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diff --git a/14055-h/14055-h.htm b/14055-h/14055-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..77dca38 --- /dev/null +++ b/14055-h/14055-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2890 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Food Guide for War Service at Home, by Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al</title> + <style type="text/css"> + /*<![CDATA[*/ + + <!-- + body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + p {text-align: justify;} + blockquote {text-align: justify;} + h1,h2,h3,h4 {text-align: center;} + h5,h6 {text-align: left;} + pre {font-size: 0.7em;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + html>body hr {margin-right: 25%; margin-left: 25%; width: 50%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + html>body hr.full {margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 0%; width: 100%;} + hr.short {text-align: center; width: 20%;} + html>body hr.short {margin-right: 40%; margin-left: 40%; width: 20%;} + + .note + {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + + span.pagenum + {position: absolute; left: 1%; right: 91%; font-size: 8pt;} + + .poem + {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; margin-bottom: 1em; text-align: left;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem p {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem p.i2 {margin-left: 1em;} + .poem p.i4 {margin-left: 2em;} + .poem p.i6 {margin-left: 3em;} + .poem p.i8 {margin-left: 4em;} + .poem p.i10 {margin-left: 5em;} + + .figure, .figcenter, .figright, .figleft + {padding: 1em; margin: 0; text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;} + .figure img, .figcenter img, .figright img, .figleft img + {border: none;} + .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p + {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;} + .figcenter {margin: auto;} + .figright {float: right;} + .figleft {float: left;} + + .footnote {font-size: 0.9em; margin-right: 10%; margin-left: 10%;} + + p.author {text-align: right;} + p.index {margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .side { float:right; + font-size: 75%; + width: 25%; + padding-left:10px; + border-left: dashed thin; + margin-left: 10px; + text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; + font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic;} + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + --> + /*]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14055 ***</div> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Food Guide for War Service at Home, by +Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al</h1> +<hr class="full" /> +<br /> + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/1.png"><img width="100%" + src="images/1.png" + alt="Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society" /> + </a>Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society + </div> + + <h1>FOOD GUIDE</h1> + + <h3>FOR</h3> + + <h2>WAR SERVICE AT HOME</h2> + + <h4>PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF</h4> + + <h3>THE UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATION</h3> + + <h4>IN CO-OPERATION WITH<br /> + THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE<br /> + AND THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION</h4> + + <h3>WITH A PREFACE BY HERBERT HOOVER</h3> + + <h4>UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATOR</h4> + + <h4>1918</h4> + <hr /> + + <h3>ANNOUNCEMENT</h3> + + <p>In the spring of 1918 the Collegiate Section of the United + States Food Administration was called upon to prepare a simple + statement of the food situation as affected by the war, + suitable for elementary and high school teachers, high-school + pupils, and the general public. The demand arose because of the + wide adoption of the three courses on this subject then being + sent out weekly to universities, colleges, and normal schools + throughout the country.</p> + + <p>This little volume is the response to that request. It was + written by Katharine Blunt, of the University of Chicago, + Frances L. Swain, of the Chicago Normal School, and Florence + Powdermaker, of the United States Department of + Agriculture.</p> + + <p>The records of the Food Administration have been open to the + writers and they have had the advice and criticism of its + officials and specialists. No effort has been spared to secure + accuracy of statement in the text.</p> + + <p class="author">OLIN TEMPLIN,</p> + + <p class="author"><i>Director of the Collegiate + Section.</i></p> + + <p>July 1, 1918.</p> + <hr /> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev" + id="pagev"></a>[pg v]</span> + + <h3>PREFACE</h3> + + <p>The long war has brought hunger to Europe; some of her + peoples stand constantly face to face with starvation.</p> + + <p>All agriculture has been seriously interfered with. Food + production has been lessened to the point of danger. Millions + of men who had given all their time and energy to raising food + have been killed; more millions are still fighting; other + millions have gone from the farms into the great war-factories. + Women, too, have been drafted from the fields and home gardens + into the factories and to replace the absent men in a host of + occupations. Great stretches of once fertile land have been + temporarily ruined by the scourge of war; some are still under + falling shot and shell. Belgium and France have lost millions + of acres of productive land to the enemy. The fertilizers + necessary for keeping up the production of the land still + available are lacking.</p> + + <p>All this means that the Allies have to rely on the outside + for the maintenance of their food-supply. But because ships are + fewer than they were, and because many of them must carry + troops and munitions exclusively, these ships cannot be sent on + voyages longer than absolutely necessary to find and bring back + the needed food. They cannot afford to go the long + time-consuming way to Australia and back; but few of them can + be let go to India and the Argentine. They must carry food by + the shortest routes. The shortest is from North America to + England and France.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi" + id="pagevi"></a>[pg vi]</span> + + <p>Therefore by far the greater part of the food provided for + the Allies from the outside must come from us. As a matter of + fact more than 50 per cent of this outside food for the Allies + does now come from North America. And that is a great deal. It + is very much more than we ever sent them before. Also we are + sending more and more food overseas for our own growing armies + in France and our growing fleets in European waters.</p> + + <p>To meet all this great food need in Europe—and meeting + it is an imperative military necessity—we must be very + careful and economical in our food use here at home. We must + eat less; we must waste nothing; we must equalize the + distribution of what food we may retain for ourselves; we must + prevent extortion and profiteering which make prices so high + that the poor cannot buy the food they actually need; and we + must try to produce more food by planting more wheat and other + grain, raising more cattle and swine and sheep, and making + gardens everywhere.</p> + + <p>To help the people of America do all these things, and to + coordinate their efforts, the President and Congress created + the United States Food Administration. The Food Administration, + therefore, asks all the people to help feed the Allies that + they may continue to fight, to help feed the hungry in Belgium + and other starving lands that they may continue to live, and to + help feed our own sailors and soldiers so that they may want + nothing. It asks help, also, in its great task of preventing + prices from going too high and of stabilizing them, and of + keeping the flow of distribution even, so that all our people, + rich and poor alike, may be able to obtain the food they + need.</p> + + <p>For all this there is needed a "food education" of all our + people. Every home in our broad land must be reached. One of + the most effective ways of accomplishing this is by getting + <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii" + id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span> information to the children + of the nation about food and the possibilities and methods + of its most wise and economical use. To obtain this result + we must get this information into the hands of parents and + teachers.</p> + + <p>For the purpose of diffusing this information this little + book has been prepared under the direction of the Food + Administration. By following the suggestions for food + conservation herein contained every one can render his country + an important war service. I am sure that all will be glad to do + this.</p> + + <p class="author">HERBERT HOOVER.</p> + <hr /> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix" + id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span> + + <h3>CONTENTS</h3> + + <p><b>CHAPTER I. THE WHEAT SITUATION</b> + <a href="#page1">1</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">The world's supply of wheat—Wheat in + the United States—Meeting the wheat shortage</p> + </blockquote> + + <p><b>CHAPTER II. THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER + CEREALS</b> <a href="#page10">10</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">The significance of different kinds of + food—The social importance of cereals, especially + wheat—Wheat flour in war-time—The 50-50 rule. + Another way to cut the consumption of + wheat—Substitutes for wheat flour</p> + </blockquote> + + <p><b>CHAPTER III. WAR BREAD</b> <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">The bakers' regulations. Victory + bread—The individual's answer to the bread + cry—Flour and bread in the Allied countries—Why + we in the United States do not have bread cards</p> + </blockquote> + + <p><b>CHAPTER IV. THE MEAT SITUATION</b> + <a href="#page28">28</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">Where Europe's meat has been + produced—The war and the European + meat-supply—The meat rations of Europe—The part + of the United States—Meat conservation—Meat and + other protein foods—The meat substitutes</p> + </blockquote> + + <p><b>CHAPTER V. FATS</b> <a href="#page37">37</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">The situation abroad—The situation + in the United States</p> + </blockquote> + + <p><b>CHAPTER VI. SUGAR</b> <a href="#page42">42</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">Why is there a sugar shortage?—The + effect of the shortage—In place of sugar—The + price of sugar—To cut down on sugar</p> + </blockquote><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagex" + id="pagex"></a>[pg x]</span> + + <p><b>CHAPTER VII. MILK—FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH</b> + <a href="#page49">49</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">The valuable constituents of + milk—Our milk problem—Our milk abroad</p> + </blockquote> + + <p><b>CHAPTER VIII. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</b> + <a href="#page55">55</a></p> + + <blockquote> + <p class="index">In the war diet—Canning and drying + vegetables and fruits</p> + </blockquote> + + <p><b>CONCLUSION</b> <a href="#page62">62</a></p> + + <p><b>A FEW REFERENCES</b> <a href="#page63">63</a></p> + + <p><b>INDEX</b> <a href="#page65">65</a></p> + <hr /> + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" + id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + + <h2>THE WHEAT SITUATION</h2> + + <p>Wheat is as much a war necessity as ammunition—wheat + is a war weapon. To produce it and distribute it where it is + needed and in sufficient quantities is the most serious food + problem of the Allied world. The continent of Europe, with her + devastated fields, can raise but a small fraction of the wheat + she needs, and ships are so few that she cannot import it from + many of the usual sources.</p> + + <p>Not one of the warring European countries has escaped + serious suffering, and the neutral countries have suffered with + them.</p> + + <h3>THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF WHEAT</h3> + + <p>France, always an agricultural nation, was the most nearly + self-sustaining of the western Allies. Now one-third of her + wheat-fields are barren. Thousands of her acres have been taken + by the enemy, or are in No Man's Land. Much of the land that + has been fought over these past four years is now hopeless for + farming, and will be for years to come. Even the territory + still under cultivation cannot be expected to yield large + returns, for laborers, tools, and fertilizers are lacking.</p> + + <p>The men who have left the fields to fight have been replaced + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" + id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> chiefly by women, children, and + old men, while furloughed soldiers at times help to bring in + the crops. To get adequate return from the soil which has + been tilled for centuries, tons of fertilizer are necessary. + Fertilizers are an absolute necessity, and nitrates, one of + the most important of them, can no longer be imported from + Chile. The work-animals have been driven off by the enemy or + slaughtered for want of food, and mechanics are lacking to + repair and replace the worn-out farm-machinery. As a result + of this, in 1917 France raised only enough wheat to supply + 40 per cent of her need, instead of 90 per cent, as in + pre-war years.</p> + + <p>In England the situation is not much better. Unlike France, + England has always imported far more wheat than she raised. But + now through vigorous effort she alone of all the European + countries has increased her cereal production so that it has + actually been doubled. Being free from the devastation of war + at home, she has been able to convert the great lawns of her + parks and country estates into grain-fields. English women of + all classes, an army of half a million, are working on the + land. At the same time the consumption of wheat has been + reduced. Even yet, however, the home-grown supply in England is + only one-fourth of the wheat required.</p> + + <p>In Belgium the devastation is so complete that the women, + children, and old people left there would die of famine if food + were not sent to them. Two and a half million Belgians daily + stand in line waiting for food to be doled out to them. The + United States must supply three-fourths of the wheat contained + in their meagre bread ration. In Italy, too, the condition is + serious, for she produces far less than she needs, despite + every effort of her Government to stimulate + production.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" + id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/13.png"><img width="100%" + src="images/13.png" + alt="WHEAT FIELDS OF THE WORLD" /></a>WHEAT FIELDS OF + THE WORLD + </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" + id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span> + + <p>Germany and Austria-Hungary have not escaped universal + suffering from lack of wheat. Germany before the war was a + wheat-importing country, and Austria-Hungary was able to supply + herself with wheat, but had none to export. Their war crops + have been below normal, and even the wheat taken from conquered + territory has not been sufficient to prevent severe shortage, + resulting in bread riots in industrial centres.</p> + + <p>The imports of wheat into both the Allied and enemy European + countries to supplement the wheat of their own raising came in + peace-times from seven countries—Russia, Roumania, + Australia, the United States, Canada, Argentina, and India. + Most of these have now failed as a source of supply.</p> + + <p>Russia and Roumania were the great wheat-bins of Europe. + They produced as much wheat as the United States, and sometimes + more, and they were always able to make up or nearly make up + the deficiencies of western Europe. Russia and Roumania are now + themselves on the verge of famine. Even before their own + situation became so desperate, they could get little wheat to + the western Allies, because the enemy territory and the + battle-lines made a great wall of separation.</p> + + <p>Australia and India both continue to grow large crops of + wheat, and have a surplus in storage, but it cannot be sent to + Europe because of lack of ships. Australia has wheat stored + from her last three crops. The Argentine had very poor crops in + 1916 and 1917, and although the 1918 crop is good, it is + scarcely more available to Europe than Australia's wheat.</p> + + <p><b>So the wheat scarcity is not a question only of the + amount of wheat in the world. It is a problem of getting it + where it is needed—wheat plus ships.