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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14055 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 14055-h.htm or 14055-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h/14055-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME
+
+Prepared under the Direction of the United States Food Administration
+in Co-Operation with the United States Department of Agriculture and
+the Bureau of Education
+
+With a Preface by Herbert Hoover
+United States Food Administrator
+
+1918
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society]
+
+
+
+ANNOUNCEMENT
+
+In the spring of 1918 the Collegiate Section of the United States Food
+Administration was called upon to prepare a simple statement of the
+food situation as affected by the war, suitable for elementary and
+high school teachers, high-school pupils, and the general public. The
+demand arose because of the wide adoption of the three courses on
+this subject then being sent out weekly to universities, colleges, and
+normal schools throughout the country.
+
+This little volume is the response to that request. It was written by
+Katharine Blunt, of the University of Chicago, Frances L. Swain, of
+the Chicago Normal School, and Florence Powdermaker, of the United
+States Department of Agriculture.
+
+The records of the Food Administration have been open to the writers
+and they have had the advice and criticism of its officials and
+specialists. No effort has been spared to secure accuracy of statement
+in the text.
+
+OLIN TEMPLIN,
+Director of the Collegiate Section.
+July 1, 1918.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The long war has brought hunger to Europe; some of her peoples stand
+constantly face to face with starvation.
+
+All agriculture has been seriously interfered with. Food production
+has been lessened to the point of danger. Millions of men who had
+given all their time and energy to raising food have been killed; more
+millions are still fighting; other millions have gone from the farms
+into the great war-factories. Women, too, have been drafted from the
+fields and home gardens into the factories and to replace the absent
+men in a host of occupations. Great stretches of once fertile land
+have been temporarily ruined by the scourge of war; some are still
+under falling shot and shell. Belgium and France have lost millions of
+acres of productive land to the enemy. The fertilizers necessary for
+keeping up the production of the land still available are lacking.
+
+All this means that the Allies have to rely on the outside for the
+maintenance of their food-supply. But because ships are fewer than
+they were, and because many of them must carry troops and munitions
+exclusively, these ships cannot be sent on voyages longer than
+absolutely necessary to find and bring back the needed food. They
+cannot afford to go the long time-consuming way to Australia and back;
+but few of them can be let go to India and the Argentine. They must
+carry food by the shortest routes. The shortest is from North America
+to England and France.
+
+Therefore by far the greater part of the food provided for the Allies
+from the outside must come from us. As a matter of fact more than 50
+per cent of this outside food for the Allies does now come from North
+America. And that is a great deal. It is very much more than we ever
+sent them before. Also we are sending more and more food overseas for
+our own growing armies in France and our growing fleets in European
+waters.
+
+To meet all this great food need in Europe--and meeting it is an
+imperative military necessity--we must be very careful and economical
+in our food use here at home. We must eat less; we must waste nothing;
+we must equalize the distribution of what food we may retain for
+ourselves; we must prevent extortion and profiteering which make
+prices so high that the poor cannot buy the food they actually need;
+and we must try to produce more food by planting more wheat and other
+grain, raising more cattle and swine and sheep, and making gardens
+everywhere.
+
+To help the people of America do all these things, and to coordinate
+their efforts, the President and Congress created the United States
+Food Administration. The Food Administration, therefore, asks all the
+people to help feed the Allies that they may continue to fight, to
+help feed the hungry in Belgium and other starving lands that they
+may continue to live, and to help feed our own sailors and soldiers so
+that they may want nothing. It asks help, also, in its great task of
+preventing prices from going too high and of stabilizing them, and of
+keeping the flow of distribution even, so that all our people, rich
+and poor alike, may be able to obtain the food they need.
+
+For all this there is needed a "food education" of all our people.
+Every home in our broad land must be reached. One of the most
+effective ways of accomplishing this is by getting information to the
+children of the nation about food and the possibilities and methods
+of its most wise and economical use. To obtain this result we must get
+this information into the hands of parents and teachers.
+
+For the purpose of diffusing this information this little book has
+been prepared under the direction of the Food Administration. By
+following the suggestions for food conservation herein contained every
+one can render his country an important war service. I am sure that
+all will be glad to do this.
+
+HERBERT HOOVER.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I. THE WHEAT SITUATION
+
+    The world's supply of wheat--Wheat in the United
+    States--Meeting the wheat shortage
+
+CHAPTER II. THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS
+
+    The significance of different kinds of food--The social
+    importance of cereals, especially wheat--Wheat flour in
+    war-time--The 50-50 rule. Another way to cut the consumption
+    of wheat--Substitutes for wheat flour
+
+CHAPTER III. WAR BREAD
+
+    The bakers' regulations. Victory bread--The individual's
+    answer to the bread cry--Flour and bread in the Allied
+    countries--Why we in the United States do not have bread cards
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE MEAT SITUATION
+
+    Where Europe's meat has been produced--The war and the
+    European meat-supply--The meat rations of Europe--The part of
+    the United States--Meat conservation--Meat and other protein
+    foods--The meat substitutes
+
+CHAPTER V. FATS
+
+    The situation abroad--The situation in the United States
+
+CHAPTER VI. SUGAR
+
+    Why is there a sugar shortage?--The effect of the shortage--In
+    place of sugar--The price of sugar--To cut down on sugar
+
+CHAPTER VII. MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH
+
+    The valuable constituents of milk--Our milk problem--Our milk
+    abroad
+
+CHAPTER VIII. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+    In the war diet--Canning and drying vegetables and fruits
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+A FEW REFERENCES
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE WHEAT SITUATION
+
+
+Wheat is as much a war necessity as ammunition--wheat is a war weapon.
+To produce it and distribute it where it is needed and in sufficient
+quantities is the most serious food problem of the Allied world. The
+continent of Europe, with her devastated fields, can raise but a small
+fraction of the wheat she needs, and ships are so few that she cannot
+import it from many of the usual sources.
+
+Not one of the warring European countries has escaped serious
+suffering, and the neutral countries have suffered with them.
+
+
+THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF WHEAT
+
+France, always an agricultural nation, was the most nearly
+self-sustaining of the western Allies. Now one-third of her
+wheat-fields are barren. Thousands of her acres have been taken by the
+enemy, or are in No Man's Land. Much of the land that has been fought
+over these past four years is now hopeless for farming, and will
+be for years to come. Even the territory still under cultivation
+cannot be expected to yield large returns, for laborers, tools, and
+fertilizers are lacking.
+
+The men who have left the fields to fight have been replaced chiefly
+by women, children, and old men, while furloughed soldiers at times
+help to bring in the crops. To get adequate return from the soil
+which has been tilled for centuries, tons of fertilizer are necessary.
+Fertilizers are an absolute necessity, and nitrates, one of the
+most important of them, can no longer be imported from Chile. The
+work-animals have been driven off by the enemy or slaughtered for want
+of food, and mechanics are lacking to repair and replace the worn-out
+farm-machinery. As a result of this, in 1917 France raised only enough
+wheat to supply 40 per cent of her need, instead of 90 per cent, as in
+pre-war years.
+
+In England the situation is not much better. Unlike France, England
+has always imported far more wheat than she raised. But now through
+vigorous effort she alone of all the European countries has increased
+her cereal production so that it has actually been doubled. Being free
+from the devastation of war at home, she has been able to convert
+the great lawns of her parks and country estates into grain-fields.
+English women of all classes, an army of half a million, are working
+on the land. At the same time the consumption of wheat has been
+reduced. Even yet, however, the home-grown supply in England is only
+one-fourth of the wheat required.
+
+In Belgium the devastation is so complete that the women, children,
+and old people left there would die of famine if food were not sent
+to them. Two and a half million Belgians daily stand in line waiting
+for food to be doled out to them. The United States must supply
+three-fourths of the wheat contained in their meagre bread ration.
+In Italy, too, the condition is serious, for she produces far less
+than she needs, despite every effort of her Government to stimulate
+production.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT FIELDS OF THE WORLD]
+
+Germany and Austria-Hungary have not escaped universal suffering from
+lack of wheat. Germany before the war was a wheat-importing country,
+and Austria-Hungary was able to supply herself with wheat, but had
+none to export. Their war crops have been below normal, and even
+the wheat taken from conquered territory has not been sufficient
+to prevent severe shortage, resulting in bread riots in industrial
+centres.
+
+The imports of wheat into both the Allied and enemy European countries
+to supplement the wheat of their own raising came in peace-times
+from seven countries--Russia, Roumania, Australia, the United States,
+Canada, Argentina, and India. Most of these have now failed as a
+source of supply.
+
+Russia and Roumania were the great wheat-bins of Europe. They produced
+as much wheat as the United States, and sometimes more, and they were
+always able to make up or nearly make up the deficiencies of western
+Europe. Russia and Roumania are now themselves on the verge of famine.
+Even before their own situation became so desperate, they could get
+little wheat to the western Allies, because the enemy territory and
+the battle-lines made a great wall of separation.
+
+Australia and India both continue to grow large crops of wheat, and
+have a surplus in storage, but it cannot be sent to Europe because of
+lack of ships. Australia has wheat stored from her last three crops.
+The Argentine had very poor crops in 1916 and 1917, and although
+the 1918 crop is good, it is scarcely more available to Europe than
+Australia's wheat.
+
+SO THE WHEAT SCARCITY IS NOT A QUESTION ONLY OF THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT
+IN THE WORLD. IT IS A PROBLEM OF GETTING IT WHERE IT IS NEEDED--WHEAT
+PLUS SHIPS. Not a single ship must go farther than is absolutely
+necessary. A glance at the map shows why wheat for Europe should come
+from North America rather than from Australia or India, or even the
+Argentine. The trip from Australia is three times as long as from
+North America, so it takes only one-third as many ships to carry food
+to Europe from the United States as from Australia. The Argentine is
+twice as far from Europe as the United States, and therefore twice
+as many ships are needed to carry an equal amount of Argentine food
+to Europe. If this continent could produce and save enough next year
+to provide the whole of the Allied food necessities, we could save
+1,500,000 tons of world shipping to be used for other purposes. EVERY
+SHIP SAVED IS A SHIP BUILT TO CARRY MORE MEN AND MORE AMMUNITION TO
+FRANCE.
