, _corn_ field, _meadow_
+ground, _mountain_ height."
+
+The principle which recognises _custom_ as the standard of grammatical
+accuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only _six_ words,
+and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the
+genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be
+correct to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, good_er_, good_est_;
+bad, bad_der_, bad_dest_; little, littl_er_, littl_est_; much,
+much_er_; much_est_." "By _this mean_;" "What _are_ the _news_." But such
+a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish
+it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, the
+good sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well as
+in a thousand others, to yield to _custom_, and say, "Good, _better,
+best_; bad, _worse, worst_; little, _less, least_; much, _more, most_;"
+"By _this means_;" "What _is_ the _news_?"
+
+With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care
+must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or
+nonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen
+rules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your
+pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind _the meaning of the
+words_ which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the
+ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid
+innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he
+is _very_ wicked, or _exceedingly_ lavish, because the terms _wicked_ and
+_lavish_ are adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take the
+words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man
+_very_ honest, or _exceedingly_ just, for the words _honest_ and _just_,
+literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is _honest_ or
+_dishonest, just_ or _unjust_: there can be no medium or excess in this
+respect. _Very_ correct, _very_ incorrect, _very_ right, _very_ wrong,
+are common expressions; but they are not _literally_ proper. What is not
+_correct_, must be _incorrect_; and that which is not _incorrect_, must
+be _correct_: what is not _right_, must be _wrong_; and that which is
+not _wrong_, must be _right_. To avoid that circumlocution which must
+otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently
+compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "The
+_most established_ practice;" "The _most uncertain_ method;" "Irving, as
+a writer, _is far more accurate_ than Addison;" "The metaphysical
+investigations of our philosophical grammars, are _still more
+incomprehensible_ to the learner." Comparisons like these, should
+generally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice,
+as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with
+the principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative.
+
+Comparative members of sentences, should be set in _direct opposition_
+to each other; as, "Pope was _rich_, but Goldsmith was _poor_." The
+following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was _wiser_ than Cicero was
+_eloquent_." "The principles of the reformation were _deeper_ in the
+prince's mind than to be _easily eradicated_." This latter sentence
+contains _no comparison_ at all; neither does it literally convey _any
+meaning_. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of my
+teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would
+imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiser
+_than_ my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but
+places himself in contradistinction to them.
+
+Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following
+
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?--By what sign
+may an adjective be known?--Are participles ever used as
+adjectives?--Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to
+adjectives?--How are they varied?--Name the three degrees of
+comparison.--What effect have _less_ and _least_ in comparing
+adjectives?--Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.--What rule
+applies in parsing an adjective?--What rule in parsing a verb agreeing
+with a noun of multitude conveying _unity_ of idea?--What Note should be
+applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?--What Note
+in parsing _numeral_ adjectives?
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat all the various ways of forming the
+degrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES.--Compare these
+adjectives; _ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, much_
+or _many, near, late, old_.--Name some adjectives that are always in the
+superlative, and never compared.--Are compound adjectives
+compared?--What is said of the termination _ish_, and of the adverb
+_very?_--When does an adjective become a noun?--What character does a
+noun assume when placed before another noun?--How can you prove that
+_custom_ is the standard of grammatical accuracy?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    ADNOUNS.
+
+    _Adnoun_ or _Adjective_, comes from the Latin, _ad_ and _jicio_, to
+    _add to_.
+
+    Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their
+    comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect
+    the former object, are called _adjectives_, or _attributes;_ and
+    those which effect the latter, _restrictives_. It is not, in all
+    cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should
+    be referred. Words which express simply the _qualities_ of nouns,
+    are adjectives; and such as denote their _situation_ or _number_,
+    are restrictives.
+
+    Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs.
+
+    Some consider the adjective, in its present application, _exactly_
+    equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of
+    juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "A
+    _golden_ cup," say they, "is the same as a _gold_ cup, or a cup _of
+    gold_." But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cup _of
+    gold_," may mean either a cup-_full_ of gold, or a cup _made_ of
+    gold. "An _oaken_ cask," signifies an _oak_ cask, or a cask _of
+    oak_; i.e. a cask _made_ of oak; but a _beer_ cask, and a cask _of
+    beer_, are two different things. A _virtuous_ son; a son _of
+    virtue_.
+
+    The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to
+    consist in its both _naming_ a quality, and _attributing_ that
+    quality to some object.
+
+    The terminations _en, ed_, and _ig_ (our modern _y_,) signifying
+    _give, add, join_, denote that the names of qualities to which they
+    are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such
+    qualities: wood-_en_, wood-_y_. See page 37.
+
+    _Left_ is the past participle of the verb _leave_. Horne Tooke
+    defines _right_ to be that which is _ordered_ or _directed_. The
+    _right_ hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use
+    in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference,
+    the other is the _leaved, leav'd_, or _left_ hand; i.e. the one
+    _leaved_ or _left_. "The one shall be taken, and the other _(leaved)
+    left_."
+
+    _Own_. Formerly a man's _own_ was what he _worked for, own_ being a
+    past participle of a verb signifying to _work_.
+
+    _Restrictive_. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only
+    to singular nouns; such as _a_ or _an, another, one, this, that,
+    each, every, either_. Others, only to plural nouns; as, _these,
+    those, two, three, few, several, all_. But most restrictives, like
+    adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns: _first,
+    second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which,
+    what_.
+
+    _Numerals_. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by
+    the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost
+    extent of its signification. _Ten_ is the past participle of
+    _tynan_, to close, to shut in. The hands _tyned, tened_, closed, or
+    shut in, signified _ten_; for there numeration _closed_. To denote a
+    number greater than ten, we must begin again, _ten_ and _one, ten_
+    and _two_, &c.
+
+    _Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane_, is a compound of _two (twa, twae,
+    twee, twi, two_ or _dwo_ or _duo)_ and _one (ane, ain, an.)_ It
+    signifies _two_ units _joined, united, aned,_ or _oned. Twenty
+    (twa-ane-ten)_ signifies _two tens aned, oned_, or _united_. Things
+    _separated_ into parcels of twenty each, are called _scores. Score_
+    is the past participle of _shear_, to _separate_.
+
+    _The Ordinals_ are formed like abstract nouns in _eth. Fifth,
+    sixth_, or _tenth_ is the number which _fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth_,
+    or mak-_eth_ up the number _five, six_, or _ten_.
+
+    Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in
+    which they were _originally_ employed, and suppose that all the
+    complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual
+    progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to
+    be reduced to _the standard of our forefathers_; appear not to have
+    sufficiently attended to the _changes_ which this principle of
+    association actually produces. As language is transmitted from
+    generation to generation, many words become the representatives of
+    ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they
+    undergo a change, not only in the _mode_ of their application, but
+    also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their
+    meaning must necessarily change as much, _at least_, as things
+    themselves change; but this variation in their import more
+    frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas
+    connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only
+    of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses
+    altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with
+    which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated.
+
+    Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks.
+    In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the
+    following language: "I, Paul, a _rascal_ of Jesus Christ, unto you
+    Gentiles," &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word,
+    would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a _rascal?
+    Rascal_ formerly meant a _servant:_ one devoted to the interest of
+    another; but now it is nearly synonymous with _villain. Villain_
+    once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term;
+    but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held
+    lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant,
+    "As you are an accomplished _villain_, I order that you receive L700
+    out of the public treasury." The word _villain_, then, has given up
+    its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the
+    word _tenant_ having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of
+    words _changes_, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the
+    intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+How are adnouns divided?--What constitutes the true character of an
+adjective?--What are the signification and denotement of the
+terminations, _en, ed_, and _ig?_--What do _left_ and _own_
+signify?--Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied.--How
+was numeration originally performed?--What is said of _twain, twenty,
+score_, and the ordinal numbers?--What is said of the changes produced
+in the meaning of words, by the principle of association?
+
+EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double _Comparatives_
+and _Superlatives_ should be avoided; such as, _worser, lesser, more_
+deeper, _more_ wickeder, &c.: _chiefest, supremest, perfectest,
+rightest_; or _more_ perfect, _most_ perfect, _most_ supreme, &c.
+
+    Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his
+    chiefest desire.
+
+    He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to
+    rule the night.
+
+The phrases "most supreme," and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are
+incorrect, because _supreme_ and _chief_ are in the superlative degree
+without having the superlative form superadded, which addition makes
+them double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supreme
+dignity," and, "his chief desire."
+
+We can say, one thing is _less_ than another, or _smaller_ than another,
+because the adjectives _less_ and _smaller_ are in the comparative
+degree; but the phrase "_lesser_ light," in the second sentence, is
+inaccurate. _Lesser_ is a double comparative, which, according to the
+preceding Note, should be avoided. _Lesser_ is as incorrect as _badder,
+gooder, worser_. "The _smaller_ light," would be less exceptionable. You
+can correct the following without my assistance. Correct them _four_
+times over.
+
+The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of
+imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the
+faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the most
+sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory,
+He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong
+proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness,
+the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof
+of the truer friendship.
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE V.
+
+OF PARTICIPLES.
+
+A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature
+of a verb, and also of an adjective.
+
+Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and
+the compound.
+
+The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle denotes action or being
+continued, but not perfected. It always ends in _ing_; as, _ruling,
+being_: "I am _writing_ a letter."
+
+The _perfect_ participle denotes action or being perfected or finished.
+When derived from a regular verb, it ends in _ed_, and corresponds with
+the imperfect tense; as, _ruled, smiled:_ "The letter is _written_."
+
+The _compound_ participle implies action or being completed before the
+time referred to. It is formed by placing _having_ before the perfect
+participle; as, _having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written_ the
+letter, he mailed it."
+
+The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_, which
+signifies to _partake_: and this name is given to this part of speech,
+because it _partakes_ of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.
+
+By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as
+a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an
+adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb,
+and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is
+believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to
+entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the
+connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also
+the noun and the verb.
+
+All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs,
+they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives,
+they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the
+sentences, The boatman is _crossing_ the river; I see a man _laboring_
+in the field; Charles is _standing_; you perceive that the participles
+_crossing_ and _laboring_ express the actions of the boatman and the
+man, and _standing_ the state of being of Charles. In these respects,
+then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they
+_describe_ the several nouns associated with them, like describing
+adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties
+of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which
+are still going on; that is, _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ actions; for
+which reason we call them _imperfect_ participles.
+
+Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the
+imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns,
+they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated
+_participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_
+stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar.
+Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_,
+describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where
+the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this
+descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is
+_running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects,
+as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well as
+when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a
+participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of
+meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this
+distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the
+meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to
+distinguish the one from the other.
+
+_Participles.                   Participial adjectives_.
+
+See the sun _setting_.       See the _setting_ sun.
+See the moon _rising_.       See the _rising_ moon.
+The wind is _roaring_.       Hear the _roaring_ wind.
+The twig is _broken_.        The _broken_ twig fell.
+The vessel _anchored_ in the The _anchored_ vessel spreads
+  bay, lost her mast.               her sail.
+
+The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_;
+as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived from
+the verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in
+_ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling,
+uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you parse a word ending
+in _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or
+not. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word
+_interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as
+_un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle:
+but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be able
+very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of
+speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the
+verb.
+
+Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun,
+smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate,
+disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _having
+learned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_,
+and so on.
+
+You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceed
+with me.
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is--a participle, and why?--from
+what verb is it derived?--speak the three--present, perfect, or
+compound, and why?--to what does it refer or belong?--RULE.
+
+    "I saw a vessel _sailing"_
+
+_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of
+the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective--it comes from the verb
+to sail--pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed--it is a
+present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of
+an unfinished action--and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject,
+according to
+
+RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting
+the subject or actor_.
+
+    "Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow."
+
+_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express
+its quality--it cannot, with propriety, be compared--- it belongs to the
+noun "billow," agreeably to
+
+RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
+understood_.
+
+You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a
+little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE.
+Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with a
+noun or pronoun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement;
+but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing;
+or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle
+_sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a
+plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in
+both examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governed
+by the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending
+of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is
+its nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_.
+
+In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates
+to the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse,"
+the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object of
+the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and
+it is governed by the participle beating, according to
+
+RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have from
+which they are derived_.
+
+The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a
+participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of
+action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must
+govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.
+
+When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed
+and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If,
+in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse
+correctly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend for
+definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again
+the whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for
+your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have
+acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_
+more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in
+your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying
+these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical
+knowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years.
+
+In the following examples, the words _purling, crusted, slumbering_, and
+_twinkling_, are participial adjectives. _There_ and _its_ you may omit.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking.
+The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long
+rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching,
+melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old
+hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds
+the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the
+desert thistle bending there its lowly head.
+
+REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES.
+
+Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A good _understanding_;
+Excellent _writing_; He made a good _beginning_, but a bad _ending_."
+
+Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best
+authorities: "The goods are _selling_;" "The house is _building_;" "The
+work is now _publishing_." A modern innovation, however, is likely to
+supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods are _being sold_;"
+"The house is _being built_;" "The work is now _being published_."
+
+You may now answer these
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+How many kinds of participles are there?--What is the ending of a
+present participle?--What does a perfect participle denote?--With what
+does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?--What is a
+compound participle?--From what word is the term participle
+derived?--Why is this part of speech thus named?--Wherein does this part
+of speech partake of the nature of a verb?--Do all participles
+participate the properties of adjectives?--In what respect?--When are
+participles called _participial adjectives_?--Give examples.--How may a
+present participle be known?--Repeat the order of parsing a
+participle.--What rule applies in parsing a _present_ participle?--What
+Rule in parsing a participial adjective?--Do participles vary in their
+terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?--What Rule
+applies in parsing a noun in the _objective case_, governed by a
+participle?--Do participles ever become nouns?--Give examples.
+
+       *       *       *      *     *
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination _ing,
+    ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies the same as the noun _being_. When
+    postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus
+    formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It
+    implies that what is meant by the verb, is _being_ continued. _En_
+    is an alteration of _an_, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct; _ed_ is a
+    contraction of _dede_; and the terminations _d_ and _t_, are a
+    contraction of _ed_. Participles ending in _ed_ or _en_, usually
+    denote the _dodo, dede, doed, did, done_, or _finished_ state of
+    what is meant by the verb. The book is _printed_. It is a _print-ed_
+    or _print-done_ book, or such a one as the _done_ act of _printing_
+    has made it. The book is _written_; i.e. it has received the _done_
+    or _finish-ed_ act of _writ-ing_ it.
+
+    Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to
+    nouns. They might, therefore, be styled _verbal adjectives_. But
+    that theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a
+    sandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided more
+    by their _manner_ of meaning, and their _inferential_ meaning, than
+    by their primitive, essential signification. "I have a _broken_
+    plate;" i.e. I have a plate--_broken_; "I have _broken_ a plate." If
+    there is no difference in the _essential_ meaning of the word
+    _broken_, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that
+    there is a wide difference in the meaning--_inferred_ by custom;
+    which difference depends on the _manner_ in which the term is
+    applied. The former construction denotes, that I _possess_ a plate
+    which was _broken_, (whether with or without my agency, is not
+    intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas,
+    the meaning of the latter is, that I _performed the act_ of reducing
+    the plate from a whole to a _broken_ state; and it is not intimated
+    whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that,
+    in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in
+    constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with
+    different parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishes
+    the propriety of retaining what we call the _perfect tense_ of the
+    verb.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+How are participles formed?--What does the imperfect part express?--
+What do perfect participles denote?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE VI.
+
+
+OF ADVERBS.
+
+An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of a _verb_, a_participle_,
+an _adjective_, or another _adverb_.
+
+Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a _noun_. It qualifies any of the
+four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others.
+
+To _modify_ or _qualify_, you know, means to produce some _change_. The
+adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style _excels_ Irving's, the
+proposition is affirmative, and the verb _excels_ expresses the
+affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style _excels not_ Irving's, the
+assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or
+changes the meaning of the verb _excels_? You perceive that it is the
+little word _not_. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the
+sentence. _Not_, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb.
+
+When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it
+generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is
+performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the
+phrases, The man rides _gracefully, awkwardly_, _badly, swiftly,
+slowly_, &c.; or, I saw the man riding _swiftly, slowly, leisurely, very
+fast_, &c., you perceive that the words _gracefully, awkwardly, very
+fast_, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verb _rides_, or the participle
+_riding_, because they express the _manner_ in which the action denoted
+by the verb and participle, is done.
+
+In the phrases, The man rides _daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often,
+sometimes, never_; or, The man rode _yesterday, heretofore, long since,
+long ago, recently, lately, just now_ or, The man will ride _soon,
+presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter_, you
+perceive that all these words in _italics_, are adverbs, qualifying the
+meaning of the verb, rides, because they express the _time_ of the
+action denoted by the verb.
+
+Again, if I say, The man lives _here, near by, yonder, remote, far off,
+somewhere, nowhere, everywhere_, &c., the words in _italics_ are adverbs
+of _place_, because they tell where he lives.
+
+Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as,
+_more_ wise, _most_ wise; or _more wisely, most wisely_. When an adverb
+is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses _the degree_
+of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison.
+Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective _skilful_
+is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb _more_ before the
+adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to
+the comparative; as, A _more_ skilful artist: and _most_ renders it
+superlative; as, A _most_ skilful artist. And if we place more and most
+before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, _more_
+skilfully, _most_ skilfully.
+
+COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
+
+_Positive_    _Comparative_    _Superlative_.
+soon           sooner           soonest.
+often          oftener          oftenest.
+much           more             most.
+well           better           best.
+far            farther          farthest.
+wisely         more wisely      most wisely.
+justly         more justly      most justly.
+justly         less justly      least justly.
+
+You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find
+it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in
+the English language. I will, therefore, give you some _signs_ which
+will assist you a little.
+
+Most words ending in _ly_ are adverbs; such as, _politely, gracefully,
+judiciously_. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of
+the questions, _how? how much? when?_ or _where?_ is an adverb; as, The
+river flows _rapidly_; He walks _very fast_; He has gone _far away;_ but
+he will _soon_ return; She sings _sweetly_; They learn _none at all_.
+How, or in what manner does the river flow? _Rapidly_. How does he walk?
+_Very fast_. Where has he gone? _Far away_. When will he return? _Soon_.
+How does she sing? _Sweetly_. How much do they learn? _None at all_.
+From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these
+adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the
+questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by
+considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing
+their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other
+words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly
+important. _Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly_, &c. are known to be
+adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A _very_ good pen
+writes _extremely well." Well_, in this sentence, is known to be an
+adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb _writes; extremely_, by
+its ending in _ly_, or by its being joined to the adverb _well_ to
+qualify it; and _very_ is known as an adverb by its joining the
+adjective _good_.
+
+Expressions like these, _none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long
+since, at length, in vain_, when they are used to denote the _manner_ or
+_time_ of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed
+_adverbial phrases_.
+
+Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical
+convenience, be reduced to particular classes.
+
+1. _Of Number;_ as, Once, twice, thrice, &c.
+
+2. _Of Order;_ as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c.
+
+3. _Of Place;_ as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere,
+nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward,
+backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c.
+
+4. _Of Time_. _Present_; as, Now, to-day, &c. _Past_; as, Already,
+before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago,
+&c. _Future_; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth,
+henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long,
+straightways, &c. _Time indefinite_; as, Oft, often, oft-times,
+often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly,
+always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c.
+
+5. _Of Quantity_; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great,
+enough, abundantly, &c.
+
+6. _Of Manner_ or _quality_; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly,
+quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and
+they are generally formed by adding the termination _ly_ to an adjective
+or a participle, or by changing _le_ into _ly;_ as, Bad, badly;
+cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably.
+
+7. _Of Doubt_; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.
+
+8. _Of Affirmation_; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless,
+certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.
+
+9. _Of Negation_; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise,
+&c.
+
+10. _Of Interrogation_; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and
+sometimes when, whence, where.
+
+11. _Of Comparison_; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less,
+least, very, almost, little, alike, &c.
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our
+    language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions
+    with the adverbs of place, _here, there, where_; as, Hereof,
+    thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby,
+    whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein;
+    therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon,
+    hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.
+
+    2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter _a_,
+    used instead of _at, an_, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep,
+    aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance,
+    away, asunder, astray, &c.
+
+You will now please to read this lecture _four_ times over, and read
+slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and
+character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to
+distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in
+this sentence which you have just read, the words _slowly, carefully,
+well_, and _frequently_, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in
+the question I have just put to you, the words _now_ and _just_ are
+adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in
+reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading.
+
+In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely,
+Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I
+believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the
+systematic order, _four_ times over. Those words in _italics_ are
+adverbs.
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+_The order of parsing an_ ADVERB, is--an adverb, and why?--what
+sort?--what does it qualify?--RULE.
+
+"My friend has returned _again_; but his health is _not very_ good."
+_Again_, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb--of
+time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined--it
+qualifies the verb "has returned," according to
+
+Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other
+adverbs_.
+
+_Not_ is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb--of
+negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the
+proposition from an affirmative to a negative--and it qualifies the
+adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, &c_.
+
+_Very_ is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an
+adjective--of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and
+qualifies it according to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c_.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+The traveller described a lofty castle decaying _gradually. Very_ few
+literary men _ever_ became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels
+_not_ Homer. The Roman women, _once voluntarily_ contributed their
+_most_ precious jewels to save the city.
+
+Many small streams uniting, form _very_ large rivers. The river Funza
+falling _perpendicularly_ forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants
+_always_ drive horses _very carefully_; negligent servants _often_ drive
+horses _very carelessly_. Assiduous scholars improve _very fast_; idle
+scholars learn _none at all_. Friendship _often_ ends in love; but love
+in friendship, _never_.
+
+NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? _Not
+yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far_, and _enough_, qualify
+"have walked" understood; _perhaps_ qualifies _not_; and _quite_
+qualifies _far_. The adverbs _always_ and _carefully_ both qualify the
+verb "drive:" the former expresses _time_, and the latter, _manner.
+Once_ and _voluntarily_ qualify the verb "contributed;" the former
+expresses _number_, and the latter, _manner_. The word _their_ you need
+not parse. The active verb _to save_ has no nominative. The nouns _love_
+and _friendship_, following _in_, are in the objective case, and
+governed by that preposition.
+
+REMARKS ON ADVERBS.
+
+When the words _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like,
+are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are _adverbs_; but
+when they appear single, they are commonly considered _conjunctions_.
+
+The words _when_ and _where_, and all others of the same nature, such as
+_whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise,
+while, wherefore_, &c. may be properly called _adverbial conjunctions_,
+because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of
+adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of _time_ or _place_; of
+conjunctions, as they _conjoin sentences_.
+
+There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and,
+sometimes as adverbs; as, "_More_ men than women were there; I am _more_
+diligent than he." In the former sentence _more_ is evidently an
+adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is
+an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are
+sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "_to-day's_
+lesson is longer than _yesterday's_." In this example, _to-day_ and
+_yesterday_ are nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the
+following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [_to
+his] home yesterday_, and will set out again _to-day_." Here they are
+nouns, if we supply _on_ before them.
+
+"Where _much [wealth, talent_, or something else] is given, _much
+[increase, improvement_] will be required; _Much_ money has been
+expended; It is _much_ better to write than starve." In the first two of
+these examples, _much_ is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in
+the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective _better_. In
+short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its
+_sense_, or by considering the _manner_ in which it is associated with
+other words.
+
+An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an _adverb_ by this
+rule: when a word qualifies a _noun_ or _pronoun_, it is an adjective,
+but when it qualifies a _verb, participle, adjective_, or _adverb_, it
+is an adverb.
+
+Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns
+are understood. "He rides _about_;" that is, about the _town, country_,
+or some-_thing_ else. "She was _near_ [the _act_ or _misfortune of_]
+falling;" "But do not _after_ [that _time_ or _event_] lay the blame on
+me." "He came _down_ [the _ascent_] from the hill;" "They lifted him
+_up_ [the _ascent_] out of the pit." "The angels _above_;"--above
+_us_--"Above these lower _heavens_, to us invisible, or dimly seen."
+
+Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax,
+you may answer these
+
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?--What parts of speech does it
+qualify?--When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it
+express?--When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it
+generally express?--Compare some adverbs.--By what signs may an adverb
+be known?--Give examples.--Repeat some _adverbial phrases_.--Name the
+different classes of adverbs.--Repeat some of each class.--Repeat the
+order of parsing an adverb.--What rule do you apply in parsing an
+adverb?
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.
+
+Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with
+adverbs of place.--Repeat some that are composed of the article _a_ and
+nouns.--What part of speech are the words, _therefore, consequently_,
+&c.?--What words are styled _adverbial conjunctions_?--Why are they so
+called?--Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes
+as an adverb?--Give examples.--What is said of _much_?--By what rule can
+you distinguish an adjective from an adverb?--Do prepositions ever
+become adverbs?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially
+    depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as
+    language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is
+    strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that
+    that nation which continues, through successive generations,
+    steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the
+    cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark
+    is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the
+    English language as their medium for the transmission of thought.
+    Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs
+    and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we
+    call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I
+    presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as
+    copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of
+    refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by
+    the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly
+    demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of
+    expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does
+    much for their benefit.
+
+    Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or
+    more words; as, "He did it _here_," for, He did it _in this place;
+    there_, for, _in that place; where_, for, _in what place; now_, for,
+    _at this time. Why_ means _for what reason; how--in what mind, mood,
+    mode_, or _manner; exceedingly--to a great degree; very--in an
+    eminent degree; often_ and _seldom_ signify _many times, few times_.
+
+    The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and
+    combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most
+    prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those in _ly_, a
+    contraction of _like. Gentleman-ly_, means _gentleman-like, like_ a
+    gentleman. We do not yet say, _ladily_, but _lady-like_. The north
+    Britons still say, _wiselike, manlike_, instead of, _wisely, manly_.
+
+    _Quick_ comes from _gwick_, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verb
+    _gwiccian_, to vivify, give life. _Quick-ly_ or _live-ly_, means, in
+    a _quick-like_ or _life-like_ manner; in the manner of a creature
+    that has _life. Rapid-ly--rapid-like, like a rapid_; a _quick-ly_ or
+    _swift-ly_ running place in a stream.
+
+    _Al-ways_, contraction of _in all ways_. By a slight transition, it
+    means _in_ or _at all times. Al-one_, contraction of _all-one.
+    On-ly--one-like. Al-so--all the same_ (thing.) _Ever_--an _age_. For
+    _ever_ and _ever_--for _ages_ and _ages_. Ever is not synonymous
+    with always. _Never_--_ne ever_. It signifies _no age, no period of
+    time. No_, contraction of _not. Not_, a modification of _no-thing,
+    noth-ing, naught_. "He is _not_ greater"--is greater _in
+    naught_--_in no thing_.
+
+    _Adrift_ is the past part. _adrifed, adrif'd, adrift_; from the
+    Saxon _drifan_, or _adrifan_, to drive. _Ago_, formerly written
+    _ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, is the past part. of the verb _to
+    go_. It refers to time _gone by. Asunder_, the Saxon past part.
+    _asundren_, from the verb _sondrian_ or _asondrian_, to separate.
+    _Aloft--on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft_ being the Anglo-Saxon
+    word for _air_ or _clouds. Astray_, the part. of _straegan_, to
+    stray. _Awry_, part. of _wry than_, to writhe.
+
+    _Needs_--_need-is_; anciently, _nedes_, nede is.
+    To-_wit_, the infinitive of _witan_, to know. It means, _to be
+    known_. _Ay_ or _yea_ signifies _have it, enjoy it. Yes_ is _ay-es_,
+    have, possess, enjoy _that_. Our corrupt _o-yes_ of the crier, is
+    the French imperative, _oyez_, hear, listen. _Straight way_--by a
+    straight way. _While--wheel_; period in which some thing _whiles_ or
+    _wheels_ itself round. _Till_--to while. _Per_, Latin,--the English
+    _by_. Perhaps--per haps, per chance. These examples of derivation
+    are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent
+    pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of
+language?--Illustrate the fact.--What is said of _ly, like_, and
+_quick_?--How are the following words composed, _always, alone, only,
+also_?--What is the meaning of _ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder,
+aloft, astray, awry_?--Give the signification of _needs, to-wit, ye,
+yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till_, and _per_.
+
+NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes,
+in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient.
+
+EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as
+adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:--She
+writes elegant; He is walking slow.
+
+The adjectives _indifferent, excellent_, and _miserable_, are here
+improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of
+adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs.
+The phrases should, therefore, be, "_indifferently_ honest,
+_excellently_ well, _miserably_ poor." _Elegant_ and _slow_ are also
+inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the
+manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is
+_the office_ of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes
+_elegantly_; He is walking _slowly_."
+
+You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain
+the principles that are violated.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.
+
+She reads proper, and writes very neat.
+
+They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor.
+
+The lowering clouds are moving slow.
+
+He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give
+offence.
+
+NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of
+adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but
+_suitably_ to his offence."
+
+The adverb _suitably_ is incorrect. It does not express the manner of
+the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes the _quality_ of the
+noun _terms_ understood; for which reason it should be an adjective,
+_suitable_.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+The man was slowly wandering about, _solitarily_ and distressed.
+
+He lived in a manner _agreeably_ to his condition.
+
+The study of Syntax should be _previously_ to that of Punctuation.
+
+He introduced himself in a manner very _abruptly_.
+
+_Conformably_ to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of
+gesture.
+
+I saw him _previously_ to his arrival.
+
+
+
+LECTURE VII
+
+
+OF PREPOSITIONS.
+
+A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the
+relation between them.
+
+The term _preposition_ is derived from the two Latin words, _pre_, which
+signifies _before_, and _pono, to place_. Prepositions are so called,
+because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they
+govern in the objective case.
+
+The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which
+you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to
+distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in
+composition.
+
+A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.
+
+of, over, at, after, betwixt,
+to, under, near, about, beside,
+for, through, up, against, athwart,
+by, above, down, unto, towards,
+with, below, before, across, notwithstanding,
+in, between, behind, around, out of,
+into, beneath, off, amidst, instead of,
+within, from, on upon, throughout, over against,
+without, beyond, among, underneath, according to.
+
+This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions,
+and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with
+the _nature_ of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too,
+you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes
+any word belongs.
+
+By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it
+performs a _double_ office in a sentence, namely, it _connects_ words,
+and also shows a _relation_ between them. I will first show you the use
+and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is
+ripe--October, it is gathered--the field--men--who
+go--hill--hill--baskets,--which they put the ears. You perceive, that in
+this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us
+fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear.
+"When corn is ripe, _in_ October, it is gathered _in_ the field _by_
+men, who go _from_ hill _to_ hill _with_ baskets, _into_ which they put
+the ears."
+
+From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language
+would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various
+words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but
+nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this
+office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.;
+in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a
+connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the
+next place I will show you how prepositions express a _relation_ between
+words.
+
+The boy's hat is _under_ his arm. In this expression, what relation does
+the preposition _under_ show? You know that _hat_ and _arm_ are words
+used as signs of two objects, or ideas; but _under_ is _not_ the sign of
+a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the _relation_
+existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the
+word _under_ is the sign of the _relation_ existing between particular
+_ideas_, it also expresses a relation existing between the words _hat_
+and _arm_, which words are the representatives of those ideas.
+
+The boy holds his hat _in_ his hand. In this sentence the preposition
+_in_ shows the relation existing between _hat_ and _hand_, or the
+situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And,
+if I say, The boy's hat is _on_ his head, you perceive that _on_ shows
+the relation between _hat_ and _head_. Again, in the expressions, The
+boy threw his hat _up stairs_--_under_ the bed--_behind_ the
+table--_through_ the window--_over_ the house--_across_ the
+street--_into_ the water--and so on, you perceive that the several
+prepositions express the different relations existing between the _hat_
+and the other nouns, _stairs, bed, table, window, house, street_, and
+_water_.
+
+A preposition tells _where_ a thing is: thus, "The pear is on the
+ground, _under_ the tree."
+
+Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do _not_ express an
+action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle
+does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the
+objective case, because it is the object of the _relation_ expressed by
+the preposition, and _not_ the object of an _action_.
+
+I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the _objective case_,
+than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed
+you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action _or_ of a
+relation; and, also, that there are _three_ parts of speech which govern
+nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, _active-transitive
+verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs_, and _prepositions_. A
+noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the
+object of an action _and_ of a relation. It must be either the object of
+an action _or_ of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember,
+that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or
+participle, it is the object of an _action_; as, The tutor _instructs_
+his _pupils_; or, The tutor is _instructing_ his _pupils_; but whenever
+a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a
+_relation_; as, The tutor gives good instruction _to_ his _pupils_.
+
+Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review
+this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously
+recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your
+book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course
+will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish
+to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of
+the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an
+unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have
+learned thus far, you will understand _seven_ parts of speech; and only
+_three_ more will remain to be learned.
+
+If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the
+following _order_, and then proceed in parsing.
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+_The order of parsing a_ PREPOSITION, is--a preposition, and why?--what
+does it connect?--what relation does it show?
+
+"He saw an antelope _in_ the _wilderness."_
+
+_In_ is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show
+the relation between them--it connects the words "antelope" and
+"wilderness"--and shows the relation between them.
+
+_Wilderness_ is a noun, the name of a place--com. the name of a sort or
+species--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken
+of--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the objective case, it is the
+object of a _relation_ expressed by the preposition "in," and governed
+by it, according to
+
+RULE 31. _Prepositions govern the objective case_.
+
+The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before _he_;
+Hand the paper to _they_. Prepositions _require_ the pronoun following
+them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this
+requisition amounts to _government_. Hence we say, "Stand before _him_;"
+"Hand the paper to _them_." Every preposition expresses a relation, and
+every relation must have an _object_: consequently, every preposition
+must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most
+excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause,
+in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over
+nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the
+laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of
+Egypt.
+
+A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious
+man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like
+swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales.
+
+At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast;
+and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards.
+
+  Love still pursues an ever devious race,
+  True to the winding lineaments of grace.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+NOTE.--The words _my_ and _and_ you need not parse. The noun "meteors,"
+following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by
+_unto_ understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home"
+is governed by _to_ understood, according to Rule 32.
+
+REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS.
+
+A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a
+preposition understood; as, "Give _him_ that book;" that is, "Give that
+book _to_ him;" "Ortugrul was one _day_ wandering," &c. that is, _on_
+one day. "Mercy gives _affliction_ a grace;" that is, Mercy gives a
+grace _to_ affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.
+
+To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is
+requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of
+_by_ and _with;_ as, "He walks _with_ a staff _by_ moonlight;" "He was
+taken _by_ stratagem, and killed _with_ a sword." Put the one
+preposition for the other, and say, "He walks _by_ a staff _with_
+moonlight;" "He was taken _with_ stratagem, and killed _by_ a sword;"
+and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former
+in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.
+
+Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a _preposition;_ as, to
+_up_hold, to _with_stand, to _over_look; and this composition gives a
+new meaning to the verb; as, to _under_stand, to _with_draw, to
+_for_give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb,
+and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not
+less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all
+instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the
+verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as _a
+part of the verb_. Thus, _to cast_ means _to throw_; but _to cast up_ an
+account, signifies _to compute_ it; therefore _up_ is a part of the
+verb. The phrases, _to fall on, to bear out, to give over_, convey very
+different meanings from what they would if the prepositions _on, out_
+and _over_, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called _compound_
+verbs.
+
+You may now answer the following
+
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+From what words is the term _preposition_ derived?--Why is it thus
+named?--Repeat the list of prepositions.--Name the three parts of speech
+that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.--When is a noun or
+pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?--When is it the
+object of a relation?--Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.--What
+rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a
+preposition?--Does every preposition require an objective case after
+it?--Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition
+understood?--Give examples.--What is said of verbs compounded of a verb
+and preposition?--Give the origin and meaning of the prepositions
+explained in the Philosophical Notes.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    _From_, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun
+    _frum_, beginning, source, author. "He came _from (beginning_)
+    Rochester." _Of_, he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and
+    Saxon noun _afora_, consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the
+    son _of (offspring_) David." _Of_ or _off_, in its modern
+    acceptation, signifies _disjoined, sundered_: A piece _of (off_) the
+    loaf, is, a piece _disjoined_, or _separated_ from the loaf. The
+    fragrance _of_ or _off_ the rose.
+
+    _For_ signifies _cause_. "I write _for_ your satisfaction;" i.e.
+    your satisfaction being the _cause. By_ or _be_ is the imperative
+    _byth_, of the Saxon _beon_, to be. _With_, the imperative of
+    _withan_, to join; or, when equivalent to _by_, of _wyr-than_, to
+    be. "I will go _with_ him." "I, _join_ him, will go." _In_ comes
+    from the Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; a cave or
+    cell. _About_, from _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Among_ is
+    the past part. of _gamaengan_, to mingle. _Through_ or _thorough_ is
+    the Gothic substantive _dauro_, or the Teutonic _thuruh_. It means
+    passage, gate, door.
+
+    _Before_--_be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-side, be-sides, be-neath_
+    are formed by combining the imperative, _be_, with the nouns _fore,
+    hind, low, side, neath. Neath_--Saxon _neothan, neothe_, has the
+    same signification as _nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt_--_be_ and _twain_.