</b> Not a single + ship must go farther than is absolutely necessary. A glance at + the map shows why wheat for Europe should come from North + America rather than from Australia or India, or even the + Argentine. The trip from Australia + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" + id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> is three times as long as from + North America, so it takes only one-third as many ships to + carry food to Europe from the United States as from + Australia. The Argentine is twice as far from Europe as the + United States, and therefore twice as many ships are needed + to carry an equal amount of Argentine food to Europe. If + this continent could produce and save enough next year to + provide the whole of the Allied food necessities, we could + save 1,500,000 tons of world shipping to be used for other + purposes. <b>Every ship saved is a ship built to carry more + men and more ammunition to France.</b></p> + + <h3>WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES</h3> + + <p>The United States has never had a large wheat surplus to + export, and the last few years it has had an unusually low + supply to meet the extraordinary demand. The 1916 crop was + small. The 1917 crop was only four-fifths of normal, little + more than we ordinarily consume ourselves. We entered the last + harvest with our stocks of wheat and other cereals practically + exhausted. Hence to feed the Allies until the 1918 harvest, we + had to send wheat which we should ordinarily have eaten. All + that we could send under normal conditions from July, 1917, to + July, 1918, has usually been estimated at about 20,000,000 + bushels, but in the first eleven months of this time we + actually did send 120,000,000 bushels, six times as much as we + could have shipped without conservation. One-half of the total + output of our flour-mills in the month of May, 1918, went + abroad.</p> + + <p>This achievement in feeding the Allies has been made + possible and will continue to be possible, through the measures + of economy and substitution established by the Food + Administration, and the constant and continued personal + sacrifice of each one of + us.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" + id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span> + + <p>Even the 1918 wheat crop, successful as it promises to be, + will not mean freedom from saving. Throughout the war there can + be no relaxation. We must build up a great national reserve in + years of good harvest for the greater and greater demands of + Europe. <b>Never again must we let ourselves and the world face + the danger that was before us in the spring of 1918.</b></p> + + <h3>MEETING THE WHEAT SHORTAGE</h3> + + <p>To keep wheat constantly going over to our Allies and + sufficient stores in the United States at the same time, is one + of the big problems of the Food Administration. Production has + had to be increased and consumption decreased. The price has + had to be kept down, for in a time of shortage prices always + tend to go up. It is true that high prices furnish one method + of decreasing the consumption of food, but it is a method that + means enforced conservation by the poor and no conservation by + the rich. The burden thus falls on those least able to bear + it.</p> + + <p>To meet this situation the Food Administration has gone into + the wheat business itself. <b>Practically entire control of the + buying and selling of wheat is in the hands of the great United + States Food Administration Grain Corporation.</b> Through this + organization all wheat sales are made to the Army and Navy, to + our allies, and to the neutrals. The price which it pays for + these huge quantities sets the price for the entire country. + The Food Administration also makes the movement of wheat from + the farmer to the miller and to the wholesaler as simple and + direct as possible. It prevents hoarding and speculation. "I am + convinced," said Mr. Hoover, in April, 1918, "that at no time + in the last three years has there been as little speculation in + the nation's food as there is + to-day."</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" + id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + <a href="images/17.png"><img width="100%" + src="images/17.png" + alt="COST OF A POUND LOAF OF BREAD" /></a> + </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" + id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span> + + <p>As a result of this business management of wheat, the + consumer pays less for flour, although the farmer gets more for + his wheat. In May, 1917, the difference between the price of + the farmer's wheat and of the flour made from it was $5.86 per + barrel of 196 pounds. Fifteen months later the difference was + 64 cents. In February, 1917, before the United States went into + the war, flour sold at wholesale for $8.75 a barrel. In May, + 1917, the war, with no food control, had driven the price up to + $17. But in February, 1918, after six months of the Food + Administration, it had gone down to $10.50 wholesale, and this + in spite of unprecedented demand for our very short supply. + Without control, flour would undoubtedly be selling for $50 a + barrel. During the Civil War, with no world wheat shortage, but + without food control, the price of wheat increased 130 per cent + over the price in 1861.</p> + + <p>The milling and sale of flour, the baking of bread, and the + purchases of the individual are all regulated to a greater + extent than would have scarcely been thought possible before + the war.</p> + + <p>Every effort has been made to produce a great 1918 + wheat-crop. Congress, at the time the Food Control Bill was + passed, fixed the price of the 1918 wheat at a minimum of $2 + per bushel, and the President later fixed the price at $2.20. + This has been high enough to encourage the farmer to increase + his crop and not too high to be fair to the consumer. The + Department of Agriculture, during the winter of 1917-18, had + for its slogan, "a billion-bushel crop for 1918." It has worked + intensively to help the farmer in selecting and testing seed + and in fighting destructive insects and plant-diseases, and in + every way to help him grow more wheat.</p> + + <p>Constant reliance has been placed on the individual's + intelligence and patriotism in wheat-saving. One of the unusual + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" + id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> aspects of the Food + Administration is its confidence in the co-operation of the + country and the response which this confidence has met. + Wheatless meals are now a commonplace occurrence. Wheatless + days are being observed in many hotels and homes. People all + over the country have pledged themselves to do entirely + without wheat until the 1918 harvest is available. About + 100,000 barrels of flour were returned by individuals and + companies during the spring of 1918, to be shipped to the + Allies and the Army and Navy. The individual all over the + country, consumer, dealer, miller, or farmer, has risen to + the occasion to do his share toward the fulfilment of the + Government's promise to + Europe.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" + id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + + <h2>THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS</h2> + + <p>When the United States was called on to supply the Allies + with much of its wheat and flour, we fortunately found at hand + a plentiful supply of a great variety of other cereals. The use + of corn was, of course, not an experiment—generations of + Southerners have flourished on it. But we also had oats, rice, + barley, rye, buckwheat, and such local products as the grain + sorghums, which are grown in the South and West. All of them + are cereals and all can be used interchangeably with wheat in + our diet.</p> + + <p>To understand clearly the value of cereals in the diet + to-day, it is well to review the part played by food in + general. Europe to-day is eating to live. She therefore thinks + of food not in terms of menus but as a means of keeping up + bodily functions, as sources of protein, carbohydrate and + fat—terms seldom heard outside of the university a few + years ago.</p> + + <h3>THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD</h3> + + <p>We need food first of all to burn as fuel for all the + activities of the body, just as any other machine needs fuel. + The fuel value of food, or its energy, is measured in + <i>calories</i>. A calorie measures the amount of heat or + energy given off when anything burns, whether it is coal in a + stove or food in the body.</p> + + <p>Practically all foods give this fuel or energy, but some + give <span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" + id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> much more than others. Fats + give more fuel than an equal weight of any other food. Sugar + and foods rich in starch like flour and corn meal are fuel + foods. This is one of the reasons why they are chosen to be + shipped abroad. The cereals always supply an important part + of the fuel of the diet. Watery foods, like many vegetables + and fruits, normally give less fuel. A person could not live + on lettuce any better than a house could be heated with + tissue paper.</p> + + <p>If the food does not supply enough energy, a person will + burn up part of his own body for fuel and will grow emaciated. + Far too often we find children of the very poor who are + undernourished because of lack of food fuel. Sometimes even + well-to-do young people half starve themselves because they get + "notions" about food. One of the terrible tragedies abroad is + the hundreds and thousands of men and women and children who + are worn and thin and sick for lack of food.</p> + + <p>We need food, too, to keep the organs of the body running + smoothly. Abroad, people are suffering not only because they + have not enough food, but because they have not the right kinds + of food. Milk and vegetables and fruits are especially useful. + They are the chief sources of the much-needed <i>mineral + salts</i> and the two <i>vitamines</i>. The vitamines are + substances of great importance about which has centred much + discussion lately and which scientists do not yet fully + understand, though they realize that they are essential for the + growth of children and for health in adults.</p> + + <p>The <i>protein</i> of food is used to build the body if we + are young, and to restore the daily wear and tear if we are + older. The mineral salts are also necessary for this purpose. + Protein will be discussed further in the chapter on meat and + meat substitutes, but it should be realized here that the + protein we eat comes <span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" + id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> not only from these foods, + but also from the cereals. Cereals supply a full half of the + protein of many diets.</p> + + <p>Cereals are therefore important for their fuel since they + are rich in starch, and for their protein, and, if we eat the + entire kernel, for their mineral matter and vitamines. They + also have the pleasant flavor and texture which we have grown + to like.</p> + + <p>Wheat is no better than any of the other cereals. It + possesses absolutely no nutritional advantage for man or beast + over oats, corn, and rye. It has no more protein, and no better + protein. It has no more fat and no better fat. It has no better + mineral salts and in no larger amounts. It has no more fuel or + better fuel. It is just <i>one</i> of the cereals, and there is + not the slightest evidence that it is the best one. It has + merely become one of our habits.</p> + + <p>Corn and wheat and the other cereals are just as well + digested if equally well prepared. A soggy piece of wheat bread + may, of course, be less readily digestible than a well-made + piece of corn-bread, but that is a question of skill in + cooking, not of difference in cereals. Complaints have been + heard in England about the war bread. It is true that it may be + hard on those of frail digestive powers to change their food + habits in any way, but Hutchison, an eminent London physician, + in tracing down complaints, found that frequently people laid + to the new bread ailments from which they had suffered before + the war. "When in doubt, blame the war bread," seemed to be the + motto.</p> + + <h3>THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CEREALS, ESPECIALLY WHEAT</h3> + + <p>The world eats more cereals than any other kind of food. + They are so widely available, so cheap and nutritious, that + they are a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" + id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> main reliance of the human + race. A shortage is always extremely serious.</p> + + <p>Not only is an abundance important, but an abundance of the + accustomed kind. In parts of India, the inhabitants use rice as + almost the only cereal. When the rice-crop failed some years + ago, thousands of people died of starvation with a supply of + wheat available. They did not know the use of wheat as + food.</p> + + <p>Countries like France, which use their cereals chiefly for + bread, are the most dependent on wheat, since wheat is the most + easily made into bread.</p> + + <p>In the United States cereals make up almost one-third of our + food. Although wheat in most parts of the country has been the + main dependence, we have used a much greater variety of cereals + than most people, so that it is comparatively simple for the + majority to make increased use of them.</p> + + <p>The very poor must depend largely upon cereals because they + can get more for their money from them than from other foods. + Cereals, to most of them, mean bread. It is such a large part + of their diet that doing without it means a far more + fundamental and difficult change in their food habits than for + the well-to-do with greater freedom of choice. Besides, the + already overburdened working woman must get her bread in the + easiest possible way—a ready-made loaf from the baker. + The burden of scarcity or high prices falls on those least able + to bear it.</p> + + <p>Europeans eat even larger amounts of wheat than we. Over + half the food of the French is bread, so if the wheat shortage + were near the danger-line, it might lead to a serious weakening + of the marvellous courage of the French + people.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" + id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span> + + <h3>WHEAT FLOUR IN WAR-TIME</h3> + + <p>To use this country's share of the short supply of wheat to + the greatest advantage the Food Administration has changed the + making of flour to include more of the wheat-kernel. The + difference between peace and war time flour is easily + understood if the structure of grains is considered. Wheat and + other cereals have kernels much alike; all have three principal + parts:</p> + + <p>The outer covering, called <i>bran</i>, is made up of + several layers. This is rich in important mineral salts, and + the rest is largely cellulose, or woody fibre.</p> + + <p>The <i>germ</i> is the small part from which the new plant + will develop. Here the small amount of fat in the kernel is + stored.</p> + + <p>The largest part of the kernel, called the <i>endosperm</i>, + contains the nourishment to be used by the plant as it begins + to develop. This is mostly starch, with some protein. It is the + part of the wheat, for instance, which is chiefly used to make + our white flour.</p> + + <p>The kind of flour made depends on how much and what parts of + the kernel are used. Graham flour is manufactured by grinding + practically all of the wheat-kernel—a 100-per-cent use of + the grain, called 100-per-cent extraction. Some people still + fail to realize that Graham flour and Graham bread are wheat, + perhaps because of the different name and brown color. The + so-called "whole-wheat" flour is often 95 per cent of the + kernel only, but may be as little as 85 per cent, depending on + the amount of the bran and germ removed in the making.</p> + + <p>Ordinary white flour contains the endosperm alone, with + practically none of the bran and germ. Some brands before the + war used up as little as 56 per cent of the wheat, leaving the + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" + id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> rest of it to be turned into + lower-grade flours and cattle-feed. White flour thus uses + less of the wheat for human food than Graham or whole-wheat + flour.</p> + + <p>Yet to convert all the country's wheat into Graham flour + would not be a wheat-saving measure, because it is not so well + suited to our trade conditions. Graham flour, for one thing, + does not keep so well as flour of lower extractions, as the fat + in the germ may become rancid in a comparatively short time. + Flour in this country is often thirty days or longer in transit + and may be months in warehouses, stores, and homes. A flour to + be satisfactory under extreme conditions here or for shipment + abroad must keep at least six months—too long to be sure + that Graham flour will keep. In small countries like England, + where flour is used up more promptly, a high extraction is more + practicable than in the United States.</p> + + <p>Moreover, while Graham and whole-wheat flours with their + larger quantities of mineral salts are a more desirable food + for some people than white flour, they are occasionally + irritating to people with weak digestions, so that it would be + unfortunate to have only these flours on the market.