+
+
+WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The United States has never had a large wheat surplus to export, and
+the last few years it has had an unusually low supply to meet the
+extraordinary demand. The 1916 crop was small. The 1917 crop was
+only four-fifths of normal, little more than we ordinarily consume
+ourselves. We entered the last harvest with our stocks of wheat and
+other cereals practically exhausted. Hence to feed the Allies until
+the 1918 harvest, we had to send wheat which we should ordinarily have
+eaten. All that we could send under normal conditions from July, 1917,
+to July, 1918, has usually been estimated at about 20,000,000 bushels,
+but in the first eleven months of this time we actually did send
+120,000,000 bushels, six times as much as we could have shipped
+without conservation. One-half of the total output of our flour-mills
+in the month of May, 1918, went abroad.
+
+This achievement in feeding the Allies has been made possible and
+will continue to be possible, through the measures of economy and
+substitution established by the Food Administration, and the constant
+and continued personal sacrifice of each one of us.
+
+Even the 1918 wheat crop, successful as it promises to be, will
+not mean freedom from saving. Throughout the war there can be no
+relaxation. We must build up a great national reserve in years of good
+harvest for the greater and greater demands of Europe. NEVER AGAIN
+MUST WE LET OURSELVES AND THE WORLD FACE THE DANGER THAT WAS BEFORE US
+IN THE SPRING OF 1918.
+
+
+MEETING THE WHEAT SHORTAGE
+
+To keep wheat constantly going over to our Allies and sufficient
+stores in the United States at the same time, is one of the big
+problems of the Food Administration. Production has had to be
+increased and consumption decreased. The price has had to be kept
+down, for in a time of shortage prices always tend to go up. It is
+true that high prices furnish one method of decreasing the consumption
+of food, but it is a method that means enforced conservation by the
+poor and no conservation by the rich. The burden thus falls on those
+least able to bear it.
+
+To meet this situation the Food Administration has gone into the
+wheat business itself. PRACTICALLY ENTIRE CONTROL OF THE BUYING AND
+SELLING OF WHEAT IS IN THE HANDS OF THE GREAT UNITED STATES FOOD
+ADMINISTRATION GRAIN CORPORATION. Through this organization all
+wheat sales are made to the Army and Navy, to our allies, and to
+the neutrals. The price which it pays for these huge quantities
+sets the price for the entire country. The Food Administration also
+makes the movement of wheat from the farmer to the miller and to the
+wholesaler as simple and direct as possible. It prevents hoarding
+and speculation. "I am convinced," said Mr. Hoover, in April, 1918,
+"that at no time in the last three years has there been as little
+speculation in the nation's food as there is to-day."
+
+[Illustration: COST OF A POUND LOAF OF BREAD]
+
+As a result of this business management of wheat, the consumer pays
+less for flour, although the farmer gets more for his wheat. In May,
+1917, the difference between the price of the farmer's wheat and of
+the flour made from it was $5.86 per barrel of 196 pounds. Fifteen
+months later the difference was 64 cents. In February, 1917, before
+the United States went into the war, flour sold at wholesale for $8.75
+a barrel. In May, 1917, the war, with no food control, had driven the
+price up to $17. But in February, 1918, after six months of the Food
+Administration, it had gone down to $10.50 wholesale, and this in
+spite of unprecedented demand for our very short supply. Without
+control, flour would undoubtedly be selling for $50 a barrel. During
+the Civil War, with no world wheat shortage, but without food control,
+the price of wheat increased 130 per cent over the price in 1861.
+
+The milling and sale of flour, the baking of bread, and the purchases
+of the individual are all regulated to a greater extent than would
+have scarcely been thought possible before the war.
+
+Every effort has been made to produce a great 1918 wheat-crop.
+Congress, at the time the Food Control Bill was passed, fixed the
+price of the 1918 wheat at a minimum of $2 per bushel, and the
+President later fixed the price at $2.20. This has been high enough to
+encourage the farmer to increase his crop and not too high to be fair
+to the consumer. The Department of Agriculture, during the winter of
+1917-18, had for its slogan, "a billion-bushel crop for 1918." It has
+worked intensively to help the farmer in selecting and testing seed
+and in fighting destructive insects and plant-diseases, and in every
+way to help him grow more wheat.
+
+Constant reliance has been placed on the individual's intelligence
+and patriotism in wheat-saving. One of the unusual aspects of the Food
+Administration is its confidence in the co-operation of the country
+and the response which this confidence has met. Wheatless meals are
+now a commonplace occurrence. Wheatless days are being observed
+in many hotels and homes. People all over the country have pledged
+themselves to do entirely without wheat until the 1918 harvest is
+available. About 100,000 barrels of flour were returned by individuals
+and companies during the spring of 1918, to be shipped to the Allies
+and the Army and Navy. The individual all over the country, consumer,
+dealer, miller, or farmer, has risen to the occasion to do his share
+toward the fulfilment of the Government's promise to Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS
+
+
+When the United States was called on to supply the Allies with much of
+its wheat and flour, we fortunately found at hand a plentiful supply
+of a great variety of other cereals. The use of corn was, of course,
+not an experiment--generations of Southerners have flourished on it.
+But we also had oats, rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and such local
+products as the grain sorghums, which are grown in the South and West.
+All of them are cereals and all can be used interchangeably with wheat
+in our diet.
+
+To understand clearly the value of cereals in the diet to-day, it is
+well to review the part played by food in general. Europe to-day is
+eating to live. She therefore thinks of food not in terms of menus
+but as a means of keeping up bodily functions, as sources of protein,
+carbohydrate and fat--terms seldom heard outside of the university a
+few years ago.
+
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD
+
+We need food first of all to burn as fuel for all the activities of
+the body, just as any other machine needs fuel. The fuel value of
+food, or its energy, is measured in _calories_. A calorie measures the
+amount of heat or energy given off when anything burns, whether it is
+coal in a stove or food in the body.
+
+Practically all foods give this fuel or energy, but some give much
+more than others. Fats give more fuel than an equal weight of any
+other food. Sugar and foods rich in starch like flour and corn meal
+are fuel foods. This is one of the reasons why they are chosen to be
+shipped abroad. The cereals always supply an important part of the
+fuel of the diet. Watery foods, like many vegetables and fruits,
+normally give less fuel. A person could not live on lettuce any better
+than a house could be heated with tissue paper.
+
+If the food does not supply enough energy, a person will burn up
+part of his own body for fuel and will grow emaciated. Far too often
+we find children of the very poor who are undernourished because of
+lack of food fuel. Sometimes even well-to-do young people half starve
+themselves because they get "notions" about food. One of the terrible
+tragedies abroad is the hundreds and thousands of men and women and
+children who are worn and thin and sick for lack of food.
+
+We need food, too, to keep the organs of the body running smoothly.
+Abroad, people are suffering not only because they have not enough
+food, but because they have not the right kinds of food. Milk and
+vegetables and fruits are especially useful. They are the chief
+sources of the much-needed _mineral salts_ and the two _vitamines_.
+The vitamines are substances of great importance about which has
+centred much discussion lately and which scientists do not yet fully
+understand, though they realize that they are essential for the growth
+of children and for health in adults.
+
+The _protein_ of food is used to build the body if we are young, and
+to restore the daily wear and tear if we are older. The mineral salts
+are also necessary for this purpose. Protein will be discussed further
+in the chapter on meat and meat substitutes, but it should be realized
+here that the protein we eat comes not only from these foods, but also
+from the cereals. Cereals supply a full half of the protein of many
+diets.
+
+Cereals are therefore important for their fuel since they are rich in
+starch, and for their protein, and, if we eat the entire kernel, for
+their mineral matter and vitamines. They also have the pleasant flavor
+and texture which we have grown to like.
+
+Wheat is no better than any of the other cereals. It possesses
+absolutely no nutritional advantage for man or beast over oats, corn,
+and rye. It has no more protein, and no better protein. It has no more
+fat and no better fat. It has no better mineral salts and in no larger
+amounts. It has no more fuel or better fuel. It is just _one_ of the
+cereals, and there is not the slightest evidence that it is the best
+one. It has merely become one of our habits.
+
+Corn and wheat and the other cereals are just as well digested if
+equally well prepared. A soggy piece of wheat bread may, of course,
+be less readily digestible than a well-made piece of corn-bread, but
+that is a question of skill in cooking, not of difference in cereals.
+Complaints have been heard in England about the war bread. It is true
+that it may be hard on those of frail digestive powers to change their
+food habits in any way, but Hutchison, an eminent London physician, in
+tracing down complaints, found that frequently people laid to the new
+bread ailments from which they had suffered before the war. "When in
+doubt, blame the war bread," seemed to be the motto.
+
+
+THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CEREALS, ESPECIALLY WHEAT
+
+The world eats more cereals than any other kind of food. They are
+so widely available, so cheap and nutritious, that they are a main
+reliance of the human race. A shortage is always extremely serious.
+
+Not only is an abundance important, but an abundance of the accustomed
+kind. In parts of India, the inhabitants use rice as almost the only
+cereal. When the rice-crop failed some years ago, thousands of people
+died of starvation with a supply of wheat available. They did not know
+the use of wheat as food.
+
+Countries like France, which use their cereals chiefly for bread, are
+the most dependent on wheat, since wheat is the most easily made into
+bread.
+
+In the United States cereals make up almost one-third of our food.
+Although wheat in most parts of the country has been the main
+dependence, we have used a much greater variety of cereals than most
+people, so that it is comparatively simple for the majority to make
+increased use of them.
+
+The very poor must depend largely upon cereals because they can get
+more for their money from them than from other foods. Cereals, to most
+of them, mean bread. It is such a large part of their diet that doing
+without it means a far more fundamental and difficult change in their
+food habits than for the well-to-do with greater freedom of choice.
+Besides, the already overburdened working woman must get her bread in
+the easiest possible way--a ready-made loaf from the baker. The burden
+of scarcity or high prices falls on those least able to bear it.
+
+Europeans eat even larger amounts of wheat than we. Over half the
+food of the French is bread, so if the wheat shortage were near the
+danger-line, it might lead to a serious weakening of the marvellous
+courage of the French people.
+
+
+WHEAT FLOUR IN WAR-TIME
+
+To use this country's share of the short supply of wheat to the
+greatest advantage the Food Administration has changed the making
+of flour to include more of the wheat-kernel. The difference between
+peace and war time flour is easily understood if the structure of
+grains is considered. Wheat and other cereals have kernels much alike;
+all have three principal parts:
+
+The outer covering, called _bran_, is made up of several layers. This
+is rich in important mineral salts, and the rest is largely cellulose,
+or woody fibre.
+
+The _germ_ is the small part from which the new plant will develop.
+Here the small amount of fat in the kernel is stored.