+    A dual preposition. _Be-yond_--_be-passed. Beyond_ a place, means,
+    _be passed_ that place.
+    _Notwithstanding--not-stand-ing-with, not-withstanding_. "Any order
+    to the contrary not-withstanding," (this order;) i.e. _not_
+    effectually _withstanding_ or _opposing_ it.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LECTURE VIII.
+
+OF PRONOUNS.
+
+A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the
+too frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise,
+sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence.
+
+The word _pronoun_ comes from the two Latin words, _pro_, which means
+_for_, or _instead of_, and _nomen_, a _name_, or _noun._ Hence you
+perceive, that _pronoun_ means _for a noun_, or _instead of a noun_.
+
+In the sentence, "The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful;"
+you perceive, that the word _he_ is used instead of the noun _man;_
+consequently _he_ must be a _pronoun_. You observe, too, that, by making
+use of the pronoun _he_ in this sentence, we avoid the _repetition_ of
+the _noun_ man, for without the pronoun, the sentence would be rendered
+thus, "The man is happy; _the man_ is benevolent; _the man_ is useful."
+
+By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pronouns
+always _stand for_ nouns, but they do not always _avoid the repetition_
+of nouns. _Repetition_ means _repeating_ or mentioning the same thing
+again. In the sentence, "I come to die for my country," the pronouns,
+_I_ and _my, stand_ for the name of the person who speaks; but they do
+not _avoid the repetition_ of that name, because the name or noun for
+which the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the
+_third_ person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which
+they stand; but pronouns of the _first_ and _second_ person, sometimes
+avoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not.
+
+A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its
+importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. If
+we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to express
+ourselves in this manner: "A woman went to a man, and told the man that
+the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers; as a gang
+of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked
+the woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend
+the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a neighbor's."
+
+This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pronouns, we
+can express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness: "A
+woman went to a man, and told _him_, that _he_ was in great danger of
+being murdered by a gang of robbers, _who_ had made preparations for
+attacking _him. He_ thanked _her_ for _her_ kindness, and, as _he_ was
+unable to defend _himself_, _he_ left _his_ house and went to a
+neighbor's."
+
+If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss to
+tell which words are pronouns; and you will observe too, that they all
+stand for nouns.
+
+Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the _Personal_, the
+_Adjective_, and the _Relative_ pronouns. They are all known by the
+_lists_.
+
+1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the
+relative, by their denoting the _person_ of the nouns for which they
+stand. There are five of them; _I_, _thou, he, she, it_; with their
+plurals, _We, ye_ or _you, they_.
+
+To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case.
+
+GENDER. When we speak of a _man_, we say, _he, his, him_; when we speak
+of a _woman_, we say, _she, hers, her_; and when we speak of a _thing_,
+we say _it_. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as well
+as to nouns. Example; "The general, in gratitude to the lady, offered
+_her his_ hand; but _she_, not knowing _him_, declined accepting _it_."
+The pronouns _his_ and _him_, in this sentence, personate or represent
+the noun _general_; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender: _her_
+and _she_ personate the _lady_; therefore, they are feminine: and _it_
+represents _hand_; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This
+illustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gender
+as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the
+variation of the pronouns to express the sex,
+
+Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns,
+_he, she, it. He_ is masculine; _she_ is feminine; _it_ is neuter.
+
+You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons
+are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of the
+third. The reason is obvious. The first person, that is, the person
+speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at the
+same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present;
+from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and,
+therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked
+by a distinction of gender; but the third person, that is, the person or
+thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarily
+requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by a distinction
+of gender.
+
+In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and
+second person, and also to the plural number of the third person; but
+these have no peculiar form to denote their gender; therefore they have
+no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which they represent.
+
+PERSON. Pronouns have three persons in each number.
+
+_I_, is the first person                     }
+_Thou_, is the second person                 }  Singular.
+_He, she_, or _it_, is the third person      }
+
+_We_, is the first person                    }
+_Ye_ or _you_, is the second person          }  Plural.
+_They_, is the third person                  }
+
+This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you reflect,
+that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse:
+first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may
+speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak
+of some other person; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and
+the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a
+plural number.
+
+Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree, in person with
+the nouns they represent; but pronouns of the first person, do not.
+Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun;
+but nouns are _never_ of the first person, therefore these pronouns
+cannot agree in person with their nouns.
+
+NUMBER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and the
+plural; as, _I, thou, he_; _we, ye_ or _you, they_.
+
+CASE. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the
+objective.
+
+In the next place I will present to you the _declension_ of the personal
+pronouns, which declension you must commit to memory before you proceed
+any farther.
+
+The advantages resulting from the committing of the following
+declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too
+particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes
+very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the
+objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference
+in termination; but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personal
+pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By
+studying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of the
+pronouns, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers.
+
+DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
+
+                    FIRST PERSON.
+_Sing.                            _Plur_.
+_Nom_. I,                         we,
+_Poss_. my _or_ mine,        our _or_ ours,
+_Obj_. me.                        us.
+
+SECOND PERSON.
+_Sing_.                           _Plur_.
+_Nom_. thou,                      ye _or_ you,
+_Poss_. thy _or_ thine,      your _or_ yours,
+_Obj_. thee.                      you.
+
+THIRD PERSON.
+_Mas. Sing._                      _Plur_.
+_Nom_, he,                        they,
+_Poss_. his,                      their _or_ theirs,
+_Obj_. him.                       them.
+
+THIRD PERSON.
+_Fem. Sing._                      _Plur_.
+_Nom_. she,                       they,
+_Poss_. her _or_ hers,       their _or_ theirs.
+_Obj_. her.                       them.
+
+THIRD PERSON.
+_Neut. Sing._                     _Plur_.
+_Nom_. it,                        they,
+_Poss_. its,                      their _or_ theirs,
+_Obj._ it.                        them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, as himself,
+    myself, itself, themselves, &c. they are called _compound personal
+    pronouns_, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not
+    in the possessive.
+
+    2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned
+    by the frequent recurrence of the terminations _est, edst_, in the
+    adaptation of our verbs to the nominative _thou_, a modern
+    innovation which substitutes _you_ for _thou_, in familiar style,
+    has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to
+    the harmony of our colloquial style. _You_ was formerly restricted
+    to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a
+    singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that
+    when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word
+    retains its original _plural form_; and, therefore, the verb
+    connected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this
+    peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the erroneous
+    conclusion, that, because _you_ implies unity when it represents a
+    singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a
+    singular verb; as, "When _was you_ there?" "How far _was you_ from
+    the parties?" Such a construction, however, is not supported by
+    _good_ usage, nor by analogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to
+    say, We _am_, or we _is_. Were it, in any case, admissible to
+    connect a singular verb with _you_, the use of _was_ would still be
+    ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and
+    third persons, and _you_ is second person. _Wast_ being second
+    person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you
+    _wast_. We never use the singular of the present tense with
+    you:--you _art_, you _is_; you _walkest_, you _walks_. Why, then,
+    should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and
+    gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense
+    with this pronoun? In every point of view, the construction, "When
+    _were_ you there?" "How far _were_ you from the parties?" is
+    preferable to the other.
+
+    3. The words _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, are, by many,
+    denominated _possessive adjective pronouns_; but they always _stand
+    for_ nouns in the possessive case. They ought, therefore, to be
+    classed with the _personal_ pronouns. That principle of
+    classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would
+    also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives.
+    Example: "The lady gave the gentleman _her_ watch for _his_ horse."
+    In this sentence _her_ personates, or stands for, the noun "lady,"
+    and _his_ represents "gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by
+    rendering the sentence thus, "The lady gave the gentleman the
+    _lady's_ watch for the _gentleman's_ horse." If _lady's_ and
+    _gentleman's_ are nouns, _her_ and _his_ must be personal pronouns.
+    The same remarks apply to _my, thy, our, your, their_ and _its_.
+    This view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate
+    and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their
+    non-existence, but it is believed, nevertheless, to be based on
+    sound reason and common sense.
+
+    4. _Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, have, by many
+    respectable grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases
+    of personal pronouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated
+    pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. It is
+    believed, however, that a little attention to the meaning and office
+    of these words, will clearly show the impropriety of both these
+    classifications. Those who pursue the former arrangement, allege,
+    that, in the examples, "You may imagine what kind of faith _theirs_
+    was; My pleasures are past; _hers_ and _yours_ are to come; they
+    applauded his conduct, but condemned _hers_ and _yours_," the words
+    _theirs, hers_, and _yours_, are personal pronouns in the possessive
+    case, and governed by their respective nouns understood. To prove
+    this, they construct the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind
+    of faith _their faith_ was;--_her pleasures_ and _your pleasures_
+    are to come;--but condemned _her conduct_ and _your conduct_;" or
+    thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them
+    was;--the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come;--
+    but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these
+    constructions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their
+    purpose; for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they
+    are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the
+    nouns which we supply: thus, _theirs_ becomes, their faith: _hers_,
+    her pleasures; and _yours_, your pleasures. This evidently gives us
+    two words instead of, and altogether distinct from, the first; so
+    that, in parsing, _their faith_, we are not, in reality, analyzing
+    _theirs_, but two other words of which _theirs_ is the proper
+    representative. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the
+    impropriety of calling these words merely simple pronouns or nouns
+    in the nominative or objective case. Without attempting to develop
+    the original or intrinsic meaning of these pluralizing adjuncts,
+    _ne_ and _s_, which were, no doubt, formerly detached from the
+    pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes,
+    it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present application of
+    these pronouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person
+    possessing, but, also the thing possessed, which gives them a
+    _compound_ character. They may, therefore, be properly denominated
+    COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS; and, as they always perform a double
+    office in a sentence by representing two other words, and,
+    consequently, including two cases, they should, like the compound
+    relative _what_, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, "You
+    may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," _theirs_ is a compound
+    personal pronoun, equivalent to _their faith. Their_ is a pronoun, a
+    word used instead of a noun; personal, it personates the persons
+    spoken of, understood; third pers. plur. numb., &c.--and in the
+    possessive case, and governed by "faith," according to Rule 12.
+    _Faith_ is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. &c.--and in the
+    nominative case to "was," and governs it; Rule 3. Or, if we render
+    the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith _the faith of
+    them[4]_ was," _faith_ would be in the nominative case to "was," and
+    _them_ would be in the objective case, and governed by "of:" Rule
+    31.
+
+[4] In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his,
+her, our your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more
+clearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion, than this
+latter construction of the word theirs? All admit, that, in the
+construction, "The faith _of them_," the word _them_, is a personal
+pronoun: and for this conclusive reason:--it represents a noun
+understood. What, then, is _their_, in the phrase, "their faith?" Is
+it not obvious, that, if _them_ is a personal pronoun, _their_ must
+be, also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former.
+
+    Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless
+    be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after
+    these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion
+    without proof; for, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied.
+    If the question be put, whose book? and the answer be, _mine, ours,
+    hers_, or _theirs_, the word book is included in such answer. Were
+    it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine _book_, ours _book_,
+    hers _book_, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be
+    giving a _double_ answer: but when the question is answered by a
+    noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but
+    implied; as, Whose book? John's, Richard's; that is, John's _book_;
+    Richard's _book_.
+
+    This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the
+    compounds _what, whoever_, and _others_, is respectfully submitted
+    to the public; believing, that those who approve of a critical
+    analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be
+    disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among
+    the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interrogatory: If
+    _what_, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not _mine,
+    thine, his, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_?
+
+    5. _Mine_ and _thine_, instead of _my_ and _thy_, are used in solemn
+    style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent _h_; as, "Blot
+    out all _mine_ iniquities;" and when thus used, they are not
+    compound. _His_ always has the same form, whether simple or
+    compound; as, "Give John _his_ book; That desk is _his." Her_, when
+    placed before a noun, is in the possessive case; as, Take _her_ hat:
+    when standing alone, it is in the objective case; as, Give the hat
+    to _her_.
+
+When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the
+_declension_ of the personal pronouns, you may commit the following
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+_The order of parsing a_ PERSONAL PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and
+why?--personal, and why?--person, and why?--gender and number, and
+why?--RULE: case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it.
+
+There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronouns
+in their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse them
+correctly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the
+following are analyzed. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceive
+that we apply only _one_ rule in parsing _I_ and _my_, and _two_ in
+parsing _thou, him_, and _they_.
+
+    "_I_ saw _my_ friend."
+
+_I_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it represents
+the person speaking, understood--first person, it denotes the
+speaker--singular number, it implies but one--and in the nominative
+case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "saw," and governs
+it, agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case gov. the verb_. Declined--first
+pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss.
+our or ours, obj. us.
+
+_My_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
+personates the person speaking, understood--first pers. it denotes the
+speaker--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the possessive case, it
+denotes possession; it is governed by the noun "friend", agreeably to
+RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
+noun it possesses_. Declined--first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or
+mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us.
+
+    "Young man, _thou_ hast deserted thy companion, and left _him_ in
+    distress."
+
+_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
+personates "man"--second person, it represents the person spoken
+to--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands,
+according to RULE 13. _Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for
+which they stand in gender and number_.
+
+_Thou_ is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of the
+verb "hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. case
+governs the verb._ Declined--sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy
+or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj.
+you.
+
+_Him_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
+personates "companion"--third pers. it represents the person spoken
+of--mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "companion" is for which it
+stands: RULE 13. _Pers. pro. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.)--_Him_ is in the
+objective case, the object of the action expressed by the
+active-transitive verb "hast left," and gov. by it: RULE 20.
+_Active-trans. verbs gov. the obj. case_. Declined--third pers. mas.
+gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss.
+their or theirs, obj. them.
+
+    "Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat, but
+    _they_ dreaded the force of my arm."
+
+_They_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
+represents "chiefs"--third pers. it denotes the persons spoken of--mas.
+gend. plur. num. because the noun "chiefs" is for which it stands: RULE
+13. _Pers. Pron. &c_. (Repeat the Rule.) It is the nom. case, it
+represents the actors and subject of the verb "dreaded," and governs it:
+RULE 3. _The nom. case, gov. the verb_. Declined--third pers. mas. gend.
+sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or
+theirs, obj. them.
+
+NOTE. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns,
+(excepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are
+understood; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13.
+But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and _two_
+Rules.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. My friends
+visit me very often at my father's office. We improve ourselves by close
+application. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by your
+diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Young
+ladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove
+his horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them.
+
+Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us:
+its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmar
+stood on its banks, with their glittering spears. We fought along the
+vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending in
+the west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt them
+with his hands: joy brightened his thoughts.
+
+NOTE. _Horace, Charles_, and _ladies_, are of the second person, and
+nom. case _independent_: see RULE 5, and NOTE. The first _you_ is used
+in the nom. poss. and obj. case.--It represents Charles, therefore it is
+_singular_ in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, _you_
+personifies _ladies_, therefore it is _plural. Given_ is a perfect
+participle. _You_ following given, is governed by _to_ understood,
+according to NOTE 1, under Rule 32. _Run over_ is a compound verb. _And_
+is a conjunction. The first _its_ personates vale; the second _its_
+represents stream.
+
+You may now parse the following examples three times over.
+
+COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
+
+    "Juliet, retain her paper, and present _yours_."
+
+_Yours_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor
+and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _your paper_. _Your_ is a
+pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates
+"Juliet"--second person, it represents the person spoken to--fem.
+gender, sing. number, (singular in sense, but _plural_ in form,) because
+the noun Juliet is for which it stands: Rule 13. _Pers. Pron.
+&c_.--_Your_ is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is
+governed by "paper," according to Rule 12. _A noun or pron. &c._ (Repeat
+the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) _Paper_ is a noun, the name of a
+thing--common, the name of a sort of things--neuter gender, it denotes a
+thing without sex--third person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but
+one--and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by
+the transitive verb "present," and governed by it: Rule 20.
+_Active-transitive verbs govern the obj. case_.
+
+NOTE. Should it be objected, that _yours_ does not mean _your paper_,
+any more than it means _your book, your house, your_ any thing, let it
+be borne in mind, that pronouns have no _definite_ meaning, like other
+words; but their _particular_ signification is always determined by the
+nouns they represent.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Julia injured her book, and soiled mine: hers is better than mine. My
+friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours: his deeds deserve reward;
+yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past; thine are to come. We
+leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are
+kin.
+
+NOTE. _She_ understood, is nominative to _soiled_, in the first example;
+and the substantive part of _mine_, after than, is nom. to _is_,
+understood: Rule 35. The verbs _to secure_ and _to come_ have no
+nominative. The pronouns _mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my_,
+and _yours_, personate nouns understood.
+
+REMARKS ON _IT_.
+
+For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun _it_, many
+grammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to
+account for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It
+is in great demand by writers of every description. They use it without
+ceremony; either in the nominative or objective case; either to
+represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns
+in the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it
+represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of
+sentences taken in a mass.
+
+A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all
+its mystery. _It_, formerly written _hit_, according to H. Tooke, is the
+past participle of the Moeso-Gothic verb _haitan_. It means, _the said_,
+and, therefore, like its near relative _that_, meaning, _the assumed_,
+originally had no respect, in its application, to number, person, or
+gender. "_It_ is a wholesome law;" i.e. _the_ _said_ (law) is a
+wholesome law; or, _that_ (law) is a wholesome law;--_the assumed_ (law)
+is a wholesome law. "_It_ is the man; I believe _it_ to be them:"--_the
+said_ (man) is the man; _that_ (man) is the man: I believe _the said_
+(persons) to be them; I believe _that_ persons (according to the ancient
+application of _that_) to be them. "_It_ happened on a summer's day,
+that many people were assembled," &c.--Many people were assembled: _it,
+that_, or _the said_ (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day.
+
+_It_, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred
+to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. "How is
+_it_ with you?" that is, "How is your _state_ or _condition_?" "_It_
+rains; _It_ freezes; _It_ is a hard winter;"--_The rain_ rains; _The
+frost_ frosts or freezes; _The said_ (winter) is a hard winter. "_It_ is
+delightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to
+the end of their days." What is delightful? _To see brothers and sisters
+living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this thing_,
+is delightful. _It_, then, stands for all that part of the sentence
+expressed in italics; and the sentence will admit of the following
+construction; "To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end
+of their days, is delightful."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
+
+ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, or, more properly, SPECIFYING
+ADJECTIVES, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some
+distinct specification.
+
+Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. The
+former _stand for_ nouns, and never belong to them; the latter _belong
+to_ nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an
+_adjective-pronoun_ cannot exist. _Each, every, either, this, that,
+some, other_, and the residue, are pure adjectives.
+
+Those specifying adjectives commonly called Adjective Pronouns, may be
+divided into three sorts; the _distributive_, the _demonstrative_, and
+the _indefinite_. They are all known by the _lists_.
+
+I. The _distributive adjectives_ are those that denote the persons or
+things that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. _List:
+each, every, either_, and sometimes _neither_; as, "_Each_ of his
+brothers is in a favorable situation;" "_Every_ man must account for
+himself;" "_Neither_ of them is industrious."
+
+These distributives are words which are introduced into language in its
+refined state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors of
+thought. "_Man_ must account for himself;" "_Mankind_ must account for
+themselves;" "_All men_ must account for themselves;" "_All men, women,_
+and _children,_ must account for themselves;" "_Every man_ must account
+for himself." Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth.
+But the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the mind
+to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of _every, distributes_
+them, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever is affirmed
+of one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human
+race.
+
+_Each_ relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of
+the two, or every one of any number taken separately.
+
+_Every_ relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of
+them all taken separately.
+
+_Either_ relates to _two_ persons or things taken separately, and
+signifies the one or the other. "_Either_ of the _three_," is an
+improper expression. It should be, "any of the three."
+
+_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other; as,
+"_Neither_ of my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more
+than _two, none_ should be used instead of _neither_; as, "_None_ of my
+friends was there."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+II. The _demonstrative_ are those which precisely point out the subject
+to which they relate. _List: this_ and _that_, and their plurals,
+_these_ and _those_, and _former_ and _latter_; as, "_This_ is true
+charity; "_that_ is only its image."
+
+There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application
+of _the_ and _that_. When reference is made to a particular book, we
+say, "Take _the_ book;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise,
+we say, "Take _that_ book;" or, if it be near by, "Take _this_ book."
+You perceive, then, that these demonstratives have all the force of the
+definite article, and a little more.
+
+_This_ and _these_ refer to the nearest persons or things, _that_ and
+_those_ to the most distant; as, "_These_ goods are superior to those."
+_This_ and _these_ indicate the latter, or last mentioned; _that_ and
+_those_, the former, or first mentioned; as, "Both _wealth_ and
+_poverty_ are temptations; _that_ tends to excite pride, _this_,
+discontent."
+
+  "_Some_ place the bliss in action, _some_ in ease;
+   _Those_ call it pleasure, and contentment, _these_."
+
+_They, those_. As it is the office of the personal _they_ to represent a
+noun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight
+departure from analogy in the following application of it: "_They_ who
+seek after wisdom, are sure to find her: _They_ that sow in tears,
+sometimes reap in joy." This usage, however, is well established, and
+_they_, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to
+_those_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+III. The _indefinite_ are those which express their subjects in an
+indefinite or general manner. _List: some, other, any, one, all, such,
+both, same, another none_. Of these, _one_ and _other_ are declined like
+nouns. _Another_ is declined, but wants the plural.
+
+The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the
+meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade of
+difference in meaning, we say, Give me _a_ paper, _one_ paper, _any_
+paper, _some_ paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaning
+of the noun, they do not fix it to a _particular_ object. We therefore
+call them indefinite.
+
+These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns
+understood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly; as
+"You may take _either_; He is pleased with _this_ book, but dislikes
+_that_ (book;) _All_ (men) have sinned, but _some_ (men) have repented."
+
+The words, _one, other_, and _none_, are used in both numbers; and, when
+they _stand for_ nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite
+_pronouns_; as, "The great _ones_ of the world have their failings;"
+"Some men increase in wealth, while _others_ decrease;" "_None_ escape."
+
+The word "ones," in the preceding example, does not belong to a noun
+understood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The meaning is not "the
+great one men, nor ones men," therefore _one_ is not an adjective
+pronoun; but the meaning is, "The great _men_ of the world," therefore
+_ones_ is a pronoun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun _men_
+understood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The word
+_others_, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to
+_other men_; and should be parsed like _mine, thine_, &c. See Note 4th,
+page 100.
+
+I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some examples for you to
+analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should be at a loss
+for definitions and rules, please to refer to the compendium. But before
+you proceed, you may commit the following
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+The order of parsing an ADJECTIVE PRONOUN, is--an adjective pronoun, and
+why?--distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why?--to what
+noun does it belong, or with what does it agree?--RULE.
+
+"_One_ man instructs many _others." One_ is an adjective pronoun, or
+specifying adjective, it specifically points out a noun--indefinite, it
+expresses its subject in an indefinite or general manner, and belongs to
+the noun "man," according to RULE 19. _Adjective pronouns belong to
+nouns, expressed or understood_.
+
+_Others_ is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective pronoun and
+a noun, and is equivalent to _other men_. _Other_ is an adjective
+pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noun--indefinite, it
+expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, and belongs to _men_:
+Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) _Men_ is a noun, a name denoting
+persons--common, &c. (parse it in full;) and in the objective case, it
+is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb
+"instructs," and gov. by it: Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs, &c_.
+
+    "_Those_ books are _mine_."
+
+_Those_ is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is referred
+to--demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to which it
+relates--and agrees with the noun "books" in the plural number,
+according to NOTE 1, under Rule 19. _Adjective pronouns must agree in
+number with their nouns_.
+
+_Mine_ is a compound personal pronoun, including both the possessor and
+the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _my books_. _My_ is a pron. a
+word used instead of a noun--personal, it stands for the name of the
+person speaking--first person, it denotes the speaker--sing. number, it
+implies but one--and in the poss. case, it denotes possession, and is
+gov. by "books," according to Rule 12. (Repeat the rule, and decline
+the pronoun.) _Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, &c. (parse
+it in full;)--and in the nominative case after "are," according to RULE
+21. _The verb_ to be _admits the same case after it as before it_.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little.
+These men rank among the great ones of the world. That book belongs to
+the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men labor, others labor not; the
+former increase in wealth, the latter decrease. The boy wounded the old
+bird, and stole the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of
+those poor wretches complain of their miserable lot.
+
+NOTE. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, NOTE 2, undo
+Rule 19, should be applied.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+III. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
+
+Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrase
+going before, which is called the antecedent. They are _who, which_, and
+_that_.
+
+The word _antecedent_, comes from the two Latin words, _ante, before_,
+and _cedo, to go_. Hence you perceive, that antecedent means going
+before; thus, "The _man_ is happy _who_ lives virtuously; This is the
+_lady who_ relieved my wants; _Thou who_ lovest wisdom, &c. _We who_
+speak from experience," &c. The relative who, in these sentences,
+relates to the several words, _man, lady, thou_, and _we_, which words,
+you observe, come before the relative: they are, therefore, properly
+called antecedents.
+
+The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or number, like
+a personal pronoun. When we use a personal pronoun, in speaking of a
+man, we say _he_, and of a woman, _she_; in speaking of one person or
+thing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on;
+but there is no such variation of the relative. _Who_, in the first of
+the preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third
+pers. sing.; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the
+third, it is of the second pers.; and in the fourth, it is of the first
+pers. plur. num.; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each
+example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar _form_ to
+denote its gend. pers. and num., but it always agrees with its
+antecedent _in sense_. Thus, when I say, The _man who_ writes, _who_ is
+mas. gend. and sing.; but when I say, The _ladies who_ write, _who_ is
+feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. pers. and num. of
+the relative, you must always look at its antecedent.
+
+WHO, WHICH, and THAT.
+
+_Who_ is applied to _persons, which_ to _things_ and _brutes_; as, "He
+is a _friend who_ is faithful in adversity; The _bird which_ sung so
+sweetly, is flown; This is the _tree which_ produces no fruit."
+
+_That_ is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent
+repetition of _who_ and _which_. It is applied both to persons and
+things; as, "_He that_ acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a
+_quality that_ highly adorns a woman."
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. _Who_ should never be applied to animals. The following
+    application of it is erroneous:--"He is like a _least_ of prey,
+    _who_ destroys without pity." It should be, _that_ destroys, &c.
+
+    2. _Who_ should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say,
+    "The _child whom_ we have just seen," &c. It should be, "The child
+    _that_ we have just seen."
+
+    3. _Which_ may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one
+    person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as,
+    "_Which_ of the two? _Which_ of them is he?"
+
+    4. _That_, in preference to _who_ or _which_, is applied to persons
+    when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree,
+    or by the pronominal adjective _same_; as, "Charles XII., king of
+    Sweden, was one of the _greatest_ madmen _that_ the world ever
+    saw;--He is the _same_ man _that_ we saw before."
+
+    5. _That_ is employed after the interrogative _who_, in cases like
+    the following; "Who _that_ has any sense of religion, would have
+    argued thus?"
+
+When the word _ever_ or _soever_ is annexed to a relative pronoun, the
+combination is called a _compound pronoun_; as, _whoever_ or _whosoever,
+whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_.
+
+DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
+
+SINGULAR AND PLURAL.
+
+_Nom._ who,        _Poss._ whose,       _Obj._ whom.
+ "   whoever,      "   whosever,     "   whomever.
+ "   whosoever,    "   whosesoever,  "   whomsoever.
+
+_Which_ and _that_ are indeclinable, except that _whose_ is sometimes
+used as the possessive case of _which_; as, "Is there any other doctrine
+_whose_ followers are punished;" that is, the followers _of which_ are
+punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers;
+but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departure
+from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their
+applications, should be confined to rational beings.
+
+_That_ may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction,
+depending on the office which it performs in the sentence.
+
+_That_ is a relative only when it can be changed to _who_ or _which_
+without destroying the sense; as, "They _that_ (who) reprove us, may be
+our best friends; From every thing _that_ (which) you see, derive
+instruction." _That_ is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to,
+or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as,
+"Return _that_ book; _That_ belongs to me; Give me _that_." When _that_
+is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as,
+"Take care _that_ every day be well employed." The word _that_, in this
+last sentence, cannot be changed to _who_ or _which_ without destroying
+the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither does
+it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an
+adjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a
+conjunction.
+
+If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word _that_,
+you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or an
+adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and whenever
+these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction.
+
+Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you
+one example of affronted _that_, which may serve as a caution. The tutor
+said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady
+parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze.
+This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, is
+strictly grammatical. The first _that_ is a noun; the second, a
+conjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; the
+fifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh,
+a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun.
+The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; The
+tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that _which_ that
+lady parsed, was not the that _which_ that gentleman requested her to
+analyze.
+
+WHAT.
+
+_What_ is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent
+and the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "This is _what_
+I wanted;" that is, _that which_, or, _the thing which_ I wanted.
+
+_What_ is compounded of _which that_. These words have been contracted
+and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still
+retained: _what--wh[ich--t]hat_; (_which-that_.) Anciently it appeared
+in the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat_,
+and finally, _what_.
+
+_What_ may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection.
+When it is equivalent to _that which, the thing which_, or _those things
+which_, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the
+antecedent and the relative; as, "I will try _what_ (that which) can be
+found in female delicacy; _What_ you recollect with most pleasure, are
+the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, _those things which_
+you recollect, &c.
+
+When _what_ is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two
+words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give
+it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative,
+giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples,
+_that_, the antecedent part of _what_, is in the obj. case, governed by
+the verb "will try;" _which_, the relative part, is in the nom. case to
+"can be found." "I have heard _what_ (i.e. _that which_, or _the thing
+which_) has been alleged."
+
+_Whoever_ and _whosoever_ are also compound relatives, and should be
+parsed like the compound _what_; as, "_Whoever_ takes that oath, is
+bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, _whoever_ is equivalent to
+_he who_, or, _the man who_; thus, "_He who_ takes that oath, is bound,"
+&c.
+
+_Who, which_, and _what_, when used in asking questions, are called
+interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as,
+_"Who_ is he? _Which_ is the person? _What_ are you doing?"
+
+Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word
+or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as,
+"_Whom_ did you see? The _preceptor. What_ have you done? _Nothing_."
+Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification.
+Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means
+following, or coming after. _What_, when used as an interrogative, is
+never compound.
+
+_What, which_, and _that_, when joined to nouns, are specifying
+adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case,
+but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or
+indefinite kind; as, "Unto _which_ promise our twelve tribes hope to
+come;" "_What_ misery the vicious endure! _What_ havock hast thou made,
+foul monster, sin!"
+
+_What_ and _which_, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are
+denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "_What man_ is
+that? _Which road_ did he take?"
+
+_What, whatever_, and _whatsoever, which, whichever_, and _whichsoever_,
+in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not
+compound relatives; as, "In _what_ character Butler was admitted, is
+unknown; Give him _what_ name you choose; Nature's care largely endows
+_whatever_ happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take
+_which_ course, or, _whichever_ course he will." These sentences may be
+rendered thus; "_That_ character, or, _the_ character in _which_ Butler
+was admitted, is unknown; Give him _that_ name, or, _the_ name _which_
+you choose; Nature's care endows _that_ happy man _who_ will deign, &c.;
+Let him take _that_ course, or _the_ course _which_ he will." A compound
+relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These
+compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part
+of each word being the article _the_, or the adjective pronoun, _that_;
+therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives.--With
+regard to the word _ever_ annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular
+fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined,
+_ever_ is entirely excluded from the sentence.
+
+_What_ is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But _what!_ is thy
+servant a dog, that he should do this? _What!_ rob us of our right of
+suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"
+
+You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so
+speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science;
+but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your
+future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle
+elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober
+thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative
+pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily
+comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very
+important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or
+five times over before you proceed to commit the following order.
+Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you
+please.
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+_The order of parsing a_ RELATIVE PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, and
+why?--relative, and why?--gender, person, and number, and
+why?--RULE:--case, and why?--RULE.--Decline it.
+
+    "This is the man _whom_ we saw."
+
+_Whom_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--relative, it relates
+to "man" for its antecedent--mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because
+the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to
+
+RULE 14. _Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender,
+person, and number. Whom_ is in the objective case, the object of the
+action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by
+it, agreeably to
+
+RULE 16. _When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the
+relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its
+own member of the sentence_.
+
+_Whom_, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs
+it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline
+_who_.)
+
+    "From _what_ is recorded, he appears," &c.
+
+_What_ is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the
+relative, and is equivalent to _that which_, or the _thing
+which_--_Thing_, the antecedent part of _what_, is a noun, the name of a
+thing--com. the name of a species--neuter gender, it has no sex--third
+person, spoken of--sing. number, it implies but one--and in the obj.
+case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from,"
+and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which
+I refer.) _Which_, the relative part of _what_, is a pronoun, a word
+used instead of a noun--relative, it relates to "thing" for its
+antecedent--neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the
+antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. _Rel
+pron_. &c. _Which_ is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded,"
+agreeably to
+
+RULE 15. _The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no
+nominative comes between it and the verb_.
+
+    "_What_ have you learned? Nothing."
+
+_What_ is a pron. a word used, &c.--relative of the interrogative kind,
+because it is used in asking a question--it refers to the word "nothing"
+for its _subsequent_, according to
+
+RULE 17. _When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the
+word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its
+subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative.
+What_ is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent
+"nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. _Rel. pron. agree_, &c.--It
+is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive
+verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. _When a nom_.
+&c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.
+
+NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative
+when the answer to the question is _not_ expressed.
+
+WHO, WHICH, WHAT.
+
+Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand.
+The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance
+with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded
+according to their true character, they would be found to be very
+simple, and, _doubtless_, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the
+learner, would thereby be saved.
+
+Of the words called "relatives," _who_, only, is a pronoun; and this is
+strictly _personal_; more so, indeed, if we except _I_ and _we_, than
+any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons.
+It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. _I, thou, he, she,
+it, we, ye, you_, and _they, relate_ to antecedents, as well as _who.
+Which, that_, and _what_, are always adjectives. They never _stand for_,
+but always _belong_ to nouns, either expressed or implied. They
+_specify_, like many other adjectives, and _connect_ sentences.
+
+_Who_ supplies the place of _which_ or _what_ and its _personal noun_.
+_Who_ came? i.e. _what man, what woman, what person;--which man, woman_,
+or _person_, came? "They heard _what_ I said"--they heard _that_ (thing)
+_which_ (thing) I said. "Take _what_ (or _whichever_) course you
+please;"--take _that_ course _which_ (course) you please to take.
+"_What_ have you done?" i.e. _what thing, act_, or _deed_ have you
+done? "_Which thing_ I also did at Jerusalem." "_Which_ will you
+take?"--_which book, hat_, or something else? "This is the tree _which_
+(tree) produces no fruit." "He _that_ (man, or _which_ man) acts wisely,
+deserves praise."
+
+They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty
+to adopt it, and parse accordingly.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct,
+learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities.
+That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts
+wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I
+believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the
+heart, also fortifies it. What doest[5] thou? Nothing. What book
+have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry.
+Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take?
+Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he
+said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza,
+take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this
+republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her
+liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the
+world, is the enemy of God.
+
+[5] The second person singular of _do_, when used as a principal
+verb, is spelled with an _e_; thus, "What thou _doest_, do quickly;"
+but when employed as an auxiliary, the _e_ should be omitted; as,
+"_Dost_ thou not _behold_ a rock with its head of heath?"
+
+    NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and
+    the objective case, before the verb that governs it. _Whom_, in
+    every sentence except one, _house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him_,
+    the third _what_ and _which_, the relative part of the first _two
+    whats_, are all in the _objective_ case, and governed by the several
+    verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. _Tree_ is nom.
+    after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of
+    _whatever_, is nom. to "fortifies;" _which_, the relative part, is
+    nom. to "purifies." _Nothing_ is governed by _do_, and _poem_, by
+    _have_, understood. _Henry_ is nominative to _does_, understood.
+    _Whose_ and _John's_ are governed according to RULE 12. _I, thou,
+    you, him_, &c. represent nouns understood. _Him_, in the last
+    sentence but five, is governed by _declare_, and _I_ is nominative
+    to _declare. George_ and _Eliza_ are in the nominative case
+    independent: Rule 5. "_Whatever_ science," &c. is equivalent to,
+    _that_ science _which_ suits your taste;--"_whichever_ pattern;"
+    i.e. _that_ pattern _which_ pleases you best. _Whoever_ is a
+    compound relative; _he_, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will
+    behold." _Take_ agrees with _you_ understood. _Forsake_ is in the
+    infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.
+
+REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
+
+_Which_ sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole
+sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep
+his commandments, _which_ is the whole duty of man." What is the whole
+duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this
+phrase is the antecedent to _which_.
+
+The conjunction _as_, when it follows _such, many_, or _same_, is
+frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with _such
+as_ have a refined taste;" that is, with _those who_, or _them who
+have_, &c. "Let _such as_ presume to advise others, look well to their
+own conduct;" that is, Let _those_, or _them who_ presume, &c. "_As many
+as_ were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, _they, those_, or
+_all who_ were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the _same_ testimonials
+_as_ were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, _those_ testimonials
+_which_ were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the
+ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, _as_ will be found
+to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with _such persons, as those
+persons are who_ have a refined taste; Let _such persons, as those
+persons are who_ presume," &c.