</p> + + <p>The Food Administration, therefore, has considered that the + most effective use of our wheat could be obtained by forbidding + the manufacture of fancy flours of low extraction and making + all flour contain at least 74 per cent of the wheat. This still + gives a fine white flour that keeps well and is difficult to + distinguish from that on the market before the war.</p> + + <p>To help in the enforcement of its flour rulings, the Food + Administration has licensed all mills and elevators which + handle over 100 barrels of flour a day. If the rulings of the + Food Administration are not obeyed the license may be taken + away, and the business closed. The hoarding of flour has been + stopped <span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" + id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span> by prohibiting mills, + elevators, and bakers from having more than 30 days' supply + on hand.</p> + + <h3>THE 50-50 RULE. ANOTHER WAY TO CUT THE CONSUMPTION OF + WHEAT</h3> + + <p><b>Not only must the miller manufacture flour in accordance + with new regulations, but the individual consumer must buy it + under restrictions.</b> To many people the first realization + that war and food difficulties are necessarily associated, came + with the announcement in the spring of 1918 of the now familiar + rules for the purchase of flour. With every pound of white + wheat flour, the purchaser must buy a pound of some other + cereal; with every pound of Graham flour, three-fifths of a + pound of other cereal.</p> + + <p>The purpose of this regulation is, of course, to lessen the + use of wheat by increasing the use of the substitutes. The + housekeeper who through lack of initiative or ingenuity fails + to feed the family the substitutes and lets them accumulate on + her shelf has just so far failed to co-operate with the Food + Administration. Many a housewife has learned the value of these + cereals and will continue to use them long after the war and + the Food Administration have passed into history.</p> + + <p>A little thought will show the absence of any real burden in + the 50-50 rule. A housekeeper for her family of four buys five + pounds of wheat flour and five pounds of other cereals. She may + use 1ΒΌ pounds of the substitutes with the 5 pounds of wheat + flour to make about 8 pounds of Victory bread—sufficient + to give each member of her family 2 pounds of bread during the + week. She may serve an ounce of oatmeal as the breakfast cereal + and an ounce of rice, hominy, or other cereal for each person + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" + id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> daily and will then have used + all the substitutes. These cereals can be made into an + endless variety of quick breads, cakes, and pastry, or + combined with other foods as the main dish of the meal.</p> + + <h3>SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT FLOUR</h3> + + <p>The cereals on the market are varied enough to suit any + taste. <b>Remember that as far as nutritional value is + concerned, it makes practically no difference whether we eat + wheat or oats, rye or barley.</b> The quantities of starch, + protein, mineral matter, and fat are so nearly the same that + any one of them can take the place of another. Oatmeal has a + slight advantage over wheat both in protein and fat, and since + oats is an abundant crop in our country it is an excellent + substitute. Rice has a very little more starch and less protein + than the others.</p> + + <p>There is just one advantage that wheat flour has over the + other cereals—it can be made into lighter and more + durable bread. The reason for this is given in the next + chapter.</p> + + <p><i>Corn, the most abundant substitute.</i> Indian corn is + native to the United States. Since it carried the Pilgrims + through their year of famine, it has always been considered our + national grain. Other countries have adopted it to some extent, + but more than three quarters of the world's corn is grown here. + In 1917 our corn crop was 3,000,000,000 bushels, four times as + large as our wheat crop. Most of the crop has always been used + as a feed-grain, with only a small percentage for human food. + The South has always used much more corn than the North, + actually eating more corn than wheat.</p> + + <p>The foods from corn and the ways of using them are more + numerous than is often appreciated. Corn meal and corn flour + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" + id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span> are the most important. We + are making almost as much corn meal as wheat flour. The + yellow and white corn meals, milled from different kinds of + corn, are practically the same in composition, though + slightly different in flavor. The method of milling corn + meal makes more difference in the composition than the kind + of corn used. The old "water-ground" meal was simply crushed + between millstones and only the coarsest particles of bran + bolted out. This ranks with Graham as a product of 100 per + cent extraction and like Graham, it may not keep well, + because the germ is left in. The new process, more like + modern flour-milling, removes some of the bran and germ. The + product is a granulated corn meal which keeps better than + the other, and has practically the same composition, though + to some people a less desirable flavor.</p> + + <p>If corn meal is further ground and bolted, we have corn + flour. Some of this has been put on the market lately and is + proving a good substitute for wheat flour; but the amount + available is only a small fraction of the amount of corn meal. + Other important corn products are hominy of different kinds, + hulled corn, and popcorn. The latter, usually eaten as an + "extra," is really a valuable part of the diet.</p> + + <p>Corn is the same satisfactory food whether it is eaten as + mush in New England, <i>polenta</i> in Italy, or <i>tamales</i> + in Mexico. Many of the people of Mexico and Central America + live on corn and beans to a surprising extent. In portions of + Italy the rural population have adopted the grain as their main + food. Our corn-meal mush is their <i>polenta</i>, which is + served sometimes with cheese, sometimes with tomato sauce or + meat gravy.</p> + + <p><i>Oats</i>. An Englishman once taunted a Scotchman with the + fact that while England used oats only for her horses, Scotland + fed it to her men. "Ah!" said Sandy; "but where will you find + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" + id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> such horses as you raise in + England and such men as in Scotland!"</p> + + <p>The United States, more like England than Scotland, has used + oats mostly for feed. The crop is second only to the corn-crop. + Oats are eaten in the form of oatmeal, which is a finely + granulated meal, and as the common rolled oats which have been + steamed and put through rollers. There is little oat flour on + the market at present. A successful and palatable home-made + flour may be prepared by putting rolled oats through a + food-chopper. Any of the forms of oats can be used in breads of + all kinds, but the more finely ground flour can be substituted + in larger proportion. The demand for oat products has grown so + rapidly the last year that mills are running to their limit. + Special machinery is required for its manufacture, so that a + great increase in the supply is not feasible in a short + time.</p> + + <p><i>Barley and Rye</i>. In using barley and rye for bread we + are only going back to the methods of our forefathers. Barley + is supposed to be one of the first cereals used by man. Good + barley flour is a very acceptable substitute for wheat, but if + too large a proportion of the kernel is included, it may be + bitter in flavor.</p> + + <p><i>Rye</i>, of all the cereals, makes bread nearest like + wheat, though the rye bread formerly made usually contained + from 20 per cent to 80 per cent wheat flour. The supply is far + below what we could well use. For this reason it is not + included among the cereals which the housekeeper is allowed to + buy on the 50-50 plan, and since March 31, 1918, bakers have + not been allowed to use it as a substitute in baking on the + same basis as the other substitutes.</p> + + <p><i>Rice</i>. Rice forms the chief food of hundreds of + millions of people, and in many oriental countries is the + staple cereal, like <span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" + id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> wheat with us. As a wheat + substitute we may use it cooked whole or ground into a + flour. The rice flour may be mixed with other cereals in + making bread and cakes. The rice polish, which is a + by-product secured by rubbing off with brushes the outside + coating of the brown rice, is much cheaper. It has been sold + chiefly for stock-feed, but it has possibilities as a flour + substitute.</p> + + <p>The rice-growers of the South are doing their best to supply + the country with rice in quantity and to make known the + possibilities of this cereal. The rice flour supply, though not + large now, will doubtless be much increased by next year. One + Louisiana mill, for example, is increasing its output from 150 + to 1,200 barrels a day.</p> + + <p><i>Other Cereal Substitutes</i>. Besides the substitutes + which are common all over the country, there are products + produced in too small amounts to make them universal + substitutes, such as buckwheat, cottonseed meal, and peanut + flour, any of which can be used with other flours for baking. + The Southwest produces both flour and meal from milo, kaffir, + and feterita.</p> + + <p>Flours are made from the Irish and sweet potato, from + tapioca, from soy beans, and bananas, but they are manufactured + in such small amounts that they do not take the place of wheat + to any great extent. Potato flour comes nearest to doing this. + It has always been used to some extent in Europe and it is + being widely used in Germany now. Potato itself can be used + instead of wheat. An extra potato at a meal will take the place + of a large slice of bread.</p> + + <p>Many of the substitute cereals do not keep so well as wheat, + especially if they contain more than a minimum of moisture and + fat. The housekeeper and the baker should therefore buy them in + small enough quantities to use them up promptly and should keep + them in a cool, well-ventilated place. May and + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" + id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> June and the summer months + are the time when most care is needed.</p> + + <p>It is the free use of these many wholesome substitutes that + is making possible the necessary saving of wheat. We who + appreciate their wholesomeness and their value can well break + away from our wheat habit and gladly make the little effort + sometimes necessary to begin using newer + foods.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" + id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + + <h2>WAR BREAD</h2> + + <p>Bread is the staff of life for all nations. But "bread" does + not necessarily mean the wheat loaf. At one time and place it + has been barley cake, at another oaten cake, and at another + corn pone. Bread has always been whatever cereal happened to be + convenient. Even such unbreadlike food as rice is to some races + what bread is to us.</p> + + <p>Why, then, have we developed our wheat-bread habit? Partly + because wheat bread has been easy to get and we have grown to + like the taste, but chiefly because wheat flour gives the + lightest loaf. To understand why, make a dough with a little + white flour and water and then gently knead it in cold water. + The consistency changes, the starch is washed out and a + rubbery, sticky ball is left—the <i>gluten</i>, which is + the protein of the wheat. It is this gluten in the flour that + stretches when bread rises and then stiffens when it is baked, + making a light, porous loaf. Wheat is the only one of the + cereals that has much gluten; rye has a little and the others + practically none.</p> + + <p>Gluten seems to be essential to the making of a light, + yeast-raised loaf. Products raised with baking-powder, for + which our standard of lightness is different—"quick + breads" like biscuits and muffins and cakes—do not + require the gluten and can easily be made from substitute + cereals. But for our ordinary loaf of bread, at least some + wheat seems to be almost essential, though with skill in the + making, rye can be made to serve in its place. Patriotic bakers + and housewives all over the country + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" + id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> have been trying to produce a + wheatless loaf which is light, palatable, and sufficiently + durable to stand transportation. The durability is a very + important consideration; crumbly corn bread cannot be + distributed by bakers nor served to armies. Corn bread and + the other quick breads are chiefly home-made products.</p> + + <p><b>Our present problem, therefore, is to make the most + effective possible use of our wheat gluten, to make it go as + far as possible in our breads. Both bakers and private + individuals have their share in solving the problem.</b></p> + + <h3>THE BAKERS' REGULATIONS. VICTORY BREAD</h3> + + <p>The bakers have co-operated loyally. Probably no other food + industry has been more vitally affected by the war. <b>All + bakers using three or more barrels of flour a month have been + licensed and so are under the control of the Food + Administration.</b> This means practically all the commercial + bakers of the country, and many hotels, clubs, and + institutions. About two-fifths of the bread in the United + States is made in bakeries and three-fifths in the home. The + bakeries have used 35,000,000 barrels of flour each year, so + the importance of this field for conservation is plain.</p> + + <p>The amount of wheat flour they are now permitted to have has + been reduced: at present 80 per cent of their last year's + quantity, or, if they are pastry and cracker bakers, 70 per + cent. They must make no bread wholly of wheat flour. Some + substitute must be mixed with the wheat. When the regulation + went into effect in February, 1918, 20 per cent was required + and later, 25 per cent. In pies and cakes there must be at + least one-third substitute. The amounts of sugar and fat used + are limited. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" + id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> Even the sizes of the loaves + are fixed, so that the extravagance of making and handling + all sorts of fancy shapes and sizes may be avoided. Bread + must not be sold to the retailer at unreasonable prices.</p> + + <p>Victory bread is bread made in accordance with these + regulations. The name "Victory" was chosen as representing the + idea underlying the conservation of wheat. The name is really a + present to the Food Administration, having been used by two + large firms who gave up all rights to their trade-mark.</p> + + <p>Hotels and restaurants are required to make or serve bread + containing at least as much of the wheat substitutes as Victory + bread. They may not serve more than two ounces of bread and + other wheat products to a guest at a meal. Many of them have + recently promised to use no wheat at all till the next harvest. + That means, of course, that only through intelligent effort can + they serve yeast bread.</p> + + <h3>THE INDIVIDUAL'S ANSWER TO THE BREAD CRY</h3> + + <p><b>Until the wheat-supply increases and the Food + Administration lessens restrictions, use no wheat at all if you + can possibly do without.</b> Remember that you can make + delicious muffins and other quick breads from the substitute + flours. And you need no bread at all at some meals. An extra + potato or a serving of rice can be eaten instead of the usual + two slices of bread and the body will be supplied with the same + amount of energy. Do not be the slave of old food habits. + <b>When all Europe is eating to keep alive, fastidiousness and + food "notions" must play no part in the dietary.</b></p> + + <p>Some people find it is almost impossible to do without the + baker's loaf. Hundreds in crowded city quarters have no + facilities <span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" + id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> of their own for baking. + Women doing their share in factories and workshops cannot + get up earlier to make corn bread for breakfast. Victory + bread must be saved for them. For households which must use + wheat, the Food Administration has fixed a voluntary ration + of 1Β½ pounds of wheat per week for each person. This + includes wheat in the form of bread, pastry, macaroni, + crackers, noodles, and breakfast foods.</p> + + <p>All who can should do more than their share—they must + do their utmost to make up for those whose circumstances + prevent them from doing it. <b>The interests and desires of + each of us in this war can be translated into service in no + more effective way than by conforming our food habits to the + needs of the hour.