+
+The largest part of the kernel, called the _endosperm_, contains the
+nourishment to be used by the plant as it begins to develop. This is
+mostly starch, with some protein. It is the part of the wheat, for
+instance, which is chiefly used to make our white flour.
+
+The kind of flour made depends on how much and what parts of the
+kernel are used. Graham flour is manufactured by grinding practically
+all of the wheat-kernel--a 100-per-cent use of the grain, called
+100-per-cent extraction. Some people still fail to realize that Graham
+flour and Graham bread are wheat, perhaps because of the different
+name and brown color. The so-called "whole-wheat" flour is often 95
+per cent of the kernel only, but may be as little as 85 per cent,
+depending on the amount of the bran and germ removed in the making.
+
+Ordinary white flour contains the endosperm alone, with practically
+none of the bran and germ. Some brands before the war used up as
+little as 56 per cent of the wheat, leaving the rest of it to be
+turned into lower-grade flours and cattle-feed. White flour thus uses
+less of the wheat for human food than Graham or whole-wheat flour.
+
+Yet to convert all the country's wheat into Graham flour would not be
+a wheat-saving measure, because it is not so well suited to our trade
+conditions. Graham flour, for one thing, does not keep so well as
+flour of lower extractions, as the fat in the germ may become rancid
+in a comparatively short time. Flour in this country is often thirty
+days or longer in transit and may be months in warehouses, stores, and
+homes. A flour to be satisfactory under extreme conditions here or
+for shipment abroad must keep at least six months--too long to be sure
+that Graham flour will keep. In small countries like England, where
+flour is used up more promptly, a high extraction is more practicable
+than in the United States.
+
+Moreover, while Graham and whole-wheat flours with their larger
+quantities of mineral salts are a more desirable food for some people
+than white flour, they are occasionally irritating to people with weak
+digestions, so that it would be unfortunate to have only these flours
+on the market.
+
+The Food Administration, therefore, has considered that the most
+effective use of our wheat could be obtained by forbidding the
+manufacture of fancy flours of low extraction and making all flour
+contain at least 74 per cent of the wheat. This still gives a fine
+white flour that keeps well and is difficult to distinguish from that
+on the market before the war.
+
+To help in the enforcement of its flour rulings, the Food
+Administration has licensed all mills and elevators which handle over
+100 barrels of flour a day. If the rulings of the Food Administration
+are not obeyed the license may be taken away, and the business
+closed. The hoarding of flour has been stopped by prohibiting mills,
+elevators, and bakers from having more than 30 days' supply on hand.
+
+
+THE 50-50 RULE. ANOTHER WAY TO CUT THE CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT
+
+NOT ONLY MUST THE MILLER MANUFACTURE FLOUR IN ACCORDANCE WITH
+NEW REGULATIONS, BUT THE INDIVIDUAL CONSUMER MUST BUY IT UNDER
+RESTRICTIONS. To many people the first realization that war and food
+difficulties are necessarily associated, came with the announcement
+in the spring of 1918 of the now familiar rules for the purchase of
+flour. With every pound of white wheat flour, the purchaser must
+buy a pound of some other cereal; with every pound of Graham flour,
+three-fifths of a pound of other cereal.
+
+The purpose of this regulation is, of course, to lessen the use of
+wheat by increasing the use of the substitutes. The housekeeper who
+through lack of initiative or ingenuity fails to feed the family the
+substitutes and lets them accumulate on her shelf has just so far
+failed to co-operate with the Food Administration. Many a housewife
+has learned the value of these cereals and will continue to use
+them long after the war and the Food Administration have passed into
+history.
+
+A little thought will show the absence of any real burden in the 50-50
+rule. A housekeeper for her family of four buys five pounds of wheat
+flour and five pounds of other cereals. She may use 1ΒΌ pounds of the
+substitutes with the 5 pounds of wheat flour to make about 8 pounds of
+Victory bread--sufficient to give each member of her family 2 pounds
+of bread during the week. She may serve an ounce of oatmeal as the
+breakfast cereal and an ounce of rice, hominy, or other cereal for
+each person daily and will then have used all the substitutes. These
+cereals can be made into an endless variety of quick breads, cakes,
+and pastry, or combined with other foods as the main dish of the meal.
+
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT FLOUR
+
+The cereals on the market are varied enough to suit any taste.
+REMEMBER THAT AS FAR AS NUTRITIONAL VALUE IS CONCERNED, IT MAKES
+PRACTICALLY NO DIFFERENCE WHETHER WE EAT WHEAT OR OATS, RYE OR
+BARLEY. The quantities of starch, protein, mineral matter, and fat
+are so nearly the same that any one of them can take the place of
+another. Oatmeal has a slight advantage over wheat both in protein
+and fat, and since oats is an abundant crop in our country it is an
+excellent substitute. Rice has a very little more starch and less
+protein than the others.
+
+There is just one advantage that wheat flour has over the other
+cereals--it can be made into lighter and more durable bread. The
+reason for this is given in the next chapter.
+
+_Corn, the most abundant substitute._ Indian corn is native to the
+United States. Since it carried the Pilgrims through their year
+of famine, it has always been considered our national grain. Other
+countries have adopted it to some extent, but more than three
+quarters of the world's corn is grown here. In 1917 our corn crop was
+3,000,000,000 bushels, four times as large as our wheat crop. Most
+of the crop has always been used as a feed-grain, with only a small
+percentage for human food. The South has always used much more corn
+than the North, actually eating more corn than wheat.
+
+The foods from corn and the ways of using them are more numerous than
+is often appreciated. Corn meal and corn flour are the most important.
+We are making almost as much corn meal as wheat flour. The yellow and
+white corn meals, milled from different kinds of corn, are practically
+the same in composition, though slightly different in flavor. The
+method of milling corn meal makes more difference in the composition
+than the kind of corn used. The old "water-ground" meal was simply
+crushed between millstones and only the coarsest particles of bran
+bolted out. This ranks with Graham as a product of 100 per cent
+extraction and like Graham, it may not keep well, because the germ
+is left in. The new process, more like modern flour-milling, removes
+some of the bran and germ. The product is a granulated corn meal which
+keeps better than the other, and has practically the same composition,
+though to some people a less desirable flavor.
+
+If corn meal is further ground and bolted, we have corn flour. Some
+of this has been put on the market lately and is proving a good
+substitute for wheat flour; but the amount available is only a small
+fraction of the amount of corn meal. Other important corn products
+are hominy of different kinds, hulled corn, and popcorn. The latter,
+usually eaten as an "extra," is really a valuable part of the diet.
+
+Corn is the same satisfactory food whether it is eaten as mush in
+New England, _polenta_ in Italy, or _tamales_ in Mexico. Many of
+the people of Mexico and Central America live on corn and beans to
+a surprising extent. In portions of Italy the rural population have
+adopted the grain as their main food. Our corn-meal mush is their
+_polenta_, which is served sometimes with cheese, sometimes with
+tomato sauce or meat gravy.
+
+_Oats_. An Englishman once taunted a Scotchman with the fact that
+while England used oats only for her horses, Scotland fed it to her
+men. "Ah!" said Sandy; "but where will you find such horses as you
+raise in England and such men as in Scotland!"
+
+The United States, more like England than Scotland, has used oats
+mostly for feed. The crop is second only to the corn-crop. Oats are
+eaten in the form of oatmeal, which is a finely granulated meal, and
+as the common rolled oats which have been steamed and put through
+rollers. There is little oat flour on the market at present. A
+successful and palatable home-made flour may be prepared by putting
+rolled oats through a food-chopper. Any of the forms of oats can be
+used in breads of all kinds, but the more finely ground flour can
+be substituted in larger proportion. The demand for oat products has
+grown so rapidly the last year that mills are running to their limit.
+Special machinery is required for its manufacture, so that a great
+increase in the supply is not feasible in a short time.
+
+_Barley and Rye_. In using barley and rye for bread we are only going
+back to the methods of our forefathers. Barley is supposed to be
+one of the first cereals used by man. Good barley flour is a very
+acceptable substitute for wheat, but if too large a proportion of the
+kernel is included, it may be bitter in flavor.
+
+_Rye_, of all the cereals, makes bread nearest like wheat, though the
+rye bread formerly made usually contained from 20 per cent to 80 per
+cent wheat flour. The supply is far below what we could well use. For
+this reason it is not included among the cereals which the housekeeper
+is allowed to buy on the 50-50 plan, and since March 31, 1918, bakers
+have not been allowed to use it as a substitute in baking on the same
+basis as the other substitutes.
+
+_Rice_. Rice forms the chief food of hundreds of millions of people,
+and in many oriental countries is the staple cereal, like wheat with
+us. As a wheat substitute we may use it cooked whole or ground into
+a flour. The rice flour may be mixed with other cereals in making
+bread and cakes. The rice polish, which is a by-product secured by
+rubbing off with brushes the outside coating of the brown rice, is
+much cheaper. It has been sold chiefly for stock-feed, but it has
+possibilities as a flour substitute.
+
+The rice-growers of the South are doing their best to supply the
+country with rice in quantity and to make known the possibilities
+of this cereal. The rice flour supply, though not large now, will
+doubtless be much increased by next year. One Louisiana mill, for
+example, is increasing its output from 150 to 1,200 barrels a day.
+
+_Other Cereal Substitutes_. Besides the substitutes which are common
+all over the country, there are products produced in too small amounts
+to make them universal substitutes, such as buckwheat, cottonseed
+meal, and peanut flour, any of which can be used with other flours for
+baking. The Southwest produces both flour and meal from milo, kaffir,
+and feterita.
+
+Flours are made from the Irish and sweet potato, from tapioca, from
+soy beans, and bananas, but they are manufactured in such small
+amounts that they do not take the place of wheat to any great extent.
+Potato flour comes nearest to doing this. It has always been used
+to some extent in Europe and it is being widely used in Germany now.
+Potato itself can be used instead of wheat. An extra potato at a meal
+will take the place of a large slice of bread.
+
+Many of the substitute cereals do not keep so well as wheat,
+especially if they contain more than a minimum of moisture and fat.
+The housekeeper and the baker should therefore buy them in small
+enough quantities to use them up promptly and should keep them in a
+cool, well-ventilated place. May and June and the summer months are
+the time when most care is needed.
+
+It is the free use of these many wholesome substitutes that is making
+possible the necessary saving of wheat. We who appreciate their
+wholesomeness and their value can well break away from our wheat habit
+and gladly make the little effort sometimes necessary to begin using
+newer foods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WAR BREAD
+
+
+Bread is the staff of life for all nations. But "bread" does not
+necessarily mean the wheat loaf. At one time and place it has been
+barley cake, at another oaten cake, and at another corn pone. Bread
+has always been whatever cereal happened to be convenient. Even such
+unbreadlike food as rice is to some races what bread is to us.