+
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+From what words is the term pronoun derived?--Do pronouns always avoid
+the repetition of nouns?--Name the three kinds of pronouns.--What
+distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?--How many
+personal pronouns are there?--Repeat them.--What belong to pronouns?--Is
+gender applied to all the personal pronouns?--To which of them is it
+applied?--Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to
+denote their gender?--How many persons have pronouns?--Speak them in
+their different persons.--How many numbers have pronouns?--How many
+cases?--What are they?--Decline all the personal pronouns.--When _self_
+is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are
+they used?--When is _you_ singular in sense?--Is it ever singular in
+form?--Why are the words, _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, called
+personal pronouns?--Why are the words, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours,
+yours, theirs_, denominated compound pers. pron.?--How do you parse
+these compounds?--What is said of _others_?--Repeat the order of parsing
+a personal pronoun.--What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the
+first person, and in the nom. case?--What rule when the pronoun is in
+the possessive case?--What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of
+the second and third person?--What Rules in parsing the compounds,
+_yours, ours, mine_, &c.?--What is said of the pronoun _it_?
+
+What are adjective pronouns?--Name the three kinds.--What does _each_
+relate to?--To what does _every_ relate?--To what does _either_
+relate?--What does _neither_ import?--To what do _this_ and _these_
+refer?--Give examples.--To what do _that_ and _those_ refer?--Give
+examples.--Repeat all the adjective pronouns.--When adj. pronouns belong
+to nouns understood, how are they parsed?--When they stand for, or
+represent nouns, what are they called?--Give examples.--Repeat the
+order of parsing an adj. pronoun.--What Rule do you apply in parsing
+the indefinite adjective pronouns?--What Notes, in parsing the
+distributives and demonstratives?
+
+What are relative pronouns?--Repeat them.--From what words is the term
+antecedent derived?--What does _antecedent_ mean?--Are relatives varied
+on account of gender, person, or number?--To what are _who_ and _which_
+applied?--To what is _that_ applied?--Should _who_ ever be applied to
+irrational beings or children?--In what instances may _which_ be applied
+to persons?--Decline the rel. pronouns.--Can _which_ and _that_ be
+declined?--Is _that_ ever used as three parts of speech?--Give
+examples.--What part of speech is the word _what_?--Is _what_ ever used
+as three kinds of a pronoun?--Give examples.--What is said of
+_whoever_?--What words are used as interrogative pronouns?--Give
+examples.--When are the words, _what, which_, and _that_, called adj.
+pron.?--When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?--What
+is said of _whatever_ and _whichever_?--Is _what_ ever used as an
+interjection?--Give examples.--Repeat the order of parsing a rel.
+pron.--What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?--What Rules in
+parsing a compound relative?--What Rules in parsing an
+interrogative?--Does the relative _which_ ever relate to a sentence for
+its antecedent?--When does the conjunction _as_ become a relative?--Give
+examples.
+
+EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it
+must be in the nominative case.
+
+Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?
+
+"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun _him_ is the subject of the
+verb _will go_ understood, therefore him should be in the nominative
+case, _he_, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) _Him_ and I
+are connected by the conjunction _and_, and _him_ is in the obj. case,
+and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.)
+In the second and third examples, _thee_ should be _thou_, according to
+the NOTE. The verbs, _does_ and _is_, are of the third person, and the
+nom. _thou_ is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the
+second person, _dost do_ and _art_, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct
+the other examples, _four_ times over.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is
+careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the
+man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater
+proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was
+there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of
+honor bestowed upon him.
+
+NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of
+nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with
+the noun which they represent.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many
+words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many
+victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about
+doing good, they are continually doing evil.
+
+In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be
+omitted, according to Note 2.
+
+NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not
+be used instead of _these_ and _those_.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men
+their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons
+deserves most credit?
+
+In all these examples, _those_ should be used in place of _them_. The
+use of the personal, _them_, in such constructions, presents two
+objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may
+be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LECTURE IX.
+
+OF CONJUNCTIONS.
+
+A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect
+sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound
+sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou _and_ he are
+happy, _because_ you are good."
+
+Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in
+different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human
+thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.
+
+The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, _con_, which
+signifies _together_, and _jungo_, to _join_. A conjunction, then, is a
+word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully
+comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite
+that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and
+a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect
+sentences.
+
+A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.
+
+A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb
+which agrees with that nominative; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field."
+
+You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the
+nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence
+containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and
+one _finite_ verb, (that is, a verb _not_ in the infinitive mood,) it is
+a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.
+
+A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences
+connected together; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field, and _men reap_ it."
+
+This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences
+joined together by the word _and_; which word, on account of its
+connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence
+without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat
+grows in the field. Men reap it."
+
+The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated.
+After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish
+to _add_ another, or several others, which are closely connected with
+it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus,
+"The Georgians cultivate rice _and_ cotton;" that is, "They cultivate
+rice _add_ cotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of
+the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences:
+thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The
+conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes
+connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the
+preposition; as, "The sun _and (add)_ the planets constitute the solar
+system." In this, which is a simple sentence, _and_ connects two
+_words_.
+
+A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of
+this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it.
+The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no
+relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He
+labors harder--more successfully--I do. That man is healthy--he is
+temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with
+conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus,
+He labors harder _and_ more successfully _than_ I do. That man is
+healthy _because_ he is temperate.
+
+Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.
+
+I. The Conjunction _Copulative_ serves to connect and continue a
+sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a
+supposition, or a cause; as, "Two _and_ three are five; I will go _if_
+he will accompany me; You are happy _because_ you are good."
+
+In the first of these examples, _and_ joins on a word that expresses an
+_addition_; in the second, _if_ connects a member that implies a
+_supposition_ or _condition_; and in the third, _because_ connects a
+member that expresses a _cause_.
+
+II. The Conjunction _Disjunctive_ serves to connect and continue a
+sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning;
+as, "They came with her, _but_ they went away without her."
+
+_But_ joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only
+something added, but, also, _opposition_ of meaning.
+
+The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following _lists_, which
+you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however,
+frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you
+study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be
+at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.
+
+LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.
+
+_Copulative_. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore,
+wherefore, provided, besides.
+
+_Disjunctive_. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either,
+neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas,
+as well as.
+
+Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that,
+in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the
+former; as,
+
+1. _Though_--_yet_ or _nevertheless_; as, "_Though_ he was rich, _yet_
+for our sakes he became poor."
+
+2. _Whether_--_or_; as, "_Whether_ he will go, _or_ not, I cannot tell."
+It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or _no_."
+
+3. _Either_--_or_; as, "I will _either_ send it, _or_ bring it myself."
+
+4. _Neither--nor_; as, "_Neither_ thou _nor_ I can comprehend it."
+
+5. _As_--_as_; as, "She is _as_ amiable _as_ her sister."
+
+6. _As_--_so_; as, "_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be."
+
+7. _So_--_as_; as, "To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the
+sanctuary."
+
+8. _So_--_that_; as, "He became _so_ vain, _that_ everyone disliked
+him."
+
+    NOTES.
+
+    1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple _sentences_ only,
+    and form them into compound _sentences_; such as, further, again,
+    besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple _members_ only,
+    so as to make them compound _members_; such as, than, lest, unless,
+    that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and,
+    therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or
+    simple members.
+
+    2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect
+    sentences; as, "Blessed is the man _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_
+    keepeth his commandments."
+
+You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five
+times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may
+parse the subsequent exercises.
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+_The order of parsing a_ CONJUNCTION, is--a conjunction, and
+why?--copulative or disjunctive, and why?--what does it connect?
+
+"Wisdom _and_ virtue _form_ the good man's character." _And_ is a
+conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in
+this example it connects only words--copulative, it serves to connect
+and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an
+addition--it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."
+
+_Wisdom_ is a noun, the name of a thing--(You may parse it in
+full.)--_Wisdom_ is one of the nominatives to the verb "form."
+
+_Virtue_ is a noun, the name, &c.--(Parse it in full:)--and in the nom.
+case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and,
+according to RULE 33. _Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the
+same case_.
+
+_Form_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.--of the third
+person, _plural_, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are
+connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. _Two or more
+nouns in the singular number, joined by_ copulative _conjunctions, must
+have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ plural.
+
+"Wisdom _or_ folly _governs_ us." _Or_ is a conjunction, a word that is
+chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects
+words--disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the
+sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of
+meaning--it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."
+
+_Governs_ is a verb, a word that signifies, &e.--of the third person,
+singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to
+RULE 9. _Two or more nouns singular, joined by_ disjunctive
+_conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them
+in the_ singular:
+
+If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules
+presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For
+example; in the sentence, "Orlando _and_ Thomas, _who study their
+lessons, make_ rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns,
+_Orlando_ and _Thomas_, are connected by the copulative conjunction
+_and_, therefore the verb _make_, which agrees with them, is plural,
+because it expresses the action of _both_ its nominatives or actors. And
+you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _their_, and the noun
+_lessons_, are _plural_, agreeing with the nouns _Orlando_ and _Thomas_,
+according to RULE 8. The verb _study_ is plural, agreeing with _who_,
+according to RULE 4.
+
+But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see
+how the sentence will read: "Orlando _or_ Thomas, _who studies his
+lesson, makes_ rapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different
+construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that
+Orlando and Thomas, _both_ study and make rapid progress; but it
+asserts, that either the one _or_ the other studies, and makes rapid
+progress. Hence the verb _makes_ is singular, because it expresses the
+action of the one _or_ the other of its nominatives. And you observe,
+too, that the pronouns _who_ and _his_, and the noun _lesson_, are
+likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando _or_ Thomas, agreeably
+to RULE 9. _Studies_ is also singular, agreeing with _who_, according to
+RULE 4.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars,
+admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend,
+because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their
+teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher,
+improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind
+happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and
+interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity.
+Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as
+Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.
+
+NOTE. The verb _form_ is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular,
+connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb
+_comfort_ agrees with _they_ for its nominative. It is connected to
+_support_ by the conjunction _and_, agreeably to RULE 34. _Angels_ is
+nom. to _are_ understood, and _Great Britain_ is nom. to _can boast_
+understood, according to RULE 35.
+
+REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.
+
+The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an
+adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, _for_ it was in vain to resist;"
+in this example, _for_ is a conjunction, because it connects the two
+members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and
+governs _victory_ in the objective case: "He contended _for_ victory
+only."
+
+In the first of the following sentences, _since_ is a conjunction; in
+the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "_Since_
+we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him _since_ that
+time; Our friendship commenced long _since._"
+
+"He will repent _before_ he dies; Stand _before_ me; Why did you not
+return _before_" [that or this _time_;] in the first of these three
+examples, _before_ is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses
+time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.
+
+As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its
+members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may
+sometimes be at a loss to perceive the _connecting_ power of a
+preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction
+connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences.
+Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its
+members are transposed; as, "_In_ the days of Joram, king of Israel,
+flourished the prophet Elisha;" "_If_ thou seek the Lord, he will be
+found of thee; but, _if_ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for
+ever."
+
+  "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay,
+  "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"
+
+That the words _in, if_, and _when_, in these examples, connect the
+members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will
+obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order,
+and bring these particles _between_ the members which they connect:
+thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished _in_ the days of Joram, king of
+Israel;" "The Lord will be found of thee _if_ thou seek him; but he will
+cast thee off for ever _if_ thou forsake him:"
+
+  "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind,
+  "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay?"
+
+As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT
+ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+From what words is the term conjunction derived?--What is a
+sentence?--What is a simple sentence?--What is a compound
+sentence?--Give examples.--In what respect do conjunctions and
+prepositions agree in their nature?--How many sorts of conjunctions are
+there?--Repeat the lists of conjunctions.--Repeat some conjunctions with
+their corresponding conjunctions.--Do relative pronouns ever connect
+sentences?--Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.--Do you apply any
+Rule in parsing a conjunction?--What Rule should be applied in parsing
+a noun or pronoun connected with another?--What Rule in parsing a verb
+agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative
+conjunction?--What Rule when the nouns are connected by a
+disjunctive?--In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction,
+what Rule do you apply?--Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of
+speech?--Give examples.--What is said of the words _for, since_, and
+_before?_--What is said of the transposition of sentences?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    On scientific principles, our _connectives_, commonly denominated
+    prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the
+    distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions
+    unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are
+    derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps,
+    in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.
+
+    "I wish you to believe, _that_ I would not wilfully hurt a fly."
+    Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction _that_, is
+    merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he
+    attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not
+    wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe _that [assertion_."] Now,
+    if we admit, that _that_ is an adjective in the latter construction,
+    it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech,
+    nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former
+    construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached
+    sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer
+    transition of thought, and both the mode of employing _that_, and
+    its _inferential_ meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the
+    meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall
+    find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I
+    assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas,
+    by the former, I merely _wish you to believe_ that "I would not
+    wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not _affirm_, that as a fact.
+
+    _That_ being the past part, of _thean_, to get, take, assume, by
+    rendering it as a _participle_, instead of an adjective, we should
+    come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully
+    hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the _assumed [fact_ or
+    _statement_;] or, the fact _assumed_ or _taken_."
+
+    _If_, (formerly written _gif, give, gin_,) as previously stated, is
+    the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. In
+    imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers
+    are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will
+    go, _if_ he will accompany me:"--"He will accompany me.
+    _Grant_--_give_ that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of
+    ascertaining the _primitive_ meaning of this word, I have no
+    objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact
+    meaning and force of _if_ as it is applied in our modern, refined
+    state of the language? I _trow_ not. But, admitting we do, does this
+    prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously
+    adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be
+    denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself
+    correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him
+    familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern
+    refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed
+    by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and
+    rude state of their language, to express themselves in short,
+    detached sentences, employed _if_ as a verb when they used the
+    following circumlocution: "My son will reform. _Give that fact_. I
+    will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our
+    language, by using _if_ as a _conjunction_, (for I maintain that it
+    is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern
+    mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient,
+    not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In
+    Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of
+    _gin_, a contraction of _given:_ thus, "I will pardon my son, _gin_
+    he reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?
+
+    But perhaps the advocates of what _they_ call a philosophical
+    development of language, will say, that by their resolution of
+    sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they
+    mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I
+    cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as
+    in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:--we ought neither to
+    pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a
+    phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode
+    of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of
+    our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.
+
+    _But_ comes from the Saxon verb, _beon-utan_, to be-out. "All were
+    well _but (be-out, leave-out)_ the stranger." "Man is _but_ a reed,
+    floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed,
+    floating on the current of time; _but (be-out_ this fact) he is not
+    a stable being."
+
+    _And--aned, an'd, and_, is the past part. of _ananad_, to add, join.
+    _A, an, ane_, or _one_, from the same verb, points out whatever is
+    _aned, oned_, or made _one. And_ also refers to the thing that is
+    _joined_ to, _added_ to, or _made one_ with, some other person or
+    thing mentioned. "Julius _and_ Harriet will make a happy pair."
+    Resolution: "Julius, Harriet _joined, united_, or _aned_, will make
+    a happy pair;" i.e. Harriet _made one_ with Julius; will make a
+    happy pair.
+
+    _For_ means _cause_.
+
+    _Because_--_be-cause_, is a compound of the verb _be_, and the noun
+    _cause_. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim,
+    _for_ I know it to be true;"--"I believe the maxim, _be-cause_ I
+    know it to be true;" i.e. the _cause_ of my belief, _be_, or _is_, I
+    know it to be true.
+
+    _Nor_ is a contraction of _ne or. Ne_ is a contraction of _not_, and
+    _or_, of _other. Nor_ is, _not other_-wise: _not_ in the _other_ way
+    or manner.
+
+    _Else_ is the imperative of _alesan, unless_, of _onlesan_, and
+    _lest_, the past part. of _lesan_, all signifying to dismiss,
+    release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished, _unless_ he
+    repent;"--"_Unless, release, give up_, (the fact) he repents he will
+    be punished." _Though_ is the imperative of the Saxon verb
+    _thafigan_, to allow, and _yet_ of _getan_, to get. _Yet_ is simply,
+    _get_; ancient _g_ is the modern _y_. "_Though_ he slay me, _yet_
+    will I trust in him:--_Grant_ or _allow_ (the fact) he slay me,
+    _get_, or _retain_ (the opposite fact) I will trust in
+    him."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions
+derived?--What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?--From what is each of
+the following words derived, _that, if, but, and, because, nor, else,
+unless, lest, though_, and _yet?_
+
+
+
+LECTURE X.
+
+
+OF INTERJECTIONS.--CASES OF NOUNS.
+
+INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the
+speaker; as, "_Alas!_ I fear for life;" "_O_ death! where is thy sting?"
+
+Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling.
+Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it
+is not the representative of a _distinct_, idea. A word which denotes a
+distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other
+part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make
+_noises_, when they have no useful information to communicate, are apt
+to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions,
+_la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing_, and the
+like.
+
+Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by
+their taking an exclamation point after them.
+
+A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS.
+
+1. Of _earnestness_ or _grief_; as, O! oh! ah! alas!
+2. _Contempt;_ as, Pish! tush!
+3. _Wonder;_ as, Heigh! really! strange!
+4. _Calling;_ as, Hem! ho! halloo!
+5. _Disgust_ or _aversion;_ as, Foh! fy! fudge! away!
+6. _Attention_; as, Lo! behold! hark!
+7. _Requesting silence_; as, Hush! hist!
+8. _Salutation_; as, Welcome! hail! all hail!
+
+    NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call an _interjective
+    phrase_; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the
+    extreme! what ingratitude! away with him!
+
+As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English
+language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make
+yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then
+commit the
+
+SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.
+
+_The order of parsing an_ INTERJECTION, is--an interjection, and
+why?
+
+    "O virtue! how amiable thou art!"
+
+_O_ is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion
+of the speaker.
+
+The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although
+some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any
+farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read
+over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the
+exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following
+exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study
+faithfully _six_ hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you
+may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian,
+in _six weeks_; but if you study only _three_ hours in a day, it will
+take you nearly _three months_ to acquire the same knowledge.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the
+happiness of all around him.
+
+Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of every
+virtue which it seems to hide.
+
+He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows
+out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the
+labyrinth of the most busy life.
+
+The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act;
+but, alas! I fear the consequence.
+
+  E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend,
+  I set me down a pensive hour to spend;
+  And, placed on high, above the storm's career,
+  Look downward where a hundred realms appear:--
+    Alas! the joys that fortune brings,
+      Are trifling, and decay;
+    And those who mind the paltry things,
+      More trifling still than they.
+
+    NOTE. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, _which_ is
+    governed by the verb _to hide_, according to RULE 16. _He_ is nom.
+    to _carries; who_ is nom. to _plans. Follows_ agrees with _who_
+    understood, and is connected to _plans_ by _and_; RULE 34. What did
+    the king give? A _reward to_ me. Then _reward_ is in the _obj_.
+    case, gov. by _gave_; RULE 20. _Me_ is gov. by _to_ understood; NOTE
+    1, RULE 32. The phrase, _committing that barbarous act_, is gov. by
+    _for_; NOTE 2, under RULE 28. _Hour_ is in the _obj_. case, gov. by
+    _to spend_; RULE 20. _Look_ is connected to _set_ by _and_; RULE 34.
+    _Joys_ is nom. to _are. That_ is gov. by _brings_; RULE 16. _Those_
+    is nom. to _are_ understood. _They_ is nom. to _are_ understood;
+    RULE 35.
+
+CASES OF NOUNS.
+
+In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation
+of the cases of nouns; and, as they are, in many situations, a little
+difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on this
+subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples in
+the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to
+the remarks in the subjoined NOTE. Those remarks will assist you much in
+analyzing.
+
+A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the
+noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at the
+sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, every
+morning," &c. and see if you can find the verb to which _he_ is
+nominative. What does _he_ do? He carries on a thread, &c. _He_, then,
+is nominative to the verb _carries_. What does _who_ do? Who _plans_,
+and who _follows_, &c. Then _who_ is nom. to _plans_, and _who_
+understood, is nominative to _follows_.
+
+  "A soul without reflection, like a pile
+  Without inhabitant, to ruin runs."
+
+In order to find the verb to which the noun _soul_, in this sentence, is
+the nominative, put the question; What does a _soul_ without reflection
+do? Such, a soul _runs_ to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thus
+you discover, that _soul_ is nominative to _runs_.
+
+When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural
+order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb,
+and the objective, after it; but when the words of a sentence are
+transposed; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it
+frequently happens, that the nominative comes _after_, and the
+objective, _before_ the verb; especially in poetry, or when a question
+is asked: as, "Whence _arises_ the _misery_ of the present world?" "What
+good _thing shall_ I _do_ to inherit eternal life?" Put these
+expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will _precede_,
+and the objective _follow_ its verb: thus, "The _misery_ of the present
+world _arises_ whence; I _shall do_ what good _thing_ to inherit eternal
+life."
+
+  "Now came still _evening_ on, and twilight gray
+  Had, in her sober livery, all _things_ clad."
+
+  "Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid _lore_
+  With patience many a _year_ she bore."
+
+What did the _evening_ do? The evening _came on_. Gray _twilight_ had
+clad what? Twilight had clad all _things_ in her sober livery.
+_Evening_, then, is nom. to _came_, and the noun _things_ is in the
+objective case, and gov. by _had clad_: RULE 20. What did _she_ bear?
+She bore thy rigid _lore_ with patience, _for_, or _during_, many a
+year. Hence you find, that _lore_ is in the objective case, and governed
+by _bore_, according to RULE 20. _Year_ is gov. by _during_ understood:
+RULE 32.
+
+A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in the
+objective, and governed by a verb understood; as, "Lo, [_there is_] the
+poor _Indian!_ whose untutored mind." "O, the _pain_ [_there is!_] the
+_bliss_ [_there is_] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful
+_nightingale_ [_was not sunk_."] "He thought as a _sage_ [_thinks_,]
+though he felt as a _man_ [_feels_."] "His hopes, immortal, blow them
+by, as _dust_ [_is blown by_."] Rule 35 applies to these last three
+examples.
+
+In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns
+which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun
+may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it.
+
+OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.
+
+Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is in
+the _nominative case independent_; as, "_James_, I desire you to study."
+
+You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to _James_ that
+is, I speak to him; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either
+expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative; therefore
+you know that _James_ is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule
+5. Recollect, that _whenever a noun is of the second person_, it is in
+the nom. case independent; that is, independent of any verb; as,
+_Selma_, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my _lord_, become a
+churchman, better than ambition; O _Jerusalem, Jerusalem_, how often
+would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her
+chickens under her wings, but ye would not!--For a farther illustration
+of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax.
+
+    NOTE. When a pronoun of the _second_ person is in apposition with a
+    noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "_Thou traitor_, I
+    detest thee."
+
+OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE.
+
+A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree
+with it, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "The _sun being
+risen_, we pursued our journey."
+
+_Sun_ is here placed before the participle "being risen," and has no
+verb to agree with it; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute,
+according to RULE 6.
+
+NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is always
+of the _second_ person; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of
+the _third_ person.
+
+2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence is
+therefore incorrect; "Whose top shall tremble, _him_ descending," &c.;
+it should be, _he_ descending.
+
+OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION.
+
+Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are
+put, by _apposition_, in the same case; as, "_Cicero_, the great
+_orator, philosopher_, and _statesman_ of Rome, was murdered by Antony."
+
+_Apposition_, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names
+added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the
+first name mentioned.
+
+You perceive that _Cicero_, in the preceding example, is merely the
+proper name of a man; but when I give him the three additional
+appellations, and call him a great _orator, philosopher_, and
+_statesman_, you understand what kind of a man he was; that is, by
+giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as
+a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss to
+know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all
+names given to the same person; therefore, if _Cicero_ was murdered, the
+_orator_ was murdered, and the _philosopher_ was murdered, and the
+_statesman_ was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person.
+
+Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in
+_apposition_; as, He struck _Charles_ the _student_. Now it is obvious,
+that, when he struck _Charles_, he struck the _student_, because Charles
+was the _student_, and the _student_ was _Charles_; therefore the noun
+_student_ is in the objective case, governed by "struck," and put by
+apposition with Charles, according to RULE 7.
+
+Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be
+prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically.
+
+PARSING.
+
+    "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore."
+
+_Maid_ is a noun, the name of a person--- com. the name of a sort--fem.
+gender, it denotes a female--second pers. spoken to--sing. num. it
+implies but one--and in the nominative case independent, because it is
+addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to
+
+RULE 5. _When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put
+in the nominative case independent_.
+
+    "The _general_ being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to
+    depart."
+
+_General_ is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full:)--and in the
+nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle
+"being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to
+
+RULE 6. _A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being
+independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case
+absolute_.
+
+    _"Thou man_ of God, flee to the land of Judah."
+
+_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it
+personates "man"--second pers. spoken to--mas. gender, sing. num.
+because the noun "man" is for which it stands; RULE 13 (Repeat the
+Rule.)--_Thou_ is in the nominative case independent and put by
+_apposition_ with _man_, because it signifies the same thing, according
+to
+
+RULE 7. _Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same
+thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case_.
+
+_Man_ is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. _Flee_
+agrees with _thou_ understood.
+
+    "Lo! _Newton, priest_ of Nature, shines afar,
+    Scans the wide world, and numbers every star."
+
+_Newton_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to
+"shines." RULE 3.
+
+_Priest_ is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the
+actor and subject of the verb "shines," and put by apposition with
+"Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7.
+(Repeat the Rule.)
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+_Turn_ from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of light,
+celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker's
+wondrous power. O king! _live_ for ever. The murmur of thy streams, O
+Lora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods,
+Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock
+with its head of heath? Three aged pines bend from its face; green is
+the plain at its feet; there the flower of the mountain grows, and
+shades its white head in the breeze.
+
+The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got
+into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had
+conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great
+haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled
+away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the
+frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin excepted; (that is,
+sin being excepted.)
+
+In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha.
+Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. _Come_, peace of mind, delightful
+guest! and _dwell_ with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, _lend_ me your
+ears.
+
+  Soul of the just, companion of the dead!
+  Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled?
+  Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour,
+  There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower:--
+  The world was sad, the garden was a wild,
+  And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled.
+
+    NOTE. Those verbs in _italics_, in the preceding examples, are all
+    in the imperative mood, and _second_ person, agreeing with _thou,
+    ye_, or _you_, understood. _House of Israel_ is a noun of multitude.
+    _Was routed_ and _must be done_ are passive verbs. _Art fled_ is a
+    neuter verb in a passive form. _Clothed_ is a perfect participle.
+    _Till_ is an adverbial conjunction.
+
+When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in the
+foregoing exercises, you may answer the following
+
+QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.
+
+Repeat the list of interjections.--Repeat some interjective
+phrases.--Repeat the order of parsing an interjection.--In order to
+find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you put?--Give
+examples.--Is the nominative case ever placed after the
+verb?--When?--Give examples.--Does the objective case ever come before
+the verb?--Give examples.--Is a noun ever nom. to a verb
+understood?--Give examples.--When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case
+independent?--Give examples.--Are nouns of the _second_ person always in
+the nom. case independent?--When a pronoun is put by apposition with a
+noun independent, in what case is it?--When is a noun or pronoun in the
+nom. case absolute?--Give examples.--When are nouns or nouns and
+pronouns put, by apposition, in the same case?--Give examples.--In
+parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should
+be applied?--In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule?--What Rule in
+parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition?--Do real interjections belong
+to written language?--(_Phil. Notes_.)--From what are the following
+words derived, _pish, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu!_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    The term INTERJECTION is applied to those _inarticulate_ sounds
+    employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but
+    emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings
+    in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by
+    the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting
+    and neighing, by the sheep in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the
+    dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in
+    hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words; but, as
+    _written_ words are the ocular representatives of _articulate_
+    sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote _inarticulate_ or
+    _indistinct noises_. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural
+    language; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence,
+    _real_ interjections are not a part of written language.
+
+    The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily
+    shown by tracing them to their roots.
+
+    _Pish_ and _pshaw_ are the Anglo-Saxon _paec, paeca_; and are
+    equivalent to _trumpery_! i.e. _tromperie_, from _tromper_.
+
+    _Fy_ or _fie_ is the imperative, _foe_, the past tense, and _foh_ or
+    _faugh_, the past part. of the Saxon verb _fian_, to hate.
+    _Lo_ is the imperative of _look. Halt_ is the imperative of
+    _healden_, to hold. _Farewell--fare-well_, is a compound of _faran_,
+    to go, and the adverb _well_. It means, to _go well.
+    Welcome--well-come_, signifies, it is _well_ that you are _come.
+    Adieu_ comes from the French _a Dieu_, to God; meaning, I commend
+    you _to God_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LECTURE XI.
+
+
+OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS.
+
+You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledge
+of nine parts of speech; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the
+most important one of all; I mean the VERB. I will, therefore, commence
+this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of
+verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over
+Lecture II., and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the
+verb; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and
+tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself
+involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an
+obstruction to impede your progress.
+
+I. OF THE MOODS.
+
+The MOOD or MODE of a verb means the _manner_ in which its action,
+passion, or being, is represented.
+
+When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the _declarative_ or
+_indicative_ mode; as, The man _walks_; but sometimes the action or
+occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must not
+declare it positively, but I must adopt another _mode_ of expression;
+thus, _If_ the man _walk_, he will refresh himself with the bland
+breezes. This second mode or manner of representing the action, is
+called the _subjunctive_ or _conditional_ mode.
+
+Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to _declare_ a
+thing, nor to represent the action in a _doubtful_ or _conditional_
+manner; but we wish to _command_ some one to act. We then use the
+_imperative_ or _commanding_ mode, and say, _Walk_, sir. And when we do
+not wish to command a man to act, we sometimes allude to his _power_ or
+_ability_ to act. This fourth mode of representing action, is called the
+_potential_ mode; as, He _can walk_; He _could walk_. The fifth and last
+mode, called the _infinitive_ or _unlimited_ mode, we employ in
+expressing action in an unlimited manner; that is, without confining it,
+in respect to number and person, to any particular agent; as, _To walk,
+to ride_. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of
+representing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary
+according to the different intentions of the mind.
+
+Were we to assign a particular name to _every_ change in the mode or
+manner of representing action or being, the number of moods in our
+language would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of division
+and arrangement, if followed out in detail, would lead to great
+perplexity, without producing any beneficial result. The division of Mr.
+Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He has
+fourteen moods; his _interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive,
+precautive, requisitive, enunciative_, &c. But as far as philosophical
+accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned,
+it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I am
+not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it; but what
+arrangement cannot be objected to?
+
+There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the
+Imperative, the Potential, and the Infinitive.
+
+The INDICATIVE MOOD simply indicates or declares a thing; as, "He
+_writes_;" or it asks a question; as, "_Does_ he _write_? Who _wrote_
+that?"
+
+The term _indicative_, comes from the Latin _indico_, to _declare_.
+Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to _declare_
+things, whether positively or negatively; thus, _positively_, He _came_
+with me; _negatively_, He _came not_ with me. But in order to avoid a
+multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicative
+mood in asking a question; as, Who _came_ with you?
+
+The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in
+conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order.
+This mood, however, differs materially from the indicative in sense;
+therefore you ought to make yourself well acquainted with the nature of
+the indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive.
+
+The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubtful
+or conditional manner or,
+
+When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt,
+motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD; as, "_If_
+he _study_, he will improve; I will respect him, _though_ he _chide_ me;
+He will not be pardoned, _unless_ he _repent; _Had_ he _been_ there, he
+would have conquered;" (that is, _if_ he _had been_ there.)
+
+The conjunctions _if, though, unless_, in the preceding examples,
+express condition, doubt, &c.; therefore, the verbs _study, chide,
+repent_, and _had been_, are in the subjunctive mood.
+
+    NOTE 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in
+    some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the
+    preceding examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the
+    fourth, a verb in the potential.
+
+    2. Whenever the conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether,
+    lest_, or any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that
+    follow them are in the subjunctive mood; as, "_If_ he _ride_ out
+    every day, his health will probably improve;" that is, if he _shall_
+    or _should_ ride out hereafter. But when these conjunctions do not
+    imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in the indicative,
+    or some other mood; as, "_Though_ he _rides_ out daily, his health
+    is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood,
+    are explained in the conjugation of the verb to _love_. See page.
+
+The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or
+permitting; as, _"Depart_ thou; _Remember_ my admonitions; _Tarry_
+awhile longer; _Go_ in peace."
+
+The verb _depart_ expresses a command; _remember_ exhorts; _tarry_
+expresses entreaty; and _go_, permission; therefore they are all in the
+imperative mood.
+
+The _imperative_, from _impero_, to command, is literally that mood of
+the verb used in _commanding;_ but its technical meaning in grammar is
+extended to the use of the verb in exhorting, entreating, and
+permitting.
+
+A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person, though
+never varied in its terminations, agreeing with _thou, ye_, or _you_,
+either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this mood by the
+sense; recollect, however, that the nominative is always _second_
+person, and frequently understood; as, George, _give_ me my hat; that
+is, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it is
+generally placed after the verb; as, Go _thou_; Depart _ye_; or between
+the auxiliary and the verb; as, Do _thou_ go; Do _ye_ depart. (_Do_ is
+the auxiliary.)
+
+The POTENTIAL MOOD implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power,
+will, or obligation; as, "It _may rain_; He _may go_ or _stay_; We _must
+eat_ and _drink_; I _can ride_; He _would walk_; They _should learn_."
+
+In the first of these examples, the auxiliary _may_ implies possibility;
+in the second it implies liberty; that is, he is at liberty to go or to
+stay; in the third, _must_ denotes necessity; _can_ denotes power or
+ability; _would_ implies will or inclination; that is, he had a _mind_
+to walk; and _should_ implies obligation. Hence you perceive, that the
+verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, can ride, world walk, and
+should learn, are in the _potential_ mood.
+
+    NOTE 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the
+    subjunctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt,
+    contingency, supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may,
+    in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as, "_If_ I _could
+    deceive_ him, I should abhor it; _Though_ he _should increase_ in
+    wealth, he would not be charitable." I _could deceive_, is in the
+    potential; _If_ I _could deceive_, is in the subjunctive mood.
+
+    2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking
+    a question; as, "May I go? Could you understand him? Must we die?"
+
+The INFINITIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a general
+and unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither person
+nor number; as, _"To speak, to walk_."
+
+_Infinitive_ means _unconfined_, or _unlimited_. This mood is called the
+infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nominative.
+A verb in any other mood is limited; that is, it must agree in number
+and person with its nominative; but a verb in this mood has _no_
+nominative, therefore, it never changes its termination, except to form
+the perfect tense. Now you understand why all verbs are called _finite_
+or _limited_, excepting those in the infinitive mood.
+
+    NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood
+    before the verb; as, "Let me proceed;" that is, Let me _to_ proceed.
+    See RULE 25. _To_ is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this
+    mood; thus, _to_ ride, _to_ rule; but it should be parsed with the
+    verb, and as a part of it.
+
+If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that when I
+say, I _write_, the verb is in the indicative mood; but when I say, _if_
+I write, or, _unless_ I write, &c. the verb is in the subjunctive mood;
+_write_ thou, or _write_ ye or you, the imperative; I _may write_, I
+_must write_, I _could write, &c._ the potential; and _to write_, the
+infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may be employed in the
+same manner.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+II. OF THE TENSES.
+
+TENSE means time.
+
+Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the
+Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses.
+
+The PRESENT TENSE represents an action or event as taking place at the
+time in which it is mentioned; as, "I _smile_; I _see_; I _am seen_."
+
+    NOTE 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions
+    continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time; as,
+    "He _rides_ out every morning."
+
+    2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of
+    persons long since dead; as, "Seneca _reasons_ and _moralizes_ well;
+    An honest man _is_ the noblest work of God."
+
+    3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, _when, before,
+    after, as soon as_, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the
+    relative time of a future action; as, "_When_ he _arrives_ we shall
+    hear the news."
+
+The IMPERFECT TENSE denotes a past action or event, however distant;
+or,
+
+The IMPERFECT TENSE represents an action or event as past and finished,
+but without defining the precise time of its completion; as, "I _loved_
+her for her modesty and virtue; They _were_ travelling post when he
+_met_ them."
+
+In these examples, the verbs _loved_ and _met_ express past and
+_finished_ actions, and therefore constitute a _perfect_ tense as
+strictly as any form of the verb in our language; but, as they do not
+define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tense
+may properly be denominated an _indefinite past_. By defining the
+present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an _imperfect_
+tense in the expression, _were travelling_. This course, however, would
+not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the
+participle. Hence it follows, that the terms _imperfect_ and _perfect_,
+as applied to this and the next succeeding tense, are not altogether
+significant of their true character; but if you learn to apply these
+tenses _correctly_, the propriety or impropriety of their names is not a
+consideration of very great moment.
+
+The PERFECT TENSE denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the
+present; as, "I _have_ finished my letter."
+
+The verb _have finished_, in this example, signifies that the action,
+though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately
+preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the present.
+Under this view of the subject, the term _perfect_ may be properly
+applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the completion of the
+action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of its
+accomplishment.