</b></p> + + <h3>FLOUR AND BREAD IN THE ALLIED COUNTRIES</h3> + + <p>All the Allied countries have been stretching their meagre + wheat-supply to the limit and are enforcing the most stringent + regulations.</p> + + <p>The flour is required to be of high + extraction—ordinarily from 81 per cent to 90 per cent, + decidedly higher than our 74 per cent. Even with this coarse, + gray flour a large percentage of substitute must be mixed, + usually 25 per cent. In England there are local regulations on + the use of mashed potato in bread. Their bread must be twelve + hours old before it is sold, so that people will not be tempted + to eat too much. The result is seldom palatable. In France no + flour at all may be used to make the delectable pastries and + cakes which have long been the delight of the French people and + their guests. In Italy, macaroni, which in many regions is as + much the "staff of life" as bread, must contain 43 per cent + substitute, and in some places may not be manufactured at + all.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" + id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span> + + <p>Both England and France have subsidized bread; the + Government has set a price below cost and itself makes up the + difference to the baker. England has appropriated $200,000,000 + for the purpose.</p> + + <p>Bread rations are in force in both France and Italy. France + has recently put her whole people on a rigorous ration which + limits them to two-thirds of the amount of bread that they have + been accustomed to. Remember that bread is a far more important + part of the French diet than of ours. Even children under three + have bread cards allowing them 3Β½ ounces a day. Rations are not + a guarantee that the amount mentioned will be forthcoming; they + only permit one to have it if it can be obtained. One + interesting result of the stringency, according to an American + officer writing from Paris, is that guests even at formal + dinners, may be asked to bring their own bread, finding this + postscript on their invitations: "Apportez un peu de pain si + vous le voulez."<a id="footnotetag1" + name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a> + In Italy the very limited bread rations are fixed + locally.</p> + + <p>England has compulsory rations for meat and butter or + margarine and sugar, but not for bread. Her bread system is + voluntary like ours, but much more detailed. The voluntary + ration allows one-half pound of bread a day for sedentary and + unoccupied women and larger allowances up to a little over a + pound for men doing heavy labor. Waste of any kind is very + heavily punished—one woman was fined $500 for throwing + away stale bread.</p> + + <p>"Why not send corn abroad?" One hears the question over and + over again. The answers are many. In the first place, we + <i>are</i> sending corn over—our exports of corn during + March, 1918, increased 180 per cent and of corn meal 383 per + cent over the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" + id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> pre-war average. This they + are using as we are using it in our Victory bread. But they + must have enough wheat to make a durable loaf of bread at + the bakeshops, where for generations all the baking has been + done. The French housewife has no facilities for + bread-making and the French woman does not know how and has + not the time to learn. She is doing a man's work and her own + woman's labor besides, and the extra unaccustomed labor of + bread-making cannot be added to her burdens.</p> + + <h3>WHY WE IN THE UNITED STATES DO NOT HAVE BREAD CARDS</h3> + + <p>Some people, disturbed either selfishly or patriotically by + the failure of a neighbor to conserve wheat, have asked why the + Food Administration trusts to voluntary methods, why it does + not ration the country.</p> + + <p>Rationing may come yet, but any such system bristles with + difficulties. The cost to the Government has been variously + estimated all the way from $10,000,000 to $45,000,000 a year. + Fifty per cent of the population could not be restrained in + their consumption by rationing, for they are either producers + or live in intimate contact with the producer. A wheat ration + which would be fair for the North might actually increase the + consumption in the South. Finally, the burden of a bread card + would fall largely not on the well-to-do, who eat less wheat + already and can easily cut down further, but on those with + little to spend, who might have to change their whole food + habits.</p> + + <p>The success that is meeting our method of voluntary + reduction of consumption "will be one of the remembered glories + of the American people in this titanic + struggle."</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" + id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + + <h2>THE MEAT SITUATION</h2> + + <p>Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to + talk of it long before the war, and we shall find it with us + after peace is declared. Great production of beef can take + place only in sparse settlements. As the tide of increasing + population flows over a country, the great cattle-ranges are + crowded out, giving place to cultivated fields. More people + means less room for cattle—a relative or even absolute + decrease in the herds.</p> + + <h3>WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED</h3> + + <p>In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of + European countries have raised most of their meat themselves, + though usually they have had to import fodder to keep up their + herds. They have been less dependent on import for meat than + for wheat. Great Britain is the only country which has imported + much meat—almost one-half her supply. Her imports, and to + a lesser extent those of other European countries, have come + chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six + countries outside—the United States, Canada, Argentina, + Uruguay, Australia, and New Zealand.</p> + + <h3>THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY</h3> + + <p>Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With + meat as with wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships. + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" + id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> Australia and New Zealand, + and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder + such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large + amounts as it takes three times as much shipping to + transport feed as it does the meat made by the animals from + it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great Britain has + practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and + because much of what she has goes to Germany.</p> + + <p>The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the + warring countries has fewer meat animals now than before the + war. There were roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at + the end of 1917 than in 1914. Many of those left are in very + poor condition, so that the shortage is even more serious than + is indicated by the falling off in numbers.</p> + + <p>Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition. + Practically all the animals in those countries have been killed + or confiscated by the invading German and Austrian armies. This + is one cause of their terrible famine conditions.</p> + + <p>The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost + seriously. France is the greatest loser of the three, with more + than one-fifth of her herds gone. The enemy has driven off + large numbers of her cattle. She, like the others, is in + difficulty not only for meat, but for milk. Her situation is + complicated by the fact that she has no great cold-storage + plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at frequent + intervals.</p> + + <p>Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the + Allies in that she had many more animals in proportion to her + population than they. But she was more dependent upon imports + of feed, and as her commerce has been cut off, she has had to + kill her animals faster. Counting up all her animals in terms + of cattle according to the amount of meat they would yield, + shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria, there are no + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" + id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> available figures, but her + decrease has probably been larger than Germany's.</p> + + <p>Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely + connected with the shortage of available grain. When cereals + are short, they must be fed to human beings rather than to + animals. Feeding grain to animals and then eating the animals + is not nearly so economical as eating grain directly. For + example, when grain is fed to a cow, only 3Β½ per cent of the + energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat, and 96 per cent + is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When a man + eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its + energy. Thus 81Β½ per cent more of the grain is actually used + for human food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds, + and uses grain for bread instead of turning it into meat.</p> + + <p>Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for + meat for the great armies. The soldier's ration always contains + more meat than is eaten by the civilian population.</p> + + <h3>THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE</h3> + + <p>The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption + in order to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible. + Compulsory meat rations are enforced in all the warring + countries. They vary, of course, from time to time as the + amount of available meat changes, but the following statements + give a picture of how limited the allowances are in periods of + shortage.</p> + + <p>England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the + war. Her voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2 + pounds per week. In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very + low, and by the end of February London was put on meat rations, + and in April the rest of the country. The rationing + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" + id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> system has made distribution + easier and more fair and greatly lessened the distressing + "queues" of people waiting before butchers' shops for their + allowance. The regulations allow each person 4 coupons a + week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At first, 3 of + these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or + mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of + bacon, ham, poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 1ΒΌ + pounds of meat a week.</p> + + <p>Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the + United States was able to send in the late spring, heavy + workers were permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they + might buy a pound of bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were + allowed 1 extra coupon for bacon, poultry, or game. But at the + same time only 2 instead of 3 coupons were to be used for fresh + meat, so as to cut down further the slaughtering of cattle. + Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or profiteering.</p> + + <p>In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of + the size of those served in an American hotel. An American + staying in London said recently that he could eat two meals in + succession in a London restaurant, and leave the table still + minus that self-satisfied feeling that a meal in America + gives.</p> + + <p>At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and + in the spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices + also keep down consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2 + meatless days, and cattle could not be slaughtered on the 2 + preceding days. Though this order was abolished in October, + 1917, meat had gone up so high in price that consumption went + away down. The Paris letter of the London <i>Daily News</i> and + <i>Leader</i> on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was + selling for 4 shillings 2 pence—$1 per pound. Since May + 15, 3 days a week must be meatless—Wednesday, Thursday, + and Friday. On <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" + id="page32"></a>[pg 32]</span> these days all butchers' + shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry or + game. Fish is scarce and very expensive.</p> + + <p>Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3. + The ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are + decided locally and strictly regulated.</p> + + <p>The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The + quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but + the average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per + person. It was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in + the middle of May—barely two small servings each + week.</p> + + <h3>THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES</h3> + + <p>As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the + United States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic + the shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the + loss from inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in + Europe. The United States is now exporting far larger + quantities than it has ever exported before. In March, 1918, we + sent over 87,000,000 pounds of beef. Ordinarily we export + between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a month. Of pork we sent + 308,000,000 pounds—six times more than usual. It is + roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000 + pounds of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to + the Allies and our army.</p> + + <p>To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a + careful organization has been necessary. At first the Allied + nations bought meat in this country as best they could in + competition with the domestic market and each other, often + feverishly to meet emergencies. <b>Last December a commission + was formed to buy for all the Allies.</b> The prices to be paid + are settled by experts, after careful study, so that packers, + storage warehouses, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" + id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> and producers shall all have + adequate, but not excessive return for their labor. The + buying is planned ahead so that we can ship at times when we + have plenty.</p> + + <p>The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an + increased slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may + have serious consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for + conservation is constant, though at times the situation becomes + easier in one kind of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we + were short on hogs. In the spring of 1918, thanks to the + "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous conservation, as well as + high prices, we temporarily had hogs in plenty. Beef is short + for the summer season. Policies must change frequently with + fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe. However, + the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited only + by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still + larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which + we can possibly accumulate.</p> + + <h3>MEAT CONSERVATION</h3> + + <p>Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's + dietary as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison, + in the quantity consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat + and sugar or potatoes. Half of the people of the earth eat + little or none of it. Only in two kinds of communities is meat + used largely—new and thinly populated countries with much + grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries.</p> + + <p>Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming + more meat per person than any other country in the + world—5 pounds a week in Australia and 4 pounds in New + Zealand. The United States, parts of which may be considered in + both <span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" + id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> classes, eats about 3ΒΌ pounds + per person weekly. This is much less than some years ago, + when there was more grazing-land.</p> + + <p>Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used + about 2ΒΌ pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption + was slightly lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer + animals or less wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average + amount being about 1Β½ pounds a week—about half as much as + our consumption.</p> + + <h3>MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS</h3> + + <p>Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and + partly because it is a source of protein which is necessary to + build or renew the various parts of the body. Every cell in the + body contains it and needs a steady supply.