+
+Why, then, have we developed our wheat-bread habit? Partly because
+wheat bread has been easy to get and we have grown to like the taste,
+but chiefly because wheat flour gives the lightest loaf. To understand
+why, make a dough with a little white flour and water and then gently
+knead it in cold water. The consistency changes, the starch is washed
+out and a rubbery, sticky ball is left--the _gluten_, which is the
+protein of the wheat. It is this gluten in the flour that stretches
+when bread rises and then stiffens when it is baked, making a light,
+porous loaf. Wheat is the only one of the cereals that has much
+gluten; rye has a little and the others practically none.
+
+Gluten seems to be essential to the making of a light, yeast-raised
+loaf. Products raised with baking-powder, for which our standard of
+lightness is different--"quick breads" like biscuits and muffins
+and cakes--do not require the gluten and can easily be made from
+substitute cereals. But for our ordinary loaf of bread, at least some
+wheat seems to be almost essential, though with skill in the making,
+rye can be made to serve in its place. Patriotic bakers and housewives
+all over the country have been trying to produce a wheatless
+loaf which is light, palatable, and sufficiently durable to stand
+transportation. The durability is a very important consideration;
+crumbly corn bread cannot be distributed by bakers nor served to
+armies. Corn bread and the other quick breads are chiefly home-made
+products.
+
+OUR PRESENT PROBLEM, THEREFORE, IS TO MAKE THE MOST EFFECTIVE
+POSSIBLE USE OF OUR WHEAT GLUTEN, TO MAKE IT GO AS FAR AS POSSIBLE IN
+OUR BREADS. BOTH BAKERS AND PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS HAVE THEIR SHARE IN
+SOLVING THE PROBLEM.
+
+
+THE BAKERS' REGULATIONS. VICTORY BREAD
+
+The bakers have co-operated loyally. Probably no other food industry
+has been more vitally affected by the war. ALL BAKERS USING THREE
+OR MORE BARRELS OF FLOUR A MONTH HAVE BEEN LICENSED AND SO ARE UNDER
+THE CONTROL OF THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION. This means practically all
+the commercial bakers of the country, and many hotels, clubs, and
+institutions. About two-fifths of the bread in the United States is
+made in bakeries and three-fifths in the home. The bakeries have used
+35,000,000 barrels of flour each year, so the importance of this field
+for conservation is plain.
+
+The amount of wheat flour they are now permitted to have has been
+reduced: at present 80 per cent of their last year's quantity, or,
+if they are pastry and cracker bakers, 70 per cent. They must make no
+bread wholly of wheat flour. Some substitute must be mixed with the
+wheat. When the regulation went into effect in February, 1918, 20 per
+cent was required and later, 25 per cent. In pies and cakes there must
+be at least one-third substitute. The amounts of sugar and fat used
+are limited. Even the sizes of the loaves are fixed, so that the
+extravagance of making and handling all sorts of fancy shapes and
+sizes may be avoided. Bread must not be sold to the retailer at
+unreasonable prices.
+
+Victory bread is bread made in accordance with these regulations.
+The name "Victory" was chosen as representing the idea underlying
+the conservation of wheat. The name is really a present to the Food
+Administration, having been used by two large firms who gave up all
+rights to their trade-mark.
+
+Hotels and restaurants are required to make or serve bread containing
+at least as much of the wheat substitutes as Victory bread. They may
+not serve more than two ounces of bread and other wheat products to a
+guest at a meal. Many of them have recently promised to use no wheat
+at all till the next harvest. That means, of course, that only through
+intelligent effort can they serve yeast bread.
+
+
+THE INDIVIDUAL'S ANSWER TO THE BREAD CRY
+
+UNTIL THE WHEAT-SUPPLY INCREASES AND THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION LESSENS
+RESTRICTIONS, USE NO WHEAT AT ALL IF YOU CAN POSSIBLY DO WITHOUT.
+Remember that you can make delicious muffins and other quick breads
+from the substitute flours. And you need no bread at all at some
+meals. An extra potato or a serving of rice can be eaten instead of
+the usual two slices of bread and the body will be supplied with the
+same amount of energy. Do not be the slave of old food habits. WHEN
+ALL EUROPE IS EATING TO KEEP ALIVE, FASTIDIOUSNESS AND FOOD "NOTIONS"
+MUST PLAY NO PART IN THE DIETARY.
+
+Some people find it is almost impossible to do without the baker's
+loaf. Hundreds in crowded city quarters have no facilities of their
+own for baking. Women doing their share in factories and workshops
+cannot get up earlier to make corn bread for breakfast. Victory bread
+must be saved for them. For households which must use wheat, the Food
+Administration has fixed a voluntary ration of 1Β½ pounds of wheat
+per week for each person. This includes wheat in the form of bread,
+pastry, macaroni, crackers, noodles, and breakfast foods.
+
+All who can should do more than their share--they must do their utmost
+to make up for those whose circumstances prevent them from doing it.
+THE INTERESTS AND DESIRES OF EACH OF US IN THIS WAR CAN BE TRANSLATED
+INTO SERVICE IN NO MORE EFFECTIVE WAY THAN BY CONFORMING OUR FOOD
+HABITS TO THE NEEDS OF THE HOUR.
+
+
+FLOUR AND BREAD IN THE ALLIED COUNTRIES
+
+All the Allied countries have been stretching their meagre
+wheat-supply to the limit and are enforcing the most stringent
+regulations.
+
+The flour is required to be of high extraction--ordinarily from 81
+per cent to 90 per cent, decidedly higher than our 74 per cent. Even
+with this coarse, gray flour a large percentage of substitute must be
+mixed, usually 25 per cent. In England there are local regulations on
+the use of mashed potato in bread. Their bread must be twelve hours
+old before it is sold, so that people will not be tempted to eat too
+much. The result is seldom palatable. In France no flour at all may
+be used to make the delectable pastries and cakes which have long been
+the delight of the French people and their guests. In Italy, macaroni,
+which in many regions is as much the "staff of life" as bread,
+must contain 43 per cent substitute, and in some places may not be
+manufactured at all.
+
+Both England and France have subsidized bread; the Government has set
+a price below cost and itself makes up the difference to the baker.
+England has appropriated $200,000,000 for the purpose.
+
+Bread rations are in force in both France and Italy. France has
+recently put her whole people on a rigorous ration which limits them
+to two-thirds of the amount of bread that they have been accustomed
+to. Remember that bread is a far more important part of the French
+diet than of ours. Even children under three have bread cards allowing
+them 3Β½ ounces a day. Rations are not a guarantee that the amount
+mentioned will be forthcoming; they only permit one to have it if it
+can be obtained. One interesting result of the stringency, according
+to an American officer writing from Paris, is that guests even at
+formal dinners, may be asked to bring their own bread, finding this
+postscript on their invitations: "Apportez un peu de pain si vous le
+voulez."[1] In Italy the very limited bread rations are fixed locally.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Bring a little bread if you wish it."]
+
+England has compulsory rations for meat and butter or margarine and
+sugar, but not for bread. Her bread system is voluntary like ours,
+but much more detailed. The voluntary ration allows one-half pound of
+bread a day for sedentary and unoccupied women and larger allowances
+up to a little over a pound for men doing heavy labor. Waste of any
+kind is very heavily punished--one woman was fined $500 for throwing
+away stale bread.
+
+"Why not send corn abroad?" One hears the question over and over
+again. The answers are many. In the first place, we _are_ sending corn
+over--our exports of corn during March, 1918, increased 180 per cent
+and of corn meal 383 per cent over the pre-war average. This they
+are using as we are using it in our Victory bread. But they must have
+enough wheat to make a durable loaf of bread at the bakeshops, where
+for generations all the baking has been done. The French housewife
+has no facilities for bread-making and the French woman does not know
+how and has not the time to learn. She is doing a man's work and her
+own woman's labor besides, and the extra unaccustomed labor of
+bread-making cannot be added to her burdens.
+
+
+WHY WE IN THE UNITED STATES DO NOT HAVE BREAD CARDS
+
+Some people, disturbed either selfishly or patriotically by the
+failure of a neighbor to conserve wheat, have asked why the Food
+Administration trusts to voluntary methods, why it does not ration
+the country.
+
+Rationing may come yet, but any such system bristles with
+difficulties. The cost to the Government has been variously estimated
+all the way from $10,000,000 to $45,000,000 a year. Fifty per cent
+of the population could not be restrained in their consumption by
+rationing, for they are either producers or live in intimate contact
+with the producer. A wheat ration which would be fair for the North
+might actually increase the consumption in the South. Finally, the
+burden of a bread card would fall largely not on the well-to-do, who
+eat less wheat already and can easily cut down further, but on those
+with little to spend, who might have to change their whole food
+habits.
+
+The success that is meeting our method of voluntary reduction of
+consumption "will be one of the remembered glories of the American
+people in this titanic struggle."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE MEAT SITUATION
+
+
+Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to talk of
+it long before the war, and we shall find it with us after peace
+is declared. Great production of beef can take place only in sparse
+settlements. As the tide of increasing population flows over a
+country, the great cattle-ranges are crowded out, giving place to
+cultivated fields. More people means less room for cattle--a relative
+or even absolute decrease in the herds.
+
+
+WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED
+
+In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of European
+countries have raised most of their meat themselves, though usually
+they have had to import fodder to keep up their herds. They have been
+less dependent on import for meat than for wheat. Great Britain is the
+only country which has imported much meat--almost one-half her supply.
+Her imports, and to a lesser extent those of other European countries,
+have come chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six
+countries outside--the United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay,
+Australia, and New Zealand.
+
+
+THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY
+
+Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With meat as with
+wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships. Australia and New
+Zealand, and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder
+such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large amounts as
+it takes three times as much shipping to transport feed as it does the
+meat made by the animals from it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great
+Britain has practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and
+because much of what she has goes to Germany.
+
+The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the warring
+countries has fewer meat animals now than before the war. There were
+roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at the end of 1917 than
+in 1914. Many of those left are in very poor condition, so that the
+shortage is even more serious than is indicated by the falling off in
+numbers.
+
+Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition. Practically
+all the animals in those countries have been killed or confiscated by
+the invading German and Austrian armies. This is one cause of their
+terrible famine conditions.