+
+The PLUPERFECT TENSE represents a past action or event that transpired
+before some other past time specified; as, "I _had finished_ my letter
+before my brother arrived."
+
+You observe that the verb _had finished_, in this example, represents
+one _past_ action, and the arrival of my brother, another _past_ action;
+therefore _had finished_ is in the pluperfect tense, because the action
+took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified
+in the same sentence.
+
+The FIRST FUTURE TENSE denotes a future action or event; as "I _will
+finish_; I _shall finish_ my letter."
+
+The SECOND FUTURE TENSE represents a future action that will be fully
+accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event;
+as, "I _shall have finished_ my letter when my brother arrives."
+
+This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper use of the
+second future tense. The verb "shall have finished" implies a future
+action that will be completely finished, at or before the time of the
+other future event denoted by the phrase, "_when_ my brother _arrives_."
+
+    NOTE. What is sometimes called the _Inceptive_ future, is expressed
+    thus, "I am going _to write_;" "I am about _to write_." Future time
+    is also indicated by placing the infinitive present immediately
+    after the indicative present of the verb _to be_; thus, "I am _to
+    write_;" "Harrison is _to be_, or ought _to be_, commander in
+    chief;" "Harrison is _to command_ the army."
+
+You may now read what is said respecting the moods and tenses several
+times over, and then you may learn to _conjugate_ a verb. But, before
+you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, you will please to commit the
+following paragraph on the _Auxiliary_ verbs and, also, the _signs_ of
+the moods and tenses; and, in conjugating, you must pay particular
+attention to the manner in which these signs are applied.
+
+OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
+
+AUXILIARY or HELPING VERBS are those by the help of which the English
+verbs are principally conjugated. _May, can, must, might, could, would,
+should,_ and _shall_, are always auxiliaries; _do, be, have_, and
+_will_, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs.
+
+The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjugation.
+
+SIGNS OF THE MOODS.
+
+The _Indicative_ Mood is known by the _sense_, or by its having _no
+sign_, except in asking a question; as, "Who _loves_ you?"
+
+The conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether_, and _lest_, are
+generally signs of the _Subjunctive_; as, "_If_ I _love; unless_ I
+_love_," &c.
+
+A verb is generally known to be in, the _Imperative_ Mood by its
+agreeing with _thou_, or _ye_ or _you_, understood; as, _"Love_ virtue,
+_and follow_ her steps;" that is, love _thou_, or love _ye_ or _you_;
+follow _thou_, &c.
+
+_May, can_, and _must, might, could, would_, and _should_, are signs of
+the _Potential_ Mood; as, "I _may_ love; I _must_ love; I _should_
+love," &c.
+
+_To_ is the sign of the _Infinitive_; as, "_To_ love, _to_ smile, _to_
+hate, _to_ walk."
+
+SIGNS OF THE TENSES.
+
+The first form of the verb is the sign of the present tense; as, _love,
+smile, hate, walk_.
+
+_Ed_--the imperfect tense of regular verbs; as, _loved, smiled, hated,
+walked_.
+
+_Have_--the perfect; as, _have_ loved.
+
+_Had_--the pluperfect; as, _had_ loved. _Shall_ or _will_--the first
+future; as, _shall_ love, or _will_ love; _shall_ smile, _will_ smile.
+
+_Shall_ or _will have_--the second future; as, _shall have_ loved, or
+_will have_ loved.
+
+    NOTE. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will
+    notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood.
+
+Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advantage, as to
+commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceed
+farther than to the subjunctive mood. If you do, the supposed Herculean
+task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a few
+hours of pleasant pastime.
+
+The Indicative Mood has _six_ tenses.
+The Subjunctive has also _six_ tenses.
+The Imperative has only _one_ tense.
+The Potential has _four_ tenses.
+The Infinitive has _two_ tenses.
+
+CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
+
+The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of
+its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses.
+
+The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the _active voice_; and
+that of a passive verb, the _passive voice_.
+
+Verbs are called Regular when they form their imperfect tense of the
+indicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the present
+tense _ed_, or _d_ only when the verb ends in _e_; as,
+
+Pres. Tense.      Imp. Tense.         Perf. Participle
+I favor.          I favor_ed_.        favor_ed_.
+I love.           I love_d_,          love_d_.
+
+A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner.
+
+TO LOVE.--INDICATIVE MOOD.
+
+Present Tense.
+
+_Singular_.                                _Plural_.
+1. _Pers_. I love,                         1. We love,
+2. _Pers_. Thou lovest,                    2. Ye _or_ you love,
+3. _Pers_. He, she, _or_ it, loveth        3. They love.
+             _or_ loves.
+
+When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary _do_
+should precede the verb in the present tense: thus,
+
+_Singular_.                    _Plural_.
+1. I do love,                       1. We do love,
+2. Thou dost love,                  2. Ye _or_ you do love,
+3. He doth _or_ does love.          3. They do love.
+
+Imperfect Tense.
+
+_Singular_.                  _Plural_.
+1. I loved,                       1. We loved,
+2. Thou lovedst,                  2. Ye _or_ you loved,
+3. He loved.                      3. They loved.
+
+Or by-prefixing _did_ to the present: thus,
+
+_Singular_.                    _Plural_.
+1. I did love                       1. We did love,
+2. Thou didst love,                 2. Ye _or_ you did love,
+3. He did love.                     3. They did love.
+
+Perfect Tense.
+
+   _Singular_.                    _Plural_.
+1. I have loved,                    1. We have loved,
+2. Thou hast loved,                 2. Ye _or_ you have loved,
+3. He hath _or_ has loved.          3. They have loved.
+
+Pluperfect Tense.
+
+_Singular_.                       _Plural_.
+1. I had loved,                     1. We had loved,
+2. Thou hadst loved,                2. Ye _or_ you had loved,
+3. He had loved.                    3. They had loved.
+
+First Future Tense.
+
+_Singular_.                       _Plural_.
+1. I shall _or_ will love,     1. We shall _or_ will love,
+2. Thou shalt _or_ wilt love,  2. Ye _or_ you shall _or_ will
+                                           love,
+3. He shall _or_ will love,    3. They shall _or_ will love.
+
+Second Future Tense.
+
+_Singular_.                       _Plural_.
+1. I shall have loved,              1. We shall have loved,
+2. Thou wilt have loved,            2. Ye _or_ you will have loved,
+3. He will have loved,              3. They will have loved.
+
+    NOTE. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called _simple_ tenses;
+    as, I _love;_ I _loved;_ but those formed by the help of
+    auxiliaries, are denominated _compound_ tenses; as, I _have loved;_
+    I _had loved_, &c.
+
+This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the
+application of the _signs_ of the _tenses_, which signs ought to be
+perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. By looking
+again at the conjugation, you will notice, that _have_, placed before
+the perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect tense; _had_, the
+pluperfect; _shall_ or _will_, the first future, and so on.
+
+Now speak each of the verbs, _love, hate, walk, smile, rule_, and
+_conquer_, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the
+pronoun _I_ before it; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers.
+sing. I love; imperf. I loved; perf. I have loved; and so on, through
+all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation of the verb in
+the indicative mood, you will find no difficulty in conjugating it
+through those that follow, for in the conjugation through all the moods,
+there is a great similarity.
+
+SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
+
+Present Tense, or elliptical future.--_Conjunctive form_.
+
+  _Singular_.                    _Plural_.
+1. If I love,                   1. If we love,
+2. If thou love,                2. If ye _or_ you love,
+3. If he love.                  3. If they love.
+
+Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and you will
+observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form in the
+subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, does not vary
+its termination on account of number or person. This is called the
+_conjunctive_ form of the verb; but sometimes the verb in the
+subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the same manner as it
+is in the indicative, with this exception, _if, though, unless_, or some
+other conjunction, is prefixed; as,
+
+_Indicative form_.
+
+_Singular_.                      _Plural_.
+1. If I love,                   1. If we love,
+2. If thou lovest,              2. If ye _or_ you love,
+3. If he loves,                 3. If they love.
+
+The following general rule will direct you when to use the _conjunctive_
+form of the verb, and when the _indicative_. When a verb in the
+subjunctive mood, present tense, has a _future_ signification, or a
+reference to _future_ time, the conjunctive form should be used; as, "If
+thou _prosper_, thou shouldst be thankful;" "He will maintain his
+principles, though he _lose_ his estate;" that is, If thou _shalt_ or
+_shouldst_ prosper; though he _shall_ or _should_ lose, &c. But when a
+verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has _no_ reference to
+future time, the indicative form ought to be used; as, "Unless he
+_means_ what he says, he is doubly faithless." By this you perceive,
+that when a verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a
+future signification, an _auxiliary_ is always understood before it, for
+which reason, in this construction, the termination of the principal
+verb never varies; us, "He will not become eminent, unless he _exert_
+himself;" that is, unless he _shall_ exert, or _should_ exert himself.
+This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called the _elliptical
+future_.
+
+The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses
+of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the same tenses of
+the indicative, with this exception; in the subjunctive mood, a
+conjunction implying doubt, &c. is prefixed to the verb. In the second
+future tense of this mood, the verb is conjugated thus:
+
+Second Future Tense.
+
+   _Singular._                  _Plural_.
+
+1. If I shall have loved,     1. If we shall have loved,
+2. If thou shalt have loved,  2. If you shall have loved,
+3. If he shall have loved.    3. If they shall have loved.
+
+Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will readily
+perceive the distinction between the two conjugations.
+
+IMPERATIVE MOOD.
+
+_Singular._                                 _Plural_.
+2. Love, _or_ love thou, _or_ do   2. Love, _or_ love ye _or_ you, _or_
+   thou love.                                   do ye _or_ you love.
+
+    NOTE. We cannot command, exhort, &c. either in _past_ or _future_
+    time; therefore a verb in this mood is always in the _present_
+    tense.
+
+POTENTIAL MOOD.
+
+Present Tense.
+
+   _Singular._                       _Plural_.
+
+1. I may, can, _or_ must love,   1. We may, can, or must love,
+2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must  2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_
+   love,                                 must love,
+3. He may, can, _or_ must love.  3. They may, can, _or_ must love.
+
+Imperfect Tense.
+
+_Singular._                         _Plural_.
+
+1. I might, could, would, _or_  1. We might, could, would, _or_
+   should love,                         should love,
+2. Thou mightst, couldst,       2. Ye _or_ you might, could,
+   wouldst, _or_ shouldst love,    would, _or_ should love,
+3. He might, could, would, _or_ 3. They might, could, would,
+   should love,                         _or_ should love.
+
+Perfect Tense.
+
+_Singular._                         _Plural_.
+
+1. I may, can, _or_ must have    1. We may, can, _or_ must have
+   loved,                                loved,
+2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must  2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_
+   have loved,                           must have loved,
+3. He may, can, _or_ must        3. They may, can, _or_ must
+   have loved.                           have loved.
+
+Pluperfect Tense.
+
+_Singular._                         _Plural_.
+
+1. I might, could, would,           1. We might, could, would,
+      _or_ should have loved,           _or_ should have loved,
+2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,  2. Ye _or_ you might, could,
+      _or_ shouldst have loved,         would, _or_ should have loved,
+3. He might, could, would,          3. They might, could, would,
+      _or_ should have loved,            _or_ should have loved.
+
+By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood,
+you will find it very easy; thus, you will notice, that whenever any of
+the auxiliaries, _may, can_, or _must_, is placed before a verb, that
+verb is in the potential mood, _present_ tense; _might, could, would_,
+or _should_, renders it in the potential mood, _imperfect_ tense; _may,
+can_, or _must have_, the _perfect_ tense; and _might, could, would_, or
+_should have_, the _pluperfect_ tense.
+
+INFINITIVE MOOD.
+
+Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved.
+
+PARTICIPLES.
+
+Present _or_ imperfect, Loving.
+Perfect _or_ passive, Loved.
+Compound, Having loved.
+
+    NOTE. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly
+    with the imperfect tense; yet the former may, at all times, be
+    distinguished from the latter, by the following rule: In
+    composition, the imperfect tense of a verb _always_ has a
+    nominative, either expressed or implied: the perfect participle
+    _never_ has.
+
+For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall have
+learned to conjugate the verb _to love_, you will be able to conjugate
+all the regular verbs in the English language, for they are all
+conjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the following
+direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb.
+Conjugate the verb _love_ through all the moods and tenses, in the first
+person singular, with the pronoun _I_ before it, and speak the
+Participles: thus, Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I
+_love_, imperf. tense, I _loved_; perf. tense, I _have loved_; and so
+on, through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers.
+sing, with the pronoun _thou_ before it, through all the moods and
+tenses; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou
+_lovest_; imperf. tense, thou _lovedst_; and so on, through the whole.
+After that, conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with _he_ before it;
+and then in the first pers. plural, with _we_ before it, in like manner
+through all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may,
+at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you
+will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance,
+induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate
+your progress.
+
+When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may conjugate the
+following verbs in the same manner; which will enable you, hereafter, to
+tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesitation: _walk, hate,
+smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate, melt, shun, fail_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+    PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+    The changes in the termination of words, in all languages, have been
+    formed by the _coalescence_ of words of appropriate meaning. This
+    subject was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the
+    purpose of showing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number
+    and person, of English verbs, do not solely depend on inflection.
+
+    The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the
+    Hebrew verb, are still considered pronouns; and, by those who have
+    investigated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has
+    been adopted in the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in
+    the Hebrew. Some languages have carried this process to a very great
+    extent. Ours is remarkable for the small number of its inflections.
+    But they who reject the passive verb, and those moods and tenses
+    which are formed by employing what are called "auxiliary verbs,"
+    _because they are formed of two or more verbs_, do not appear to
+    reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit, that walk-_eth_, and
+    walk-_ed_, are tenses, because each is but one word, and to reject
+    _have_ walked, and _will_ walk, as tenses, because each is composed
+    of two words. _Eth_, as previously shown, is a contraction of
+    _doeth_, or _haveth_, and _ed_, of _dede, dodo, doed_, or _did_;
+    and, therefore, walk-_eth_; i.e. walk-_doeth_, or _doeth_-walk, and
+    walk-_ed_; i.e. walk-_did_, or _doed_ or _did_-walk, are, when
+    analyzed, as strictly compound, as _will_ walk, _shall_ walk, and
+    _have_ walked. The only difference in the formation of these tenses,
+    is, that in the two former, the associated verbs have been
+    contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in the two
+    latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words.
+
+    If it be said that _will walk_ is composed of two words, each of
+    which conveys a distinct idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by
+    itself, the same argument with all its force, may be applied to
+    walk-_eth_, walk-_ed_, walk-_did_, or _did_ walk. The result of all
+    the investigations of this subject, appears to settle down into the
+    hackneyed truism, that the passive verbs, and the moods and tenses,
+    of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations either
+    prefixed or postfixed, and of other languages, by the association of
+    auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been contracted and made to
+    coalesce as _terminations_. The auxiliary, when contracted into a
+    _terminating syllable,_ retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning,
+    as much as when associated with a verb by juxtaposition:
+    consequently, an "auxiliary verb" may form a part of a mood or
+    tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a _terminating
+    syllable_. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the
+    auxiliaries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the
+    same principle, bound to extend their dissecting-knife _to every
+    compound word in the language_.
+
+    Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of
+    the theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs,
+    formed by the aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to
+    show that this theory, and this _only_, will subserve the purposes
+    of the practical grammarian.
+
+    As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the
+    exact meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the
+    student to combine and employ them properly in framing sentences,
+    and as those _combinations_ which go by the name of compound tenses
+    and passive verbs, are necessary in writing and discourse, it
+    follows, conclusively, that that theory which does not explain these
+    verbs in their _combined_ state, cannot teach the student the
+    correct use and application of the verbs of our language. By such an
+    arrangement, he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases,
+    _shall have walked, might have gone, have seen_, instead of, _shall
+    walk, might go_, and _saw_; because this theory has nothing to do
+    with the combining of verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or
+    writer's own good sense must guide him in combining these verbs,
+    and, therefore, that the directions of the grammarian are
+    unnecessary, it must be recollected, that such an argument would
+    bear, equally, against every principle of grammar whatever. In
+    short, the theory of the compound tenses, and of the passive verb,
+    appears to be so firmly based in the genius of our language, and so
+    practically important to the student, as to defy all the engines of
+    the paralogistic speculator, and the philosophical quibbler, to
+    batter it down.
+
+    But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, that it is
+    encumbered with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity,
+    which are avoided by the _simple_ process of exploding the passive
+    verb, and reducing the number of the moods to three, and of the
+    tenses to two. It is certain, however, that if we reject the _names_
+    of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the _names_ of the
+    potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing
+    and discourse we must still employ those _verbal combinations_ which
+    form them; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of
+    employing such combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the
+    old theory, which _names_ them, as by the new, which gives them _no
+    name_.
+
+    On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the
+    _future_ tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately; but,
+    as illustrated on page 79, the combined words which form our perfect
+    and pluperfect tenses have an _associated_ meaning, which is
+    destroyed by analyzing each word separately. That arrangement,
+    therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears to be, not only
+    _unphilosophical_, but inconsistent and inaccurate.
+
+    For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their
+    adoption, too, a modernized _philosophical_ theory of the moods and
+    tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and
+    useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has
+    the advantage of being _new_; and, moreover, it sounds _large_, and
+    will make the _commonalty stare_. Let it be distinctly understood,
+    that you teach _"philosophical grammar, founded on reason and common
+    sense_," and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the
+    good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast
+    improvements of the age.
+
+    MOOD.
+
+    Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly
+    included under the _indicative_, the _subjunctive_, and the
+    _potential_,) the imperative, and the infinitive.--For definitions,
+    refer to the body of the work.
+
+    TENSE OR TIME.
+
+    Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. A verb
+    expressing action commenced and not completed, is in the present
+    tense; as, "Religion _soars_: it _has_ gained many victories: it
+    _will_ [to] _carry_ its votaries to the blissful regions."
+
+    When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense; as,
+    "This page (the Bible) God _hung_ out of heaven, and _retired_."
+
+    A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the
+    _present_ tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding.
+    The _command_ must _necessarily_ be given in time present, although
+    its _fulfilment_ must be future. John, what are you doing? Learning
+    my task. Why do you learn it? Because my preceptor _commanded_ me to
+    do so. When _did_ he command you? _Yesterday_.--Not _now_, of
+    course.
+
+    That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to
+    be given in _future_ time, and that the _fulfilment_ of the command,
+    though future, has nothing to do with the tense or time of the
+    command itself, are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross
+    absurdity of those who identify the time of the fulfilment with
+    that of the command.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+    You _may read_ the book which I _have printed_. _May_, an irregular
+    active verb, signifying "to have and to exercise might or strength,"
+    indic. mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur. agreeing with its nom.
+    _you. Read_, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. tense,
+    with the sign _to_ understood, referring to _you_ as its agent.
+    _Have_, an active verb, signifying to _possess_, indic. present, and
+    having for its object, book understood after "which." _Printed_, a
+    perf. participle, referring to book understood.
+
+    Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, _would have been laughed at, had_
+    they _essayed_ to _thrust_ any thing like our modernized
+    philosophical grammar down the throats of their contemporaries.
+
+    _Would_, an active verb, signifying "to exercise volition," in the
+    past tense of the indicative. _Have_, a verb, in the infinitive,
+    _to_ understood. _Been_, a perfect part. of to _be_, referring to
+    Johnson, Blair, and Lowth. _Laughed at_, perf. part, of to _laugh
+    at_, referring to the same as _been. Had_, active verb, in the past
+    tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. _they. Essayed_,
+    perf. part, referring to they.
+    Call this "_philosophical_ parsing, on reasoning principles,
+    according to the original laws of nature and of thought," and the
+    _pill_ will be swallowed, by pedants and their dupes, with the
+    greatest ease imaginable.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+LECTURE XII.
+
+OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
+
+Irregular verbs are those that do not form
+their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the
+addition of _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense; as,
+
+_Pres. Tense.    Imperf. Tense.    Perf. or Pass. Part._
+I write            I wrote           written
+I begin            I began           begun
+I go               I went            gone
+
+The following is a list of the _irregular_ verbs. Those marked with an R
+are sometimes conjugated _regularly_.
+
+_Pres. Tense.          Imperf. Tense.  Perf. or Pass. Part._
+Abide                    abode          abode
+Am                       was            been
+Arise                    arose          arisen
+Awake                    awoke, R.      awaked
+Bear, _to bring forth_   bare           born
+Bear, _to carry_         bore           borne
+Beat                     beat           beaten, beat
+Begin                    began          begun
+Bend                     bent           bent
+Bereave                  bereft, R.     bereft, R.
+Beseech                  besought       besought
+Bid                      bade, bid      bidden, bid
+Bind                     bound          bound
+Bite                     bit            bitten, bit
+Bleed                    bled           bled
+Blow                     blew           blown
+Break                    broke          broken
+Breed                    bred           bred
+Bring                    brought        brought
+Build                    built          built
+Burst                    burst, R.      burst, R.
+Buy                      bought         bought
+Cast                     cast           cast
+Catch                    caught, R.     caught, R.
+Chide                    chid           chidden, chid
+Choose                   chose          chosen
+Cleave, _to adhere_      clave, R.      cleaved
+Cleave, _to split_       cleft          cleft,
+                         _or_
+                         clove          cloven
+Cling                    clung          clung
+Clothe                   clothed        clad, R.
+Come                     came           come
+Cost                     cost           cost
+Crow                     crew, R.       crowed
+Creep                    crept          crept
+Cut                      cut            cut
+Dare, _to venture_       durst          dared
+Dare, _to challenge_     REGULAR
+Deal                     dealt, R.      dealt, R.
+Dig                      dug, R.        dug, R.
+Do                       did            done
+Draw                     drew           drawn
+Drive                    drove          driven
+Drink                    drank          drunk, drank[6]
+Dwell                    dwelt, R.      dwelt, R.
+Eat                      eat, ate       eaten
+Fall                     fell           fallen
+Feed                     fed            fed
+Feel                     felt           felt
+Fight                    fought         fought
+Find                     found          found
+Flee                     fled           fled
+Fling                    flung          flung
+Fly                      flew           flown
+Forget                   forgot         forgotten
+Forsake                  forsook        forsaken
+Freeze                   froze          frozen
+Get                      got            got[7]
+Gild                     gilt, R.       gilt, R.
+Gird                     girt, R.       girt, R.
+Give                     gave           given
+Go                       went           gone
+Grave                    graved         graven, R.
+Grind                    ground         ground
+Grow                     grew           grown
+Have                     had            had
+Hang                     hung, R.       hung, R.
+Hear                     heard          heard
+Hew                      hewed          hewn, R.
+Hide                     hid            hidden, hid
+Hit                      hit            hit
+Hold                     held           held
+Hurt                     hurt           hurt
+Keep                     kept           kept
+Knit                     knit, R.       knit, R.
+Know                     knew           known
+Lade                     laded          laden
+Lay                      laid           laid
+Lead                     led            led
+Leave                    left           left
+Lend                     lent           lent
+Let                      let            let
+Lie, _to lie down_       lay            lain
+Load                     loaded         laden, R.
+Lose                     lost           lost
+Make                     made           made
+Meet                     met            met
+Mow                      mowed          mown, R.
+Pay                      paid           paid
+Put                      put            put
+Read                     read           read
+Rend                     rent           rent
+Rid                      rid            rid
+Ride                     rode           rode, ridden[8]
+Ring                     rung, rang     rung
+Rise                     rose           risen
+Rive                     rived          riven
+Run                      ran            run
+Saw                      sawed          sawn, R.
+Say                      said           said
+See                      saw            seen
+Seek                     sought         sought
+Sell                     sold           sold
+Send                     sent           sent
+Set                      set            set
+Shake                    shook          shaken
+Shape                    shaped         shaped, shapen
+Shave                    shaved         shaven, R.
+Shear                    sheared        shorn
+Shed                     shed           shed
+Shine                    shone, R.      shone, R.
+Show                     showed         shown
+Shoe                     shod           shod
+Shoot                    shot           shot
+Shrink                   shrunk         shrunk
+Shred                    shred          shred
+Shut                     shut           shut
+Sing                     sung, sang[9]  sung
+Sink                     sunk, sank[9]  sunk
+Sit                      sat            set
+Slay                     slew           slain
+Sleep                    slept          slept
+Slide                    slid           slidden
+Sling                    slung          slung
+Slink                    slunk          slunk
+Slit                     slit, R.       slit
+Smite                    smote          smitten
+Sow                      sowed          sown, R.
+Speak                    spoke          spoken
+Speed                    sped           sped
+Spend                    spent          spent
+Spill                    spilt, R.      spilt, R.
+Spin                     spun           spun
+Spit                     spit, spat     spit, spitten [10]
+Split                    split          split
+Spread                   spread         spread
+Spring                   sprung, sprang sprung
+Stand                    stood          stood
+Steal                    stole          stolen
+Stick                    stuck          stuck
+Sting                    stung          stung
+Stink                    stunk          stunk
+Stride                   strode, strid  stridden
+Strike                   struck         struck _or_ stricken
+String                   strung         strung
+Strive                   strove         striven
+Strow                    strowed        strown,
+_or_                     _or_           strowed _or_
+strew                    strewed        strewed
+Sweat                    swet, R.       swet, R.
+Swear                    swore          sworn
+Swell                    swelled        swollen, R.
+Swim                     swum, swam     swum
+Swing                    swung          swung
+Take                     took           taken
+Teach                    taught         taught
+Tear                     tore           torn
+Tell                     told           told
+Think                    thought        thought
+Thrive                   throve, R.     thriven
+Throw                    threw          thrown
+Thrust                   thrust         thrust
+Tread                    trod           trodden
+Wax                      waxed          waxen, R.
+Wear                     wore           worn
+Weave                    wove           woven
+Wet                      wet            wet, R.
+Weep                     wept           wept
+Win                      won            won
+Wind                     wound          wound
+Work                     wrought,       wrought,
+                         worked         worked
+Wring                    wrung          wrung
+Write                    wrote          written
+
+[6] The men were drunk; i.e. inebriated. The toasts were drank.
+
+[7] Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, is still in
+good use.
+
+[8] Ridden is nearly obsolete.
+
+[9] Sang and sank should not be used in familiar style.
+
+[10] Spitten is nearly obsolete.
+
+In familiar writing and discourse, the following, and some other verbs,
+are often improperly terminated by _t_ instead of _ed_; as, "learnt,
+spelt, spilt, stopt, latcht." They should be, "learned, spelled, spilled,
+stopped, latched."
+
+You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs, in a manner similar
+to the conjugation of regular verbs: _arise, begin, bind, do, go, grow,
+run, lend, teach, write_. Thus, to _arise_--Indicative mood, pres.
+tense, first person, sing. I arise; imperf. tense, I arose; perf. tense,
+I have arisen, and so on, through all the moods, and all the tenses of
+each mood; and then speak the participles: thus, pres. arising, perf.
+arisen, comp. having arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verb
+in the second person sing. through all the moods and tenses; and then in
+the third person sing. and in the first pers. plural. After that, you
+may proceed in the same manner with the words _begin, bind_, &c.
+
+Now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures _four_ or _five_ times over,
+and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be prepared to
+parse the following verbs in full; and I presume, all the other parts of
+speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer to the Compendium for
+definitions and rules, if you cannot repeat them without, I will now
+parse a verb, and describe all its properties by applying the
+definitions and rules according to the systematic order.
+
+    "We _could_ not _accomplish_ the business."
+
+_Could accomplish_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it
+expresses action--transitive, the action passes over from the nom. "we"
+to the object "business"--regular, it will form its imperfect tense of
+the indic. mood and perf. part, in _ed_--potential mood, it implies
+possibility or power--imperfect tense, it denotes past time however
+distant--first pers. plural, because the nom. "we" is with which it
+agrees, agreeably to RULE 4. _A verb must agree_, &c. Conjugated--Indic.
+mood, present tense, first pers. sing. I accomplish; imperfect tense, I
+accomplished; perfect, I have accomplished; pluperfect, I had
+accomplished; and so on.--Speak it in the person of each tense through
+all the moods, and conjugate, in the same manner, every verb you parse.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+_These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses_.
+
+I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson badly. John,
+do you write a good hand? Those ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but
+they did not despatch it. Have you seen the gentleman to whom I gave the
+book? He has gone. They had received the news before the messenger
+arrived. When will those persons return? My friend shall receive his
+reward. He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow.
+
+If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies he does
+not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished his work, by
+midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, obey my precepts, unless
+you wish to injure yourself. Remember what is told you. The physician
+may administer the medicine, but Providence only can bless it. I told,
+him that he might go, but he would not. He might have gone last week,
+had he conducted himself properly; (that is, _if he had conducted_, &c.)
+Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let me hear you
+repeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, whatever task may be
+allotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, let us consider
+how little we deserve. To die for one's country, is glorious. How can we
+become wise? To seek God is wisdom. What is true greatness? Active
+benevolence. A good man is a great man.
+
+    NOTE 1. _Man_, following _great_, and _what_, in the last two
+    examples, are nom. after _is_: RULE 21. _To seek God_, and _to die
+    for one's country_, are members of sentences, each put as the nom.
+    case to _is_ respectively: RULE 24. The verb _to correct_ is the
+    infinitive mood absolute: NOTE under RULE 23. _May be allotted_ is a
+    passive verb, agreeing with _which_, the relative part of _whatever.
+    That_, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing with
+    _task_; and _task_ is governed by _study._ _Hear_, following _let_,
+    and _repeat_, following _hear_, are in the infinitive mood without
+    the sign _to_, according to RULE 25. _To recite_ is governed by
+    _prepare_: RULE 23. _Is told_, is a passive verb, agreeing with
+    _which_, the relative part of _whatever_; and _you_, following, is
+    governed by _to_ understood: NOTE 1, under RULE 32.
+
+    2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not
+    expressed, you must say it represents some person or thing
+    understood.
+
+LECTURE XIII.
+
+OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.
+
+I. AUXILIARY VERBS.
+
+Before you attend to the following additional remarks on the Auxiliary
+Verbs, you will do well to read again what is said respecting them in
+Lecture XI. page 140. The short account there given, and their
+application in conjugating verbs, have already made them quite familiar
+to you; and you have undoubtedly observed, that, without their help, we
+cannot conjugate any verb in any of the tenses, except the present and
+imperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of
+the imperative and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses,
+they are brought into requisition.
+
+Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation; that is, they
+are used only in some of the moods and tenses; and when unconnected with
+principal verbs, they are conjugated in the following manner:
+
+MAY.
+Pres. Tense _Sing_. I may, thou mayst, he may.
+            _Plur_. We may, ye _or_ you may, they may.
+
+Imperf.   _Sing_. I might, thou mightst, he might.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We might, ye _or_ you might, they might.
+
+CAN.
+Pres.     _Sing_. I can, thou canst, he can.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We can, ye _or_ you can, they can.
+
+Imperf.   _Sing_. I could, thou couldst, he could.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We could, ye _or_ you could, they could.
+
+WILL.
+Pres.     _Sing_. I will, thou wilt, he will.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We will, ye _or_ you will, they will.
+
+Imperf.   _Sing_. I would, thou wouldst, he would.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We would, ye _or_ you would, they would.
+
+SHALL.
+Pres.     _Sing_. I shall, thou shalt, he shall.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We shall, ye _or_ you shall, they shall.
+
+Imperf.   _Sing_. I should, thou shouldst, he should.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We should, ye _or_ you should, they should.
+
+TO DO.
+Pres.     _Sing_. I do, thou dost _or_ doest, he doth _or_ does.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We do, ye _or_ you do, they do.
+
+Imperf.   _Sing_. I did, thou didst, he did.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We did, ye _or_ you did, they did.
+          _Participles_. Pres. doing. Perf. done.
+
+TO BE.
+Pres.     _Sing_. I am, thou art, he is.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are.
+
+Imperf.   _Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were.
+          _Participles_. Pres. being. Perf. been.
+
+TO HAVE.
+Pres.     _Sing_. I have, thou hast, he hath _or_ has.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We have, ye _or_ you have, they have.
+
+Imperf.   _Sing_. I had, thou hadst, he had.
+Tense.    _Plur_. We had, ye _or_ you had, they had.
+          _Participles_. Pres. having. Perf. had.
+
+_Do, be, have_, and _will_, are sometimes used as principal verbs; and
+when employed as such, _do, be_, and _have_, may be conjugated, by the
+help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses.
+
+DO. The different tenses of _do_, in the several moods, are thus formed:
+Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I do; imperfect tense, I
+did; perf. I have done; pluperfect, I had done; first future, I shall or
+will do; sec. fut. I shall have done. Subjunctive mood, pres. tense, If
+I do; imperf. if I did; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential,
+pres. I may, can, or must do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do; perf. to
+have done. Participles, pres. doing; perf. done; compound, having done.
+
+HAVE. _Have_ is in great demand. No verb can be conjugated through all
+the moods and tenses without it. _Have_, when used as a principal verb,
+is doubled in some of the past tenses, and becomes an auxiliary to
+itself; thus, Indic. mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I have;
+imperf. tense, I had; perf. I have had; pluperf. I had had; first fut. I
+shall or will have; sec. fut. I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if
+I have; imperf. if I had; perf. if I have had; pluperf. if I had had;
+first fut. if I shall or will have; sec. fut. if I shall have had.
+Imper. mood, have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have;
+imperf. I might, could, would, or should have; perf. I may, can, or must
+have had; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had.
+Infinitive, present, to have; perf. to have had. Participles, pres.
+having; perf. had; compound, having had.
+
+BE. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation of the
+irregular, neuter verb, _Be_, which is an auxiliary whenever it is
+placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every other
+situation, it is a _principal_ verb.
+
+TO BE.--INDICATIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense.
+_Sing_. I am, thou art, he, she, _or_ it is.
+_Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are.
+
+Imperf. Tense.
+_Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was.
+_Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were.
+
+Perf. Tense.
+_Sing_. I have been, thou hast been, he hath _or_ has been.
+_Plur_. We have been, ye _or_ you have been, they have been.
+
+Plup. Tense.
+_Sing_. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been.
+_Plur_. We had been, ye _or_ you had been, they had been.
+
+First Fut. T.
+_Sing_, I shall _or_ will be, thou shalt _or_ wilt be,
+                              he shall _or_ will be.
+_Plur_. We shall _or_ will be, you shall _or_ will be,
+                              they shall _or_ will be.
+
+Second Fut. T.
+_Sing_. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been.
+_Plur_. We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been.
+
+SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense.
+_Sing_. If I be, if thou be, if he be.
+_Plur_. If we be, if ye _or_ you be, if they be.
+
+Imperf. Tense.
+_Sing_. If I were, if thou wert, if he were.
+_Plur_. If we were, if ye _or_ you were, if they were.
+
+The neuter verb to _be_, and all passive verbs, have two forms in the
+imperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present; therefore, the
+following rule may serve to direct you in the proper use of each form.
+When the sentence implies doubt, supposition, &c. and the neuter verb
+_be_, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to present or future
+time, and is either followed or preceded by another verb in the
+imperfect of the potential mood, the _conjunctive_ form of the imperfect
+tense must be employed; as, "_If_ he _were_ here, we _should_ rejoice
+together;" "She _might_ go, _were_ she so disposed." But when there is
+no reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither followed
+nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the _indicative_
+form of the imperfect tense must be used; as, "_If_ he _was_ ill, he did
+not make it known;" "_Whether_ he _was_ absent or present, is a matter
+of no consequence." The general rule for using the conjunctive form of
+the verb, is presented on page 145. See, also, page 135.
+
+The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctive
+mood, are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of
+the indicative. The second future is conjugated thus:
+
+Second Fut. T.
+_Sing_. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall. &c
+_Plur_. If we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c.
+
+IMPERATIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense.
+_Sing_. Be, _or_ be thou, _or_ do thou be.
+_Plur_. Be, _or_ be ye _or_ you, or do ye _or_ you be.
+
+POTENTIAL MOOD.
+Pres. Tense
+_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must be,
+                                  he may, can, _or_ must be.
+_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be, ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ must be,
+                                  they may, can, _or_ must be.
+Imperf. Tense.
+_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be, thou mightest, &c.
+_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should be, you might, &c.
+
+Perf. Tense
+_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c.
+_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been, you may, can, _or_ must be, &c.
+
+Pluper. Tense.
+_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been, thou, &c.
+_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been, you, &c.
+
+INFINITIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been.
+
+PARTICIPLES.
+Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound, Having been.
+
+This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by far the
+most important verb in our language, for it is more frequently used than
+any other; many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated with
+it, and, without its aid, no passive verb can be conjugated. You ought,
+therefore, to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes,
+before you proceed any farther.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+II. PASSIVE VERBS.
+
+The _cases of nouns_ are a fruitful theme for investigation and
+discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has
+frequently engaged our attention; and, now, in introducing to your
+notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both interesting and
+profitable to present one more view of the nominative case.
+
+Every sentence, you recollect, must have one _finite_ verb, or more than
+one, and one _nominative_, either expressed or implied, for, without
+them, no sentence can exist.
+
+The _nominative_ is the _actor_ or _subject_ concerning which the verb
+makes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nominatives, _active,
+passive_, and _neuter_.