</p> + + <p>Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of + others—fish, cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas, + nuts, cereals. Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein + of anything that we eat. We can get protein just as + satisfactorily from cheese and the other animal protein foods + as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily from the vegetable + protein foods. <b>The old idea that meat is especially + "strengthening" has no foundation.</b> Neither is one kind of + meat less thoroughly digested than another.</p> + + <p>There is little danger in this country that our diet will + fall too low in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than + we need. Even those who must spend a dangerously limited amount + on their diet, are not apt to be low in protein, for they often + err on the side of spending an unwise proportion of their money + on meat. Most scientists now consider three ounces of carefully + chosen protein per day a safe allowance for an average man. An + average woman needs + less.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" + id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span> + + <p>It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count + up roughly whether he is eating more or less than this + quantity. A small serving of lean meat or fish, about two + inches square and three-quarters of an inch thick, contains + about one-half ounce of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a + quarter of a cup of cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube + of American cheese, each have about this same amount. So does a + cup and a half of baked beans or two and a half cups of cooked + cereal or six half-inch slices of bread (3 x 3Β½ inches). A + person eating six of these portions daily will of course have + his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in his eating and + patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his + consumption not far from this quantity.</p> + + <h3>THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES</h3> + + <p><i>Fish</i>. The possible supply of fish is practically + unlimited, and much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat + on the average only 18 pounds apiece per year, though our meat + consumption is 170 pounds. The British and Canadians use much + more fish than we do—56 and 29 pounds respectively. The + United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State colleges are + constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down. We + should learn to value the many kinds which are available, + fresh, dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be + used to.</p> + + <p><i>Eggs</i> form a very valuable food not only for protein, + but for mineral salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate + that the price is often high, but it should be realized that + expenditure for eggs makes expenditure for meat + unnecessary.</p> + + <p><i>Poultry</i> is not now listed as a meat substitute by the + Food Administration because the supply has become very + limited.</p> + + <p><i>Cheese</i> is one of the best substitutes for meat. It + represents <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" + id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span> most of the food value of a + much greater bulk of milk, and its protein, fat, and mineral + salts make it an important food. We in America are very slow + to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for + its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat + more of it, to the advantage both of the palatability and + nutritive quality of our diet.</p> + + <p><i>Milk</i>, one of the most easily digested and simplest + sources of protein in our diet and the most valuable of our + foods, is discussed in Chapter VII.</p> + + <p><i>Nuts</i> are usually thought of as a luxury, but the + amount of protein and fat they contain makes them really an + important food. Peanuts are usually classed with the nuts and + are considered the most valuable nut-crop of the United States. + They are growing so fast in importance that the acreage was + increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for oil and for + fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag of + peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part + of the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional + indigestion following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is + probably often due to forgetting that they are very substantial + foods and eating them at the end of an already sufficient + meal.</p> + + <p><i>Peas and Beans</i> are taken up with the other vegetables + in Chapter VIII.</p> + + <p>Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because + they haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All + the fish and beans and peas that they can get are being used. + But it is not enough. <b>Their small meat ration must be + maintained, and their armies as well as ours must have meat. + Keep it going + over!</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" + id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + + <h2>FATS</h2> + + <p>To a person who has been in Europe since the war began the + question of the importance of fats is no longer debatable. + Having practically gone without them, he knows they are + important. In Germany it is the lack of fat that is the cause, + perhaps, of the most discomfort and makes the German most + dissatisfied with his rations. Even when the diet was + sufficient, it was not satisfactory if low in fat.</p> + + <p>This dependence on fat in the diet is due to several + reasons, both physiological and psychological. Some people, the + Japanese for example, habitually eat but little. But it is the + habit of both Europeans and Americans to use considerable fat + both on the table and in cooking. The taste of food is not so + pleasing without it. Their recipes almost all use fat in one + form or another, so that when little or none is available, a + change must be made in most of the methods of cooking. + Practically all food must be boiled, and is lacking in the + flavor and texture to which we are accustomed. The food, no + matter how nutritious it may be, will not taste good.</p> + + <p>Fats are very concentrated food, a fact which gives them + added value in war-time, making them the most economical food + to ship. <b>A pound of any fat gives 2ΒΌ times as much energy as + a pound of sugar</b>—the reason for the slogan "Fats Are + Fuel for <span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" + id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> Fighters." Soldiers engaged + in the most strenuous physical activities need fuel for all + the energy they expend. Bacon, butter, all the forms of fat + give them the most energy in the smallest weight of + food.</p> + + <p>Fats stave off the feeling of hunger longer than other foods + because they pass more slowly from the stomach and delay the + passage of foods eaten with them. A slice of bread and butter + will "satisfy" one for a much longer time than a slice of bread + and jelly, even though there is enough jelly to give exactly + the same amount of fuel. In the countries in which there is a + fat shortage, the appetite does not stay satisfied during the + usual period between meals, even when the previous meal + contained the customary amount of calories. The feeling of + hunger is sometimes almost constant.</p> + + <p>Certain fats are valuable for an entirely different reason. + Milk fat, either in the milk or as butter, beef fat which is a + constituent of oleomargarine, the fat in the yolk of egg, all + contain one of the vitamines needed by children in order to + grow properly, and by grown people to keep in good health. Lard + and the vegetable fats and oils, like nut or vegetable + margarine and cottonseed-oil, do not contain this substance, + but if there is sufficient milk in the diet, there will be + plenty of this "fat-soluble vitamine." In all other respects + the fats are alike from a nutritional standpoint. One fat can + replace another without harm.</p> + + <p>Until the war came there was little need of knowing or + bothering as to what kind of fats we ate, or of concerning + ourselves with the fact that many more varieties were available + than most of us used. Now it does make a decided difference. + <b>Our armies and those of the Allies need fat, a great deal of + it, and we must ship them the kind most suited to their + purposes. We can use what the Allies and the Army do not + need.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" + id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span> + + <h3>THE SITUATION ABROAD</h3> + + <p>There is a shortage of the animal fats, lard, butter, and + oleomargarine for the same reasons, of course, that cause the + meat shortage. England, particularly recently, has had very + little, less even than the French and Italians, who are not + accustomed to using much.</p> + + <p>England was the largest butter importer in the world, + getting her supply mostly from northwestern Europe, Denmark, + Russia, Sweden, and Holland. Russia can no longer supply her. + Neither can the neutrals, who have been supplying Germany under + pressure; they need Germany's coal. Although the United States + has increased her butter exports to the United Kingdom, if our + entire exports went to them, it would supply only 6 per cent of + the amount needed.</p> + + <p>To help the situation, England has greatly increased her + manufacture of oleomargarine. Oleo oil and vegetable oils are + being imported in large quantities and now England uses twice + as much margarine as butter. But even with the margarine to + help out, there is but little to go around. The weekly ration + of butter and margarine is one-fourth of a pound per person, + and at times even that amount has not been available. In April + an American newspaper man in London reported that he had + forgotten what butter tasted like. It could only be obtained on + the farms, and even those who made it were strictly limited in + the amount that they could keep themselves. Not even margarine + could be served at luncheon or dinner. There were long queues + in front of the shops before the distribution was better + systematized. At present the total amount of fat in the diet is + increased somewhat by the allowance of bacon and + ham.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" + id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span> + + <p>In Germany the fat shortage, has been so severe that, + combined with the bread shortage, it has been the greatest + cause of food riots. Before the war the Germans imported about + half their supply, most of which is now cut off. Of course, the + vegetable oils from the United States and the tropics are not + available. The neutrals have had to lessen their exports + because of their own shortage, and the embargo which the United + States laid on its exports of fats to neutrals. Germany's + inability to feed her animals has greatly curtailed her supply + of animal fats.</p> + + <p>As a result the rations have been decreasing steadily in + spite of every effort. Bones are collected and the fat + extracted. Seeds, such as those of the sunflower, and the + kernels of fruit have the oil pressed from them. During 1915-16 + the rations varied from 3ΒΌ ounces to 10 ounces of table fat a + week. By December, 1917, it had been decreased, so that the + average total fat ration was a little under 3 ounces a week, + some communities receiving a little more, and others none at + all. The local newspapers give interesting side-lights showing + the results of this shortage. An owner of a boot-shop was + prosecuted by the police for having 70 pairs of good shoes + which he would sell only in exchange for butter or bacon. + (<i>Brunswick Volksfreund</i>, January 16, 1918.)</p> + + <h3>THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES</h3> + + <p>The United States has great resources of vegetable oils, + cottonseed, peanut, corn, and olive oil. It is this apparent + plenty that makes it so difficult for many to visualize the + shortage abroad. We are shipping about one-third of the lard + which we produce, and large quantities of oleo oil for + oleomargarine. Although the exports of butter in 1917 have + almost been doubled since the + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" + id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> preceding fiscal year, it is + relatively unimportant, representing only about 1 per cent + of the production. We are shipping cottonseed oil also, but + this requires tank-steamers, which are scarce. In general, + as the oils are much more difficult to handle and impossible + for the armies to use, we must ship the solid animal + fats.</p> + + <p><i>The Individual's Part in Fat Conservation</i>. Although + at present there is butter and lard on the market, the need for + conserving it is important, just as in the case of meat. + <b>Waste of any kind should be abhorrent to all of us at this + time.</b> There probably has been a greater waste of fat than + of any other commodity, but it is encouraging to note that this + waste has been decreased by conservation. The amount of fat in + city garbage has gone down all over the country. In Columbus, + Ohio, the fat in the garbage was almost 50 per cent less in + 1917 than in 1916. In fourteen large cities with a total + population of over 5,000,000 nearly 40 per cent less fat was + recovered in March, 1918, than in March, 1917.</p> + + <p>Not only can fat be saved by carefully avoiding every bit of + waste, but less can actually be used. <b>Fry food less, and + bake, broil, or boil them more. Use vegetable oils.</b> In a + long view of the food situation, it is the animal fats that + cause gravest concern, because of the years necessary to build + up a herd. <b>We must send as much fat abroad as possible, and + create reserves for periods of shortage with a minimum + depletion of our + herds.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" + id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + + <h2>SUGAR</h2> + + <p><b>Of all the foods which it is necessary to conserve, sugar + is the easiest to do without.</b> If the war and what it means + has become part of a person's consciousness, he wishes only the + bare essentials. Sugar is a luxury of former times which has + become a commonplace to-day. The average use in the United + States was 83 pounds per person last year—1-2/3 pounds a + week—less than one hundred years ago the yearly + consumption was 9 pounds. Sugar was a rare luxury. It will do + no harm to regard it so again.</p> + + <h3>WHY IS THERE A SUGAR SHORTAGE?</h3> + + <p>Sugar is scarce for two reasons—much less beet-sugar + is actually being grown, and some of the cane-sugar is too far + away to be available. The sugar-beet, grown in temperate + climates, and the sugar-cane, native in tropical and + semitropical regions, are the only two sources of sugar large + enough to be of more than local importance.</p> + + <p>Before the war, 93 per cent of the entire world crop of + beet-sugar was grown in Europe. The industry was started by + Napoleon in the early nineteenth century when he was at war + with most of Europe, and France was shut off from her supply of + cane-sugar from the West Indies. The industry spread over the + great plain of Central Europe, from the north of France over + Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary to Central Russia. In 1914 + all of these countries were producing enough sugar for their + own needs. England produced none at all, but the continent, + especially Germany and Austria, supplied her with about 54 per + cent of what she + needed.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" + id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span> + + <div class="figcenter" + style="width:100%;"> + MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR + FACTORIES—ALSO BATTLE LINES AT CLOSE OF 1916<br /> + ESTIMATED THAT ONE-THIRD OF WORLD'S PROOUCTION BEFORE THE + WAR WAS PRODUCED WITHIN BATTLE + LINES<a href="images/53.png"><img width="100%" + src="images/53.png" + alt="MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR FACTORIES" /> + </a> + </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" + id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span> + + <p>The beet-sugar industry in the United States started in 1863 + and has grown rapidly since 1897. In 1917 it supplied 22 per + cent of the consumption.</p> + + <p>Sugar-cane is grown in tropical and semitropical countries + all over the globe. Cuba leads in the amount produced, and + consumes only a small fraction of her production herself. Java, + too, is a large exporter. India raises millions of tons but has + to import some to fill all her needs. In the United States, + Louisiana, Texas, and some parts of Florida produce about 6 per + cent of what we use, but our dependencies, Porto Rico, the + Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines all export to us, and + together with Cuba, make up the deficiency.