+
+The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost seriously. France
+is the greatest loser of the three, with more than one-fifth of her
+herds gone. The enemy has driven off large numbers of her cattle. She,
+like the others, is in difficulty not only for meat, but for milk.
+Her situation is complicated by the fact that she has no great
+cold-storage plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at
+frequent intervals.
+
+Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the Allies in
+that she had many more animals in proportion to her population than
+they. But she was more dependent upon imports of feed, and as her
+commerce has been cut off, she has had to kill her animals faster.
+Counting up all her animals in terms of cattle according to the amount
+of meat they would yield, shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria,
+there are no available figures, but her decrease has probably been
+larger than Germany's.
+
+Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely connected
+with the shortage of available grain. When cereals are short, they
+must be fed to human beings rather than to animals. Feeding grain to
+animals and then eating the animals is not nearly so economical as
+eating grain directly. For example, when grain is fed to a cow, only
+3Β½ per cent of the energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat,
+and 96 per cent is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When
+a man eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its
+energy. Thus 81Β½ per cent more of the grain is actually used for human
+food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds, and uses grain for
+bread instead of turning it into meat.
+
+Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for meat for the
+great armies. The soldier's ration always contains more meat than is
+eaten by the civilian population.
+
+
+THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE
+
+The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption in order
+to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible. Compulsory meat
+rations are enforced in all the warring countries. They vary, of
+course, from time to time as the amount of available meat changes, but
+the following statements give a picture of how limited the allowances
+are in periods of shortage.
+
+England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the war. Her
+voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2 pounds per week.
+In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very low, and by the end of
+February London was put on meat rations, and in April the rest of the
+country. The rationing system has made distribution easier and more
+fair and greatly lessened the distressing "queues" of people waiting
+before butchers' shops for their allowance. The regulations allow each
+person 4 coupons a week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At
+first, 3 of these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or
+mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of bacon, ham,
+poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 1ΒΌ pounds of meat a
+week.
+
+Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the United
+States was able to send in the late spring, heavy workers were
+permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they might buy a pound of
+bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were allowed 1 extra coupon for
+bacon, poultry, or game. But at the same time only 2 instead of 3
+coupons were to be used for fresh meat, so as to cut down further the
+slaughtering of cattle. Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or
+profiteering.
+
+In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of the size
+of those served in an American hotel. An American staying in London
+said recently that he could eat two meals in succession in a London
+restaurant, and leave the table still minus that self-satisfied
+feeling that a meal in America gives.
+
+At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and in the
+spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices also keep down
+consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2 meatless days, and cattle
+could not be slaughtered on the 2 preceding days. Though this order
+was abolished in October, 1917, meat had gone up so high in price
+that consumption went away down. The Paris letter of the London _Daily
+News_ and _Leader_ on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was
+selling for 4 shillings 2 pence--$1 per pound. Since May 15, 3 days a
+week must be meatless--Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. On these days
+all butchers' shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry
+or game. Fish is scarce and very expensive.
+
+Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3. The
+ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are decided locally
+and strictly regulated.
+
+The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The
+quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but the
+average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per person. It
+was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in the middle of
+May--barely two small servings each week.
+
+
+THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the United
+States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic the
+shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the loss from
+inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in Europe. The United
+States is now exporting far larger quantities than it has ever
+exported before. In March, 1918, we sent over 87,000,000 pounds of
+beef. Ordinarily we export between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a
+month. Of pork we sent 308,000,000 pounds--six times more than usual.
+It is roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000 pounds
+of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to the Allies and
+our army.
+
+To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a careful
+organization has been necessary. At first the Allied nations bought
+meat in this country as best they could in competition with the
+domestic market and each other, often feverishly to meet emergencies.
+LAST DECEMBER A COMMISSION WAS FORMED TO BUY FOR ALL THE ALLIES. The
+prices to be paid are settled by experts, after careful study, so that
+packers, storage warehouses, and producers shall all have adequate,
+but not excessive return for their labor. The buying is planned ahead
+so that we can ship at times when we have plenty.
+
+The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an increased
+slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may have serious
+consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for conservation is
+constant, though at times the situation becomes easier in one kind
+of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we were short on hogs. In
+the spring of 1918, thanks to the "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous
+conservation, as well as high prices, we temporarily had hogs in
+plenty. Beef is short for the summer season. Policies must change
+frequently with fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe.
+However, the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited
+only by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still
+larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which we can
+possibly accumulate.
+
+
+MEAT CONSERVATION
+
+Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's dietary
+as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison, in the quantity
+consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat and sugar or potatoes.
+Half of the people of the earth eat little or none of it. Only in two
+kinds of communities is meat used largely--new and thinly populated
+countries with much grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries.
+
+Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming more meat
+per person than any other country in the world--5 pounds a week in
+Australia and 4 pounds in New Zealand. The United States, parts of
+which may be considered in both classes, eats about 3ΒΌ pounds per
+person weekly. This is much less than some years ago, when there was
+more grazing-land.
+
+Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used about 2ΒΌ
+pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption was slightly
+lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer animals or less
+wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average amount being about 1Β½
+pounds a week--about half as much as our consumption.
+
+
+MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS
+
+Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and partly because
+it is a source of protein which is necessary to build or renew the
+various parts of the body. Every cell in the body contains it and
+needs a steady supply.
+
+Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of others--fish,
+cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas, nuts, cereals.
+Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein of anything that we
+eat. We can get protein just as satisfactorily from cheese and the
+other animal protein foods as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily
+from the vegetable protein foods. THE OLD IDEA THAT MEAT IS
+ESPECIALLY "STRENGTHENING" HAS NO FOUNDATION. Neither is one kind of
+meat less thoroughly digested than another.
+
+There is little danger in this country that our diet will fall too low
+in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than we need. Even those
+who must spend a dangerously limited amount on their diet, are not apt
+to be low in protein, for they often err on the side of spending an
+unwise proportion of their money on meat. Most scientists now consider
+three ounces of carefully chosen protein per day a safe allowance for
+an average man. An average woman needs less.
+
+It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count up
+roughly whether he is eating more or less than this quantity. A
+small serving of lean meat or fish, about two inches square and
+three-quarters of an inch thick, contains about one-half ounce
+of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a quarter of a cup of
+cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube of American cheese, each
+have about this same amount. So does a cup and a half of baked beans
+or two and a half cups of cooked cereal or six half-inch slices of
+bread (3 x 3Β½ inches). A person eating six of these portions daily
+will of course have his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in
+his eating and patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his
+consumption not far from this quantity.
+
+
+THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES
+
+_Fish_. The possible supply of fish is practically unlimited, and
+much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat on the average only 18
+pounds apiece per year, though our meat consumption is 170 pounds. The
+British and Canadians use much more fish than we do--56 and 29 pounds
+respectively. The United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State
+colleges are constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down.
+We should learn to value the many kinds which are available, fresh,
+dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be used to.
+
+_Eggs_ form a very valuable food not only for protein, but for mineral
+salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate that the price is
+often high, but it should be realized that expenditure for eggs makes
+expenditure for meat unnecessary.
+
+_Poultry_ is not now listed as a meat substitute by the Food
+Administration because the supply has become very limited.
+
+_Cheese_ is one of the best substitutes for meat. It represents most
+of the food value of a much greater bulk of milk, and its protein,
+fat, and mineral salts make it an important food. We in America are
+very slow to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for
+its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat more of it,
+to the advantage both of the palatability and nutritive quality of our
+diet.
+
+_Milk_, one of the most easily digested and simplest sources of
+protein in our diet and the most valuable of our foods, is discussed
+in Chapter VII.
+
+_Nuts_ are usually thought of as a luxury, but the amount of protein
+and fat they contain makes them really an important food. Peanuts are
+usually classed with the nuts and are considered the most valuable
+nut-crop of the United States. They are growing so fast in importance
+that the acreage was increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for
+oil and for fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag
+of peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part of
+the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional indigestion
+following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is probably often due
+to forgetting that they are very substantial foods and eating them at
+the end of an already sufficient meal.
+
+_Peas and Beans_ are taken up with the other vegetables in Chapter
+VIII.
+
+Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because they
+haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All the fish and
+beans and peas that they can get are being used. But it is not enough.
+THEIR SMALL MEAT RATION MUST BE MAINTAINED, AND THEIR ARMIES AS WELL
+AS OURS MUST HAVE MEAT. KEEP IT GOING OVER!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FATS
+
+
+To a person who has been in Europe since the war began the question of
+the importance of fats is no longer debatable. Having practically gone
+without them, he knows they are important. In Germany it is the lack
+of fat that is the cause, perhaps, of the most discomfort and makes
+the German most dissatisfied with his rations. Even when the diet was
+sufficient, it was not satisfactory if low in fat.
+
+This dependence on fat in the diet is due to several reasons, both
+physiological and psychological. Some people, the Japanese for
+example, habitually eat but little. But it is the habit of both
+Europeans and Americans to use considerable fat both on the table and
+in cooking. The taste of food is not so pleasing without it. Their
+recipes almost all use fat in one form or another, so that when little
+or none is available, a change must be made in most of the methods of
+cooking. Practically all food must be boiled, and is lacking in the
+flavor and texture to which we are accustomed. The food, no matter how
+nutritious it may be, will not taste good.
+
+Fats are very concentrated food, a fact which gives them added value
+in war-time, making them the most economical food to ship. A POUND OF
+ANY FAT GIVES 2ΒΌ TIMES AS MUCH ENERGY AS A POUND OF SUGAR--the reason
+for the slogan "Fats Are Fuel for Fighters." Soldiers engaged in the
+most strenuous physical activities need fuel for all the energy they
+expend. Bacon, butter, all the forms of fat give them the most energy
+in the smallest weight of food.
+
+Fats stave off the feeling of hunger longer than other foods because
+they pass more slowly from the stomach and delay the passage of foods
+eaten with them. A slice of bread and butter will "satisfy" one for a
+much longer time than a slice of bread and jelly, even though there is
+enough jelly to give exactly the same amount of fuel. In the countries
+in which there is a fat shortage, the appetite does not stay satisfied
+during the usual period between meals, even when the previous meal
+contained the customary amount of calories. The feeling of hunger is
+sometimes almost constant.