+
+The nominative to an _active_ verb, is _active_, because it _produces_
+an action, and the nominative to a _passive_ verb, is _passive_, because
+it _receives_ or _endures_ the action expressed by the verb; for,
+
+A Passive Verb denotes action _received_ or _endured_ by the person or
+thing which is the nominative; as, "The _boy is beaten_ by his father."
+
+You perceive, that the nominative _boy_, in this example, is not
+represented as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of the action expressed
+by the verb _is beaten_; that is, the boy _receives_ or _endures_ the
+action performed by his father; therefore _boy_ is a _passive_
+nominative. And you observe, too, that the verb _is beaten_, denotes the
+_action_ received or endured by the nominative; therefore _is beaten_ is
+a _passive_ verb.
+
+If I say, John _kicked_ the horse, John is an active nominative, because
+he performed or produced the action; but if I say, John _was kicked_ by
+the horse, John is a passive nominative, because he received or endured
+the action.
+
+The nominative to a _neuter_ verb, is _neuter_, because it does not
+produce an action nor receive one; as, John _sits_ in the chair. John is
+here connected with the neuter verb _sits_, which expresses simply the
+state of being of its nominative, therefore _John_ is a neuter
+nominative.
+
+I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by a
+few examples.
+
+I. Of ACTIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ beats the dog; The _lady_
+sings; The _ball_ rolls; The _man_ walks."
+
+II. Of PASSIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ is beaten; The _lady_ is
+loved; The _ball_ is rolled; The _man_ was killed."
+
+III. Of NEUTER NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ remains idle; The _lady_ is
+beautiful; The _ball_ lies on the ground; The _man_ lives in town."
+You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs.
+
+Passive Verbs are called _regular_ when they end in _ed_; as, was
+_loved_; was _conquered_.
+
+All Passive Verbs _are formed_ by adding the _perfect participle_ of an
+active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb _to be_.
+
+If you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb after
+this neuter verb _be_, in any mood or tense, you will have a _passive_
+verb in the same mood and tense that the verb _be_ would be in if the
+participle were not used; as, I am _slighted_; I was _slighted_; he will
+be _slighted_; If I be _slighted_; I may, can, _or_ must be _slighted_,
+&c. Hence you perceive, that when you shall have learned the conjugation
+of the verb _be_, you will be able to conjugate any passive verb in the
+English language.
+
+The regular passive verb to _be loved_, which is formed by adding the
+perfect participle _loved_ to the neuter verb to _be_, is conjugated in
+the following manner:
+
+TO BE LOVED.--INDICATIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense
+_Sing_. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved.
+_Plur_. We are loved, ye _or_ you are loved, they are loved.
+
+Imperf. Tense.
+_Sing_. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved.
+_Plur_. We were loved, ye _or_ you were loved, they were loved.
+
+Perfect Tense.
+_Sing_. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved.
+_Plur_. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c.
+
+Pluper. Tense
+_Sing_. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c.
+_Plur_. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, &c.
+
+First Future.
+_Sing_. I shall _or_ will be loved, thou shall _or_ wilt be loved, he, &c.
+_Plur_. We shall _or_ will be loved, you shall _or_ will be loved, they, &c.
+
+First Future.
+_Sing_. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c.
+_Plur_. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c.
+
+SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense
+_Sing_. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved.
+_Plur_. If we be loved, if ye _or_ you be loved, if they be loved.
+
+Imperf. Tense.
+_Sing_. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved.
+_Plur_. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved.
+
+This mood has six tenses:--See conjugation of the verb to _be_.
+
+IMPERATIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense.
+_Sing_. Be thou loved, _or_ do thou be loved.
+_Plur_. Be ye _or_ you loved, _or_ do ye be loved.
+
+POTENTIAL MOOD.
+Pres. Tense.
+_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be loved, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must, &c.
+_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be loved, you may, can, _or_ must, &c.
+
+Imperf. Tense.
+_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be loved, thou mightst, &c.
+_Plur_. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye _or_ you, &c.
+
+Perfect Tense.
+_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c.
+_Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been loved, you may, can, &c.
+
+Plup. Tense.
+_Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, thou
+mightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst have
+_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, you
+might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, they, &c.
+
+INFINITIVE MOOD.
+Pres. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tense. To have been loved.
+
+PARTICIPLES.
+Present, Being loved. Perfect _or_ Passive, Loved.
+Compound, Having been loved.
+
+    NOTE. This conjugation of the passive verb _to be loved_, is called
+    the _passive, voice_ of the regular active-transitive verb _to
+    love_.
+
+Now conjugate the following passive verbs; that is, speak them in the
+first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all the moods, and
+speak the participles; "to be loved, to be rejected, to be slighted, to
+be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to be sought, to be taken."
+
+    NOTE 1. When the perfect participle of an _intransitive_ verb is
+    joined to the neuter verb _to be_, the combination is not a passive
+    verb, but a _neuter_ verb in a _passive form_; as, "He _is gone_;
+    The birds _are flown_; The boy _is_ grown_; My friend _is arrived_."
+    The following mode of construction, is, in general, to be preferred;
+    "He _has_ gone; The birds _have_ flown; The boy _has_ grown; My
+    Friend _has_ arrived."
+
+    2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present
+    participle to the auxiliary verb _to be_, through all its
+    variations; as, instead of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c.,
+    we may say, I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, &c.;
+    and, instead of, I taught, &c.; I was teaching, &c. This mode of
+    conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or state of
+    being; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and
+    contributes to the harmony and precision of language. When the
+    present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb
+    to be, the two words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated
+    an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, as the case may
+    be; as, "I am writing a letter; He is walking:" and when the present
+    participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, they term the
+    combination a neuter verb; as, "I am sitting; He is standing."
+    Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately.
+    Either mode may be adopted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+III. DEFECTIVE VERBS.
+
+DEFECTIVE VERBS are those which are used only in some of the moods and
+tenses.
+
+The principal of them are these.
+
+_Pres. Tense.     Imperf. Tense.     Perfect or Passive Participle
+                                              is wanting_.
+
+May,                     might.                ------------
+Can,                     could.                ------------
+Will,                    would.                ------------
+Shall,                   should.               ------------
+Must,                    must.                 ------------
+Ought,                   ought.                ------------
+-----                    quoth.                ------------
+
+    NOTE. _Must_ and _ought_ are not varied. _Ought_ and _quoth_ are
+    never used as auxiliaries. _Ought_ is always followed by a verb in
+    the infinitive mood, which verb determines its tenses. _Ought_ is in
+    the _present_ tense when the infinitive following it is in the
+    present; as, "He _ought_ to do it;" and _ought_ is in the
+    _imperfect_ tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive;
+    as, "He _ought_ to have done it."
+
+Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, you may
+read over the last _three_ lectures carefully and attentively; and as
+soon as you become acquainted with all that has been presented, you will
+understand nearly all the principles and regular constructions of our
+language. In parsing a verb, or any other part of speech, be careful to
+pursue the _systematic order_, and to conjugate every verb until you
+become familiar with all the moods and tenses.
+
+    "He _should have been punished_ before he committed that atrocious
+    deed."
+
+_Should have been punished_ is a verb, a word that signifies to
+do--passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom.--it is
+formed by adding the perfect part, _punished_ to the neuter verb to
+_be_--regular, the perf. part, ends in _ed_--potential mood, it implies
+obligation, &c.--pluperfect tense, it denotes a past act which was prior
+to the other past time specified by "committed"--third pers. sing.
+num. because the nom. "he" is with which it agrees: RULE 4. _The verb
+must agree_, &c.--Conjugated, Indic. mood, pres. tense, he is punished;
+imperf. tense, he was punished; perf. tense, he has been punished; and
+so on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak the
+participles.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Columbus discovered America. America was discovered by Columbus. The
+preceptor is writing a letter. The letter is written by the preceptor.
+The work can be done. The house would have been built ere this, had he
+fulfilled his promise. If I be beaten by that man, he will be punished.
+Young man, if you wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous.
+Being ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. He is reading
+Homer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become more
+ingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honored for his benevolent
+deeds. This ought ye to have done.
+
+ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+All the most important principles of the science, together with many of
+the rules, have now been presented and illustrated. But before you
+proceed to analyze the following exercises, you may turn over a few
+pages, and you will find all the rules presented in a body. Please to
+examine them critically, and parse the _examples_ under each rule and
+note. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate the
+respective rules and notes under which they are placed; hence, by paying
+particular attention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to
+comprehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes.
+
+As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the _definitions_
+so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit them in parsing;
+but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. When you parse without
+applying the definitions, you may proceed in the following manner:
+
+    "Mercy is the true badge of nobility."
+
+_Mercy_ is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, singular
+number, and in the nominative case to "is:" RULE 3. _The nominative case
+governs the verb_.
+
+_Is_ is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, third
+person, singular number, agreeing with "mercy," according to RULE 4.
+_The verb must agree_, &c.
+
+_The_ is a definite article, belonging to "badge," in the singular
+number: RULE 2. _The definite article_ the, &c.
+
+_True_ is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the noun
+"badge:" RULE 18. _Adjectives belong_, &c.
+
+_Badge_ is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular number, and
+in the nominative case _after_ "is," and put by apposition with "mercy,"
+according to RULE 21. _The verb to be may have the same case after it as
+before it_.
+
+_Of_ is a preposition, connecting "badge" and "nobility," and showing
+the relation between them.
+
+_Nobility_ is a noun of multitude, mas. and fem. gender, third person,
+sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by "of:" RULE 31. _Prepositions
+govern the objective case_.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss.
+
+What I forfeit for myself is a trifle; that my indiscretions should
+reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart.
+
+Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the duke of
+Northumberland.
+
+King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and people of Rome
+as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia.
+
+Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts; and from what
+is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to have proved,
+what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of violence, cruelty, and
+blood.
+
+Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits know.
+
+He that formed the ear, can he not hear?
+
+He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.
+
+    NOTE 1. _Learn_, in the first of the preceding examples, is a
+    transitive verb, because the action passes over from the nom. _you_
+    understood, to _the rest of the sentence_ for its object: RULE 24.
+    In the next example, _that my indiscretions should reach my
+    posterity_, is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to the
+    verb _wounds_, according to the same Rule.
+
+    2. The noun _sacrifice_, in the third example, is nom. after the
+    active-intransitive verb _fell_: RULE 22. The noun _proprietors_, in
+    the next sentence, is in the objective case, and put by apposition
+    with _senate_ and _people_: RULE 7, or governed by _consider_,
+    understood, according to RULE 35.
+
+    3. In the fifth example, _what_, following _proved_, is a compound
+    relative. _Thing_, the antecedent part, is in the nom. case after
+    _to be_, understood, and put by apposition with _he_, according to
+    RULE 21, and NOTE. _Which_, the relative part, is in the obj. case
+    after _to be_ expressed, and put by apposition with _him_, according
+    to the same RULE. _Man_ is in the obj. case, put by apposition with
+    _which_: RULE 7. The latter part of the sentence may be _literally_
+    rendered thus: He plainly appears to have proved _to be that base
+    character which_ the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a _man_ of
+    violence, cruelty, and blood. The antecedent part of the first
+    _what_, in the next sentence, is governed by _hides_; and _which_,
+    the relative part, is governed by _know_ understood. The antecedent
+    part of the second _what_, is governed by _hides_ understood, and
+    the relative part is governed by _know_ expressed.
+
+    4. The first _he_, in the seventh example, is, in the opinion of
+    some, nom. to _can hear_ understood; but Mr. N.R. Smith, a
+    distinguished and acute grammarian, suggests the propriety of
+    rendering the sentence thus; "He that formed the ear, _formed it to
+    hear_; can he not hear?" The first _he_, in the last example, is
+    redundant; yet the construction is sometimes admissible, for the
+    expression is more forcible than it would be to say, "Let him hear
+    who hath ears to hear;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr.
+    Smith, the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus; "He
+    that hath ears, _hath ears_ to hear; let him hear."
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+_Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies_.
+
+1. "The wall is three _feet_ high."
+2. "His son is eight _years_ old."
+3. "My knife is worth a _shilling_."
+4. "She is worth _him_ and all his _connexions_."
+5. "He has been there three _times_."
+6. "The hat cost ten _dollars_."
+7. "The load weighs a _tun_."
+8. "The spar measures ninety _feet_."
+
+REMARKS.--_Anomaly_ is derived from the Greek, _a_, without, and
+_omales_, similar; that is, _without similarity_. Some give its
+derivation thus; _anomaly_, from the Latin, _ab_, from, or out of, and
+_norma_, a rule, or law, means an _outlaw_; a mode of expression that
+departs from the rules, laws, or _general_ usages of the language; a
+construction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, it is a general rule
+of the language, that adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding
+_r_, or _er_, and _st_, or _est_, to the positive degree; but good,
+_better, best_; bad, _worse, worst_, are not compared according to the
+general rule. They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns
+is generally formed by adding s to the singular: man, _men_; woman,
+_women_; child, _children_; penny, _pence_, are anomalies. The use of
+_news, means, alms_ and _amends_, in the singular, constitutes
+anomalies. Anomalous constructions are correct according to custom; but,
+as they are departures from general rules, by them they cannot be
+analyzed.
+
+An _idiom_, Latin _idioma_, a construction peculiar to a language, may
+be an anomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expression which is not an
+anomaly, can be analyzed.
+
+_Feet_ and _years_, in the 1st and 2d examples, are not in the
+nominative after _is_, according to Rule 21, because they are not in
+apposition with the respective nouns that precede the verb; but the
+constructions are anomalous; and, therefore, no rule can be applied to
+analyze them. The same ideas, however; can be conveyed by a legitimate
+construction which can be analyzed; thus, "The _height_ of the wall is
+three _feet_;" "The _age_ of my son is eight _years_."
+
+An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; but
+sometimes it is very difficult to decide whether a construction is
+anomalous or not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally
+considered anomalies; but if we supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted in
+doing, the associated words which modern refinement has dropped, they
+will cease to be anomalies; thus, "My knife is _of the_ worth _of_ a
+shilling;" "--_of the_ worth _of_ him," &c. "He has been there _for_
+three times;" as we say, "I was unwell _for_ three days, after I
+arrived;" or, "I was unwell three days." Thus it appears, that by
+tracing back, _for_ a few centuries, what the merely modern English
+scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be
+discovered, which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly.
+
+On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living
+language, the most able philologists can never be agreed; because many
+usages will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently,
+be disposed of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a
+sentence may be treated as an anomaly; by others who contend for, and
+supply, an ellipsis, the same sentence may be analyzed according to the
+ellipsis supplied; whilst others, who deny both the elliptical and
+anomalous character of the sentence, construct a rule by which to
+analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the principle contained in
+that sentence only. This last mode of procedure, inasmuch as it requires
+us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the language,
+appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It appears to
+be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility.
+
+The verbs, _cost, weighs_, and _measures_, in the 6th, 7th, and 8th
+examples, may be considered as transitive. See remarks on _resemble,
+have, own_, &c., page 56.
+
+EXAMPLES.
+
+1. "And God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light." "Let us
+make man." "Let us bow before the Lord." "Let high-born seraphs tune the
+lyre."
+
+2. "_Be it_ enacted." "_Be it_ remembered." _"Blessed be he_ that
+blesseth thee; and _cursed be he_ that curseth thee." "My soul, turn
+from them:--_turn we_ to survey," &c.
+
+3. "_Methinks_ I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him."
+"_Methought_ I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep." "I was there
+just thirty _years ago_."
+
+4. "Their laws and their manners, generally _speaking_, were extremely
+rude." "_Considering_ their means, they have effected much."
+
+5.
+
+  "Ah _me!_ nor hope nor life remains."
+  "_Me_ miserable! which way shall I fly?"
+
+6.
+
+   "O _happiness!_ our being's end and aim!
+  Good, pleasure, ease, content! whatever thy name,
+  That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh.
+  For which we bear to live, or dare to die."--
+
+The verb _let_, in the idiomatic examples under number 1, has no
+nominative specified, and is left applicable to a nominative of the
+first, second, or third person, and of either number. Every action
+necessarily depends on an agent or moving cause; and hence it follows,
+that the verb, in such constructions, has a nominative understood; but
+as that nominative is not particularly _pointed out_, the constructions
+may be considered anomalous.
+
+Instead of saying, "_Let_ it [_to_] be enacted;" or, "It _is_ or _shall_
+be enacted;" "_Let_ him [_to_] be blessed;" or, "He _shall_ be blessed;"
+"_Let us_ turn to survey," &c.; the verbs, _be enacted, be blessed,
+turn_, &c. according to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license,
+are used in the _imperative_, agreeing with a nominative of the first or
+third person.
+
+The phrases, _methinks_ and _methought_, are anomalies, in which the
+objective pronoun _me_, in the _first_ person, is used in place of a
+nominative, and takes a verb after it in the _third_ person. _Him_ was
+anciently used in the same manner; as, "_him thute_, him thought." There
+was a period when these constructions were not anomalies in our
+language. Formerly, what we call the _objective_ cases of our pronouns,
+were employed in the same manner as our present _nominatives_ are. _Ago_
+is a contraction of _agone_, the past part. of to _go_. Before this
+participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun _years_ preceding it,
+was in the nominative case absolute; but now the construction amounts to
+an anomaly. The expressions, "generally speaking," and "considering
+their means," under number 4, are idiomatical and anomalous, the
+subjects to the participles not being specified.
+
+According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and
+prepositions require the _objective_ case of a noun or pronoun after
+them; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we
+say, that these parts of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52,
+57, and 94. The same principle applies to the interjection.
+Interjections require the _objective_ case of a pronoun of the first
+person after them; but the _nominative_ of a noun or pronoun of the
+second or third person; as, "Ah _me!_ Oh _thou!_ O my _country!_" To
+say, then, that interjections _require_ particular cases after them, is
+synonymous with saying, that they _govern_ those cases; and this office
+of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs
+in the Latin and many other languages. In the examples under number 5,
+the first _me_ is in the objective after "ah," and the second _me_,
+after _ah_ understood; thus, "Ah miserable me!" according to NOTE 2,
+under Rule 5.--_Happiness_, under number 6, is nom. independent; Rule 5,
+or in the nom. after _O_, according to this Note. The principle
+contained in the note, proves that every noun of the second person is in
+the _nominative_ case; for, as the pronoun of the second person, in such
+a situation, is always nominative, which is shown by its _form_, it
+logically follows that the noun, under such circumstances, although it
+has _no form_ to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case as
+the pronoun. "Good, pleasure, ease, content, _that_," the antecedent
+part of "whatever," and _which_, the relative part, are nom. after _art_
+understood; Rule 21, and _name_ is nom. to _be_ understood.
+
+The second line may be rendered thus; Whether thou art good, or whether
+thou art pleasure, &c. or _be_ thy _name_ that [thing] which [ever
+thing] it may be: putting _be_ in the imperative, agreeing with _name_
+in the third person. _Something_ is nominative after _art_ understood.
+
+EXAMPLES.
+
+1. "All were well _but_ the _stranger_." "I saw nobody but the
+_stranger_." "All had returned but he." "None but the _brave_ deserve
+the fair." "The thing they can't _but_ purpose, they postpone." "This
+life, at best, is _but_ a dream." "It affords _but_ a scanty measure of
+enjoyment." "If he _but_ touch the hills, they will smoke." "Man is
+_but_ a reed, floating on the current of time."
+
+2. "Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content."
+
+3. "Open your hand _wide_." "The apples boil _soft_." "The purest clay
+is that which burns _white_." "Drink _deep_, or taste not the Pierian
+spring."
+
+4. "_What though_ the swelling surge thou see?" &c. "_What if_ the foot,
+ordain'd the dust to tread?" &c.
+
+REMARKS.--According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of our
+most critical philologists, _but_ is _always_ a disjunctive conjunction;
+and agreeably to the same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as a
+preposition, would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule 35. They
+maintain, that its legitimate and undeviating office is, to join on a
+member of a sentence which _expresses opposition of meaning_, and
+thereby forms an exception to, or takes from the universality of, the
+proposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence. That it
+sustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples under
+number 1, will be shown by the following resolution of them.--"All were
+well but the _stranger [was not well_."] "I saw nobody but [_I saw_] the
+_stranger_." "None deserve the fair but the _brave_ [_deserve the
+fair_."] "They postpone the thing which [_they ought to do, and do not]
+but_ which [_thing_] they cannot avoid purposing to do." "This life, at
+best, [_is not a reality,] but_ it is a dream. It [_affords not
+unbounded fruition] but_ it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment." "If
+he _touch_ the hills, _but exert no greater power upon them_, they will
+smoke;"--"If _he exert no greater power upon the hills, but [be-out this
+fact_] if he touch them, they will smoke." "Man _is not a stable being,
+but_ he is a reed, floating on the current of time." This method of
+analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, is too much on the plan
+of our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their rage for ancient
+constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern associated
+meaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be more
+consistent with the _modern_ use of the word, to consider it an _adverb_
+in constructions like the following: "If he _but (only, merely)_ touch
+the hills they will smoke."
+
+_Except_ and _near_, in examples like the following, are generally
+construed as prepositions: "All went _except him_;" "She stands _near
+them_." But many contend, that when we employ _but_ instead of _except_,
+in such constructions, a _nominative_ should follow: "All went _but he
+[did not go_."] On this point and many others, _custom_ is _variable_;
+but the period will doubtless arrive, when _but, worth_, and _like_,
+will be considered prepositions, and, in constructions like the
+foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. This will not be
+the case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis after
+these words is entirely dropped.
+
+_Poverty_, under number 2, is governed by the preposition
+_notwithstanding_, Rule 31. The adjectives _wide, soft, white_, and
+_deep_, under number 3, not only express the quality of nouns, but also
+qualify verbs: Note 4, under Rule 18.--_What_, in the phrases "what
+though" and "what if," is an interrogative in the objective case, and
+governed by the verb _matters_ understood, or by some other verb; thus,
+"What matters it--what dost thou fear, though thou see the swelling
+surge?" "What would you think, if the foot, which is ordained to tread
+the dust, aspired to be the head?"
+
+In the following examples, the same word is used as several parts of
+speech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to comprehend the meaning,
+and by supplying what is understood, you will be able to analyze them
+correctly.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+I like what you dislike.
+Every creature loves its like.
+Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful.
+Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it.
+Thought flies swifter than light.
+He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man.
+Hail often proves destructive to vegetation.
+I was happy to hail him as my friend.
+Hail! beauteous stranger of the wood.
+The more I examine the work, the better I like it.
+Johnson is a better writer than Sterne.
+Calm was the day, and the scene delightful.
+We may expect a calm after a storm.
+To prevent passion is easier than to calm it.
+Damp air is unwholesome.
+Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours.
+Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones.
+Much money has been expended.
+Of him to whom much is given, much will be required.
+It is much better to give than to receive.
+Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult.
+Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong.
+They wrong themselves as well as their friends.
+
+I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing in poetry,
+as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental exertion than
+parsing in prose, will be found a more delightful and profitable
+exercise. In this kind of analysis, in order to come at the meaning of
+the author, you will find it necessary to _transpose_ his language, and
+supply what is understood; and then you will have the literal meaning in
+prose.
+
+EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+APOSTROPHE TO HOPE.--CAMPBELL.
+
+  Eternal Hope! when yonder spheres sublime
+  Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time,
+  Thy joyous youth began:--but not to fade.--
+  When all the sister planets have decayed;
+  When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow,
+  And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below;
+  Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile,
+  And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile!
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+Eternal Hope! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime spheres pealed
+their first notes to sound the march of time:--but it began not to
+fade.--Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over the ruins, when all the sister
+planets shall have decayed; and thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's
+funeral pile, when wrapt in flames, the realms of ether glow, and
+Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below.
+
+ADDRESS TO ADVERSITY.--GRAY.
+
+  Daughter of heaven, relentless power,
+  Thou tamer of the human breast,
+  Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour,
+  The bad affright, afflict the best!
+  The gen'rous spark extinct revive;
+  Teach me to love and to forgive;
+  Exact my own defects to scan:
+  What others are to feel; and know myself a man.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the human breast,
+whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright the bad, and afflict the
+best! Revive thou in me the generous, extinct spark; and teach thou me
+to love others, and to forgive them; and teach thou me to scan my own
+defects exactly, or critically: and teach thou me that which others are
+to feel; and make thou me to know myself to be a man.
+
+ADDRESS TO THE ALMIGHTY.--POPE.
+
+  What conscience dictates to be done,
+    Or warns me not to do,
+  This teach me more than hell to shun,
+    That more than heav'n pursue.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+O God, teach thou me to pursue that (_the thing_) which conscience
+dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven; and teach thou
+me to shun this (_the thing_) which conscience warns me not to do, more
+cautiously than I would shun hell.
+
+TRIALS OF VIRTUE.--MERRICK.
+
+  For see, ah! see, while yet her ways
+    With doubtful step I tread,
+  A hostile world its terrors raise,
+    Its snares delusive spread.
+  O how shall I, with heart prepared,
+    Those terrors learn to meet?
+  How, from the thousand snares to guard
+    My unexperienced feet?
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world _to_ raise its terrors, and
+see thou a hostile world _to_ spread its delusive snares, while I yet
+tread her (_virtue's_) ways with doubtful steps.
+
+O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepared heart? How
+shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from the thousand snares of
+the world?
+
+THE MORNING IN SUMMER.--THOMPSON.
+
+  Short is the doubtful empire of the night;
+  And soon, observant of approaching day,
+  The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews,
+  At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east,
+  Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow,
+  And from before the lustre of her face
+  White break the clouds away.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+The doubtful empire of the night is short; and the meek-eyed morn,
+(_which is the_) mother of dews, observant of approaching day, soon
+appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the dappled east, till the
+widening glow spreads far over ether, and the white clouds break away
+from before the lustre of her face.
+
+NATURE BOUNTIFUL.--AKENSIDE.
+
+  --Nature's care, to all her children just,
+  With richest treasures, and an ample state,
+  Endows at large whatever happy man
+  Will deign to use them.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely endows, with
+richest treasures and an ample state, that happy man who will deign to
+use them.
+
+    NOTE. _What_, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedent
+    part is gov. by _teach_ understood; and the relative part by _to
+    feel_ expressed. _To shun_ and _to pursue_, in the third example,
+    are in the infinitive mood, gov. by _than_, according to a NOTE
+    under Rule 23. _Faint_ and _from_, in the 5th example, are adverbs.
+    An adverb, in poetry, is often written in the form of an adjective.
+    _Whatever_, in the last sentence, is a compound pronoun, and is
+    equivalent to _that_ and _who. That_ is an adj. pron. belonging to
+    "man;" _who_ is nom. to "will deign;" and _ever_ is excluded from
+    the sentence in sense. See page 113. Parse these examples as they
+    are transposed, and you will find the analysis very easy.
+
+ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.
+
+GOLD, NOT GENUINE WEALTH.
+
+  Where, thy true treasure? Gold says, "not in me;"
+  And, "not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, "It is not in me;" and the
+Diamond says, "It is not in me." Gold is poor.
+
+SOURCE OF FRIENDSHIP.--DR. YOUNG.
+
+  Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find
+  A friend, but what has found a friend in thee.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+Lorenzo, repress thou pride; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in him
+who has already found a friend in thee.
+
+TRUE GREATNESS.--POPE.
+
+  Who noble ends by noble means obtains,
+  Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains,
+  Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed
+  Like Socrates, that man is great indeed.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+That man is great indeed, let him _to_ reign like unto good Aurelius, or
+let him _to_ bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noble
+means; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble ends by
+noble means, smiles in exile or in chains.
+
+INVOCATION.--POLLOK.
+
+  Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom
+  All things seem as they are, inspire my song;
+  My eye unscale: me what is substance teach;
+  And shadow what, while I of things to come,
+  As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase
+  Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom all things seem to be as they
+really are, inspire thou my song; and unscale thou my eyes: teach thou
+_to_ me the thing which is substance; and teach thou _to_ me the thing
+which is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, as one sings
+of things which are past rehearsing. Grant thou _to_ me thought and
+phraseology which shall severely sift out the whole idea.
+
+THE VOYAGE OF LIFE.
+
+  How few, favored by ev'ry element,
+  With swelling sails make good the promised port,
+  With all their wishes freighted! Yet ev'n these,
+  Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain.
+  Free from misfortune, not from nature free,
+  They still are men; and when is man secure?
+  As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years
+  Beats down their strength; their numberless escapes
+  In ruin end: and, now, their proud success
+  But plants new terrors on the victor's brow.
+  What pain, to quit the world just made their own!
+  Their nests so deeply downed and built so high!--
+  Too low they build, who build beneath the stars.
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+How few persons, favored by every element, safely make the promised port
+with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freighted! Yet even these
+few persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishes
+freighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet
+(_though_ and _yet_, corresponding conjunctions, form only _one_
+connexion) they are not free from the course of nature, for they still
+are men; and when is man secure? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm is
+to the mariner.--The rush of years beats down their strength; (_that is,
+the strength of these few_;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin:
+and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor's
+brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have made
+it to be their own world; when their nests are built so high, and when
+they are downed so deeply!--They who build beneath the stars, build too
+low for their own safety.
+
+REFLECTIONS ON A SCULL.--LORD BYRON.
+
+    Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps.
+    Is that a temple, where a God may dwell?
+  Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell!
+    Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall,
+    Its chambers desolate, and portals foul;
+    Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall,
+    The dome of thought, the palace of the soul.
+    Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,
+    The gay recess of wisdom and of wit,
+    And passion's host, that never brooked control.
+    Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ,
+  People this lonely tower, this tenement refit?
+
+TRANSPOSED.
+
+Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple,
+where a God may dwell? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered
+cell! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall,
+and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals:--yes, this scull
+was once ambition's airy hall; (_it was_) the dome of thought, the
+palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,
+the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never
+brooked control. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists
+have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refit this
+tenement?
+
+For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the
+English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted,
+that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisition
+the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend
+more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable that
+your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis
+of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you
+ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just
+presented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose.
+
+Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax,
+you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you
+have the subject-matter already stored in your mind.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LECTURE XIV.
+
+
+OF DERIVATION.
+
+At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that Etymology
+treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, important as it
+is, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar.
+In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequently
+agitated; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtless
+be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word
+is derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn
+back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in
+the PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.
+
+1. Nouns are derived from verbs.
+2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs.
+3. Adjectives are derived from nouns.
+4. Nouns are derived from adjectives.
+5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives.
+
+1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes "lover;" from
+"to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver," &c.
+
+In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to
+determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from
+the verb, _viz_. "Love, to love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to
+sleep; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act," &c.
+
+2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs;
+as, from the noun _salt_, comes "to salt;" from the adjective _warm_,
+"to warm;" and from the adverb _forward_, "to forward." Sometimes they
+are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant; as,
+from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding _en_; as, from "length, to
+lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten;
+bright, to brighten."
+
+3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner: adjectives
+denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding _y_; as, from "Health,
+healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c.
+
+Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are
+derived from nouns by adding _en_; as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden;
+wool, woollen," &c.
+
+Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding _ful_;
+as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," &c.
+
+Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are
+derived from nouns by adding _some_; as, from "Light, lightsome;
+trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome," &c.
+
+Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding _less_; as,
+from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, joyless," &c.
+
+Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding _ly_; as,
+from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c.
+
+Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns by
+adding _ish_ to them; which termination when added to adjectives,
+imports diminution, or lessening the quality; as, "White, whitish;" i.e.
+somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency
+to a character; as, "Child, childish; thief, thievish."
+
+Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination
+_able_; and those adjectives signify capacity; as, "Answer, answerable;
+to change, changeable."
+
+4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the
+termination _ness_; as, "White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimes
+by adding _th_ or _t_, and making a small change in some of the letters;
+as, "Long, length; high, height."
+
+5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding _ly_, or
+changing _le_ into _ly_; and denote the same quality as the adjectives
+from which they are derived; as, from "base," comes "basely;" from
+"slow, slowly;" from "able, ably."
+
+There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it
+would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. The
+primitive words of every language are very few; the derivatives form
+much the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here.
+
+Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations
+_hood_ or _head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment_, and _age_.
+
+Nouns ending in _hood_ or _head_, are such as signify character or
+qualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &c.
+
+Nouns ending in _ship_, are those that signify office, employment,
+state, or condition; as, "Lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some
+nouns in _ship_ are derived from adjectives; as, "Hard, hardship," &c.
+
+Nouns which end in _ery_, signify action or habit; as, "Slavery,
+foolery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives; as,
+"Brave, bravery," &c.
+
+Nouns ending in _wick, rick_, and _dom_, denote dominion, jurisdiction,
+or condition; as, "Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c.
+
+Nouns which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession; as,
+"Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in _ment_ and _age_, come
+generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit; as,
+"Commandment," "usage."
+
+Some nouns ending in _ard_, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and
+denote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard."
+
+Some nouns have the form of diminutives; but these are not many. They
+are formed by adding the terminations _kin, ling, ing, ock, el_, and the
+like; as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock;
+cock, cockerel," &c.
+
+OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES.
+
+I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of
+Latin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as
+prefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be better
+qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition
+of which they enter, and of which they form a material part.
+
+I. LATIN PREFIXES.
+
+_A, ab, abs_--signify from or away; as, _a-vert_, to turn from;
+_ab-ject_, to throw away; _abs-tract_, to draw away.
+
+_Ad_--to or at; as, _ad-here_, to stick to; _ad-mire_, to wonder at.
+
+_Ante_--means before; as, _ante-cedent_, going before.
+
+_Circum_--signifies round, about; as, _circum-navigate_, to sail round.
+
+_Con, com, co, col_--together; as, _con-join_, to join together;
+_com-press_, to press together; _co-operate_, to work together;
+_col-lapse_, to fall together.
+
+_Contra_--against; as, _contra-dict_, to speak against.
+
+_De_--from, down; as, _de-duct_, to take from; _de-scend_, to go down.
+
+_Di, dis_--asunder, away; as, _di-lacerate_, to tear asunder;
+_dis-miss_, to send away.
+
+_E, ef, ex_--out; as, _e-ject_, to throw out; _ef-flux_, to flow out;
+_ex-clude_, to shut out.
+
+_Extra_--beyond; as, _extra-ordinary_, beyond what is ordinary.
+
+_In, im, il, ir_--(_in_, Gothic, _inna_, a cave or cell;) as, _in-fuse_,
+to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns,
+commonly reverse their meaning; as, _in-sufficient, im-polite,
+il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute_.
+
+_Inter_--between; as, _inter-pose_, to put between.
+
+_Intro_--within, into; _intro-vert_, to turn within; _intro-duce_, to
+lead into.
+
+_Ob, op_--denote opposition; as, _ob-ject_, to bring against; _op-pugn_,
+to oppose.
+
+_Per_--through, by; as, _per-ambulate_, to walk through; _per-haps_, by
+haps.
+
+_Post_--after; as, _post-script_, written after; _post-fix_, placed
+after.
+
+_Prae, pre_--before; as, _pre-fix_, to fix before.
+
+_Pro_--for, forth, forward; as, _pro-noun_, for a noun; _pro-tend_, to
+stretch forth; _pro-ject_, to shoot forward.
+
+_Praeter_--past, beyond; as, _preter-perfect_, pastperfect;
+_preter-natural_, beyond the course of nature.
+
+_Re_--again or back; as, _re-peruse_, to peruse again; _re-trade_, to
+trade back.
+
+_Retro--_backwards; as, _retro-spective_, looking backwards.
+
+_Se_--aside, apart; as, _se-duce_, to draw aside.
+
+_Sub_--under; as, _sub-scribe_, to write under, or _sub-sign_.
+
+_Subter_--under; as, _subter-fluous_, flowing under.
+
+_Super_--above or over; as, _super-scribe_, to write above;
+_super-vise_, to overlook.
+
+_Trans_--over, beyond, from one place to another; as, _trans-port_, to
+carry over; _trans-gress_, to pass beyond.
+
+II. GREEK PREFIXES.
+
+_A_--signifies privation; as, _anonymous_, without name.
+
+_Amphi_--both or two; as, _amphi-bious_, partaking of both or two
+natures,
+
+_Anti_--against; as, _anti-masonry_, against masonry.
+
+_Dia_--through; as, _dia-meter_, line passing through a circle.
+
+_Hyper_--over; as, _hyper-critical_, over or too critical.
+
+_Hypo_--under, implying concealment or disguise; as, _hypo-crite_, one
+dissembling his real character.
+
+_Meta--_denotes change or transmutation; as, _meta-morphose_, to change
+the shape.
+
+_Para_--contrary or against; as, _para-dox_, a thing contrary to
+received opinion.
+
+_Peri_--round about; as, _peri-phrasis_, circumlocution.
+
+_Syn, syl, sym_--together; as, _syn-tax_, a placing together; _syn-od_,
+a meeting or coming together; _syl-lable_, that portion of a word which
+is taken together; _sym-pathy_, fellow-feeling, or feeling together.
+
+
+
+RULES OF SYNTAX,
+
+WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+
+The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and
+government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence.
+
+SYNTAX consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_.
+
+CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender,
+person, number, or case.
+
+For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53.
+
+For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and
+members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167.
+
+The principal parts of a simple sentence are the _nominative_ or
+subject, the _verb_ or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation,
+and the _object_, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "A
+wise _man governs_ his _passions_." In this sentence, _man_ is the
+subject; _governs_, the attribute; and _passions_ the object.