</p> + + <p>The war has changed entirely the peace-time distribution. + The map shows what the battle-lines have done to the beetfields + of Europe. Belgium and the northern part of France, in which + practically all the beets were grown, are in German hands. In + 1914 the battle-line eliminated 203 of the 213 French + sugar-factories. In 1916-17 the falling back of the Germans had + returned 65 factories to the French, but now again some of + these have fallen into the enemy's hands. The French crop in + 1915-16 was only one-fifth of the crop before the war and the + following year it was only a fourth. Italy's crop was 25 per + cent less in 1916-17 than before the war and the estimated + yield for this year is 50 per cent less. England, of course, + can no longer get sugar from the continent.</p> + + <p>So the allied world must import cane-sugar or have almost no + sugar at all. The cane-sugar supply is largely dependent on + shipping. Ships cannot be spared to go to the East. Therefore + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" + id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span> the sugar of Cuba and the + rest of the West Indies, our main source of supply, must be + shared with the Allies. It is to the credit of all involved + that every effort is being made to see that the division is + a fair one. A commission representing the Allies, the United + States, and Cuba apportioned the 1917-18 Cuban crop and + fixed its price. Competitive bidding by the many purchasers, + with the danger of forcing up the price of the limited + supply, was in this way prevented.</p> + + <h3>THE EFFECT OF THE SHORTAGE</h3> + + <p>The rations of Europe are the most convincing evidence of + the extent of the sugar shortage. In England Β½ pound a week is + allowed for each person, half the average amount used in their + households before the war. France had sugar cards long before + she had any other ration. Seven ounces a week were allowed, and + later in the year only one-quarter of a pound. Germany and + Austria-Hungary in 1918 had an average household ration of 6 + ounces a week.</p> + + <p>The United States in accordance with its usual method is + asking the individual for voluntary conservation of sugar. Each + household is asked to observe a voluntary weekly ration of not + more than three-quarters of a pound per person. Extra amounts + of sugar for home canning may be secured by making a certified + declaration to the dealer that it is to be used only for + canning and preserving.</p> + + <p>Food manufacturers using sugar are dealt with more strictly + than private individuals. Every business using sugar may + purchase it only on certificates obtained from the Federal Food + Administrators. At present manufacturers of essential products + such as canned vegetables and fruits may get the amount needed + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" + id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> to fill their necessary + requirements. Manufacturers of less essential products get a + percentage of what they used before—at present + soft-drink and candy manufacturers get 50 per cent and + ice-cream makers 75 per cent.</p> + + <p>The decreased use of sugar has resulted in the release of + the ships which had been used to bring Cuban sugar to this + country—50,000 tons freed to carry men and munitions and + food to the Western front in the spring of 1918.</p> + + <h3>IN PLACE OF SUGAR</h3> + + <p>The United States is much more fortunate than Europe in + having sweets other than sugar at its disposal. As our + corn-crop is immense, the supply of corn-syrup is limited only + by the ability of the manufacturers to turn it out. It is a + wholesome, palatable syrup and can often take the place of + sugar both in cooking and on the table. Although it is not as + sweet as ordinary sugar, it serves the body for fuel in the + same way. We have cane-syrup, and also molasses and refiner's + syrup, by-products of sugar-making, and in some parts of the + country, local products such as honey, maple sugar and syrup, + and sorghum syrup. Sweet fruits, both fresh and dried, contain + considerable amounts of sugar, some of the dried fruits being + over two-thirds sugar, and when added to cereals, for example, + take the place of part or all of the sugar.</p> + + <h3>THE PRICE OF SUGAR</h3> + + <p>In spite of the short supply, the Food Administration has + kept down the price of sugar by an agreement with the + sugar-refineries that the wholesale price must not be more than + the cost of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" + id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> raw sugar plus a fixed amount + to cover costs of refining. Even during December, 1917, when + there was a severe shortage in the East, the price remained + stable. Refiners say that without regulation by the Food + Administration the price would have gone to 25 cents a pound + or higher.</p> + + <p>At times the Food Administration has had to use compulsion + to keep the price level and has not hesitated to do so where + necessary. Licenses have been withdrawn for failure to comply + with regulations, and businesses closed for longer or shorter + times. One dealer who was charging 14 cents a pound for sugar + had his store closed for 2 weeks; another paid $200 to the Red + Cross for overcharging; another, for selling sugar and flour + without regard to regulations, was closed indefinitely.</p> + + <h3>TO CUT DOWN ON SUGAR</h3> + + <p><b>Use fewer sweets of any kind and use sugar + substitutes.</b> Sugar does serve a desirable purpose in making + certain of our foods more palatable, but the quantity necessary + for this is small, and for much of it other sweets can be used + instead. The household consumption uses by far the largest + percentage of the sugar-supply. Its economical use also helps + to provide a reserve for preserving surplus fruits. <b>Such + "extras" as candy and cakes can be entirely dispensed + with.</b></p> + + <p>Of course, sugar is a food, as it is burned in the body for + fuel. But there are two good physiological reasons for avoiding + excessive amounts. If we eat a large quantity in candy after + already sufficient meals, we are overeating and may suffer from + digestive disturbances in consequence. Eating sweets instead of + other food is also bad and a cause of undernourishment. Sugar + is pure carbohydrate, and although we may eat enough to + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" + id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> satisfy the feeling of hunger + the body will lack minerals, protein, and other substances + absolutely necessary for its well-being. The person may feel + satisfied, but he will be undernourished nevertheless.</p> + + <p>The conservation of sugar will not only permit a fair + distribution to our associates in the war, but insure a + sufficient amount for our own men. It is especially valuable + for them because it burns so rapidly in the body that it gives + energy more quickly than other + foods.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" + id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + + <h2>MILK—FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH</h2> + + <p>In war-time there is constant danger of letting down the + health standard. Food is high in price, demands on incomes are + many and insistent, worst of all, life is being expended so + freely abroad that we become careless about it at home. But + while we are fighting to make the world a decent place to live + in, we must keep up our health and vigor at home.</p> + + <p><b>Milk is vital to national health and efficiency.</b> We + can conserve wheat and meat, sugar and fats, and be none the + worse for it, but <b>we must use milk</b>. The children of + to-day must have it for the sake of a vigorous, hardy manhood + to-morrow. A quart for every child, a pint for every adult is + not too high an ideal.</p> + + <p>There is no lack of evidence that children suffer if they do + not have enough. In New York in this past winter, two things + were observed which are undoubtedly closely + connected—increased undernutrition among school children, + and decreased use of milk. The Mayor's Milk Committee in the + fall of 1917 reported that the city as a whole had cut down its + milk consumption 25 per cent, and certain tenement districts 50 + per cent. The majority of the families who had reduced the milk + to little or none were giving their children tea and coffee + instead—substituting drinks actually harmful to children + for the most valuable food they could have.</p> + + <p>About the same time as the milk investigation, a count was + made of the number of New York children who were seriously + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" + id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> + undernourished—half-starved. Twelve were found in + every 100 children, twice as many as the year before.</p> + + <p>The warring nations in Europe fully realize the value of + milk. In the face of a serious shortage they are making every + effort to get to the children as much milk as can be produced + or imported. Until children, mothers, and invalids are + supplied, no one else may buy any. For adults, milk is an + almost unknown luxury.</p> + + <p>All the countries have definite milk rations for their + children. These rations would be adequate if they could be + obtained, but many times they fall short. Every effort is made + to treat all children, rich and poor, alike. The price of milk + is regulated, but parents who cannot afford to buy it are given + it free or at cost. Dried and condensed milk are used where + they can be obtained and fresh milk cannot. Thousands of tons + of condensed milk have been sent over from America. There has + been scarcely a child born in the north of France and none in + Belgium whose continued life during all that period has not + been dependent upon American condensed milk. At one time the + Ministry of Food in Great Britain, anticipating a milk shortage + in the winter bought large quantities of dried milk for + distribution by local health committees and infant welfare + societies.</p> + + <p>In Belgium, in spite of the misery of the people, fewer + young children are dying than before the war, because of the + milk and bread and care that they get at the "soupes" and + children's canteens. But in Poland, Roumania, and Serbia, + thousands and tens of thousands of babies and young children + have died since the war for lack of milk and other food.</p> + + <p>Grown people should use milk and appreciate that it is far + more than a beverage. Comparing it with tea and coffee is not + sensible. The idea that food is "something to chew" breaks + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" + id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> down completely when milk is + considered. "Milk is both meat and drink."</p> + + <h3>THE VALUABLE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK</h3> + + <p>What gives milk its unique value? It must contain especially + valuable substances, since it is an adequate food for the young + for several months after birth and is one of the most important + constituents of a grown person's diet.</p> + + <p>It contains protein of a kind more valuable, especially for + growing children, than that of most other foods. Milk protein + separates out when milk sours and is the familiar + cottage-cheese. Because of it, milk, whole or skim, is a + valuable meat substitute. When we drink milk, therefore, we + need less meat.</p> + + <p>It contains fat. A pint of milk has a little more than half + an ounce—the same amount as an ordinary serving of + butter. By drinking milk we can save fat as well as meat.</p> + + <p>Milk-sugar is also present, more or less like ordinary + sugar, but not so sweet. The sugar, the fat, and part of the + protein burn in the body, giving the energy needed for the + body's activities. A pint gives as much fuel as 4 eggs, or half + a pound of meat, or 3 or 4 large slices of bread. Although + bread is cheaper fuel than milk, its economy compared with meat + or eggs is obvious. The pint of milk costs usually about 7 + cents, while the eggs and meat cost at least two or three times + as much. The economy of substituting milk for at least part of + the meat in the diet is plain. It is the advice of an expert to + "let no family of 5 buy meat till it has bought 3 quarts of + milk."</p> + + <p>But this is not the whole story of milk. Milk is + extraordinarily rich in calcium, commonly called lime, + necessary for the growth of the bones and teeth and also + important in the diet of adults, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" + id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> even though they have stopped + growing. No other food has nearly as much. A pint has almost + enough calcium for one entire day's supply. It takes 2ΒΌ + pounds of carrots to give the same amount, or 7 pounds of + white bread or the impossible quantity of 21 pounds of beef! + A diet without milk (or cheese) is in great danger of being + too low in calcium, especially a meat-and-bread diet without + vegetables.</p> + + <p>Among the most necessary constituents of milk are the two + vitamines. One is present chiefly in the fat and the other in + the watery part of the milk. Without milk fat, in whole milk or + in butter, we run considerable risk of having too little of the + fat-soluble vitamine. The other vitamine is more widely + distributed in our foods, so that with our varied diet there is + little danger of not getting enough.</p> + + <p>Milk, therefore, fills all the needs of the child, except, + perhaps, for iron, and is one of the best foods in the diet of + grown people. <b>There is no other food that has all the + virtues of milk; it therefore has no substitute. "The regular + use of milk is the greatest single factor of safety in the + human diet."</b></p> + + <h3>OUR MILK PROBLEM</h3> + + <p>We have not nearly enough milk in the United States to give + every child the quart and every adult the pint which they + should have. Although we actually produce about a quart per + person, more than half of this is used for butter, cheese, and + cream, and only about two-thirds of a pint is drunk directly as + milk or used in cooking. This spring we have slightly more than + this amount because of the dairymen's response to the patriotic + appeal to maintain production, but our supply and consumption + of milk are still far below what they should + be.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" + id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span> + + <p>To increase the quantity in the country the price of milk + must be low enough for people to afford it, but high enough to + keep the producer and distributer in the business. The question + of a fair price is a difficult one. The cost of feed has gone + up, labor is scarce and dear, but further economies in both + production and distribution are still possible. This past + winter the Food Administration and the Dairy Division of the + Department of Agriculture have assisted many local commissions + in determining fair milk prices and pointing out economies all + along the line of the milk business.</p> + + <p>It is most unfortunate that ignorance of the value of milk + makes people particularly sensitive to a change in its price. + When it goes up even a cent a quart, many cut down their + consumption, while a considerably larger advance in the price + of meat will make little difference in the amount bought.</p> + + <p>If diminished use of milk continues, dairymen may go out of + business and permanent harm be done, both to us and to those + dependent on us abroad. A factory may close down and when the + need comes reopen immediately, but if a cow is killed it takes + practically three years to replace her.</p> + + <p>The milk we have should be used as effectively as possible. + The most economical way for a nation to use its milk so as to + get the benefit of all the food in it, is, of course, as whole + milk, or evaporated or dried whole milk. The next most + economical way is in the form of whole-milk cheese, since all + but the whey is used in it.</p> + + <p>Cream and butter are much less economical unless all the + skim milk is used. As 41 per cent of our milk-supply goes to + make butter, we have large quantities of skim milk containing + as much protein, it is estimated, as all the beef we eat.</p> + + <p>At present we feed the largest part of this to animals or + actually <span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" + id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> throw it away. Since the + cottage-cheese drive of the Department of Agriculture, an + increasing amount of it is being made into + cottage-cheese—a palatable and useful meat substitute. + It can, of course, be used as a beverage or in cooking. Whey + also has many food uses. Buttermilk, too, is justly popular + and healthful. Skim milk is not a substitute for whole milk + for children.</p> + + <p>Cream, valuable food though it is, is also extravagant in + its use of milk. It takes five quarts of milk to produce a + quart of cream. Buying whole milk is, therefore, better policy + than buying cream and no milk. The sale of cream is now + forbidden in Great Britain for this reason.