+
+Certain fats are valuable for an entirely different reason. Milk fat,
+either in the milk or as butter, beef fat which is a constituent of
+oleomargarine, the fat in the yolk of egg, all contain one of the
+vitamines needed by children in order to grow properly, and by grown
+people to keep in good health. Lard and the vegetable fats and oils,
+like nut or vegetable margarine and cottonseed-oil, do not contain
+this substance, but if there is sufficient milk in the diet, there
+will be plenty of this "fat-soluble vitamine." In all other respects
+the fats are alike from a nutritional standpoint. One fat can replace
+another without harm.
+
+Until the war came there was little need of knowing or bothering as
+to what kind of fats we ate, or of concerning ourselves with the fact
+that many more varieties were available than most of us used. Now it
+does make a decided difference. OUR ARMIES AND THOSE OF THE ALLIES
+NEED FAT, A GREAT DEAL OF IT, AND WE MUST SHIP THEM THE KIND MOST
+SUITED TO THEIR PURPOSES. WE CAN USE WHAT THE ALLIES AND THE ARMY DO
+NOT NEED.
+
+
+THE SITUATION ABROAD
+
+There is a shortage of the animal fats, lard, butter, and
+oleomargarine for the same reasons, of course, that cause the meat
+shortage. England, particularly recently, has had very little, less
+even than the French and Italians, who are not accustomed to using
+much.
+
+England was the largest butter importer in the world, getting her
+supply mostly from northwestern Europe, Denmark, Russia, Sweden, and
+Holland. Russia can no longer supply her. Neither can the neutrals,
+who have been supplying Germany under pressure; they need Germany's
+coal. Although the United States has increased her butter exports
+to the United Kingdom, if our entire exports went to them, it would
+supply only 6 per cent of the amount needed.
+
+To help the situation, England has greatly increased her manufacture
+of oleomargarine. Oleo oil and vegetable oils are being imported
+in large quantities and now England uses twice as much margarine as
+butter. But even with the margarine to help out, there is but little
+to go around. The weekly ration of butter and margarine is one-fourth
+of a pound per person, and at times even that amount has not been
+available. In April an American newspaper man in London reported that
+he had forgotten what butter tasted like. It could only be obtained
+on the farms, and even those who made it were strictly limited in the
+amount that they could keep themselves. Not even margarine could be
+served at luncheon or dinner. There were long queues in front of the
+shops before the distribution was better systematized. At present the
+total amount of fat in the diet is increased somewhat by the allowance
+of bacon and ham.
+
+In Germany the fat shortage, has been so severe that, combined with
+the bread shortage, it has been the greatest cause of food riots.
+Before the war the Germans imported about half their supply, most of
+which is now cut off. Of course, the vegetable oils from the United
+States and the tropics are not available. The neutrals have had to
+lessen their exports because of their own shortage, and the embargo
+which the United States laid on its exports of fats to neutrals.
+Germany's inability to feed her animals has greatly curtailed her
+supply of animal fats.
+
+As a result the rations have been decreasing steadily in spite of
+every effort. Bones are collected and the fat extracted. Seeds, such
+as those of the sunflower, and the kernels of fruit have the oil
+pressed from them. During 1915-16 the rations varied from 3ΒΌ ounces
+to 10 ounces of table fat a week. By December, 1917, it had been
+decreased, so that the average total fat ration was a little under 3
+ounces a week, some communities receiving a little more, and others
+none at all. The local newspapers give interesting side-lights showing
+the results of this shortage. An owner of a boot-shop was prosecuted
+by the police for having 70 pairs of good shoes which he would sell
+only in exchange for butter or bacon. (_Brunswick Volksfreund_,
+January 16, 1918.)
+
+
+THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The United States has great resources of vegetable oils, cottonseed,
+peanut, corn, and olive oil. It is this apparent plenty that makes
+it so difficult for many to visualize the shortage abroad. We are
+shipping about one-third of the lard which we produce, and large
+quantities of oleo oil for oleomargarine. Although the exports of
+butter in 1917 have almost been doubled since the preceding fiscal
+year, it is relatively unimportant, representing only about 1 per
+cent of the production. We are shipping cottonseed oil also, but this
+requires tank-steamers, which are scarce. In general, as the oils are
+much more difficult to handle and impossible for the armies to use, we
+must ship the solid animal fats.
+
+_The Individual's Part in Fat Conservation_. Although at present
+there is butter and lard on the market, the need for conserving
+it is important, just as in the case of meat. WASTE OF ANY KIND
+SHOULD BE ABHORRENT TO ALL OF US AT THIS TIME. There probably
+has been a greater waste of fat than of any other commodity, but
+it is encouraging to note that this waste has been decreased by
+conservation. The amount of fat in city garbage has gone down all over
+the country. In Columbus, Ohio, the fat in the garbage was almost 50
+per cent less in 1917 than in 1916. In fourteen large cities with a
+total population of over 5,000,000 nearly 40 per cent less fat was
+recovered in March, 1918, than in March, 1917.
+
+Not only can fat be saved by carefully avoiding every bit of waste,
+but less can actually be used. FRY FOOD LESS, AND BAKE, BROIL,
+OR BOIL THEM MORE. USE VEGETABLE OILS. In a long view of the food
+situation, it is the animal fats that cause gravest concern, because
+of the years necessary to build up a herd. WE MUST SEND AS MUCH FAT
+ABROAD AS POSSIBLE, AND CREATE RESERVES FOR PERIODS OF SHORTAGE WITH A
+MINIMUM DEPLETION OF OUR HERDS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SUGAR
+
+
+OF ALL THE FOODS WHICH IT IS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE, SUGAR IS THE
+EASIEST TO DO WITHOUT. If the war and what it means has become part
+of a person's consciousness, he wishes only the bare essentials. Sugar
+is a luxury of former times which has become a commonplace to-day.
+The average use in the United States was 83 pounds per person last
+year--1-2/3 pounds a week--less than one hundred years ago the yearly
+consumption was 9 pounds. Sugar was a rare luxury. It will do no harm
+to regard it so again.
+
+
+WHY IS THERE A SUGAR SHORTAGE?
+
+Sugar is scarce for two reasons--much less beet-sugar is actually
+being grown, and some of the cane-sugar is too far away to be
+available. The sugar-beet, grown in temperate climates, and the
+sugar-cane, native in tropical and semitropical regions, are the only
+two sources of sugar large enough to be of more than local importance.
+
+Before the war, 93 per cent of the entire world crop of beet-sugar
+was grown in Europe. The industry was started by Napoleon in the early
+nineteenth century when he was at war with most of Europe, and France
+was shut off from her supply of cane-sugar from the West Indies. The
+industry spread over the great plain of Central Europe, from the north
+of France over Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary to Central Russia. In
+1914 all of these countries were producing enough sugar for their own
+needs. England produced none at all, but the continent, especially
+Germany and Austria, supplied her with about 54 per cent of what she
+needed.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR
+FACTORIES--ALSO BATTLE LINES AT CLOSE OF 1916
+
+ESTIMATED THAT ONE-THIRD OF WORLD'S PROOUCTION BEFORE THE WAR WAS
+PRODUCED WITHIN BATTLE LINES]
+
+The beet-sugar industry in the United States started in 1863 and
+has grown rapidly since 1897. In 1917 it supplied 22 per cent of the
+consumption.
+
+Sugar-cane is grown in tropical and semitropical countries all over
+the globe. Cuba leads in the amount produced, and consumes only
+a small fraction of her production herself. Java, too, is a large
+exporter. India raises millions of tons but has to import some to
+fill all her needs. In the United States, Louisiana, Texas, and some
+parts of Florida produce about 6 per cent of what we use, but our
+dependencies, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines all
+export to us, and together with Cuba, make up the deficiency.
+
+The war has changed entirely the peace-time distribution. The map
+shows what the battle-lines have done to the beetfields of Europe.
+Belgium and the northern part of France, in which practically all
+the beets were grown, are in German hands. In 1914 the battle-line
+eliminated 203 of the 213 French sugar-factories. In 1916-17 the
+falling back of the Germans had returned 65 factories to the French,
+but now again some of these have fallen into the enemy's hands. The
+French crop in 1915-16 was only one-fifth of the crop before the war
+and the following year it was only a fourth. Italy's crop was 25 per
+cent less in 1916-17 than before the war and the estimated yield for
+this year is 50 per cent less. England, of course, can no longer get
+sugar from the continent.
+
+So the allied world must import cane-sugar or have almost no sugar
+at all. The cane-sugar supply is largely dependent on shipping. Ships
+cannot be spared to go to the East. Therefore the sugar of Cuba and
+the rest of the West Indies, our main source of supply, must be shared
+with the Allies. It is to the credit of all involved that every effort
+is being made to see that the division is a fair one. A commission
+representing the Allies, the United States, and Cuba apportioned the
+1917-18 Cuban crop and fixed its price. Competitive bidding by the
+many purchasers, with the danger of forcing up the price of the
+limited supply, was in this way prevented.
+
+
+THE EFFECT OF THE SHORTAGE
+
+The rations of Europe are the most convincing evidence of the extent
+of the sugar shortage. In England Β½ pound a week is allowed for each
+person, half the average amount used in their households before the
+war. France had sugar cards long before she had any other ration.
+Seven ounces a week were allowed, and later in the year only
+one-quarter of a pound. Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1918 had an
+average household ration of 6 ounces a week.
+
+The United States in accordance with its usual method is asking
+the individual for voluntary conservation of sugar. Each household
+is asked to observe a voluntary weekly ration of not more than
+three-quarters of a pound per person. Extra amounts of sugar for home
+canning may be secured by making a certified declaration to the dealer
+that it is to be used only for canning and preserving.
+
+Food manufacturers using sugar are dealt with more strictly than
+private individuals. Every business using sugar may purchase it only
+on certificates obtained from the Federal Food Administrators. At
+present manufacturers of essential products such as canned vegetables
+and fruits may get the amount needed to fill their necessary
+requirements. Manufacturers of less essential products get a
+percentage of what they used before--at present soft-drink and candy
+manufacturers get 50 per cent and ice-cream makers 75 per cent.
+
+The decreased use of sugar has resulted in the release of the ships
+which had been used to bring Cuban sugar to this country--50,000 tons
+freed to carry men and munitions and food to the Western front in the
+spring of 1918.
+
+
+IN PLACE OF SUGAR
+
+The United States is much more fortunate than Europe in having sweets
+other than sugar at its disposal. As our corn-crop is immense,
+the supply of corn-syrup is limited only by the ability of the
+manufacturers to turn it out. It is a wholesome, palatable syrup and
+can often take the place of sugar both in cooking and on the table.