+
+A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a
+part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence.
+
+ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid
+disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas
+concisely, and with strength and elegance.
+
+In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed
+form, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessary
+consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know
+are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this
+work, you must look over the whole.
+
+You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in
+false Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors
+without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should
+be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are
+erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages.
+
+RULE I.
+
+The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns in the _singular_ number only,
+individually or collectively; as, "_A_ star, _an_ eagle, _a_ score, _a_
+thousand."
+
+RULE II.
+
+The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the _singular_ or
+_plural_ number; as, "_The_ star, _the_ stars; _the_ hat, _the_ hats."
+
+    NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by
+    the use or omission of the article _a_. If I say, "He behaved with
+    _a_ little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He
+    behaved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the
+    former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him.
+    When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and
+    mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say,
+    "There were a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most
+    of them.
+
+    2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of _every_ or
+    _each_; as, "They cost five shillings _a_ dozen;" that is, '_every_
+    dozen.'
+
+      "A man he was to all the country dear,
+      And passing rich with forty pounds _a_ year!"
+
+    that is, '_every_ year.'
+
+    3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various
+    qualities of things individually different, though alike in name,
+    the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to
+    the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "_A_
+    black and _a_ white calf," signifies, A black _calf_, and a white
+    _calf_; but "_A_ black and white calf," describes the two colors of
+    _one_ calf.
+
+RULE III.
+
+The nominative case governs the verb; as, "_I_ learn, _thou_ learnest,
+_he_ learns, _they_ learn."
+
+RULE IV.
+
+The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "The
+bird _sings_, the birds _sing_, thou _singest_."
+
+    NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have
+    a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is,
+    Awake _ye_; arise _ye_.
+
+    2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be
+    considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with
+    that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin _is_
+    death; His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion _were_
+    dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_."
+
+EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+Frequent commission of sin harden men in it.
+Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties.
+So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found.
+The sincere is always esteemed.
+Not one of them are happy.
+What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them?
+Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope give
+consolation.
+The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of
+nature; are without limit.
+A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us.
+Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve
+him.
+In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man.
+
+                O thou, my voice inspire,
+                Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.
+_Note_ 1.  Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind,
+                And never, never be to Heaven resigned?
+
+He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great
+abilities to manage the business.
+
+_Note 2_. The crown of virtue is peace and honor.
+His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy.
+
+RULE V.
+
+When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the
+nominative case _independent_; as, "_Plato_, thou reasonest well;" "Do,
+_Trim_, said my uncle Toby."
+
+    NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it.
+
+    2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the
+    _first_ person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun
+    of the _second_ or _third_ person; as, "Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O!
+    _virtue_."
+
+RULE VI.
+
+A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of
+the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as,
+"_Shame being lost_; all virtue is lost;" "The _sun being risen_, we
+travelled on."
+
+    NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and
+    independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as,
+    "To whom thus _Adam_;" that is, _spoke_.
+
+
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+  Him Destroyed,
+  Or won to what may work his utter loss,
+  All this will follow soon.
+
+    _Note_.--Two substantives, when they come together, and do not
+    signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.
+
+Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constituted
+as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit.
+
+RULE VII.
+
+Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, are
+put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "_Paul_, the _apostle;_"
+"_Joram_, the _king;_" "_Solomon_, the _son_ of David, _king_ of Israel,
+wrote many proverbs."
+
+    NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as,
+    "The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library--_(which
+    was) a misfortune_ that greatly depressed him."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things.
+
+The pronoun _he_ in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative
+case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and
+put by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objective
+case, _him_, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the
+following.)
+
+    I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited.
+
+    They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before.
+
+    It was John, him who preached repentance.
+
+    Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were
+    both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of
+    Independence.
+
+    Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is
+    variously described by historians.
+
+RULE VIII.
+
+Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number,
+connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and
+pronouns, agreeing with them in the _plural_; as, "Socrates _and_ Plato
+_were_ wise; _they_ were eminent _philosophers_."
+
+    NOTE 1. When _each_ or _every_ relates to two or more nominatives in
+    the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must
+    agree with each of them in the singular; as, "_Every_ leaf, _and
+    every_ twig, _and every_ drop of water, _teems_ with life."
+
+    2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another
+    noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the
+    verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity
+    with humility, _renders its_ possessor truly amiable;" "The General,
+    also, in conjunction with the officers, _has_ applied for redress."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large
+    quantities.
+
+Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb _grow_
+is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives,
+"coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the
+copulative conjunction, _and_; therefore the verb should be plural,
+_grow_; and then it would agree with coffee _and_ sugar, according to
+Rule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun _it_, as it represents both the
+nouns, "coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, _they_, agreeably to
+Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar _grow_ in
+the West Indies: _they are_ exported in large quantities."
+
+    Time and tide waits for no man.
+
+    Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.
+
+    Life and health is both uncertain.
+
+    Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity.
+
+    The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean,
+    affects the mind with sensations of astonishment.
+
+    What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think
+    you have no need of assistance?
+
+    Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished.
+
+    Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?
+
+    Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind
+    it continually upon thy heart.
+
+    Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes
+    of the judicious.
+
+    There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists,
+    which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect.
+
+EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE.
+
+    Every man, woman, and child, were numbered.
+
+Not proper; for, although _and_ couples things together so as to present
+the whole at one view, yet _every_ has a contrary effect: it distributes
+them, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. _Were_
+numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "_was_ numbered," in the
+singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.)
+
+    When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and
+    every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light.
+
+RULE IX.
+
+Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number,
+connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and
+pronouns, agreeing with them in the _singular_; as, "Neither John _nor_
+James _has_ learned _his_ lesson."
+
+    NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different
+    persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in
+    person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou _or_ I
+    _am_ in fault; I _or_ thou _art_ to blame; I, _or_ thou, _or_ he,
+    _is_ the author of it." But it would be better to say "Either I am
+    to blame or thou art," &c.
+
+    2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and
+    a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun,
+    which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither
+    poverty _nor riches_ were injurious to him;" "I _or_ they were
+    offended by it."
+
+Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake.
+
+The verb, _have_ caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the
+plural, because it expresses the action, not of _both_, but of either
+the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the
+singular, _has_ caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance _or_
+negligence," agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule.)
+
+    A circle or a square are the same in idea.
+
+    Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry.
+
+    Neither of them are remarkable for precision.
+
+    Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely
+    as they are moved.
+
+    When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the
+    sincerity of friendship is proved.
+
+    Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own
+    hands.
+
+    Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for
+    they may be thy own lot.
+
+    The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy.
+
+RULE X.
+
+A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying _unity_ of idea,
+generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _singular_; as,
+"The _meeting was_ large, and _it_ held three hours."
+
+    NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    The nation are powerful.
+
+    The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.
+
+    The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The
+    flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the
+    shepherd's care.
+
+    That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble.
+
+RULE XI.
+
+A noun of multitude, conveying _plurality_ of idea, must have a verb or
+pronoun agreeing with it in the _plural_; as, "The _council were_
+divided in _their_ sentiments."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    My people doth not consider.
+
+    The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good.
+
+    The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the
+    business to the general meeting.
+
+    The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow.
+
+RULE XII.
+
+A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it
+possesses; as, "_Man's_ happiness;" "_Its_ value is great."
+
+    NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the
+    possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only;
+    as, "The _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal; The _bishop of Landaff's_
+    excellent book; The _captain of the guard's_ house." This usage,
+    however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally
+    convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is _the
+    governor of Ohio's_ house!"
+
+    2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow
+    each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally
+    annexed to the last only; as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake;
+    _John_ the _Baptist's_ head; The canal was built in consequence of
+    _De Witt Clinton_ the _governor's_ advice."
+
+    But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed,
+    the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and
+    understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old
+    _patron_ and _benefactor_."
+
+    3. _Its_, the possessive case of _it_, is often improperly used for
+    _'tis_, or, _it is_; as, "_Its_ my book: _Its_ his," &c.; instead
+    of, _"It is_ my book; or, _'Tis_ my book; _It is_ his; or, _'Tis_
+    his."
+
+    4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the
+    possessive case, as, "In case of his _majesty's dying_ without
+    issue, &c.; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c.; I remember
+    _its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At _my coming_ in he said,"
+    &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be
+    considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28.
+
+    5. Phrases like these, "A work of _Washington Irving's_; A brother
+    of _Joseph's_; A friend of _mine_; A neighbor of _yours_," do not,
+    as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two
+    possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (_out
+    of_, or, _among the number of) Washington Irving's works_; that is,
+    One of the works of _Washington Irving_; One of the brothers _of
+    Joseph_; One friend _of my friends_; One neighbor of _your
+    neighbors_."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Homers works are much admired.
+
+    Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord.
+
+    James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829.
+
+    _Note_ 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer
+    great calamities.
+
+    This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation.
+
+    _Note_ 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production.
+
+    The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.
+
+    _Note_ 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently.
+
+    Much depends on this rule being observed.
+
+    The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay
+    it before the council.
+
+RULE XIII.
+
+Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in
+_gender_ and _number_; as, "_John_ writes, and _he_ will soon write
+well."
+
+    NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun,
+    is always _plural in form_; therefore the verb connected with it
+    should be plural; as, "My friend, you _were_ mistaken." See pages
+    and
+
+FALSE SYNTAX
+
+    Every man will be rewarded according to their works.
+
+Incorrect, because the pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender or
+number with the noun "man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13,
+is violated. _Their_ should be _his_; and then the pronoun would be of
+the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with _man_, according to
+Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.)
+
+    An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience.
+
+    Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob.
+
+    Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in
+    the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.
+
+    No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.
+
+    _Note_. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of
+    censure.
+
+    Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was
+    you from the defendant?
+
+
+RULE XIV.
+
+Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in _gender_, _person_,
+and _number_; as, "Thou _who lovest_ wisdom;" "I _who speak_ from
+experience."
+
+    NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of
+    different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person
+    with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man
+    _who command_ you;" or, "I am the man _who commands_ you." The
+    meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear,
+    if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the _man_."
+
+    When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the
+    preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence;
+    as, "I am the _Lord, that maketh_ all things; _that stretcheth_
+    forth the heavens alone; _that spreadeth_ abroad the earth by
+    myself," &c.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it.
+
+    The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost
+    their lives by this means.
+
+    Thou great First Cause, least understood!
+
+    Who all my sense confined.
+
+    _Note, 2d part_. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and
+    brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees.
+
+RULE XV.
+
+The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative
+comes between it and the verb; as, "The master _who_ taught us, was
+eminent."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish
+    him.
+
+    This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor.
+
+RULE XVI.
+
+When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative
+is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own
+member of the sentence; as, "He _whom_ I _serve_, is eternal."
+
+    NOTE 1. _Who, which, what_, the relative _that_, and their
+    compounds, _whomever, whomsoever_, &c., though in the objective
+    case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He _whom_ ye _seek_,
+    has gone hence."
+
+    2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates,
+    either expressed or implied; as, "_Who_ steals my purse, steals
+    trash;" that is, _he_ who.
+
+    3. The pronouns _whichsoever, whatsoever_, and the like, are
+    sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the
+    corresponding nouns; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ the _king_ cast
+    his eyes," &c.
+
+    4. The pronoun _what_ is sometimes improperly used instead of the
+    conjunction _that;_ as, "He would not believe but _what_ I was in
+    fault." It should be "but _that_," &c.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    That is the friend who I sincerely esteem.
+
+Not proper, because _who_, which is the object of the action expressed
+by the transitive verb "esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to
+be _whom_, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem,
+according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)--and, also, according to Rule
+20. "That is the friend _whom_ I sincerely esteem."
+
+    They who much is given to, will have much to answer for.
+
+    From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be
+    estimated.
+
+    He is a man who I greatly respect.
+
+    Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and
+    who we ought to be grateful to.
+
+    They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of
+    fortune.
+
+    Who did you walk with?
+
+    Who did you see there?
+
+    Who did you give the book to?
+
+RULE XVII.
+
+When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the
+word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its
+_subsequent_, which subsequent must agree in _case_ with the
+interrogative; as, "_Whose_ book is that? _Joseph's;" "Who_ gave you
+this? _John_."
+
+    NOTE. Whether the interrogative _really refers_ to a subsequent or
+    not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree
+    in case with the interrogative.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a
+    bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street.
+
+    Who walked with you? My brother and him.
+
+    Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me.
+
+RULE XVIII.
+
+Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as,
+"He is a _good_, as well as a _wise_ man."
+
+    NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am
+    _miserable; He_ is _industrious_."
+
+    2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in
+    number with their adjectives, when of the _cardinal_ kind; as, "Ten
+    _feet_; Eighty _fathoms_." But some anomalous and figurative
+    expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of _forty
+    sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle_."
+
+    3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or
+    to a part of a sentence; as, "_To see_ is _pleasant_; To be blind is
+    _unfortunate_; To die for our country is _glorious_."
+
+    4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other
+    adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of
+    things in connexion with the action by which that quality is
+    produced; as, "_Red hot_ iron; _Pale blue_ lining; _Deep sea-green_
+    sash; The apples boil _soft_; Open your hand _wide_; The clay burns
+    _white_; The fire burns _blue_; The eggs boil _hard_."
+
+    5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is
+    understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as,
+    "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly.
+
+    6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify;
+    as, "A tract of _good_ land."
+
+    7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not
+    literally admit of comparison; such as, _more impossible, most
+    impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect_, &c. See REMARKS on
+    adjectives, page 76.
+
+    8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects,
+    it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are
+    compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the
+    _taller_ of the two; Her specimen is the _best_ of the three."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    _Note_ 2. The boat carries thirty tun.
+
+    The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth.
+
+    _Note_ 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of
+    furniture.
+
+    My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land.
+
+    _Note_ 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more
+    incomprehensible.
+
+    It is the most uncertain way that can be devised.
+
+    This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before.
+
+    _Note_ 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?
+
+    I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three.
+
+RULE XIX.
+
+Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "_Any_
+man, _all_ men."
+
+    NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number
+    with their nouns; as, "_This_ book, _these_ books; _that_ sort,
+    _those_ sorts."
+
+    2. The pronominal adjectives, _each, every, either, neither,
+    another_, and _one_, agree with nouns in the singular number only;
+    as, "_Each_ man, _every_ person, _another_ lesson;" unless the
+    plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "_Every_ six months."
+
+    3. _Either_ is often improperly employed instead of _each;_ as, "The
+    king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat _either_ of
+    them on his throne." _Each_ signifies _both_ taken separately;
+    _either_ implies only _the one_ or _the other_ taken
+    disjunctively:--"sat _each_ on _his_ throne."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    _Note_ 1. Those sort of favors do real injury.
+
+    They have been playing this two hours.
+
+    These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one
+    or more persons enter the garden.
+
+    _Note_ 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves.
+
+    There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible.
+
+    Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws
+    of morality and religion.
+
+    _Note_ 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life.
+
+    Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer.
+
+RULE XX.
+
+Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered
+_Pompey_;" "Columbus discovered _America_;" "Truth ennobles _her_."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Ye who were dead, hath he quickened.
+
+_Ye_, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of
+the action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" and
+therefore it should be _you_, in the objective case. _You_ would then be
+governed by "hath quickened," agreeably, to Rule 20. _Active-transitive
+verbs govern the objective case_.
+
+    Who did they entertain so freely?
+
+    They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted,
+    cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature.
+
+    He and they we know, but who are ye?
+
+    She that is negligent, reprove sharply.
+
+    He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit.
+
+    Who did they send on that mission?
+
+    They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love.
+
+RULE XXI.
+
+The verb _to be_ may have the same case after it as before it; as, "_I_
+am the _man_;" "I believe _it_ to have been _them;_" "_He_ is the
+_thief_."
+
+    NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb
+    _to be_, signify the _same thing_, they are _in apposition_, and,
+    therefore, in the _same case_. Rule 21 is predicated on the
+    principle contained in Rule 7.
+
+    2. The verb _to be_ is often understood; as, "The Lord made _me
+    man_; He made _him what_ he was;" that is, "The Lord made me _to be_
+    man; He made him _to be that which_ he was." "They desired me to
+    call _them brethren_;" i.e. _by the name of_ brethren. "They named
+    _him John_;" i.e. _by the name of_ John; or, by the _name_ John;
+    putting these two nouns in _apposition_.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    I know it to be they.
+
+Improper, because _it_ is in the objective case before the verb "to be,"
+and _they_ is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 is
+violated. _They_ is in apposition with _it_, therefore _they_ should be
+_them_, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat the
+Rule.)
+
+    Be composed, it is me.
+
+    I would not act thus, if I were him.
+
+    Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed.
+
+    Who do you fancy him to to be?
+
+    Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?
+
+    If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?
+
+    He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him.
+
+RULE XXII.
+
+Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb _to become_, and other
+neuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when both
+words refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "_Tom_ struts a
+_soldier_;" "_Will_ sneaks a _scrivener_;" "_He_ was called _Cesar_;"
+"The _general_ was saluted _emperor_;" "_They_ have become _fools_."
+
+    NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive
+    form, and govern the objective case; as, "_To dream_ a _dream; To
+    run_ a _race; To walk_ the _horse; To dance_ the _child; To fly_ the
+    _kite_."
+
+    2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not
+    literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a
+    passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an _objective_
+    case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition:
+    thus, "_Pitticus_ was offered a large _sum_ by the king;" "_She_ was
+    promised _them_ (the _jewels_) by her mother;" "_I_ was asked a
+    _question_." It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the
+    idiom of our language, to say, "A large _sum_ was offered _to
+    Pitticus_;" "_They_ were promised _(to) her_;" "A _question_ was put
+    _to me_."
+
+    3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of
+    compound active verbs. To _smile_, to _wonder_, to _dream_, are
+    intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice;
+    but, to _smile on_, to _wonder at_, to _dream of_, are compound
+    active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice;
+    as, "He _was smiled on_ by fortune; The accident is not _to be
+    wondered at_;"
+
+      "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,
+      "Than _are dreamed of_ in your philosophy."
+
+RULE XXIII.
+
+A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun,
+adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "_Cease_ to do evil;" "We all
+have our _talent_ to be improved;" "She is _eager_ to learn;" "They are
+_preparing_ to go;" "Let _him_ do it."
+
+ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of _government_ referred to in this
+rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil," the
+peculiar manner in which _cease_ is introduced, _requires_ or _compels_
+us to put the verb _do_ in the infinitive mood; and, according to the
+genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus
+connected with _cease_, in any other mood, unless we change the
+construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that _cease_ governs the
+mood of the verb _do_. Similar remarks may be applied to the words
+_talent_, _eager_, _preparing_, and _him_, in the respective examples
+under the rule.
+
+Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood
+invariably to the preposition _to_ prefixed, which word they do not, of
+course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some
+plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If
+we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood,
+the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps,
+answer all practical purposes.
+
+RULE.
+
+A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its
+subject or actor.
+
+ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to _thou_
+understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to _talent_; "to
+learn," to _she_; "to go," to _they_; and "to do," refers to _him_.
+
+    NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest
+    of the sentence; as, "_To confess_ the truth, I was in fault."
+
+    2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or
+    adverbs; as, "An object so high _as to be_ invisible;" "He is wise
+    _enough to deceive_;" "The army is _about to march_."
+
+RULE XXIV.
+
+The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as the
+nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb;
+as, "_To play_ is pleasant;" "Boys love _to play_;" "_That warm climates
+shorten life_, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider _how
+near he approaches to his end_."
+
+    NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly
+    omitted; as, "I heard him _say_ it;" instead of, "to _say_ it."
+
+RULE XXV.
+
+The verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _need_, _make_, _see_, _hear_,
+_feel_, _help_, _let_, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood
+without the sign _to_ prefixed; as, "He bids me _come_;" "I dare
+_engage_;" "Let me _go_;" "Help me _do it_;" i.e. _to come_, _to go_,
+_to do_ it, &c. "He is _hearing_ me _recite_."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Bid him to come.
+
+    He durst not to do it without permission.
+
+    Hear him to read his lesson.
+
+    It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the
+    one, and to reject the other.
+
+    It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal.
+
+    I wish him not wrestle with his happiness.
+
+RULE XXVI.
+
+Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they
+are derived; as, "I saw the tutor _instructing_ his _pupils_."
+
+    NOTE. The present participle with the definite article _the_ before
+    it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition _of_ after it.
+    _The_ and _of_ must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By _the_
+    observing _of_ truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing
+    truth," &c.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    _Note_. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it.
+
+    The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings,
+    belong to Providence alone.
+
+    These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid
+    mistakes.
+
+RULE XXVII.
+
+The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the
+subject or actor; as, "I see a _boy running_."
+
+RULE XXVIII.
+
+The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun or
+pronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy _abused_."
+
+    NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as
+    before them; as, "_Pontius Pilate_ being _Governor_ of Judea, and
+    _Herod_ being _Tetrarch_," &c.
+
+    2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a
+    substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject
+    of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "_Taking from
+    another without his knowledge or assent_, is called stealing; He
+    studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_; I cannot fail of
+    _having money_, &c.; By _promising much and performing but little_,
+    we become despicable."
+
+    3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular
+    verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken
+    that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He
+    begun,' for 'he began;' 'He run,' for 'he ran;' 'He come,' for 'he
+    came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect
+    tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed
+    instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote,' for 'I had written;'
+    'I was chose,' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat,' for 'I have eaten.'
+    'He would have spoke;'--_spoken_. 'He overrun his
+    guide;'--_overran_. 'The sun had rose;'--_risen_.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    I seen him. I have saw many a one.
+
+_Seen_ is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the
+imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I _saw_ him," according to
+Note 3, _Have saw_ is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed
+instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed
+by combining the auxiliary _have_ with its perfect participle: therefore
+the sentence should be written thus, "I have _seen_ many a one:" Note 3.
+
+    _Note_ 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he
+    come home.
+
+    Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to
+    Europe long ago.
+
+    The sun had already arose, when I began my journey.
+
+    Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted.
+
+    The French language is spoke in every state in Europe.
+
+    He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the
+    same subject.
+
+RULE XXIX.
+
+Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as,
+"A _very good_ pen _writes extremely well_;" "By _living temperately_,"
+&c.
+
+    NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs,
+    after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a
+    _very sensible_ discourse, and was _attentively_ heard."
+
+    2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses
+    _quality_, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses _manner_,
+    an adverb should be used; as, "She looks _cold;_ She looks _coldly_
+    on him; He feels _warm;_ He feels _warmly_ the insult offered to
+    him." If the verb _to be_ can be substituted for the one employed,
+    an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks _[is]
+    cold_; The hay smells _[is] sweet_; The fields look _[are] green_;
+    The apples taste _[are] sour_; The wind blows _[is] fresh_."
+
+    3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs _here, there_, and
+    _where_, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs _hither,
+    thither, whither_; thus, "He came _here [hither]_ hastily;" "They
+    rode _there [thither]_ in two hours;" "_Where [whither]_ will he
+    go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far
+    sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible.
+
+    4. The use of _where_, instead of _in which_, in constructions like
+    the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76,
+    formed a charter, _where [in which]_ their rights are boldly
+    asserted."
+
+    5. As the adverbs _hence, thence_, and _whence_, literally supply
+    the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism
+    in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "_From whence_
+    it follows;" "He came _from thence_ since morning." Better,
+    "_whence_ it follows;" "He came _thence_." The following phrases are
+    also exceptionable: "The _then_ ministry;" "The _above_ argument;"
+    "Ask me _never_ so much dowry;" "Charm he _never_ so wisely."
+    Better, "The ministry _of that time_ or _period_;" "The _preceding_
+    argument;" "_Ever_ so much dowry;" "_Ever_ so wisely."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    _Note_ 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to
+    remonstrate.
+
+    He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.
+
+    These things should be never separated.
+
+    We may happily live, though our possessions are small.
+
+RULE XXX.
+
+Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an
+affirmative; as, "Such things are _not un_common;" i.e. they are common.
+
+    NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another
+    word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as,
+    "His language, though inelegant, is _not un_grammatical;" that is,
+    it is grammatical.
+
+    But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to
+    an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a
+    _negative_ meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate:
+    "I can_not_ by _no_ means allow him what his argument must prove."
+    It should be, "I cannot by _any_ means," &c., or, "I _can_ by _no_
+    means."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    _Note, 2d part_. I don't know nothing about it.
+
+    I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her.
+
+    Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.
+
+    There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.
+
+    Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example.
+
+
+RULE XXXI.
+
+Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went _from_ Utica _to_
+Rome, and then passed _through_ Redfield."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Each is accountable for hisself.
+
+    They settled it among theirselves.
+
+    It is not I who he is displeased with.
+
+    Who did you go with?
+
+    Who did you receive instruction from?
+
+
+RULE XXXII.
+
+_Home_, and nouns signifying _distance_, time _when_, _how long_, &c.
+are generally governed by a preposition _understood_; as, "The horse ran
+a mile;" "He came _home_ last June;" "My friend lived four _years_ at
+college;" that is, ran _through the space of_ a mile; or, ran _over a
+space called_ a mile; _to_ his home _in_ last June; _during_ four years,
+&c.
+
+    NOTE 1. The prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood,
+    chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] _me_ a book; Get [for]
+    _him_ some paper."
+
+    2. _To_ or _unto_, is, by some, supposed to be understood after
+    _like_ and _unlike_; as, "He is _like_ [unto] his brother; She is
+    _unlike_ [to] him." Others consider this mode of expression an idiom
+    of the language, and maintain that _like_ governs the objective
+    following it.
+
+    3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or
+    value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one
+    thousand _miles_ long; She is ten _years_ old; My hat is worth ten
+    _dollars_." These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163.
+
+
+RULE XXXIII.
+
+Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "The
+master taught _her_ and _me_ to write;" "_He_ and _she_ are associates."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    My brother and him are grammarians.
+
+    You and me enjoy great privileges.
+
+    Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned
+    without me.
+
+    Between you and I there is a great disparity of years.
+
+
+RULE XXXIV.
+
+Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "If
+thou sincerely _desire, and_ earnestly _pursue_ virtue, she _will_
+assuredly _be found_ by thee, _and prove_ a rich reward."
+
+    NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by
+    conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He _may return_,
+    but _he will_ not _tarry_."
+
+    2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the
+    subjunctive mood after them; as, "_If_ he _study_, he will improve."
+    See pages 135, 145, and 155.
+
+    3. The conjunctions _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _whether_,
+    and _lest_, generally require the subjunctive mood after them.
+
+    4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no
+    doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "_As_ virtue _advances, so_
+    vice _recedes_."
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?
+
+    Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind.
+
+    _Note_ 1. He has gone home, but may return.
+
+    The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more.
+
+    _Note_ 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains.
+
+    If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind.
+
+
+RULE XXXV.
+
+A noun or pronoun following the conjunction _than_, _as_, or _but_, is
+nominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed or
+understood; as, "Thou art wiser _than_ I [_am_."] "I saw nobody _but_
+[_I saw_] him."
+
+    NOTE 1. The conjunction _as_, when it is connected with _such_,
+    _many_, or _same_, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a
+    _relative pronoun_; as, "Let _such_ as presume to advise others,"
+    &c.; that is, Let _them who_, &c. See page 116.
+
+    2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted,
+    which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically;
+    as "Wo is me;" that is, _to_ me; "To sleep all night;" i.e.
+    _through_ all _the_ night; "He has gone a journey;" i.e. _on_ a
+    journey; "They walked a league;" i.e. _over a space called_ a
+    league.
+
+    3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its
+    force, they must be expressed.
+
+    4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other,
+    we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or
+    sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should
+    correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction
+    throughout should be carefully preserved.
+
+FALSE SYNTAX.
+
+    They are much greater gainers than me.
+
+    They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian
+    than them.
+
+    They were all well but him.
+
+    None were rewarded but him and me.
+
+    Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray.
+
+REMARKS ON THE TENSES.
+
+1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, _in point of
+time_, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be
+observed.
+
+Instead of saying, "The Lord _hath given_, and the Lord _hath taken_
+away;" we should say, "The Lord _gave_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away."
+Instead of, "I _remember_ the family more than twenty years;" it should
+be, "I _have remembered_ the family more than twenty years."
+
+2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and
+of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is
+this very general one; _Observe what the sense necessarily requires_.
+
+To say, "I _have_ visited Washington last summer; I _have seen_ the work
+more than a month ago," is not good _sense_. The constructions should
+be, "I _visited_ Washington, &c.; I _saw_ the work, &c." "This mode of
+expression _has been_ formerly much admired:"--"_was_ formerly much
+admired." "If I _had have_ been there;" "If I _had have_ seen him;"
+"_Had_ you _have_ known him," are solecisms too gross to need
+correction. We can say, I _have_ been, I _had_ been; but what sort of a
+tense is, _had have been_? To place _had_ before the _defective_ verb
+ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:--"_had_ ought, _hadn't_
+ought." This is as low a vulgarism as the use of _theirn_, _hern_, and
+_hizzen_, _tother_, _furder_, _baynt_, _this ere_, I _seed_ it, I
+_tell'd_ him.
+
+3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time in
+which it took place; remains, the _imperfect_ tense should be used; but
+if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare
+that the thing has been done, the _perfect_ tense should be employed.
+
+Thus, we say, "Philosophers _made_ great discoveries in the last
+century;" "He _was_ much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to the
+present century, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the _perfect_
+tense; as, "Philosophers _have made_ great discoveries in the present
+century;" "He _has been_ much afflicted this year;" "I _have read_ the
+president's message this week;" "We _have heard_ important news this
+morning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, this
+week, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year,
+week, and day, of which I speak.
+
+In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is
+connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the
+author of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries
+ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect
+tense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may
+say, "They _have_, in all ages, _claimed_ great powers;" because the
+general order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properly
+say, "The Druid priests _have claimed_ great powers;" because that order
+is now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests
+_claimed_ great powers."
+
+The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper
+use and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been to
+Philadelphia." It should be, "_was_ recently at Philadelphia;" because
+the adverb _recently_ refers to a time completely past, without any
+allusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since I
+have seen him the last time." Corrected, "Charles _has_ grown, since I
+_saw_ him," &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for
+its being so long postponed." Corrected, "for its _having been_ so long
+postponed." "They were arrived an hour before we reached the
+city:"--"They _had_ arrived."
+
+"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession of
+it." It should be, "will _have completed_ the building," &c. "This
+curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for
+more than fifty years past:"--"_has been_ preserved, and _been_ shown to
+strangers," &c. "I had rather write than beg:"--"I _would_ rather write
+than beg."
+
+"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paul
+was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to be,
+"because he _would know_; or, _being willing to know,_" &c. "The blind
+man said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means I
+might attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples,
+_may_ would be preferable to _might_. "I feared that I should have lost
+the parcel, before I arrived:"--"that I should _lose_." "It would have
+afforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, "if
+I could _have performed_ it;" or, "It _would afford_ me no satisfaction,
+if I _could perform_ it." "This dedication may serve for almost any book
+that has, is, or shall be published:"--"that _has been_, or _will be
+published_."
+
+4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with
+propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we
+express.
+
+Verbs expressive of _hope_, _desire_, _intention_, or _command_, ought
+to be followed by the PRESENT tense of the _Infinitive mood_.
+
+"Last week I intended to _have written_," is improper. The intention of
+writing was then _present_ with me; and, therefore, the construction
+should be, "I intended _to write_." The following examples are also
+inaccurate; "I found him better than I expected _to have found_ him;"
+"My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, _to have
+withdrawn_ my wealth to another country." They should be, "expected _to
+find_ him;" "_to withdraw_ my wealth."
+
+"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose
+name it bears." It ought to be "which proves itself _to have been
+written_," &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life."
+Corrected, "_To have seen_ him;" or, "_To see_ him _would afford_ me
+pleasure," &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who
+heard them:"--"were sufficient _to satisfy_." "History painters would
+have found it difficult to have invented such a species of
+beings:"--"_to invent_ such a species."
+
+5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the _present_
+tense.
+
+Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty _were_ equal
+to twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever
+_was_ useful, _was_ good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue
+_was_ always advantageous.;" The constructions should be, "_are_ equal
+to twenty;" "whatever _is_ useful, _is_ good;" "virtue _is_ always
+advantageous."
+
+EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.
+
+    We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity.
+
+    On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among
+    men.
+
+    The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts.
+
+    Is it me or him who you requested to go?
+
+    Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he
+    sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.
+
+    There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them.
+
+    By exercising of our memories, they are improved.
+
+    The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were
+    wholly consumed.
+
+    Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will
+    not recommend us to the wise and good.
+
+    The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue.
+
+    They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be
+    lightly esteemed.
+
+    I intended to have called last week, but could not.
+
+    The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain.
+
+    The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper.
+
+    I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew
+    Jackson, he who is now president.
+
+    Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last.
+
+    The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.
+
+    It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely.
+
+    I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with
+    me, if he could.
+
+    Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the
+    nature of the religion which they reject.
+
+    If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned.
+
+    Education is not attended to properly in Spain.
+
+    He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it.
+
+    He has little more of the great man besides the title.
+
+    Richard acted very independent on the occasion.
+
+    We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.
+
+    The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived.
+
+    His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw.
+
+    Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they
+    will go out of themselves.
+
+    Those two authors have each of them their merit.
+
+      Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
+      Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence.
+
+    A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with
+    wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if
+    they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.
+
+    A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.
+
+    The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.
+
+    If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be
+    too indolent to improve.
+
+    It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow.
+
+    Beauty and innocence should be never separated.
+
+    Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will
+    have much to fear and little to hope.
+
+    Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in
+    their knowledge of the Scriptures.
+
+    Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these
+    are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences.
+
+    An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind.
+
+    To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek
+    revenge, is the duty of a Christian.
+
+    The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his
+    pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him.
+
+    There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline
+    him to offend.
+
+    This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection.
+
+    They that honor me, them will I honor.
+
+    Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves.
+
+    Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians,
+    that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens.
+
+    Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall
+    deliver us from it in due time.
+
+    That writer has given us an account of the manner in which
+    Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens.
+
+    Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your
+    attention.
+
+    In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless
+    professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America.
+
+    I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust.
+
+    I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again
+    disappointed.
+
+    Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three.
+
+    If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he
+    has visited that renowned watering place.
+
+    I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler
+    than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest
+    virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man.
+
+    The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices.
+
+    He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy.
+
+    The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been.
+
+    Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life;
+    and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.
+
+    If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth
+    he not leave the ninety and nine, &c.?
+
+    He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it
+    better.
+
+    The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have
+    looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid
+    ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt
+    a propensity to adore their Creator.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS.
+
+OBSERVATION 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk
+and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard common
+sense:--"Sing the _two first_ and _three last_ verses." Just as if there
+could be more than _one_ first and _one_ last. There may be a _first
+two_, a _second two_, &c.; a _first three_, a _second three_, a _last
+three_. "Within the _two last_ centuries;" "The second syllable of the
+_three first_ words;" "The _three first_ of these orthoepists have no
+rule by which their pronunciation is regulated:"--"the _last two_
+centuries;" "the _first three_ words;" "the _first three_ of these
+orthoepists."
+
+2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "The
+higher the river, the _swifter_ it flows;" "James learns _easier_ than
+Juliet; he sees _deeper_ into the millstone than she:"--"the _more
+swiftly_ it flows;" "learns _more easily_; _farther_ into the
+millstone." "He conducted the _boldest_ of any:"--"the _most boldly_."
+
+3. _More_ requires _than_ after it. The following sentences are
+therefore improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, _as_
+Cinthio;" "Richard is more active, but not so studious, _as_ his
+companion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these
+constructions, will show their gross impropriety: thus, "He was more
+beloved _as_ Cinthio;" "Richard is more active _as_ his companion," &c.
+
+4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally _substitutes_ for
+two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will you
+accompany me to Europe next summer?" _"Yes."_ "Do you believe that the
+voyage will restore your health?" _"No."_ In these examples, the adverbs
+_yes_ and _no_, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, do
+not qualify any words understood. _Yes_, in this instance, literally
+means, _"I will accompany you to Europe next summer;"_ and _no_, _"I do
+not believe that the voyage will restore my health."_ Many other adverbs
+are often employed in a similar manner.
+
+_"Firstly,"_ is often improperly used instead of the adverb _first;_ "a
+_good deal_," instead of, _much_, or, a _great deal_.
+
+5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of _such_ and _so_.
+The former may be employed in expressing _quality_; the latter, in
+expressing a _degree_ of the quality; as, "_Such_ a temper is seldom
+found;" "_So_ bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples,
+_so_ should be used instead of _such:_ "He is _such_ an extravagant
+young man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw _such_
+large trees."
+
+The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not to
+be imitated. "On page _forty-five;"_ "Look at page
+_nineteen_;"--_forty-fifth, nineteenth_.
+
+6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard
+should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our
+language and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been actuated
+from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" "He
+should have profited from those golden precepts;" "It is connected to
+John with the conjunction _and_;" "Aware that there is, in the minds of
+many, a strong predilection in favor of established usages;" "He was
+made much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of going;" "The rain has been
+falling of a long time;" "It is a work deserving of encouragement."
+These examples may be corrected thus, "actuated _by_ the conviction;"
+"_by_ those golden precepts;" "_by_ the conjunction and;" "predilection
+_for_;" "much _of_ at Argos;" "_on_ going;" "falling a long time;"
+"deserving encouragement."