</p> + + <h3>OUR MILK ABROAD</h3> + + <p>It is our supply of milk that is helping to meet the milk + shortage abroad. Before the war we exported very little. By + 1917 our export of evaporated, condensed, and dried milk had + gone up twentyfold. In the spring of 1918 we sent over the + equivalent in whole milk of almost 50,000,000 pounds a month, + and should probably have sent much more were it not for the + lack of ships. After the war, when ships are released, the + demand for it will be enormous. It will take years to build up + the dairy-herds of Europe again, so we shall continue to be + their main source of supply.</p> + + <p><b>Learn and teach the unique value and economy of milk. Do + everything to prevent in this country the tragic results which + are following the cutting down of milk consumption + abroad.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" + id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span> + + <h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + + <h2>VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</h2> + + <p>Vegetables and fruits represent a different and happier + phase of the food situation than our short supplies of wheat + and meat. The vegetables especially are a great potential + reserve of food, for they can be produced in quantity in three + or four months on unused land by labor that otherwise might not + be used.</p> + + <p>Abroad every resource for vegetable-raising is being + utilized to the utmost. France and Belgium have long made the + most of all their land. Now England has made it compulsory to + leave no ground uncultivated. Golf-courses are now + potato-patches. Parks and every bit of back yard all grow their + quota of vegetables. The boys in the old English public schools + work with the hoe where before they played football.</p> + + <p>We in America have no more than touched our capacity for + raising gardens. What we have done is merely a beginning. As + the war goes on we shall realize more and more the necessity + for seizing every opportunity for active service. The + accomplishments of the summer of 1917 showed the possibilities + of the work, and placed it beyond the purely experimental + stage. They have given experience and emphasized the value of + expert advice and the economy of community efforts.</p> + + <p>Not only is the "plant a garden" a civilian movement, but it + has taken hold in the armies as well. The American Army Garden + service is planning truck-gardens in France to supply our + troops. The Woman's Auxiliary Army Corps of England plants + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" + id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span> gardens back of the British + lines. Last summer the French fed 20,000 of their men from + similar gardens.</p> + + <p><b>Every pound of food grown in these home and community + gardens relieves the railroad congestion and gives more space + for transporting munitions and coal. Every pound of food grown + releases staples for Europe.</b> Extra production of food of + any kind, anywhere, takes on a new significance in the presence + of half a world hungry.</p> + + <p><b>If you cannot grow vegetables, use them in abundance + anyway.</b> They are too perishable to ship abroad and too + bulky, containing so much water that it would be an + uneconomical use of shipping to export them. But the more + America eats of almost any kind of vegetable or fruit, the less + of the more durable, concentrated foods will she require. The + products are so varied in kind and composition that they can be + used to serve almost any purpose—beans and peas to save + meat; potatoes and others to save wheat; sweet fruits to save + sugar; jams, even, when spread on bread, to save fat. All will + improve the health and therefore increase human energies for + winning the war.</p> + + <h3>IN THE WAR DIET</h3> + + <p><i>To Save Meat</i>. Beans and peas and peanuts are the only + vegetables with much protein, so that they are the ones thought + of primarily as meat substitutes. There are many kinds of them, + fresh or dried, more than most of us realize. It is worth while + to add to the diet not only the ordinary white or navy beans, + but kidney, lima, black or soy beans, cow-peas, the many + colored beans such as the pinto, frijoles, and the California + pinks. It is these latter kinds that are used by the Mexicans + as their chief standby. The Army and Navy use huge + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" + id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span> quantities of the white + beans, and the Allied Governments are also buying tons of + the pintos.</p> + + <p>The 1917 bean-crop, in response to the patriotic appeal, was + 50 per cent higher than the normal. Nearly all this increase + was in the colored beans, chiefly pintos. The Food + Administration, fearing that some of this unusual surplus might + be wasted and the farmer discouraged from producing a large + output in 1918, bought up the extra crop and distributed it for + sale at the different markets.</p> + + <p>Though soy beans and peanuts at least are exceptions, the + protein in beans and peas is not so satisfactory as a + bodybuilder as that in animal foods, so that a diet in which + they are a large part should contain also some milk or eggs or + a little meat. Two cups (half a pound) of shelled green peas or + beans, or one cup with a cup of skim milk gives as much protein + as a quarter of a pound of beef. Dried beans and peas are, of + course, cheaper than the canned with their larger amount of + water. At the usual market prices as much fuel can be bought + for 5 cents spent for dried peas as for 25 cents for canned + peas.</p> + + <p>Meat-savers do not all have to be high-protein foods, since + the diet of most of us contains considerably more protein than + is necessary. Any vegetable can be a "meat extender." The + pleasant flavor of meat can be obtained in meat stews, such as + the delicious French "pot-au-feu." Stews can easily be made + with less meat and more vegetables than usual. The meat + allowance is now so very small in France and the vegetables so + scarce in the cities, that the ingenuity of even the French + woman is taxed to get a meal.</p> + + <p><i>To Save Wheat</i>. Potatoes to save wheat! The great + potato drive to utilize the surplus of our huge 1917 + potato-crop, 100,000,000 bushels above normal, has fixed in + every one's mind the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" + id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> interchangeableness of these + two foods. Potatoes are one-fifth starch—almost the + same quantity as in cooked breakfast cereals. Because of + this starch, they give as satisfactory a fuel as wheat or + corn or any other cereal. One medium-sized potato supplies + the same number of calories as a large slice of bread, and + contains more mineral salts than white bread. Europe has + learned to eat potatoes instead of wheat. When bread has + been short potatoes have been the mainstay in every country. + They are to-day the largest single element, in terms of + energy, in the German war ration.</p> + + <p>Sweet potatoes are also first-class wheat-savers. So to a + lesser extent are most vegetables and fruits. Very few except + white and sweet potatoes contain much starch, but many of them + have considerable sugar, which serves as fuel just as starch + does—carrots, beets, onions, parsnips, and practically + all fruits such as bananas, oranges, and grapes.</p> + + <p><i>To Save Sugar</i>. We want sugar, of course, both for + fuel and flavor. The vegetables and some fruits have their + sugar so covered up by other tastes that it does not help to + make the food sweet. It does, of course, serve for fuel. + Bananas especially are fuel foods, containing much starch when + green, which changes to sugar as the fruit ripens. The sweetest + fruits are the dried ones—dates, figs, raisins, prunes. + They have so much sugar that they can well be used in place of + candy.</p> + + <p><i>To Save Fat</i>, Although few common fruits and + vegetables contain fat, jam is a real fat-saver. It is of high + fuel value, and has the advantage of being a "spreading + material" so that it can replace butter with bread and cereals. + Jam is of great importance in Europe to-day and all the + Governments have taken steps to keep up the supply. It is a + regular part of the English army ration.</p> + + <p><i>To Keep the Nation Well</i>. An increase in the use of + vegetables <span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" + id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span> and fruits is practically + sure to mean an increase in health. Many of us, especially + city-dwellers, do not eat enough of them. Many a young girl + who "does not like vegetables" probably owes part of her + languor to inadequate diet. The old-fashioned "touch of + scurvy" formerly noticed at the end of the winter and even + now not an unknown thing, was probably due to lack of + vegetables in the winter diet. The constipation which is so + disturbingly prevalent can usually be cured or prevented by + eating vegetables and fruits in sufficient quantities. One + of the most serious limitations in the diet of many of the + very poor is the lack of vegetables as well as milk and the + unduly large proportion of meat and bread. In a community in + New York City with high mortality rate, 75 mothers whose + diet was observed, ate vegetables on the average only twice + a week, and fruit about the same number of times.</p> + + <p>It is not difficult to understand why vegetables and fruits + are so important. Only a few are especially valuable as fuel or + as a source of protein, but almost all are high in mineral + salts and can supply the "roughage" desirable in the diet. Some + also contain the vitamines, the leafy vegetables being + especially valuable because, like milk, they contain the two + kinds. The "greens," leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage, + Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and lettuce, are the ones that + help most in these last ways—"protective foods," they + have been called. They are rich in the iron, calcium, and other + minerals that some of the other foods lack. The use of plenty + of these vegetables should go far toward keeping up health.</p> + + <h3>CANNING AND DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</h3> + + <p>The value of these foods both for the nation's health and + for saving staples applies just as much in winter as in summer. + In <span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" + id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> war-time, a winter supply, + either stored, dried, or canned, takes on special + significance because of their substitute value if the supply + of staples runs critically low.</p> + + <p>The canning industry, because it makes vegetables obtainable + at all times and places, has been of great importance in the + health and development of the country. Smith, in his + "Commercial Geography," says that "canning, more than any other + invention since the introduction of steam, has made possible + the building up of towns and communities beyond the bounds of + varied production." A century or two ago, sailors after a + voyage of a year or two, almost always came home with scurvy. + Recently Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for years + and remained in good health, because of their supply of canned + vegetables, fruits, and meats.</p> + + <p>The Government has not been slow in appreciating the need of + canned vegetables for the Army and Navy. It has commandeered + about 25 per cent of the canned beans, 12 per cent of the corn, + and 18 per cent of the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts + will be needed this year also. Much of the 1918-19 supply for + our troops in France is to be canned in France, by arrangement + with the French Government, thus saving valuable shipping + space.</p> + + <p>Drying, or dehydrating, has long been known for beans, peas, + and corn, and for dates, prunes, figs, and raisins. But dried + potatoes, beets, carrots, and "soup mixtures" are more or less + new. The drying, of course, merely removes most of the water + from the vegetable, and if the process is properly carried out, + soaking the vegetable in water restores its original + freshness.</p> + + <p>The war, with the need for every ounce of food and the + increasing transportation difficulties, has brought the process + into prominence. The dehydrated products, if properly stored, + seem to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" + id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> keep a long time. Their + saving in freight and shipping is plain, when it is + remembered that the fresh vegetables and fruits often + contain over 90 per cent water, and the dried from 8 per + cent to 10 per cent. Ships are too precious to be used for + carrying unnecessary water. Our Government has placed orders + for several thousand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the + Army and may use other dried products as they can be + obtained.</p> + + <p>Canada has sent abroad within the past 3 years over 50 + million pounds of dehydrated vegetables, about two-thirds of + which was the vegetable-soup mixture and one-third dried sliced + potatoes. When reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000 + pounds of vegetables. Germany has been drying her vegetables + and fruits far more than we. In 1917 she had over 2,000 + commercial plants, and an elaborate system of distributing all + the available fresh material to the different plants to avoid + waste.</p> + + <p>Individuals and communities with gardens or wherever fresh + products can be obtained should not be dependent upon + commercial agencies. <b>As far as possible every family and + every neighborhood should be self-supporting. Home and + community canning and drying are important duties. Can and dry + the surplus. Store up enough to carry through the next winter. + Follow expert advice as to methods. Use the greatest care to + prevent spoilage. Wherever possible unite with your neighbors + in community canneries and dryers so that every one can have + the benefit of the best equipment and the most skilled + supervision.</b></p> + + <p><b>A great deal was done in 1917; millions of cans were put + up and great waste prevented. But in 1918 more must be done. + More vegetables must be raised and more must be canned. A great + reserve for the winter is more necessary than + ever.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" + id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span> + + <h2>CONCLUSION</h2> + + <p>Almost a year of food control in this country has passed and + the great new experiment in democratic administration of the + nation's food is succeeding. The method of well-directed + voluntary co-operation, much more characteristic of our food + control than of any other country's, can be judged by its + results to date. We have sent abroad six times the wheat that + we had believed was in the country for export. We have exported + vastly increased shipments of the other cereals, of beef and + pork, of fats and condensed milk. With Canada, we are supplying + 50 per cent of the Allies' food, instead of barely 5 per cent, + as before the war. Meanwhile our own population has been taken + care of. No one has gone hungry because of the shipments of + food out of the country. The price of the most important food, + bread, has been kept stable—a new experience in time of + war.</p> + + <p>These and others are great accomplishments, brought about + through the co-operation of the nation, <b>but they are slight + in comparison with what must still be done.</b> The huge + resources for extra food production and conservation have + hardly been touched. The imagination is just beginning to be + stirred by the immensity of the whole undertaking and the + sacrifice required to win the war. Men, ammunition and food, in + a steadily increasing stream, must go across.</p> + + <p><b>"Our duty, if we are to do this great thing and show + America to be what we believe her to be—the greatest hope + and energy of the world—is to stand together night and + day until the job is finished."</b>—PRESIDENT + WILSON.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" + id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span> + + <h2>A FEW REFERENCES</h2> + + <p class="index">American Academy of Political and Social + Science. "World's Food." Philadelphia, 1917. (<i>Annals of the + American Academy</i>, November, 1917.)</p> + + <p class="index">Carter, Howe and Mason. "Nutrition and + Clinical Dietetics." Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1918.</p> + + <p class="index">Holmes, A.D., and Lang, H.L. "Fats and Their + Economical Use in the Home." Washington, 1916. (Department of + Agriculture Bulletin 469.)</p> + + <p class="index">Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, Alonzo E. "Food + Problems." New York, Macmillan, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Langworthy, C.F. "Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, + and Other Starchy Roots as Food." Washington, 1917. (Department + of Agriculture Bulletin 468.)