+Although it is not as sweet as ordinary sugar, it serves the body
+for fuel in the same way. We have cane-syrup, and also molasses and
+refiner's syrup, by-products of sugar-making, and in some parts of
+the country, local products such as honey, maple sugar and syrup,
+and sorghum syrup. Sweet fruits, both fresh and dried, contain
+considerable amounts of sugar, some of the dried fruits being over
+two-thirds sugar, and when added to cereals, for example, take the
+place of part or all of the sugar.
+
+
+THE PRICE OF SUGAR
+
+In spite of the short supply, the Food Administration has kept down
+the price of sugar by an agreement with the sugar-refineries that the
+wholesale price must not be more than the cost of the raw sugar plus
+a fixed amount to cover costs of refining. Even during December,
+1917, when there was a severe shortage in the East, the price
+remained stable. Refiners say that without regulation by the Food
+Administration the price would have gone to 25 cents a pound or
+higher.
+
+At times the Food Administration has had to use compulsion to keep the
+price level and has not hesitated to do so where necessary. Licenses
+have been withdrawn for failure to comply with regulations, and
+businesses closed for longer or shorter times. One dealer who was
+charging 14 cents a pound for sugar had his store closed for 2 weeks;
+another paid $200 to the Red Cross for overcharging; another, for
+selling sugar and flour without regard to regulations, was closed
+indefinitely.
+
+
+TO CUT DOWN ON SUGAR
+
+USE FEWER SWEETS OF ANY KIND AND USE SUGAR SUBSTITUTES. Sugar
+does serve a desirable purpose in making certain of our foods more
+palatable, but the quantity necessary for this is small, and for much
+of it other sweets can be used instead. The household consumption uses
+by far the largest percentage of the sugar-supply. Its economical use
+also helps to provide a reserve for preserving surplus fruits. SUCH
+"EXTRAS" AS CANDY AND CAKES CAN BE ENTIRELY DISPENSED WITH.
+
+Of course, sugar is a food, as it is burned in the body for fuel.
+But there are two good physiological reasons for avoiding excessive
+amounts. If we eat a large quantity in candy after already sufficient
+meals, we are overeating and may suffer from digestive disturbances
+in consequence. Eating sweets instead of other food is also bad and a
+cause of undernourishment. Sugar is pure carbohydrate, and although
+we may eat enough to satisfy the feeling of hunger the body will lack
+minerals, protein, and other substances absolutely necessary for
+its well-being. The person may feel satisfied, but he will be
+undernourished nevertheless.
+
+The conservation of sugar will not only permit a fair distribution to
+our associates in the war, but insure a sufficient amount for our own
+men. It is especially valuable for them because it burns so rapidly in
+the body that it gives energy more quickly than other foods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH
+
+
+In war-time there is constant danger of letting down the health
+standard. Food is high in price, demands on incomes are many and
+insistent, worst of all, life is being expended so freely abroad that
+we become careless about it at home. But while we are fighting to make
+the world a decent place to live in, we must keep up our health and
+vigor at home.
+
+MILK IS VITAL TO NATIONAL HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY. We can conserve
+wheat and meat, sugar and fats, and be none the worse for it, but WE
+MUST USE MILK. The children of to-day must have it for the sake of a
+vigorous, hardy manhood to-morrow. A quart for every child, a pint for
+every adult is not too high an ideal.
+
+There is no lack of evidence that children suffer if they do not have
+enough. In New York in this past winter, two things were observed
+which are undoubtedly closely connected--increased undernutrition
+among school children, and decreased use of milk. The Mayor's Milk
+Committee in the fall of 1917 reported that the city as a whole
+had cut down its milk consumption 25 per cent, and certain tenement
+districts 50 per cent. The majority of the families who had reduced
+the milk to little or none were giving their children tea and coffee
+instead--substituting drinks actually harmful to children for the most
+valuable food they could have.
+
+About the same time as the milk investigation, a count was made of
+the number of New York children who were seriously undernourished--
+half-starved. Twelve were found in every 100 children, twice as many
+as the year before.
+
+The warring nations in Europe fully realize the value of milk. In the
+face of a serious shortage they are making every effort to get to the
+children as much milk as can be produced or imported. Until children,
+mothers, and invalids are supplied, no one else may buy any. For adults,
+milk is an almost unknown luxury.
+
+All the countries have definite milk rations for their children. These
+rations would be adequate if they could be obtained, but many times
+they fall short. Every effort is made to treat all children, rich and
+poor, alike. The price of milk is regulated, but parents who cannot
+afford to buy it are given it free or at cost. Dried and condensed
+milk are used where they can be obtained and fresh milk cannot.
+Thousands of tons of condensed milk have been sent over from America.
+There has been scarcely a child born in the north of France and none
+in Belgium whose continued life during all that period has not been
+dependent upon American condensed milk. At one time the Ministry of
+Food in Great Britain, anticipating a milk shortage in the winter
+bought large quantities of dried milk for distribution by local health
+committees and infant welfare societies.
+
+In Belgium, in spite of the misery of the people, fewer young children
+are dying than before the war, because of the milk and bread and care
+that they get at the "soupes" and children's canteens. But in Poland,
+Roumania, and Serbia, thousands and tens of thousands of babies and
+young children have died since the war for lack of milk and other
+food.
+
+Grown people should use milk and appreciate that it is far more than
+a beverage. Comparing it with tea and coffee is not sensible. The idea
+that food is "something to chew" breaks down completely when milk is
+considered. "Milk is both meat and drink."
+
+
+THE VALUABLE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK
+
+What gives milk its unique value? It must contain especially valuable
+substances, since it is an adequate food for the young for several
+months after birth and is one of the most important constituents of a
+grown person's diet.
+
+It contains protein of a kind more valuable, especially for growing
+children, than that of most other foods. Milk protein separates out
+when milk sours and is the familiar cottage-cheese. Because of it,
+milk, whole or skim, is a valuable meat substitute. When we drink
+milk, therefore, we need less meat.
+
+It contains fat. A pint of milk has a little more than half an
+ounce--the same amount as an ordinary serving of butter. By drinking
+milk we can save fat as well as meat.
+
+Milk-sugar is also present, more or less like ordinary sugar, but
+not so sweet. The sugar, the fat, and part of the protein burn in
+the body, giving the energy needed for the body's activities. A pint
+gives as much fuel as 4 eggs, or half a pound of meat, or 3 or 4 large
+slices of bread. Although bread is cheaper fuel than milk, its economy
+compared with meat or eggs is obvious. The pint of milk costs usually
+about 7 cents, while the eggs and meat cost at least two or three
+times as much. The economy of substituting milk for at least part of
+the meat in the diet is plain. It is the advice of an expert to "let
+no family of 5 buy meat till it has bought 3 quarts of milk."
+
+But this is not the whole story of milk. Milk is extraordinarily rich
+in calcium, commonly called lime, necessary for the growth of the
+bones and teeth and also important in the diet of adults, even though
+they have stopped growing. No other food has nearly as much. A pint
+has almost enough calcium for one entire day's supply. It takes 2ΒΌ
+pounds of carrots to give the same amount, or 7 pounds of white bread
+or the impossible quantity of 21 pounds of beef! A diet without milk
+(or cheese) is in great danger of being too low in calcium, especially
+a meat-and-bread diet without vegetables.
+
+Among the most necessary constituents of milk are the two vitamines.
+One is present chiefly in the fat and the other in the watery part
+of the milk. Without milk fat, in whole milk or in butter, we run
+considerable risk of having too little of the fat-soluble vitamine.
+The other vitamine is more widely distributed in our foods, so that
+with our varied diet there is little danger of not getting enough.
+
+Milk, therefore, fills all the needs of the child, except, perhaps,
+for iron, and is one of the best foods in the diet of grown people.
+THERE IS NO OTHER FOOD THAT HAS ALL THE VIRTUES OF MILK; IT THEREFORE
+HAS NO SUBSTITUTE. "THE REGULAR USE OF MILK IS THE GREATEST SINGLE
+FACTOR OF SAFETY IN THE HUMAN DIET."
+
+
+OUR MILK PROBLEM
+
+We have not nearly enough milk in the United States to give every
+child the quart and every adult the pint which they should have.
+Although we actually produce about a quart per person, more than
+half of this is used for butter, cheese, and cream, and only about
+two-thirds of a pint is drunk directly as milk or used in cooking.
+This spring we have slightly more than this amount because of the
+dairymen's response to the patriotic appeal to maintain production,
+but our supply and consumption of milk are still far below what they
+should be.
+
+To increase the quantity in the country the price of milk must be low
+enough for people to afford it, but high enough to keep the producer
+and distributer in the business. The question of a fair price is a
+difficult one. The cost of feed has gone up, labor is scarce and dear,
+but further economies in both production and distribution are still
+possible. This past winter the Food Administration and the Dairy
+Division of the Department of Agriculture have assisted many local
+commissions in determining fair milk prices and pointing out economies
+all along the line of the milk business.
+
+It is most unfortunate that ignorance of the value of milk makes
+people particularly sensitive to a change in its price. When it goes
+up even a cent a quart, many cut down their consumption, while a
+considerably larger advance in the price of meat will make little
+difference in the amount bought.
+
+If diminished use of milk continues, dairymen may go out of business
+and permanent harm be done, both to us and to those dependent on
+us abroad. A factory may close down and when the need comes reopen
+immediately, but if a cow is killed it takes practically three years
+to replace her.
+
+The milk we have should be used as effectively as possible. The most
+economical way for a nation to use its milk so as to get the benefit
+of all the food in it, is, of course, as whole milk, or evaporated
+or dried whole milk. The next most economical way is in the form of
+whole-milk cheese, since all but the whey is used in it.
+
+Cream and butter are much less economical unless all the skim milk
+is used. As 41 per cent of our milk-supply goes to make butter, we
+have large quantities of skim milk containing as much protein, it is
+estimated, as all the beef we eat.
+
+At present we feed the largest part of this to animals or actually
+throw it away. Since the cottage-cheese drive of the Department
+of Agriculture, an increasing amount of it is being made into
+cottage-cheese--a palatable and useful meat substitute. It can, of
+course, be used as a beverage or in cooking. Whey also has many food
+uses. Buttermilk, too, is justly popular and healthful. Skim milk is
+not a substitute for whole milk for children.
+
+Cream, valuable food though it is, is also extravagant in its use of
+milk. It takes five quarts of milk to produce a quart of cream. Buying
+whole milk is, therefore, better policy than buying cream and no milk.
+The sale of cream is now forbidden in Great Britain for this reason.