+
+7. The preposition _to_ is used before nouns of place, where they follow
+verbs or participles of motion; as, "I went _to_ Washington." But _at_
+is employed after the verb _to be_; as, "I have been _at_ Washington;"
+"He has been _to_ New York, _to_ home," &c. are improper. The
+preposition _in_ is set before countries, cities, and large towns; "He
+lives _in_ France, _in_ London, _in_ Philadelphia, _in_ Rochester." But
+before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant
+countries, _at_ is commonly used; as, "He lives _at_ Park-place;" "She
+resides _at_ Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, "They
+live _in_ New Orleans, or, _at_ New Orleans."
+
+8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be
+employed as active agents. The following are solecisms: "This house to
+let;" "Horses and carriages to let;" "Congress has much business to
+perform this session;" because the agents, _house_, _horses_ and
+_carriages_, and _business_, which are really _passive_, are, according
+to these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be,
+"This house to _be_ let;" "Horses and carriages to _be_ let;" "much
+business to _be performed_."
+
+9. AMBIGUITY.--"Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not
+_literally_ correct, for _wisdom_ is certainly more to be desired than
+_nothing_; but, as a figurative expression, it is well established and
+unexceptionable.
+
+"A crow is a large black bird:"--a large, _black--bird_.
+
+"I saw a horse--fly through the window:"--I saw a _horsefly_.
+
+"I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass." I saw,
+through a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail.
+
+"One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see with half
+an eye, how the world goes.
+
+"A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea
+shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the members and
+circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's _search to the
+sea shore;_ whereas, he meant, "A _large stone, which,_ after a long
+search, I happened _to find by the sea shore,_ served me for an anchor."
+
+"I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice
+_only_ those called personal pronouns.
+
+10. TAUTOLOGY.--Avoid words which add no thing to the sense; such as,
+"_Now_ extant, _free_ gratis, _slow_ mope, _cold_ snow, a _hot_ sun, a
+_flowing_ stream, a _dull_ blockhead, _wise_ sages." "I am just going to
+go there;" I am _about_ to go.
+
+11. ABSURDITIES AND IMPROPRIETIES.--"I can learn him many things."
+
+It ought to be, "I can _teach_ him." To _learn_, is to _acquire_ or
+_receive_ information; to _teach_, means to _communicate_ it.
+
+"I don't think it is so." You _do think_, that it is _not_ so.
+
+_Ever, always._ "I have ever been of this mind." I have _always_ been.
+_Ever_ and _always_ are not synonymous. _Ever_ refers to _one_
+indefinite period of time; as, "If he _ever_ become rich:" _always_
+means _at all times_.
+
+_Excuse, pardon._ The former signifies to release from an obligation
+which refers to the future; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime
+that is past. "Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday:" _pardon_ me.
+
+_Remember, recollect._ We _remember_ a thing which we retain in our
+mind; we _recollect_ it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have
+power to call it back.
+
+_Defect, deficiency._ A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts,
+is _defective;_ a total absence of the thing, is a _deficiency_.
+
+This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY.
+
+From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the
+following are selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's
+Dictionary.
+
+INCORRECT.          CORRECT.
+Abridgement         Abridgment
+abscision           abcission
+achievment          achievement
+adze                addice
+agriculturalist     agriculturist
+ancle               ankle
+attornies           attorneys
+baise               baize
+bason               basin
+bass                base
+bombazin            bombasin
+boose               bouse
+boult               bolt
+buccaneer           bucanier
+burthen             burden
+bye                 by
+calimanco           calamanco
+camblet             camlet
+camphire            camphor
+canvas              canvass
+carcase             carcass
+centinel            sentinel
+chace               chase
+chalibeate          chalybeate
+chamelion           chameleon
+chimist             chemist
+chimistry           chemistry
+cholic              colic
+chuse               choose
+cimetar             cimeter
+clench              clinch
+cloke               cloak
+cobler              cobbler
+chimnies            chimneys
+chesnut             chestnut
+clue                clew
+connection          connexion
+corset              corslet
+cypher              cipher
+cyphering           ciphering
+dactyl              dactyle
+develope            develop
+dipthong            diphthong
+dispatch            despatch
+doat                dote
+drouth              drought
+embitter            imbitter
+embody              imbody
+enquire             inquire
+enquirer            inquirer
+enquiry             inquiry
+ensnare             insnare
+enterprize          enterprise
+enthral             inthrall
+entrench            intrench
+entrenchment        intrenchment
+entrust             intrust
+enwrap              inwrap
+epaulette           epaulet
+etherial            ethereal
+faggot              fagot
+fasset              faucet
+fellon              felon
+fie                 fy
+germ                germe
+goslin              gosling
+gimblet             gimlet
+grey                gray
+halloe              halloo
+highth              height
+hindrance           hinderance
+honied              honeyed
+impale              empale
+inclose             enclose
+inclosure           enclosure
+indict              endict
+indictment          endictment
+indorse             endorse
+indorsement         endorsement
+instructor          instructer
+insure              ensure
+insurance           ensurance
+judgement           judgment
+laquey              lackey
+laste               last
+licence             license
+loth                loath
+lothsome            loathsome
+malcontent          malecontent
+maneuver            manoeuvre
+merchandize         merchandise
+misprison           misprision
+monies              moneys
+monied              moneyed
+negociate           negotiate
+negociation         negotiation
+noviciate           novitiate
+ouse                ooze
+opake               opaque
+paroxism            paroxysm
+partizan            partisan
+patronize           patronise
+phrenzy             phrensy
+pinchers            pincers
+plow                plough
+poney               pony
+potatoe             potato
+quere               query
+recognize           recognise
+reindeer            raindeer
+reinforce           re-enforce
+restive             restiff
+ribbon              riband
+rince               rinse
+sadler              saddler
+sallad              salad
+sceptic             skeptic
+sceptical           skeptical
+scepticism          skepticism
+segar               cigar
+seignor             seignior
+serjeant            sergeant
+shoar               shore
+soothe              sooth
+staunch             stanch
+streight            straight
+suitor              suiter
+sythe               scythe
+tatler              tattler
+thresh              thrash
+thwak               thwack
+tipler              tippler
+tranquility         tranquillity
+tripthong           triphthong
+trissyllable        trisyllable
+valice              valise
+vallies             valleys
+vise                vice
+vollies             volleys
+waggon              wagon
+warrantee           warranty
+whoopingcough       hoopingcough
+woe                 wo
+yeast               yest
+
+
+CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY.
+
+The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people,
+as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to
+_Cobb's Dictionary_, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of the
+mispronunciations given are _provincial_.
+
+ 1     2    3     4    1   4    1     4    1   3    5    6     1     4
+Fate, far, fall, fat--me, met--pine, pin--no, nor, not, move--tube, tub,
+ 7    34    37
+bull--oil--found---_th_in--THIS.
+
+
+ORTHOGRAPHY.        IMPROPER.           PRONOUNCED.
+                    4  1                4  4
+Again               a-gane'             a-gen'
+                    4  1                4  4
+Against             a-ganste'           a-genst
+                    4   1               4   1
+Ally                al'le               al'li'
+                    1                   2
+Are                 are                 ar
+                    4   4               1   1
+Azure               azh'ur              a'zhure
+                     1                   1
+Bade                bade                bad
+                     1                   11
+Beard               bard                beerd
+                     4      11           4
+Been                ben or been         bin
+                      22                  11
+Bleat               blaat               bleet
+                     1                   34
+Boil                bile                boil
+                     4   4               5   4
+Bonnet              bun'net             bon'nit
+                      2                   66
+Brooch              brotsh              brootsh
+                     4  3                4  4
+Canal               ka-nawl'            ka-nal'
+                     4                   4
+Catch               ketsh               katsh
+                      4   1              3    1
+Causeway            kros'wa             kawz'wa
+                     4  4                  1  4
+Chalice             kal'is              tshal'is
+                       4                   1
+Chasten             tshas'tn            tshase'sn
+                       4    1              4   1
+Chimney             tshim'ble           tshim'ne
+                       3                   1
+Chine               tshime              tshine
+                     34                   1
+Choir               koir                kwire
+                      4  4                1   1
+Clevy               klev'is             klev've
+                      4                   4
+Clinch              klensh              klinsh
+                     5   4               5   4
+Column              kol'yum             kol'lum
+                     5   4               4   4
+Combat              kom'bat             kum'bat
+                     5   1               5   4
+Comma               kom'me              kom'ma
+                     1   4               3  4
+Coquet              ko-kwet'            ko-ket'
+                     3                   1
+Corps               korps               kore
+                     4  4                4  4
+Cover               kiv'ur              kuv'ur
+                     11                  4
+Deaf                deef                def
+                     1  4  4             1  1  4
+Decisive            de-sis'iv           de-si'siv
+                     1  5                1  1
+Depot               de'pot              de-po'
+                     4  1  1             1  1
+Depute              dep'u-tize          de-pute'
+                     4  1  1             1  1  4
+Deputed             dep'u-tizd          de-pu'ted
+                     1  1                1  1
+Design              de-zine'            de-sine'
+                     4                   4
+Dint                dent                dint
+                     1                   5   4
+Docile              do'slle             dos'sil
+                     4   4               4   4
+Disgust             dis-gust'           diz-gust'
+                     4   1               4   1
+Dismay              dis-ma'             diz-ma'
+                     4  1                4  1
+Disown              dis-one'            diz-one'
+                     1                   4
+Dost                dost                dust
+                     1                   4
+Doth                do_th_                du_th_
+                     66                  4
+Does                dooz                duz
+                      11                  1
+Drain               dreen               drane
+                      37                  37
+Drought             drou_th_              drout
+                      37   4              37
+Drowned             dround'ed           dround
+                     4   1               4   4
+Ductile             duk'tile            duk'til
+                    1                   4
+Edge                aje                 edje
+                    1                   1   4
+Either              i'THur              e'THur
+                    4    4              4     4
+English             eng'lish            ing'glish
+                    1  1                1  1
+Era                 e're                e'ra
+                    1                   1
+Ere                 ere                 are
+                     1                   4
+Fasten              fas'tn              fas'sn
+                     4   7               11   7
+Fearful             fer'ful             feer'ful
+                     4   4               4  1
+Figure              fig'gur             fig'ure
+                     4                   11
+Fiend               fend                feend
+                     4                   4
+First               fust                furst
+                     34  1               1  1 1
+Foliage             foil'aje            fo'le-aje
+                     3     4             3     1
+Fortune             for'tshun           for'tshune
+                     3    4              3    1
+Fortnight           fort'nit            fort'nite
+                     37                  37   4
+Fountain            foun'tn             foun'tin
+                      4     4             4     1
+Fracture            frak'tshur          frak'tshure
+                      1   4               1   4
+Fragrance           frag'ranse          fra'granse
+                     1  1                1  4
+Futile              fu'tile             fu'til
+                     4   4               4   4
+Gather              geTH'ur             gaTH'ur
+                     4                   4
+Get                 git                 get
+                     4                   4
+Girth               gurt                ger_th_
+                     66                  1
+Goal                gool                gole
+                     1       1 4         1 4
+Going               gone _or_ go'in       go'ing
+                     66                  1
+Gold                goold               gold
+                     66                  4
+Gum                 goom                gum
+                     1   4                4
+Grudge              be-gretsh'          grudje
+                     4   4               4   4
+Gypsum              gip'sum             jip'sum
+                     4                   4
+Has                 hez                 haz
+                     1                   4
+Have                have                hav
+                     11                  4
+Heard               heerd               herd
+                     4        4          2
+Hearth              hur_th_ or ha_th_       har_th_
+                     4                   4
+Hiss                siss                hiss
+                     1                   34
+Hoist               histe               hoist
+                     4    1              1    1
+Homely              hum'ble             home'le
+                     4                   66
+Hoof                huf                 hoof
+                     3    4             5   4
+Hostler             haws'lur            os'lur
+                     4                  4
+Humble              hum'bl              um'bl
+                     11   4              4   4
+Jesting             jeest'in            jest'ing
+                     4                   4
+Kettle              kit'tl              ket'tl
+                     4     4             4     1
+Lecture             lek'tshur           lek'tshure
+                     4   4               1   1
+Leisure             lezh'ur             le'zhure
+                     4  4                1  4
+Lever               lev'er              le'vur
+                     4                   4
+Lid                 led                 lid
+                     1  5                1  4
+Lilach              la'lok              li'lak
+                     66                  1
+Loam                loom                lome
+                     1                   66
+Loo                 lu                  loo
+                     1    1              4   1
+Maintain            mane-tane'          men-tane'
+                     1   4               1   4
+Matron              mat'run             ma'trun
+                     1    1              4   1
+Mermaid             mare'made           mer'made
+                     37                  37
+Mountain            moun'tn             moun'tin
+                     1    4              1    1
+Nature              na'tshur            na'tshure
+                     1   4               1   4
+Neither             ni'THur             ne'THur
+                    1   11              1   1
+Oblige              o-bleeje'           o-blije'
+                    1   11              5   1
+Oblique             o-bleek'            ob-like'
+                    5                   5
+Of                  of                  ov
+                    1                   34
+Oil                 ile                 oil
+                    5        4   1      1    1
+Only                on'le _or_ un'le      one'le
+                     1    4              4    4
+Panther             pane'tur            pan'_th_ur
+                     4  4                1  4
+Parent              par'ent             pa'rent
+                     2    4              2    4
+Partner             pard'nur            part'nur
+                     2     4             4     1
+Pasture             pas'tshur           pas'tshure
+                     4   4               1   4
+Patron              pat'run             pa'trun
+                     4    4              4   4
+Pincers             pinsh'urz           pin'surz
+                     4                   4
+Pith                pe_th_                pi_th_
+                      11                  1
+Plait               pleet               plate
+                     1                   1 4
+Poem                pome                po'em
+                     1                   34
+Point               pinte               point
+                     5   4                   4
+Pother              poTH'ur             puTH'ur
+                      4    4              1  4
+Precept             pres'sept           pre'sept
+                      1  1                4   4
+Preface             pre'fase            pref'fas
+                      1  1                4  1
+Prelude             pre'lude            prel'ude
+                      1  4                5   4
+Process             pro'ses             pros'ses
+                      1  4                5  4
+Product             pro'dukt            prod'ukt
+                      1   4               5   4
+Progress            pro'gres            prog'res
+                      1  1                1  11
+Profile             pro'file            pro-feel'
+                     4    4              4    4
+Pumpion             pungk'in            pump'yun
+                     4                   7
+Put                 put (verb)          put
+                      1                   34
+Quoit               kwate               kwoit
+                     1  1                4  1
+Rapine              ra'pine             rap'in
+                     1                   11
+Rear                rare                reer
+                     4   1               4   4
+Reptile             rep'tile            rep'til
+                     4                   4
+Rid                 red                 rid
+                     1                   1
+Rind                rine                rind
+                     4                   4
+Rinse               rense               rinse
+                     5  4                5  4
+Rosin               roz'um              roz'in
+                     87  1               66  11
+Routine             rou tene            roo-teen'
+                     4                   66
+Roof                ruff                roof
+                     4   4               1   4
+Sacred              sak'red             sa'kred
+                     1                   4
+Said                sade                sed
+                     4                   4
+Sat                 set                 sat
+                     1                   4
+Says                saze                sez
+                      2                   1
+Scarce              skarse              skarse
+                      4  1               4   1
+Schedule            sked'ule            sed'jule
+                      4                   4
+Shut                shet                shut
+                     4                   4
+Since               sense               sinse
+                      4                   11
+Sleek               slik                sleek
+                      4   4               1  4
+Sliver              sliv'vur            sli'vur
+                      3     7             1    7
+Slothful            slaw_th_'ful          slo_th_'ful
+                     4                   66
+Soot                sut                 soot
+                      4   4               1    2
+Spikenard           spig'nut            spike'nard
+                      1                   34
+Spoil               spile               spoil
+                      4   4               11   2
+Steelyard           stil'yurdz          steel'yard
+                      5                   4
+Stamp               stomp               stamp
+                      4                   4
+Stint               stent               stint
+                      1                  1
+Sword               sword               sord
+                     1  5                4  4
+Synod               si'nod              sin'ud
+                      1    1              4   1
+Therefore           THare'fore          THer'fore
+                     4                    4
+Thill               fil                 _th_il
+                     1                   66
+To                  to                  too
+                     37                  66
+Tour                tour                toor
+                      4                   4
+Treble              trib'bl             treb'bl
+                     1  3                1 4
+Towards             to-wardz'           to'urdz
+                      5   1               1  1
+Trophy              trof'fe             tro'fe
+                       1   1             1    1
+Tuesday             tshuz'de            tuze'de
+                     4   4               4   1
+Verdure             vur'jur             ver'jure
+                     1   4               4   11
+Vizier              vi'zhur             viz'yeer
+                     5   4               5   1
+Volume              vol'lum             vol'yume
+                     1                   4
+Were                ware                wer
+                     1                   1
+Yea                 ya                  ye
+                     4                   4
+Yes                 yes                 yis
+                     11      33          4
+Yest                yeest _or_ eest       yest
+                     4                   4
+Yet                 yit                 yet
+                     1                   66
+You                 yu                  yoo
+                     1                   66
+Your                yure                yoor
+                     1                   66
+Youth               yu_th_                yoo_th_
+                     1  4   1  4        1  1      1  4
+Ague and fever      fe'vurn-a'gur       a'gu-and fe'vur
+                    3    4   1          4   4   1
+Alternate           awl-ter'nate        al-ter'nate
+                    4   4    1           4  4    1 1
+Annunciate          an-nun'shate        an-nun'she-ate
+                     4   1 4            4   1 4
+Andiron             hand'i-urn          and'i-urn
+                    4   1  1            4   4  1  11
+Antipodes           an'te-podz          an-tip'o-deez
+                    4   4  4            4   1  4
+Apparent            ap-par'ent          ap-pa'rent
+                    2     1  4     4    2    3  4     1
+Architecture        artsh'e-tek-tshur   ar'-ke-tek-tshure
+                    4   4     4         4   4    4
+Assumption          as-sump'shun        as-sum'shun
+                    3    4  4  1        3    4   4  1
+Auxiliary           awks-il'a-re        awg-zil'ya-re
+                     4   4  4  4         4    1 1  1  1
+Certiorari          sash-ur-ar'ur       ser-she-o-ra'ri
+                      4     4  1  1       4     1 4  1  1
+Christianity        kris-tshan'e-te     kris-tshe-an'e-te
+                      4   4   1           4   4   4
+Clandestine         klan-des'tine       klan-des'tin
+                     1 4   1  4          1 4   1  4
+Coadjutor           ko-ad'ju-tur        ko-ad-ju'tur
+                     5   4   1 4         5   4   1 4
+Compendium          kom-pen'de-um       kom-pen'je-um
+                     5   4   1           1  4   1
+Connoisseur         kon-nis-sure'       ko-nes-sare'
+                     1    1 4            4     1 4
+Courteous           kore'te-us          kur'tshe-us
+                     4  4   4            4  4   4
+Coverlet            kuv'ur-lid          kuv'ur-let
+                     37 4   1            37 4   4
+Cowardice           kou'urd-ise         kou'urd-is
+                     1   4  4            1   4  4
+Decrepit            de-krip'id          de-krep'it
+                     4  5     1          1  5     1
+Demonstrate         dem'on-strate       de-mon'strate
+                     1  4  4  4  4       1  4  1  1  4
+Desideratum         de-sid-er-at'um     de-sid-e-ra'tum
+                     1  4                1 1  4
+Diamond             di'mund             di'a-mund
+                     4    4  4   1       4    1  4
+Discrepance         dis-krep'an-se      dis'kre-panse
+                     4    4      1       4    4      4
+Disfranchise        dis-fran'tschize    dis-fran'tschiz
+                     4  5  4             4  5  4
+Dishonest           dis-on'est          diz-on'est
+                     4  3   4            4  3   4
+Disorder            dis-or'dur          diz-or'dur
+                    1  4   4  1         1  4    1  1
+Electrify           e-lek'tur-ize       e-lek'tre-fi
+                    1  1   1            1  1   1 1
+Emaciate            e-ma'shate          e-ma'she-ate
+                    4    1   1          4    1   1 1
+Expatiate           eks-pa'shate        eks-pa'she-ate
+                    4    1 1  1  1      4    1 1  4   1
+Expiatory           eks-pi'a-to-re      eks'pe-a-tur-re
+                    4    4   1          4    4   1  1
+Extempore           eks-tem'pore        eks-tem'po-re
+                     4  1  1             4  1  4
+Feminine            fem'e-nine          fem'e-nin
+                      4   4    1          1   4    1
+Frequently          frek'went-le        fre'kwent-le
+                     4  1 1              4  1 4
+Genuine             jen'u-ine           jen'u-in
+                     2   11               2   1 4
+Guardian            gar-deen'           gyar'de-an
+                     4   4   4           4   4   4
+Gymnastic           gim-nas'tik         jim-nas'tik
+                     4   1  1  4         4   1  66  4
+Hallelujah          hal-le-lu'ja        hal-le-loo'ya
+                     5   4  4           5   3  4
+Hospital            hos'pit-al          os'pe-tal
+                     1  4  4             1  4  4
+Humorous            hu'mur-us           yu'mur-us
+                    1  1                1  1 4
+Idea                i-de'               i-de'a
+                    4   1  4  4         4   1  3  4
+Ignoramus           ig-no-ram'us        ig-no-ra'mus
+                    4   4  1  4         4   1  1  4
+Indecorous          in-dek'o-rus        in-de-ko'rus
+                    4   4  1 1          4   1  1 1
+Irradiate           ir-rad'e-ate        ir-ra'de-ate
+                     4  4  4  1          4  4  1  1
+Literati            lit-er-at'i         lit-er-a'ti
+                     1    1   4          4    1  4
+Maintenance         mane-tane'anse      men-'te-nanse
+                     4   1  1            4   1  4
+Masculine           mas'ku-line         mas'ku-lin
+                     4   4   1
+                    mur'kan-tile }
+                     4   4   11  }       4   4   4
+Mercantile          mur-kan-teel'}      mer'kan-til
+                     4   4   4   }
+                    mur-kan'til  }
+                     1  1 1  1           1  1 1  1
+Meliorate           me-li'o-rate        me'le-o-rate
+                     1  4   1   4        5  4   1   4
+Molestation         mo-les-ta'shun      mol-es-ta'shun
+                     1  1 4              1  1 4
+Museum              mu'ze-um            mu-ze'um
+                     1   4  4            4   4  4
+National            na'shun-al          nash'un-al
+                     1  4    4  1        5  4    1    1
+Nomenclature        no-men'kla-ture     nom-en-kla'tshure
+                     5  1  4             5  1  4  4
+Nominative          nom'e-tiv           nom'e-na-tiv
+                    5     5   1  4      5     4  4  4
+Obstreperous        ob-strop'pu-lus     ob-strep'er-us
+                    5   2  1            5   1  1
+Octavo              ok-ta'vo            ok-ta'vo
+                    5  1  1  1          5  4  4   1
+Oratory             or'a-to-re          or'a-tur-re
+                     1  4   1            4  4   1
+Parentage           pa'rent-aje         par'ent-aje
+                     2    4   1  1       2    1 4   1  1
+Partiality          par-shal'le-te      par-she-al'le-te
+                     1   4  1            4   4  4
+Patronage           pa'trun-aje         pat'run-ije
+                     4   1 2             1   1 2
+Patriarch           pat're-ark          pa'tre-ark
+                     4   1 4             1   1 4
+Patriot             pat're-ut           pa'tre-ut
+                     4   1 4  4          1   1 4  4
+Patriotism          pat're-ut-izm       pa'tre-ut-izm
+                     1  5   1  4         1  5   1  4
+Philologist         fi-lol'lo-jist      fe-lol'lo-jist
+                     1   5 1  1          1  5  1  1
+Philosophy          fi-los'o-fe         fe-los'o-fe
+                     1  1  5  1  4       4  1  5  1  4
+Philosophical       fi-lo-sof'ik-al     fil-o-zof'e-kal
+                      1  4  4             1  4  4
+Plagiarism          pla'ga-rizm         pla'ja-rizm
+                     5   4               5   4
+Possess             pos-ses'            poz-zes'
+                     5   4   1            5   4   1
+Possessive          pos-ses'siv         poz-zes'siv
+                     5   4   4           5   4   4
+Possession          pos-sesh'un         poz-zesh'un
+                     1  4   4  4         1  4   4
+Preventive          pre-vent'a-tiv      pre-vent'iv
+                      1  4   1 1   4      1  4    1 1   4
+Pronunciation       pro-nun-se-a'shun   pro-nun-she-a'shun
+                      1  4  1 1   4       1  4   1 1   4
+Propitiation        pro-pis-e-a'shun    pro-pish-e-a'shun
+                      5  1  1             5  1  1
+Prophecy            prov'e-si (noun)    prof'e-se (noun)
+                      5  1  1             5  1  5
+Prophesy            prov'e-si (verb)    prof'e-si (verb)
+                     1   1               1   1 1
+Ratio               ra'sho              ra'she-o
+                     1   4  4            4   4  4
+Rational            ra'shun-al          rash'un-al
+                     1   4  4            1   4  4
+Sacrament           sa'kra-ment         sak'ra-ment
+                     1   1  1            4   1  1
+Sacrifice           sa'kre-fize,        sak're-fize
+                         4
+                    _or_ (fis)
+                      4  1  1             1  1 1  1
+Stereotype          ster'o-tipe         ste're-o-tipe
+                      1  4   1 4          1  4   4
+Stupendous          stu-pen'du-us,      stu-pen'dus
+                      1  4
+                    stu-pen'jus
+                     1  5  1  1          4  1  4
+Synonyme            se-non'e-me         sin'o-nim
+                      4    4  4           4    1  4
+Transparent         trans-par'ent       trans-pa'rent
+                      4    4  4   1       4    1  4   1
+Transparency        trans-par'en-se     trans-pa'ren-se
+                      1  4   1 4          1  4   4
+Tremendous          tre-men'du-us,      tre-men'dus
+                      1  4   1
+                    tre-men'jus
+                     4   4  4            4   1  4
+Verbatim            ver-bat'im          ver-ba'tim
+                     5   2  1            5   1  1
+Volcano             vol-ka'no           vol-ka'no
+                      4       1           4       11
+Whiffletree         hwip'pl-tre         hwif'fl-tree
+
+    NOTE 1.--When the words _learned_, _blessed_, _loved,_ &c. are
+    used as participial adjectives, the termination _ed_ should
+    generally be pronounced as a separate syllable; as, "A _learn-ed_
+    man; The _bless-ed_ Redeemer;" but when they are employed as verbs,
+    the _ed_ is contracted in pronunciation; as, "He _learn'd_ his
+    lesson; They are _lov'd;_ I have _walk'd_."
+
+    2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables
+    expressed in the _italic_ characters: Eu ro _pe_ an, hy me _ne_ al,
+    Ce sa _re_ a, co ad _ju_ tor, ep i cu _re_ an, _in_ ter est ed, _in_
+    ter est ing, _rep_ a ra ble, _rec_ og nise, _leg_ is la ture, _ob_
+    li ga to ry, in _com_ pa ra ble, ir _rep_ a ra ble, in _ex_ o ra
+    ble. In a large class of words, the vowels _a_, _e_, and _ai_,
+    should be pronounced like long _a_ in _late_; such as, _fare_,
+    _rare_, _there_, _their_, _where_, _air_, _chair_, _compare_,
+    _declare_, &c. In the words _person_, _perfect_, _mercy_,
+    _interpret_, _determine_, and the like, the vowel _e_ before _r_, is
+    often _erroneously_ sounded like short _u_. Its proper sound is that
+    of _e_ in _met_, _pet_, _imperative_.
+
+    3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words _sky_, _kind_,
+    _guide_, &c. it appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is
+    believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar, is the
+    _correct_ one, and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by Mr.
+    John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds
+         11    1      1
+    in skei, kyind, gyide, are adopted by the common mass, and
+    _perverted_ by those who, in their unnatural and affected
+    pronunciation of these words, say,
+      1 1   1 1      1 1
+    ske-i; ke-inde, ge-ide. This latter mode of pronouncing them in two
+    syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words
+    _boil_, _toil_, in two
+                      3 4    3 4
+    syllables; thus, bo-il, to-il.
+
+4. _My_, _wind_. When _my_ is contrasted with _thy_, _his_, _her_, _your_,
+                       1                                              1
+&c, it is pronounced, mi: in all other situations, it is pronounced, me;
+as, "_My [me]_ son, give ear to _my [me]_ counsel." When _wind_ ends a
+line in poetry, and is made to rhyme with _mind_, _bind_, kind_, &c.  it is
+             1                                                 4
+pronounced, wind; but, in other situations, it is pronounced, wind.
+
+  "Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutored mind
+  Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the _wind_."
+
+
+
+
+PROVINCIALISMS.
+
+
+CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES.
+
+As each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its locality
+in some one section or other of our country, it is hoped that these
+corrections will be found useful in the districts to which the various
+phrases respectively belong.
+
+IMPROPER.     CORRECT.
+
+Aint          Are not
+haint         have not
+taint         'tis not
+haint         are not
+maint         may not
+wont          will not
+wer'nt        were not
+waunt         was not
+woodent       would not
+mussent       must not
+izzent        is not
+wazzent       was not
+hezzent       has not
+doozzent      does not
+tizzent       'tis not
+whool         who will
+              don't
+              can't
+              i'll
+              'tis
+
+
+COMMON IN NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK.
+
+              4
+Akst          askt
+ 4             4
+ben           bin
+ 4             2
+hul           hole
+ 4             1
+hum           home
+  4             1
+stun          stone
+ 66            4
+dooz          duz
+  2             4
+glass         glass
+ 2             4
+mass          mass
+  2             4
+brass         brass
+ 2             4
+pass          pass
+  3             2
+flawnt        flant
+ 4             4
+hiz'zn        hiz
+ 37            37  4
+hou'zn        houz'iz
+1    4        1      4
+an'shent      ane'tshent
+1   4         1    1
+an'jel        ane'jel
+ 4   4         1    4
+dan'jur       dane'jur
+   4   4         1    4
+stran'jur     strane'jur
+    2   4        1    4
+tscham'bur    tshame'bur
+ 1  4          1    1
+na'tur        na'tshure
+ 4  4  4       4    1  4
+nat'ur-el     natsh'u-ral
+ 3   4         3     1
+for'tin       for'tshune
+ 3   1   1     3     1  1
+for'tew-nate  for'tshu-nate
+ 4   1         4     1
+vur'tew       ver'tshu
+ 4   1  4      4     1 4
+vur'tew-us    ver'tshu-us
+1   1  4      4      1 4
+ak'tew-el     ak'tschu-al
+4  1   1      4   1  1
+ed'ew-kate    ed'ju-kate
+ 4   4         2   4
+faTH'ur       fa'THur
+heft          weight
+stoop         porch
+stent         task
+helve         handle
+muss          disorder
+dump          unload
+scup          swing
+shay          gig or chaise
+cutter        one-horse sleigh
+staddle       sapling
+foxy          reddish
+suple         spry or supple
+
+IN PENNSYLVANIA.
+
+Strenth       strength
+lenth         length
+brenth        breadth
+ort           ought
+nan           what
+wisht         wish
+wunst         once
+ouch          oh
+cheer         chair
+spook         ghost
+furnentz      opposite
+wanity        vanity
+in wain       in vain
+ornary        ordinary
+for by        to spare
+we bit        small piece
+disremember   do not remember
+
+IRISH.
+
+ 66            1
+Door          dore
+ 66             1
+floor         flore
+5             4
+ond           and
+ 5             55
+loss          looz
+ 66            1
+koorse        korse
+ 66            1
+soorse        sorse
+ 4             66
+till          too
+ 4             7
+put           put
+ 4             7
+fut           fut
+4  66         4   54
+a-koont'      ak-kount'
+ 4   4         7   4
+pul'pit       pul'pit
+ 1    4        3
+pare'sun      par'sn
+
+IMPROPER.           CORRECT.
+
+MD. VA. KY. MISS. &c.
+
+  2                   1
+THar                THare
+  2                   1
+whar                hware
+ 2                   1
+bar [bear]          bare
+ 2                   4
+war                 wer
+ 37                  1
+mout                mite [might]
+  1                  1 4
+gwine               go'ing
+  4       4          4
+shet or shut        rid
+ 1       5           1   1   4          4
+tote or fotch       kar're, fetsh, or bring
+ 1                   4
+hop'd               helpt
+ 4  66               2    4    4
+ca-hoot'            part'nur-ship
+ 3                   66  5
+mar'bl              moov off
+
+    NOTE, _Clever_, _pretty_, _ugly_, _curious_, _expect_, _guess_, and
+    _reckon_, though correct English words, have, among the common
+    people of New England and New York, a provincial application and
+    meaning. With them, a _clever_ man, is one of a gentle and obliging
+    disposition; instead of, a man of distinguished talents and profound
+    acquirements. _Pretty_ and _ugly_, they apply to the _disposition_
+    of a person, instead of, to his _external appearance_. In these
+    states, one will often hear, "I _guess_ it rains," when the speaker
+    _knows_ this to be a fact, and, therefore, _guessing_ is uncalled
+    for. "I _expect_ I can go;" or, "I _reckon_ I can;" instead of, "I
+    _suppose_ or _presume_." In New England, a clergyman is often called
+    a _minister_, in New York, a _priest_, and south of N.Y. a _parson_.
+    The last is preferable.
+
+NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK.                CORRECTED.
+I be goin. He lives to hum.             I _am_ going. He lives _at_ home.
+
+Hese ben to hum this two weeks.         _He has been at home these_
+                                        2 weeks.
+
+You haddent ought to do it. Yes         You ought _not_ to do it.
+had ought.                              _Certainly_ I ought.
+
+Taint no better than hizzen.            _'Tis_ no better than _his_.
+
+Izzent that are line writ well?         _Is not_ that line well _written_?
+
+Tizzent no better than this ere.        _It is_ no better, or it is
+                                        _not any_ better than his.
+
+The keows be gone to hum, neow,         The _cows are_ gone _home_, and
+and I'mer goin arter um.                _I am going after them_.
+
+He'll be here, derights, and, bring     He _will_ here, directly, and bring
+yourn and thairn.                       yours and theirs.
+
+He touched the stun which I shew        He touched the _stone_ which I
+him, an di guess it made him sithe,     _showed_ him and it made him
+for twas cissing hot.                   _sigh_, for _it was hissing_ hot.
+
+Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for     Go, Nathaniel, and cut a _sapling_,
+to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter   to make a _lever of_. I _was about_
+go, daddy.                              to go, or _intending_ to go
+                                        _immediately_, father.
+
+Where shell I dump my cart, square?     Where _shall_ I _unload_ my cart?
+Dump it yender. Whats the heft of       _Yonder_. _What is_ the _weight_
+your load?                              of your load?
+
+When ju git hum from Hafford?           When _did you return from
+A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye?     Hartford_? A _fortnight_ ago. _It
+Ju see my Danel, whose sot up a         is possible! Did_you see my _son
+tarvern there? No. Hede gone afore      Daniel, who has opened a public
+I got there. O, the pesky criter!       house_ there? No. _He had left
+Hele soon be up a stump.                before_ I _arrived_ there. O, the
+                                        _paltry fellow! He will_ soon _come
+                                        to naught._
+
+My frinds supurb mansion is             _My friend's_ superb mansion is
+delightfully sitewated on a nate-eral   delightfully _situated_ on a
+mound of considerable hithe. It hez     _natural_ mound of considerable
+a long stoop in front; but it is furder _height_. It _has_ a long _porch_
+from the city than I'de like my hum.    in front; but it is _farther_ from
+                                        the city than _I would_ like to
+                                        _reside_.
+
+I know'd the gal was drownded, and      I _knew_ the _girl had been
+I tell'd the inquisitdoners, that ize   drowned_, and I _told_ the _jury
+nither geestin nor jokin about it; but  of inquest_, that _I was_
+if they'd permit me to give em my       _not jesting_ about it; but, _by
+ideze, they'd obleege me. So I          permitting_ me to _give them_ my
+parsevered, and carried my pinte. You   _view of the subject_, they _would
+don't say so. Be you from Barkshire?    oblige_ me. So, I _persevered_,
+I be. Neow I swan! if I aint clean      and _gained_ my _point. Indeed!
+beat.                                   Are_ you from _Berkshire_? I _am.
+                                        Really_!I _am surprised_.
+
+You baint from the Jarseys, be ye?      _Are_ you from _New Jersey_? Yes,
+Yes. Gosh! then I guess you kneow       Then I _presume_ you _know how_
+heow to tend tarvern.                   to tend _a tavern_.
+
+
+IN PENNSYLVANIA.                             CORRECTED
+
+I seen him. Have you saw him            I _saw_ him. Have you _seen_ him?
+Yes, I have saw him wunst; and that     Yes, _once_; and that was before
+was before you seed him.                you _saw_ him.
+
+I done my task. Have you did            I _have_ done my task. Have you
+yours? No, but I be to do it.           _done_ yours? No, but I _must_.
+
+I be to be there. He know'd me.         I _shall_ be there; or, I _must_
+                                        be there. He _knew_ me.