</p> + + <p class="index">Langworthy, C.F. "Eggs and Their Value as + Food." Washington, 1917. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin + 471.)</p> + + <p class="index">Lusk, Graham. "Food in War Time." + Philadelphia, Saunders, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Lusk, Graham. "Fundamental Basis of + Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University Press, 1915.</p> + + <p class="index">Mendel, Lafayette B. "Changes in Food Supply + and Their Relation to Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University + Press, 1916.</p> + + <p class="index">Mendenhall, Dorothy R. "Milk." Washington, + 1918. (<i>Children's Bureau</i>, Publication 35.)</p> + + <p class="index">Rose, Mary Swartz. "Everyday Foods in War + Time." New York, Macmillan, 1918.</p> + + <p class="index">Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New + York, Macmillan, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and + Nutrition." New York, Macmillan, 1918.</p> + + <p class="index">Sherman, Henry C. "Food Products." New York, + Macmillan, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Taylor, Alonzo E. "War Bread." New York, + Macmillan, 1918.</p> + + <p class="index">The publications of the United States + Department of Agriculture and the United States Food + Administration.</p> + + <p class="index">The United States Food Leaflets.</p> + + <p class="index">United States Department of Agriculture: + Farmers' Bulletin 487. "Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the + Diet." C.F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 565. "Corn as a Food and + Ways of Using It." C.F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt, + 1917.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" + id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 717. "Food for Young + Children." Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 808. "What the Body Needs." + Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 817. "Cereal Foods." + Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 824. "Foods Rich in + Protein." Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 839. "Home Canning by the + One-Period Cold-Pack Method." O.H. Benson, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 841. "Drying Fruits and + Vegetables in the Home."</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 853. "Home Canning of Fruits + and Vegetables." M.E. Cresswell and Ola Powell, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 871. "Fresh Fruits and + Vegetables as Conservers of Other Staple Foods." Caroline L. + Hunt, 1917.</p> + + <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 881. "Preservation of + Vegetables by Fermentation and Salting." L.A. Round and H.L. + Lang, 1917.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" + id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span> + + <h2>INDEX</h2> + + <p class="index">Agriculture, Department of.—Aids wheat + production, <a href="#page8">8</a>; campaign for increased use + of milk, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Austria.—Wheat-supply, + <a href="#page4">4</a>; meat-supply, + <a href="#page20">20</a>-30; sugar-supply, + <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Banana flour as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Barley as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Beans.—Varieties, + <a href="#page56">56</a>; as meat substitute, + <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Belgium.—Wheat-supply, + <a href="#page2">2</a>; meat-supply, <a href="#page29">29</a>; + sugar-supply, <a href="#page44">44</a>; milk supplied to + children, <a href="#page50">50</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Bread.—Advantages of wheat loaf, + <a href="#page22">22</a>-23; bakers' bread regulated, + <a href="#page23">23</a>; conservation of, by housewives, + <a href="#page24">24</a>-25; restrictions on use in Europe, + <a href="#page25">25</a>-26; rationing not necessary in United + States, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Buckwheat as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Butter.—Consumption in England, + <a href="#page39">39</a>; uneconomical way to use milk, + <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Calorie defined, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Candy.—Manufacturers restricted in use + of sugar, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Canning.—Sugar allowed for, + <a href="#page45">45</a>-46; importance of industry, + <a href="#page60">60</a>; urged upon housewives for + conservation, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Cereals.—Defined, + <a href="#page10">10</a>; food value, <a href="#page12">12</a>, + <a href="#page17">17</a>; wide consumption of, + <a href="#page12">12</a>-13.</p> + + <p class="index">Cheese.—Valuable protein food, + <a href="#page34">34</a>; as meat substitute, + <a href="#page35">35</a>-36; a use for skim milk, + <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Corn as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page17">17</a>-18; why Allies can not use, + <a href="#page26">26</a>-27.</p> + + <p class="index">Corn-syrup as sugar substitute, + <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Cottonseed meal as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Cream.—Extravagant use of milk, + <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Drying.—Process, + <a href="#page60">60</a>; importance of, + <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Eggs as meat substitute, + <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">England.—Wheat-supply, + <a href="#page2">2</a>; restrictions concerning bread, + <a href="#page25">25</a>-26; meat-supply, + <a href="#page29">29</a>; meat restrictions, + <a href="#page30">30</a>-31; fat shortage, + <a href="#page39">39</a>; sugar-supply, + <a href="#page44">44</a>; milk regulations, + <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>; cultivation + of soil, <a href="#page55">55</a>-56.</p><br /> + + <p class="index">Fats.—Food value, + <a href="#page37">37</a>-38; shortage in Europe, + <a href="#page39">39</a>; resources and exports of United + States, <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; necessity for + conservation, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Feterita as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Fifty-fifty rule, + <a href="#page16">16</a>-17.</p> + + <p class="index">Fish as meat substitute, + <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Flour.—Manufacture of, + <a href="#page14">14</a>-15; 74 per cent extraction allowed, + <a href="#page15">15</a>; consumption cut by licensing millers, + <a href="#page15">15</a>; by fifty-fifty rule, + <a href="#page16">16</a>-17.</p> + + <p class="index">Food Administration.—Takes control of + wheat business, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>; + licenses millers, <a href="#page15">15</a>; licenses bakers, + <a href="#page23">23</a>-24; regulates sugar prices, + <a href="#page46">46</a>-47; aids increased use of milk, + <a href="#page53">53</a>; achievements in year of existence, + <a href="#page62">62</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Foods.—Importance of different kinds, + <a href="#page10">10</a>-11.</p> + + <p class="index">France.—Wheat-supply, + <a href="#page1">1</a>-2; bread regulations, + <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat-supply, + <a href="#page29">29</a>; meat regulations, + <a href="#page31">31</a>-32; sugar-supply, + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" + id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span> <a href="#page44">44</a>; + sugar restrictions, <a href="#page45">45</a>; production of + fruit and vegetables, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Fruit.—As sugar substitute, + <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>; food value, + <a href="#page58">58</a>-59; conservation of, by canning and + drying, <a href="#page59">59</a>-61.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Garbage conservation, + <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Gardens.—See Production.</p> + + <p class="index">Germany.—Wheat-supply, + <a href="#page3">3</a>-4; meat-supply, + <a href="#page20">20</a>-30; meat restrictions, + <a href="#page32">32</a>; fat shortage, + <a href="#page40">40</a>; sugar restrictions, + <a href="#page45">45</a>; conservation of food by drying, + <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Gluten.—Importance in bread, + <a href="#page22">22</a>-23.</p> + + <p class="index">Graham flour.—Manufacture, + <a href="#page14">14</a>; inferiority to wheat, + <a href="#page15">15</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Grain corporation, controls wheat trade, + <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Honey as sugar substitute, + <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Hotels and restaurants.—Regulations in + use of bread, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Ice-cream.—Manufacturers restricted in + use of sugar, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Italy.—Restrictions on macaroni, + <a href="#page25">25</a>; bread rations, + <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat-supply, + <a href="#page29">29</a>; sugar-supply, + <a href="#page44">44</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Jam as substitute for butter, + <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Kaffir as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Legumes.—See Beans, Peanuts, + Peas.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Macaroni.—Restrictions in manufacture of + in Italy, <a href="#page25">25</a>; not a wheat substitute, + <a href="#page25">25</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Maple-syrup as sugar substitute, + <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Margarine.—Use in England, + <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Meat.—Shortage in Europe, + <a href="#page28">28</a>-32; exports from United States, + <a href="#page32">32</a>-33; consumption, + <a href="#page33">33</a>-34; food value, + <a href="#page34">34</a>-35.</p> + + <p class="index">Meat extenders, vegetables as, + <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Meat substitutes, <a href="#page35">35</a>-36; + vegetables as, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Milk.—As meat substitute, + <a href="#page36">36</a>; necessity for children, + <a href="#page49">49</a>-50; shortage in Europe, + <a href="#page50">50</a>; food value, + <a href="#page51">51</a>-52; supply in United States, + <a href="#page52">52</a>-53; economical uses of, + <a href="#page53">53</a>-54.</p> + + <p class="index">Milk, condensed.—Use in Europe, + <a href="#page50">50</a>; amount exported from United States, + <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Milo as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Molasses as sugar substitute, + <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Nuts as meat substitutes, + <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Oats as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Oils, vegetable.—Use in Germany, + <a href="#page40">40</a>; supply in United States, + <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; as substitute for animal fats, + <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Peanut flour as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Peanuts as meat substitute, + <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Peas as meat substitute, + <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Potato flour as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Potatoes as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>-58.</p> + + <p class="index">Poultry as meat substitute, + <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Production.—Decreased in France, + <a href="#page1">1</a>-2; of cereals doubled in England, + <a href="#page2">2</a>; of vegetables in England and America, + <a href="#page55">55</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Protein.—Defined, + <a href="#page11">11</a>; amount necessary in diet, + <a href="#page34">34</a>-35.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Rationing: Austria.—Sugar, + <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Rationing: England.—Bread not rationed, + <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page30">30</a>-31; + fats, <a href="#page39">39</a>; sugar, + <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Rationing: France.—Bread, + <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page31">31</a>; + sugar, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Rationing: Germany.—Meat, + <a href="#page32">32</a>; fats, <a href="#page40">40</a>; + sugar, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Rationing: Italy.—Bread, + <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Rationing: U.S.—Voluntary wheat ration, + <a href="#page25">25</a>; reasons for not introducing system, + <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" + id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span> + + <p class="index">Rice.—Chief diet in India, + <a href="#page13">13</a>; as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page19">19</a>-20.</p> + + <p class="index">Roumania.—Wheat-supply, + <a href="#page4">4</a>; meat-supply, + <a href="#page29">29</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Russia.—Wheat-supply, + <a href="#page4">4</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Rye, as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Shipping.—Necessity for saving, + <a href="#page5">5</a>; released by decreased use of sugar, + <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Soy bean flour as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Substitutes.—See Meat, Sugar, Wheat + substitutes.</p> + + <p class="index">Sugar.—Consumption in United States, + <a href="#page42">42</a>; shortage, <a href="#page42">42</a>, + <a href="#page44">44</a>-45; restrictions on, + <a href="#page45">45</a>-46; price regulated, + <a href="#page46">46</a>-47; conservation of, + <a href="#page47">47</a>-48.</p> + + <p class="index">Sugar substitutes, <a href="#page46">46</a>, + <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Tapioca flour as wheat substitute, + <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">United States: Exports.—Wheat, + <a href="#page5">5</a>-6; meat, <a href="#page33">33</a>; fat, + <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; sugar, + <a href="#page44">44</a>-45; milk, + <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">Vegetables.—Importance in conservation, + <a href="#page55">55</a>; production of, + <a href="#page56">56</a>; as meat substitute, + <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>-57; as wheat + substitute, <a href="#page20">20</a>, + <a href="#page57">57</a>-58; as sugar substitute, + <a href="#page58">58</a>; food value, + <a href="#page58">58</a>-59; conservation of by canning and + drying, <a href="#page50">50</a>-61.</p> + + <p class="index">Victory bread, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p> + + <p class="index">Vitamines.—Defined, + <a href="#page11">11</a>; in fats, <a href="#page38">38</a>; in + milk, <a href="#page52">52</a>; in fruit and vegetables, + <a href="#page59">59</a>.</p><br /> + + + <p class="index">War bread.—See Flour, Victory bread, + Wheat substitutes.</p> + + <p class="index">Wheat.—Necessity in war, + <a href="#page1">1</a>; shortage in Europe, + <a href="#page1">1</a>-4; distribution a problem, + <a href="#page4">4</a>-5; supply and exports of United States, + <a href="#page5">5</a>-6; controlled by United States Grain + Corporation, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>; + conservation of by individuals, <a href="#page8">8</a>-9.</p> + + <p class="index">Wheat substitutes.—Corn, + <a href="#page18">18</a>-19; oats, <a href="#page19">19</a>; + barley, <a href="#page19">19</a>; rye, + <a href="#page19">19</a>; rice, <a href="#page20">20</a>; + miscellaneous, <a href="#page20">20</a>; keeping quality, + <a href="#page20">20</a>-21; vegetables, + <a href="#page57">57</a>-58.</p> + <hr /> + <blockquote class="footnote"> + <a id="footnote1" + name="footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b> + <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a> + + <p>"Bring a little bread if you wish it."</p> + </blockquote> + <br /> + <br /> +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14055 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/14055-h/images/1.png b/14055-h/images/1.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bab9b04 --- /dev/null +++ b/14055-h/images/1.png diff --git a/14055-h/images/13.png b/14055-h/images/13.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c70a89 --- /dev/null +++ b/14055-h/images/13.png diff --git a/14055-h/images/17.png b/14055-h/images/17.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2a87aeb --- /dev/null +++ b/14055-h/images/17.png diff --git a/14055-h/images/53.png b/14055-h/images/53.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d57ea07 --- /dev/null +++ b/14055-h/images/53.png |