+
+Leave me be, for Ime afear'd.           _Let_ me be, for I _am afraid_.
+
+I never took notice to it.              I never took notice _of_ it: or,
+                                        better thus, I never _noticed_ it.
+
+I wish I haddent did it; howsumever,    I wish I _had not done_ it:
+I don't keer: they cant skeer me.       _however, I disregard them_. They
+                                        _cannot scare_ me.
+
+Give me them there books.               Give me _those_ books.
+
+He ort to go; so he ort.                He _ought_ to go, _really_.
+
+No he orten.                            He _ought_ not.
+
+Dont scrouge me.                        Don't _crowd_ me.
+
+I diddent go to do it.                  I _did not intend_ to do it.
+
+Aint that a good hand write?            _Is not_ that _beautiful writing_?
+
+Nan? I know'd what he meant, but        _What_? I _knew_ what he meant, but
+I never let on.                         I _kept that to myself_.
+
+It is a long mile to town. Ah! I        It is a _little over_ a mile to
+thought 'twas unle a short mile.        town. Ah! I _supposed it to be less
+                                        than_ a mile.
+
+
+IRISH.                                       CORRECTED.
+
+Not here the day; he went till          _He is_ not here to-day. He went
+Pittsburg.                              _to_ Pittsburg.
+
+Let us be after pairsing a wee bit.     Let us _parse_ a _little_.
+
+Where did you loss it?                  Where did you _lose_ it?
+
+
+MD. VA. KY. OR MISS.                         CORRECTED.
+
+Carry the horse to water.               _Lead_ the horse to water; or,
+                                        water the horse.
+
+Tote the wood to the river.             _Carry_ the wood to the river.
+
+Have you focht the water?               Have you _fetched_, or _brought_,
+                                        the water?
+
+I've made 200 bushels of corn this      I _have raised_ 200 bushels of corn
+year.                                   this year.
+
+He has run against a snag.              He has _got into difficulty_.
+
+Is that your plunder, stranger?         Is that your _baggage, sir_?
+
+He will soon come of that habit.        He will soon _overcome_, or _get
+                                        rid of_, that habit.
+
+I war thar, and I seen his boat was     I _was there_, and I _saw that_ his
+loadend too heavy.                      boat was too _heavily laden_, or
+                                        _loaded_.
+
+Whar you gwine.                         _Where are_ you _going_?
+
+Hese in cohoot with me.                 _He is_ in _partnership_ with me.
+
+Did you get shet of your tobacca?       Did you _get rid_, or _dispose_
+                                        of, your _tobacco_?
+
+Who hoped you to sell it?               Who _helped_ you to sell it?
+
+
+
+
+PROSODY.
+
+
+PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages
+of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence,
+in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution.
+
+Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the true
+pronunciation of words, comprising _accent_, _quantity_, _emphasis_,
+_pause_, and _tone_; and the second, the laws of _versification_.
+
+_Accent_. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a
+particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard
+than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word _presume_,
+the stress of the voice must be on the letter _u_ and the second
+syllable, _sume_, which syllable takes the accent.
+
+Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. For
+the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a
+secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the
+principal accent; as, _'tes ti mo' ni'al_, _a ban'don 'ing._
+
+_Quantity_. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied
+in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short.
+
+A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which
+causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following
+letters; as, "Fall, bale, mood, house, feature."
+
+A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causes
+the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ant,
+bonnet, hunger."
+
+A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in
+pronouncing it; thus, "mate" and "note" should be pronounced as
+slowly again as "mat" and "not."
+
+_Emphasis_. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the
+voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to
+lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the
+sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a
+particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress.
+
+Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution.
+
+_Pauses_. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total
+cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a
+measurable space of time.
+
+_Tones_. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consisting
+in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of sound
+which we employ in the expression of our sentiments.
+
+Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affect
+sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse.
+
+
+
+PUNCTUATION.
+
+PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or
+parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the different
+pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.
+
+The _Comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _Semicolon_, a pause
+double that of the comma; the _Colon_, double that of the semicolon; and
+the _Period_, double that of the colon.
+
+Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted
+with the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction of
+members and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This
+custom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients read
+their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After
+the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction
+were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a
+considerable time.
+
+As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while
+manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of
+conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with the
+art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the points
+did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration,
+were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now
+used, became established, when learning and refinement had made
+considerable progress.
+
+As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical
+construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part
+of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of
+exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary
+taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly
+merit our particular attention.
+
+The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation,
+and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is
+established by the single fact, that _the meaning of a sentence is often
+totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points_. To
+illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might be
+selected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurton
+having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:"
+"Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age,
+has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up
+about six feet high, &c." Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone to
+sea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with a
+short nose turned up, about six feet high, &c."
+
+Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for him
+to understand what is meant by an _adjunct_, _a simple sentence_, and a
+_compound sentence_.
+
+An _adjunct_ or _imperfect phrase_ contains no assertion, or does not
+amount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious of
+praise;" "in the pursuit of commerce."--For the definition of a
+sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119.
+
+When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same
+manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence is
+compound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are
+adjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their _health_ and _fortune_, at the
+_shrine_ of vanity, _pride_, and _extravagance_." But when the adjuncts
+are connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence is
+simple; as, "Grass of an excellent _quality_, is produced in great
+_abundance_ in the northern regions of our country."
+
+
+COMMA.
+
+RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, be
+separated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with living
+creatures."
+
+_Exercises in Punctuation_.--Idleness is the great fomenter of all
+corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his
+way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.
+
+RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is
+accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit a
+comma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste _of the present
+age_, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English
+language;" "Too many _of the pretended friendships of youth_, are mere
+combinations in pleasure."
+
+_Exercises_.--The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction
+to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a
+real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society
+serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.
+
+RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence,
+is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be
+distinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, _in many
+respects,_ very imperfect. It is, _therefore,_ not much approved." But
+when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better to
+omit the comma; as, "Flattery is _certainly_ pernicious;" "There is
+_surely_ a pleasure in beneficence."
+
+_Exercises_.--Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness
+is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your
+failings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and
+ignorance under costly attire. The best men often experience
+disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed
+behavior can always hide the real character.
+
+RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition when
+accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My
+_son_, give me thy heart;" "Dear _Sir_, I write to express my gratitude
+for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my _friends_, for your
+many favors;" "_Paul_, the _apostle_, of the Gentiles, was eminent for
+his zeal and knowledge;" "The _butterfly_, _child_ of the summer,
+flutters in the sun."
+
+But if _two_ nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if
+they form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, _"Paul_
+the _apostle_, suffered martyrdom;" "The _statesman Jefferson_, wrote
+the declaration of Independence."
+
+_Exercises_.--Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all
+generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study.
+Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of
+vengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the
+balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great
+Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch
+Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety.
+
+RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute
+with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and,
+generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple
+sentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as,
+"_His father dying_, he succeeded to the estate;" "_To confess the
+truth_, I was in fault;" "The king, _approving the plan_, put it in
+execution;" "He, _having finished his academical course_, has returned
+home, _to prosecute his professional studies_."
+
+_Exercises_.--Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. To
+enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His
+talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him
+conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and
+constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose
+one family assembled under the eye of one common Father.
+
+RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing
+commas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and the
+dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of
+serious reflections."
+
+Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs,
+connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated by
+commas; as, "The husband, wife,[11] and children,[12] suffered extremely;"
+"In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;"
+"David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, and
+loving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" "Success generally
+depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we
+undertake."
+
+[11] The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so
+obvious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any _writer_,
+possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I
+am bold to affirm, that it is observed by every correct reader and
+speaker; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated
+by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who are
+influenced by their pernicious example; thus, "The head, the heart
+and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing
+good." Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is
+understood? It would be doing no greater violence to the principles
+of elocution; thus, "The head the heart and the hands, should be,
+&c." or thus, "The head the heart, and the hands, should be
+employed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where
+the conjunction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, where
+the conjunction is understood? And, since this is the case, what
+fair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation?
+"The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and
+actively employed in doing good;" "She is a woman, gentle, sensible,
+well-educated, and religious."
+
+[12] As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between
+the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it;
+but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the
+noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such
+instances, is properly omitted; thus, "David was a brave, wise, and
+_pious_ man."
+
+Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring
+in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must be
+separated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtue
+supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth,
+needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed."
+
+_Exercises._--We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the
+mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the
+understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man
+from his rank in creation.
+
+Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a
+youth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder
+brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and
+esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base.
+An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true
+lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking
+are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great
+business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and
+talking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piously
+comprehends the whole of our duty.
+
+In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of
+decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle
+trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy
+person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain.
+
+RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentences
+connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is
+restricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by
+a comma; as, "Wisdom is better than riches;" "No preacher is so
+successful as thee;" "He accepted _what_ I had rejected;" "Self-denial
+is the _sacrifice which_ virtue must make;" "Subtract from many modern
+poets _all that_ may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;"
+"Give it to the _man whom_ you most esteem." In this last example, the
+assertion is not of "man in general," but of "the man whom you most
+esteem."
+
+But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly
+inserted before the relative; as, "_Man_, _who_ is born of a woman, is of
+few days and full of trouble;" "There is no _charm_ in the female sex,
+_which_ can supply the place of virtue."
+
+This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative
+is understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is,
+"privileges _which_ you enjoy."
+
+_Exercises._--How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! The
+friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them.
+Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur
+censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most
+innocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils which
+occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary.
+
+The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in
+its just proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected
+civility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable
+charm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw
+yesterday.
+
+RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction
+expressed, they must not be separated; as, "Libertines call religion,
+bigotry _or_ superstition;" "True worth is modest _and_ retired;" "The
+study of natural history, expands _and_ elevates the mind;" "Some men
+sin deliberately and presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs,
+the pairs only should be separated; as, "There is a natural difference
+between merit _and_ demerit, virtue _and_ vice, wisdom _and_ folly;"
+"Whether we eat _or_ drink, labor _or_ sleep, we should be temperate."
+
+But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may be
+separated by a comma; as, "Romances may be said to be miserable
+rhapsodies, _or_ dangerous incentives to evil."
+
+_Exercises_.--Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions.
+True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior.
+Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the
+undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless
+simple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the
+strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.
+
+RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, in
+some instances, be inserted; as, "From law arises security; from
+security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." But in others, it is
+better to omit the comma; "No station is so high, no power so great, no
+character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of
+rashness, malice, and envy."
+
+_Exercises_.--As a companion he was severe and satirical; as a friend
+captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer
+there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled
+away without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age
+miserable.
+
+RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb,
+and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma is
+generally omitted; as, "I suppose _he is at rest_;" changed, "I suppose
+_him to be at rest_."
+
+But when the verb _to be_ is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood,
+which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb
+_to be_ is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma; as, "The
+most obvious remedy is, _to withdraw from all associations with bad
+men_;" "The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to
+withdraw from all associations with bad men."
+
+_Exercises._--They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the
+man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned
+by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be
+condemned by our own hearts.
+
+NOTES.
+
+    1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the
+    member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to
+    require a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, _and_,
+    before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This
+    rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers; as,
+    "If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; _but_ if thou
+    forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever;" "_But_ if the parts
+    connected are not short, a comma may be inserted."
+
+    2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and
+    having a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, "To
+    relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the
+    innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble
+    employments."
+
+    3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the
+    form of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, "It
+    hurts a man's pride to say, _I do not know_;" "Plutarch calls lying,
+    _the vice of slaves_."
+
+    4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some
+    marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma; as,
+
+      "Tho' _deep_, yet _clear_; tho' _gentle_, yet not _dull_;
+      _Strong_, without _rage_; without _o'erflowing_, _full_."
+
+    "Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only
+    in union _with_, but in opposition _to_, the views and conduct of
+    each other."
+
+    Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is
+    single, the comma may be omitted; as, "Many states were in alliance
+    _with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome."
+
+    The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer
+    to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the
+    _threatening_, and at the _approach_, _of_ a cruel and lingering
+    death;" "He was not only the _king_, but _the father of_ his
+    people."
+
+    5. The words, "as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly,
+    formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the
+    next place, in short," and all other words and phrases of a similar
+    kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma; _as_,
+    "Remember thy best friend; _formerly_, the supporter of thy infancy;
+    _now_, the guardian of thy youth;" "He feared want; _hence_, he
+    overvalued riches;" "_So_, if youth be trifled away," &c. "_Again_,
+    we must, have food and clothing;" "_Finally_, let us conclude."
+
+The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, to
+suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for
+inserting the comma; but in applying these rules, great regard must be
+paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which
+they bear to one another.
+
+
+SEMICOLON.
+
+The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more
+parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma,
+nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which are
+distinguished by a colon.
+
+RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself
+give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes
+when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding
+one, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples: "As the desire
+of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable
+part of our species; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is
+governed by vanity and folly;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains his
+own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around
+him;" "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."
+
+_Exercises_.--The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of
+falsehood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and
+friendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly
+happiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery as
+there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there
+is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness.
+
+  But all subsists by elemental strife
+  And passions are the elements of life.
+
+RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or
+proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction _as;_ as
+in the following instance: Prepositions govern the objective case; as,
+"She gave the book _to_ him."
+
+    NOTE. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuists
+    employ the colon, instead of the semicolon.
+
+
+COLON.
+
+The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts
+less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon;
+but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences.
+
+RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed
+by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, the
+colon may be properly employed; as, "Nature felt her inability to
+extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealed
+the plan of divine interposition and aid." "Great works are performed,
+not by strength, but by perseverance: yonder palace was raised by single
+stones; yet you see its height and spaciousness."
+
+_Exercises._--The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice
+superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with
+bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness
+which loads it with tediousness and disgust.
+
+When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we behold
+there? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents
+itself.
+
+RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still
+greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or
+concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied; as, "A divine
+legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor,
+stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual
+rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath
+awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the
+world, which support integrity, and check guilt."
+
+
+PERIOD.
+
+When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected
+with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close;
+as, "Fear God." "Honor the patriot." "Respect virtue."
+
+In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practice among
+our best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences connected by
+conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period; as, "Recreations,
+though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government to
+keep them within a due and limited province. _But_ such as are of an
+irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished
+from every well-regulated mind."
+
+The period should follow every abbreviated word; as, "A.D. N.B. U.S. Va.
+Md. Viz. Col. Mr."
+
+DASH.
+
+The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers,
+may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off
+abruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is an
+unexpected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respected
+once--but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If acting conformably to the
+will of our Creator;--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;--if
+securing our own happiness;--are objects of the highest moment: then we
+are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of
+religion and virtue."
+
+A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if
+the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such
+length as the sense only can determine.
+
+  "Here lies the great--False marble, where?
+  "Nothing but sordid dust lies here."
+
+
+INTERROGATORY POINT.
+
+The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative
+sentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?"
+
+    NOTE. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where
+    it is only said, that a question has been asked; as, "The Cyprians
+    asked me, why I wept."
+
+
+EXCLAMATORY POINT.
+
+The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion,
+surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations and addresses;
+as, "How much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "What is more amiable than
+virtue!" "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Hear me, O Lord! for thy
+loving kindness is great!"
+
+
+PARENTHESIS.
+
+A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be
+omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "To gain a
+posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name
+besides?) from oblivion."
+
+  "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
+  "Virtue alone is happiness below."
+
+    NOTE. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the
+    voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a
+    point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the
+    sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were not used.
+    It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member
+    has that precedes it; as "He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,)
+    who is not jealous when, he has partners of love."
+
+  "Or why so long (in life if long can be)
+  "Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?"
+
+Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an
+exception to this rule; as, "If I grant his request, (and who could
+refuse it?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment."
+
+
+APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION.
+
+The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the
+possessive case of a noun; as, "_'tis_, for _it is_; _tho,'_ for
+_though_; _o'er_, for _over_;" "A _man's_ poverty."
+
+A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language; as,
+"The proper study of mankind is man."
+
+When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of that
+person should be designated by a quotation; as, At my coming in, he
+said, "You and the physician are come too late." A quotation contained
+within another, should be distinguished by two _single_ commas; as,
+"Always remember this ancient maxim 'Know thyself.'"
+
+
+DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS.
+
+It is proper to begin with a capital,
+
+1. The first word of every sentence.
+
+2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c.; as, "James,
+Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron;" "God, Jehovah, the Almighty the Supreme
+Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit."
+
+3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nouns
+which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun _I_ and the
+interjection _O_, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian,
+English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Poems; I write; Hear,
+O earth!"
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+VERSIFICATION.
+
+POETRY is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination.
+
+VERSIFICATION, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particular
+number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according to
+particular laws.
+
+RHYME is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one
+line, to the sound of the last syllable in another; as,
+
+  "O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue _sea_,
+  "Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as _free_."
+
+BLANK VERSE consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers,
+but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines which
+constitutes rhyme.
+
+POETICAL FEET consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of a
+number of accented and unaccented syllables.
+
+They are called _feet_, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it
+were, _steps_ along through the verse in a measured pace.
+
+All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and are
+reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as
+follows:
+
+DISSYLLABLE.           TRISYLLABLE.
+A Trochee - u          A Dactyle - u u
+An Iambus u -          An Amphibrach u - u
+A Spondee - -          An Anapaest u u -
+A Pyrrhic u u          A Tribrach u u u
+
+A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as,
+Hateful, pettish:
+
+Restless mortals toil for naught.
+
+An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as,
+Betray, consist:
+
+The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay.
+
+A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter
+unaccented; as, Laborer, possible:
+
+From the low pleasures of this fallen nature.
+
+An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last
+accented; as, Contravene, acquiesce:
+
+at the close of the day when the hamlet is still.
+
+A Spondee; as, The pale moon: a Pyrrhic; as, on the tall
+tree: an Amphibrach; as, Delightful: a Tribrach; as,
+Numerable.
+
+
+RHETORIC.
+
+GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly.
+
+RHETORIC teaches us to express them with force and elegance.
+
+The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in
+constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of
+words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most
+advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various
+kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are
+principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of
+grammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the
+liberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and
+belles-lettres.
+
+
+COMPOSITION.
+
+It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that _good sense_ is
+the foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well,
+will scarcely write ill upon it.
+
+Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of
+good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her
+province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and
+appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of
+expression. It ought to be his aim,
+
+  "To mark the point where sense and dulness meet."
+
+STYLE.--PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION.
+
+STYLE is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by
+means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds,
+and of the order in which they are produced.
+
+The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads.
+_perspicuity_ and _ornament_.
+
+PERSPICUITY, which is considered the fundamental quality of a good
+style, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases; and,
+secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respect
+to words and phrases, it requires these three qualities, _purity_,
+_propriety,_ and _precision._
+
+_Purity_ of language consists in the use of such words and such
+constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition to
+words and phrases belonging to other languages, or which are obsolete or
+new-coined, or employed without proper authority.
+
+_Propriety_ is the choice of those words which the best usage has
+appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. It implies
+their correct and judicious application, in opposition to low
+expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of
+the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union of purity and
+propriety, which renders style graceful and perspicuous.
+
+_Precision_, from _praecidere_, to cut off, signifies retrenching all
+superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit
+neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be
+conveyed.
+
+
+STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.
+
+A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in every
+species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or minute in our
+attention to it.
+
+Elegance of style requires us generally to _avoid_, many short or long
+sentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member to
+another; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a
+long sentence.
+
+The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are _Unity_,
+_Clearness_, _Strength_, and _Harmony_.
+
+UNITY is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentence
+implies an arrangement of words in which only _one_ proposition is
+expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts; but these parts ought to be
+so closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not of
+many objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, the
+following rules may be useful.
+
+1. _In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little
+as possible._ In every sentence there is some leading or governing word,
+which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the
+end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this
+rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was
+saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness."
+In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by
+shifting so frequently the place and the person, the _vessel_, the
+_shore_, _we_, _they_, _I_ and _who_, they appear in so disunited a
+view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is
+restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to
+anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who
+received me with the greatest kindness."
+
+2. _Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion,
+that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences._ The
+violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is
+safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is
+overloaded and confused.
+
+3. _Avoid all unnecessary parentheses_.
+
+CLEARNESS. _Ambiguity_, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a
+bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words.
+
+A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that _those words or
+members most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to
+each other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relation
+clearly appear._ This rule ought to be observed,
+
+1. _In the position of adverbs._ "By greatness," says Mr. Addison, "I do
+not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a
+whole view." The improper situation of the adverb _only_, in this
+sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb _mean_, whereas the author
+intended to have it qualify the phrase, _a single object;_ thus, "By
+greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object _only_, but the
+largeness of a whole view."
+
+2. _In the position of phrases and members._ "Are these designs which
+any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation,
+ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designs
+which any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, _in
+any circumstances_, _in any situation_, to avow?"
+
+3. _In the position of pronouns._ The reference of a pronoun to its
+noun, should always be _so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it:_
+otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm
+ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which
+nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly
+Father." _Which_, in this sentence, grammatically refers to _treasures;_
+and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence
+should have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping
+up treasures, to arm ourselves against the _accidents_ of life, against
+_which_ nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly
+Father."
+
+STRENGTH. By the _strength_ of a sentence is meant such an arrangement
+of its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the best
+advantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force.
+
+1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to _take
+from it all redundant words and members._ Whatever can be easily
+supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with
+deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is better than to say,
+"_Being_ content with deserving a triumph." &c. "They returned back
+again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from
+this snort sentence _five_ which are were expletives, it will be much
+more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they
+came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a
+hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter
+and adorn the fruit.
+
+2. _Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all
+the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required_. In
+compositions of an elevated character, the _relative_ should generally
+be inserted. An injudicious repetition of _and_ enfeebles style; but
+when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from
+each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage;
+thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, _and_ reason,
+_and_ liberty, would fall with him."
+
+3. _Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in
+which they will make the most striking impression_.
+
+4. _Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance
+one above another_. In a sentence of two members, the longer should
+generally be the concluding one.
+
+5. _Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any
+inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical_.
+
+6. _Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a
+resemblance in the language and construction should be observed_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+FIGURES OF SPEECH.
+
+Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted
+either by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply some
+departure from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a manner
+more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures
+have been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of _Words_,
+and Figures of _Thought_.
+
+Figures of Words are called _Tropes_, and consist in a word's being
+employed to signify something that is different from its original
+meaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure.
+
+When we say of a person, that he has a fine _taste_ in wines, the word
+taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a
+fine _taste_ for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word
+figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is
+simple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth
+_light_ in _darkness_," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative
+style, _light_ is put in the place of _comfort_, and _darkness_ is used
+to suggest the idea of _adversity_.
+
+The following are the most important figures:
+
+1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to
+another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form.
+
+When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a
+_pillar_ which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a
+comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the _pillar_
+of the state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter
+construction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made
+in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote
+comparison.
+
+Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in
+vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion,
+&c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled
+wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c.
+
+Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American
+Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs
+the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud _pillar_ of their
+independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral _fabric_ lies in
+ruins."
+
+2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued; or it is several
+metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind
+of parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the same
+manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape.
+
+The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th
+psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a
+vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the
+heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause
+it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered
+with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly
+cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the
+river."
+
+3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects,
+whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form.
+
+Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like
+those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their
+springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about
+Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The music of Caryl
+was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the
+soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the
+shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."
+
+  "The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold,
+  And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold;
+  And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
+  When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee."
+
+4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect
+for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for
+the thing signified.
+
+When we say, "They read _Milton_," the cause is put for the effect,
+meaning "Milton's _works_." "Gray hairs should be respected;" here the
+effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," _old age_, which
+produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is
+substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the _chair_;" that
+is, the person in the chair.
+
+5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or a
+part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; in
+general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise
+object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche.
+
+Thus, "A fleet of twenty _sail_, instead of, _ships_." "The _horse_ is a
+noble animal;" "The _dog_ is a faithful creature:" here an individual is
+put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the _person_, and
+the "waves" for the _sea_. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a
+subject; as "Youth" for the _young_, the "deep" for the _sea_.
+
+6. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPOEIA is that figure by which we attribute
+life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "The ground _thirsts_
+for rain," or, "the earth _smiles_ with plenty;" when we speak of
+"ambition's being _restless_," or, "a disease's being _deceitful_;" such
+expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the
+properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate.
+
+The following are fine examples of this figure:
+
+    "Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old _Ocean smiles_;"
+
+    "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and
+    the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose."
+
+7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as
+if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made
+to a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O
+_death!_ where is thy sting? O _grave!_ where is thy victory?"
+
+    "Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore; bend thy
+    fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills,
+    when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu."
+
+8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on
+the contrast or opposition, of two objects.
+
+_Example._ "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to _increase_ his
+_stores_, but to _diminish_ his _desires."_
+
+9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond its
+natural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow as
+a snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles.
+
+    "I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted
+    fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud
+    of mist on the bills."
+
+10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use
+the present tense, and describe it as actually, passing before our eyes.
+
+11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a
+question; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or
+deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a
+question.
+
+Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he
+should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it?
+and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it
+good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice
+like him?"
+
+12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such a surprise,
+admiration, joy, grief, and the like.
+
+    "O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!"
+    "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be
+    at rest!"
+
+13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts;
+not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can
+reprove one for his negligence, by saying, "You have taken great care,
+indeed."
+
+The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests
+of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said.
+Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or
+he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked."
+
+14. AMPLIFICATION or CLIMAX consists in heightening all the
+circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a
+strong light.
+
+Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a
+crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to
+scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name,
+then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?"
+
+
+KEY.
+
+_Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes_.
+
+RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin _hardens_ men in it. Great pains
+_have_ been taken, &c.--_is_ seldom found. The sincere _are_, &c.--_is_
+happy. What _avail_, &c.--Disappointments _sink_--the renewal of hope
+_gives_, &c.--_is_ without limit, _has_ been conferred upon us.--Thou
+_canst_ not heal--but thou _mayst_ do, &c.--_consists_ the happiness,
+&c.--Who _touchedst_, or _didst touch_ Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.
+
+_Note 1._ And _wilt thou_ never be to Heaven resigned?--And _who_ had
+great abilities, &c.
+
+_Note 2._ Are peace and honor.--_was_ controversy.
+
+RULE 7. _Them_ that you visited.--_him_ that was mentioned.--_he_ who
+preached repentance, &c.--_they_ who died.--_he_ who succeeded.
+
+RULE 8. Time and tide _wait,_ &c.--_remove_ mountains.--_are_ both
+uncertain.--_dwell_ with, &c.--_affect_ the mind, &c.--What _signify_
+the counsel and care, &c.--_are_ now perished.--Why _are_ whiteness and
+coldness, &c.--bind _them_ continually, &c.--render _their_ possessor,
+&c.--There _are_ error and discrepance--which _show_, &c.
+
+RULE 9. _Is_ the same in idea.--_is_ in the porphyry.--_is_ remarkable,
+&c.--which _moves_ merely as _it is_ moved.--_affects_ us, &c.--Man's
+happiness or misery _is_, in a great measure, &c.--for _it_ may be,
+&c.--_was_ blameworthy.
+
+RULE 10. The nation _is_ powerful.--The fleet _was_ seen, &c.--The
+church _has_, &c.--_is_, or ought to be, the _object_, &c.--_it_ is
+feeble.
+
+RULE 11. My people _do_, &c.--The multitude eagerly _pursue_ pleasure as
+_their_, &c.--_were_ divided in _their_ sentiments, and _they have_
+referred, &c.--The people _rejoice_--give _them_ sorrow.
+
+RULE 12. _Homer's_ works are, &c.--_Asa's_ heart. _James Hart's_ book.
+
+_Note 1._ It was the _men_, _women_, and children's lot, &c. or, _It was
+the lot of_ the men, women, and children.--_Peter_, _John_, and
+Andrew's, &c.
+
+_Note 2._ This is _Campbell_ the poet's production; or, _The production
+of Campbell, &c._--The silk was purchased at Brown's the _mercer_ and
+_haberdasher._
+
+_Note_ 4. The _pupil's_ composing, &c.--_rule's_ being observed.--of the
+_president's_ neglecting to lay it before the council.
+
+RULE 13. Of _his_ audience.--put _it_ on Jacob.--sprinkle _them_--and
+they shall, &c.--of _his_ reputation.
+
+_Note_. You were blamed; you _were_ worthy.--where _were_ you?--how fat
+_were_ you?
+
+RULE 14. Who _hast_ been, &c.--_who is_ the sixth _that has_ lost _his
+life_ by this means.
+
+Who all my sense _confinedst;_ or, _didst confine_.
+
+_Note_. And _who broughtest_ him forth out of Ur.
+
+RULE 15, _Who_ shall be sent, &c.--This is the man _who_, &c.
+
+RULE 16. They _to whom_ much is given, &c.--_with whom_ you associate
+&c.--_whom_ I greatly respect, &c.--_whom_ we ought to love, and _to
+whom_, &c--They _whom_ conscience, &c.--With _whom_ did you
+walk?--_Whom_ did you see?--To _whom_ did you give the book?
+
+RULE 17. Who gave John those books? _We_.--_him_ who lives in Pearl
+street--My brother and _he_.--_She_ and _I_.
+
+RULE 18: _Note_ 2. Thirty _tuns_.--twenty _feet_--one hundred _fathoms_.
+
+_Note_ 6. He bought a pair of _new_ shoes--piece of _elegant_
+furniture.--pair of _fine_ horses--tract of _poor_ land.
+
+_Note_ 7. Are still more _difficult to be comprehended_.--most
+_doubtful_, or _precarious_ way, &c.--_This model comes nearer
+perfection than any I_, &c.
+
+RULE 19: _Note. That_ sort.--_these_ two hours.--_This_ kind, &c.--He
+saw one _person_, or more _than one_, enter the garden.
+
+_Note_ 2. Better than _himself_.--_is_ so small.--_his_ station may be,
+_is_ bound by the laws.
+
+_Note_ 3. On _each_ side, &c.--took _each_ his censer.
+
+RULE 20. _Whom_ did they, &c.--They _whom_ opulence,--_whom_ luxury,
+&c.--_Him_ and _them_ we know, &c.--_Her_ that is negligent, &c.--my
+brother and _me_ &c.--_Whom_ did they send, &c.--_Them whom_ he, &c.
+
+RULE 21. It is _I_.--If I were _he_.--it is _he_, indeed.--_Whom_ do
+you, &c.--_Who_ do men say, &c.--and _who_ say ye, &c.--_whom_ do you
+imagine it to have been?--it was _I_; but you knew that it was _he_.
+
+RULE 25. Bid him _come_--durst not _do_ it.--Hear him _read,_ &c.--makes
+us _approve_ and _reject_, &c.--better _to_ live--than _to_ outlive,
+&c.--_to_ wrestle.
+
+RULE 26: _Note_. The taking _of_ pains: or, without taking pains,
+&c.--The changing _of_ times,--the removing and setting up _of_ kings.
+
+RULE 28: _Note_ 3. He _did_ me--I had _written_--he _came_
+home.--_befallen_ my cousin--he would have _gone_.--already _risen_.--is
+_begun_.--is _spoken_.--would have _written_--had they _written_, &c.
+
+RULE 29: _Note_ 1. It cannot, _therefore_, be, &c.--he was _not often_
+pleasing.--should _never_ be separated.--We may live _happily_, &c.
+
+RULE 30: _Note_. I don't know _any thing_; or, I _know_ nothing, &c.--I
+did not see _anybody_; or, I saw _nobody_, &c.--Nothing ever _affects_
+her.--_and_ take no shape _or_ semblance, &c.--There _can_ be nothing,
+&c.--_Neither_ precept _nor_ discipline is so forcible as example.
+
+RULE 31. For _himself_.--among _themselves_.--_with whom_ he is,
+&c.--_With whom_ did, &c.--_From whom_ did you receive instruction?
+
+RULE 33. My brother and _he_, &c.--You and _I_, &c. _He_ and I--John and
+_he_, &c.--Between you and _me_, &c.
+
+RULE 34. And _entreat_ me, &c.--and _acting_ differently, &c.
+
+_Note_ 1. But _he_ may return--but _he_ will write no more.
+
+_Note_ 2. Unless it _rain_.--If he _acquire_ riches, &c.
+
+RULE 35. Than _I_--as well as _he_, than _they_.--but _he_.--but _he_
+and _I_.--but _them_ who had gone astray.
+
+_Promiscuous Examples_.--_Him_ who is from eternity, &c.--_depends_ all
+the happiness,--which _exists_, &c.--the enemies _whom_, &c.--Is it _I_
+or _he whom_ you requested?--Though great _have_ been,--sincerely
+_acknowledge_.--There _was_, in the metropolis.--exercising our
+memories.--_was_ consumed.--Affluence _may_ give--but _it_ will not.--of
+this world often choke.--_Them_ that honor,--and _they_ that despise.--I
+intended _to call_ last week.--the fields look _fresh_ and _gay_.--very
+_neatly, finely woven_ paper.--where I _saw_ Gen. Andrew Jackson, _him_
+who.--Take the _first two_,--_last three_.--thirty _feet_ high.--_a_
+union,--_a_ hypothesis.--I have _seen_ him _to whom_ you wrote, he would
+have _come_ back, or _returned_.--_understands_ the nature,--he
+_rejects_.--If thou _study_,--thou _wilt_ become.--is not _properly_
+attended to.--He _knew_.--therefore, to _have_ done it,--_than_ the
+title.--very _independently_.--duty to _do_.--my _friend's_
+entering.--is the _best_ specimen, or it _comes nearer_ perfection _than
+any_, &c.--blow _them_, will go, &c.--_Each of those two authors has
+his_ merit.--_Reason's_ whole,--_lie_ in.--_strikes_ the mind,--than if
+_the parts had been adjusted_,--with _perfect_ symmetry.
+
+Satire _does_ not carry in _it_.--_composes_ the triangle.--_persons'_
+opportunities were _ever_.--It _has been_ reported.--should _never_
+be.--situation _in which_.--_is_ thoroughly versed in _his_.--_are_ the
+soul,--_follows_ little.--An army _presents_.--_are_ the _duties_ of a
+christian.--happier than _he_.--_always_ have _inclined_, and _which
+always_ will incline him to offend.--which _require_ great.--_Them_ that
+honor me, will I.--_has_ opinions peculiar to _itself_.--that _it may_
+be said _he attained_ monarchical.--_hast_ permitted,--_wilt_
+deliver.--_was_ formerly propagated.--the measure _is_,--unworthy
+your.--_were_ faithless.--After I _had_ visited.--nor shall _I_,
+consent.--Yesterday I intended to _walk_ out, but _was_.--_make_ or
+_are_ thirteen,--_leave_ three.--If he _go_,--make _the eighth time_
+that he _will have_ visited.--_is_ nobler.--was possessed, or _that
+ever_ can be.--one great _edifice_,--smaller _ones_.--honesty _is_.--it
+to _be_.--_will_ follow me,--I _shall_ dwell.--_is_ gone astray.--he
+could, not _have done_.--_feeling_ a propensity.
+
+
+PUNCTUATION.
+
+COMMA.
+
+_Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation_.
+
+RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human
+heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery
+is a sign of littleness.
+
+RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to
+future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real
+defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves
+to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.
+
+RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is,
+in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your
+failings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and
+ignorance, under costly attire. The best men often experience
+disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed
+behavior can always hide the real character.
+
+RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations.
+Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou
+expect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance?
+Death, the king of terrors, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm of
+life, sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius, the great Chinese
+philosopher, was eminently good, as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph
+is an illustrious example of true piety.
+
+RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. To
+enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation.
+His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering
+him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and
+constant spirit, will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose
+one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father.
+
+KEY TO THE EXERCISES.
+
+RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the
+mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the
+understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man
+from his rank in creation.
+
+Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a
+youth. He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his
+elder brother. The man of virtue and honor, will be trusted, relied
+upon, and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous,
+and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is
+just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading,
+writing, and thinking, are the indispensable qualifications of a good
+student. The great business of life is, to be employed in doing justly,
+loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God. To live soberly,
+righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty.
+
+In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are
+causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute
+promptly. An idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is
+corrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously, affectionately
+admonished, but in vain.
+
+RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friendships
+of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what is
+set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. A man
+who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words
+that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our
+complaints of the world, are wholly imaginary.
+
+The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object
+in its just proportion, and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected
+civility which springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable
+charm. The Lord, whom I serve, is eternal. This, is the man we saw
+yesterday.
+
+RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. True
+friendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behavior.
+Health and peace, a moderate fortune, and a few friends, sum up all the
+undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless,
+simple and sincere, uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the
+strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.
+
+RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical; as a friend,
+captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer
+there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be
+trifled away without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old
+age, miserable.
+
+RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man.
+I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned by
+our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be
+condemned by our own hearts.
+
+SEMICOLON.
+
+RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path; that of falsehood is
+a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship;
+hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness,
+which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery; as there are
+worldly honors, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is a
+worldly wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness.
+
+  But all subsists by elemental strife;
+  And passions are the elements of life.
+
+COLON.
+
+RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition,
+and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad
+passions; superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; idleness,
+which loads it with tediousness and disgust.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of English Grammar in Familiar Lectures
+by Samuel Kirkham
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