+
+
+OUR MILK ABROAD
+
+It is our supply of milk that is helping to meet the milk shortage
+abroad. Before the war we exported very little. By 1917 our export of
+evaporated, condensed, and dried milk had gone up twentyfold. In the
+spring of 1918 we sent over the equivalent in whole milk of almost
+50,000,000 pounds a month, and should probably have sent much more
+were it not for the lack of ships. After the war, when ships are
+released, the demand for it will be enormous. It will take years to
+build up the dairy-herds of Europe again, so we shall continue to be
+their main source of supply.
+
+LEARN AND TEACH THE UNIQUE VALUE AND ECONOMY OF MILK. DO EVERYTHING
+TO PREVENT IN THIS COUNTRY THE TRAGIC RESULTS WHICH ARE FOLLOWING THE
+CUTTING DOWN OF MILK CONSUMPTION ABROAD.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+
+Vegetables and fruits represent a different and happier phase of
+the food situation than our short supplies of wheat and meat. The
+vegetables especially are a great potential reserve of food, for they
+can be produced in quantity in three or four months on unused land by
+labor that otherwise might not be used.
+
+Abroad every resource for vegetable-raising is being utilized to the
+utmost. France and Belgium have long made the most of all their land.
+Now England has made it compulsory to leave no ground uncultivated.
+Golf-courses are now potato-patches. Parks and every bit of back yard
+all grow their quota of vegetables. The boys in the old English public
+schools work with the hoe where before they played football.
+
+We in America have no more than touched our capacity for raising
+gardens. What we have done is merely a beginning. As the war goes
+on we shall realize more and more the necessity for seizing every
+opportunity for active service. The accomplishments of the summer of
+1917 showed the possibilities of the work, and placed it beyond the
+purely experimental stage. They have given experience and emphasized
+the value of expert advice and the economy of community efforts.
+
+Not only is the "plant a garden" a civilian movement, but it has
+taken hold in the armies as well. The American Army Garden service
+is planning truck-gardens in France to supply our troops. The Woman's
+Auxiliary Army Corps of England plants gardens back of the British
+lines. Last summer the French fed 20,000 of their men from similar
+gardens.
+
+EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN IN THESE HOME AND COMMUNITY GARDENS
+RELIEVES THE RAILROAD CONGESTION AND GIVES MORE SPACE FOR TRANSPORTING
+MUNITIONS AND COAL. EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN RELEASES STAPLES FOR
+EUROPE. Extra production of food of any kind, anywhere, takes on a
+new significance in the presence of half a world hungry.
+
+IF YOU CANNOT GROW VEGETABLES, USE THEM IN ABUNDANCE ANYWAY. They
+are too perishable to ship abroad and too bulky, containing so much
+water that it would be an uneconomical use of shipping to export them.
+But the more America eats of almost any kind of vegetable or fruit,
+the less of the more durable, concentrated foods will she require. The
+products are so varied in kind and composition that they can be used
+to serve almost any purpose--beans and peas to save meat; potatoes
+and others to save wheat; sweet fruits to save sugar; jams, even,
+when spread on bread, to save fat. All will improve the health and
+therefore increase human energies for winning the war.
+
+
+IN THE WAR DIET
+
+_To Save Meat_. Beans and peas and peanuts are the only vegetables
+with much protein, so that they are the ones thought of primarily as
+meat substitutes. There are many kinds of them, fresh or dried, more
+than most of us realize. It is worth while to add to the diet not
+only the ordinary white or navy beans, but kidney, lima, black or soy
+beans, cow-peas, the many colored beans such as the pinto, frijoles,
+and the California pinks. It is these latter kinds that are used
+by the Mexicans as their chief standby. The Army and Navy use huge
+quantities of the white beans, and the Allied Governments are also
+buying tons of the pintos.
+
+The 1917 bean-crop, in response to the patriotic appeal, was 50 per
+cent higher than the normal. Nearly all this increase was in the
+colored beans, chiefly pintos. The Food Administration, fearing
+that some of this unusual surplus might be wasted and the farmer
+discouraged from producing a large output in 1918, bought up the extra
+crop and distributed it for sale at the different markets.
+
+Though soy beans and peanuts at least are exceptions, the protein
+in beans and peas is not so satisfactory as a bodybuilder as that in
+animal foods, so that a diet in which they are a large part should
+contain also some milk or eggs or a little meat. Two cups (half a
+pound) of shelled green peas or beans, or one cup with a cup of skim
+milk gives as much protein as a quarter of a pound of beef. Dried
+beans and peas are, of course, cheaper than the canned with their
+larger amount of water. At the usual market prices as much fuel can
+be bought for 5 cents spent for dried peas as for 25 cents for canned
+peas.
+
+Meat-savers do not all have to be high-protein foods, since the diet
+of most of us contains considerably more protein than is necessary.
+Any vegetable can be a "meat extender." The pleasant flavor of
+meat can be obtained in meat stews, such as the delicious French
+"pot-au-feu." Stews can easily be made with less meat and more
+vegetables than usual. The meat allowance is now so very small in
+France and the vegetables so scarce in the cities, that the ingenuity
+of even the French woman is taxed to get a meal.
+
+_To Save Wheat_. Potatoes to save wheat! The great potato drive to
+utilize the surplus of our huge 1917 potato-crop, 100,000,000 bushels
+above normal, has fixed in every one's mind the interchangeableness
+of these two foods. Potatoes are one-fifth starch--almost the same
+quantity as in cooked breakfast cereals. Because of this starch, they
+give as satisfactory a fuel as wheat or corn or any other cereal. One
+medium-sized potato supplies the same number of calories as a large
+slice of bread, and contains more mineral salts than white bread.
+Europe has learned to eat potatoes instead of wheat. When bread has
+been short potatoes have been the mainstay in every country. They are
+to-day the largest single element, in terms of energy, in the German
+war ration.
+
+Sweet potatoes are also first-class wheat-savers. So to a lesser
+extent are most vegetables and fruits. Very few except white and
+sweet potatoes contain much starch, but many of them have considerable
+sugar, which serves as fuel just as starch does--carrots, beets,
+onions, parsnips, and practically all fruits such as bananas, oranges,
+and grapes.
+
+_To Save Sugar_. We want sugar, of course, both for fuel and flavor.
+The vegetables and some fruits have their sugar so covered up by
+other tastes that it does not help to make the food sweet. It does, of
+course, serve for fuel. Bananas especially are fuel foods, containing
+much starch when green, which changes to sugar as the fruit ripens.
+The sweetest fruits are the dried ones--dates, figs, raisins, prunes.
+They have so much sugar that they can well be used in place of candy.
+
+_To Save Fat_, Although few common fruits and vegetables contain
+fat, jam is a real fat-saver. It is of high fuel value, and has the
+advantage of being a "spreading material" so that it can replace
+butter with bread and cereals. Jam is of great importance in Europe
+to-day and all the Governments have taken steps to keep up the supply.
+It is a regular part of the English army ration.
+
+_To Keep the Nation Well_. An increase in the use of vegetables and
+fruits is practically sure to mean an increase in health. Many of us,
+especially city-dwellers, do not eat enough of them. Many a young
+girl who "does not like vegetables" probably owes part of her languor
+to inadequate diet. The old-fashioned "touch of scurvy" formerly
+noticed at the end of the winter and even now not an unknown thing,
+was probably due to lack of vegetables in the winter diet. The
+constipation which is so disturbingly prevalent can usually be cured
+or prevented by eating vegetables and fruits in sufficient quantities.
+One of the most serious limitations in the diet of many of the
+very poor is the lack of vegetables as well as milk and the unduly
+large proportion of meat and bread. In a community in New York City
+with high mortality rate, 75 mothers whose diet was observed, ate
+vegetables on the average only twice a week, and fruit about the same
+number of times.
+
+It is not difficult to understand why vegetables and fruits are so
+important. Only a few are especially valuable as fuel or as a source
+of protein, but almost all are high in mineral salts and can supply
+the "roughage" desirable in the diet. Some also contain the vitamines,
+the leafy vegetables being especially valuable because, like milk,
+they contain the two kinds. The "greens," leafy vegetables like
+spinach, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and lettuce, are the
+ones that help most in these last ways--"protective foods," they have
+been called. They are rich in the iron, calcium, and other minerals
+that some of the other foods lack. The use of plenty of these
+vegetables should go far toward keeping up health.
+
+
+CANNING AND DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+The value of these foods both for the nation's health and for saving
+staples applies just as much in winter as in summer. In war-time,
+a winter supply, either stored, dried, or canned, takes on special
+significance because of their substitute value if the supply of
+staples runs critically low.
+
+The canning industry, because it makes vegetables obtainable at all
+times and places, has been of great importance in the health and
+development of the country. Smith, in his "Commercial Geography," says
+that "canning, more than any other invention since the introduction
+of steam, has made possible the building up of towns and communities
+beyond the bounds of varied production." A century or two ago, sailors
+after a voyage of a year or two, almost always came home with scurvy.
+Recently Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for years and
+remained in good health, because of their supply of canned vegetables,
+fruits, and meats.
+
+The Government has not been slow in appreciating the need of canned
+vegetables for the Army and Navy. It has commandeered about 25 per
+cent of the canned beans, 12 per cent of the corn, and 18 per cent of
+the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts will be needed this year
+also. Much of the 1918-19 supply for our troops in France is to be
+canned in France, by arrangement with the French Government, thus
+saving valuable shipping space.
+
+Drying, or dehydrating, has long been known for beans, peas, and corn,
+and for dates, prunes, figs, and raisins. But dried potatoes, beets,
+carrots, and "soup mixtures" are more or less new. The drying, of
+course, merely removes most of the water from the vegetable, and if
+the process is properly carried out, soaking the vegetable in water
+restores its original freshness.
+
+The war, with the need for every ounce of food and the increasing
+transportation difficulties, has brought the process into prominence.
+The dehydrated products, if properly stored, seem to keep a long time.
+Their saving in freight and shipping is plain, when it is remembered
+that the fresh vegetables and fruits often contain over 90 per cent
+water, and the dried from 8 per cent to 10 per cent. Ships are too
+precious to be used for carrying unnecessary water. Our Government has
+placed orders for several thousand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the
+Army and may use other dried products as they can be obtained.
+
+Canada has sent abroad within the past 3 years over 50 million
+pounds of dehydrated vegetables, about two-thirds of which was the
+vegetable-soup mixture and one-third dried sliced potatoes. When
+reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000 pounds of vegetables.
+Germany has been drying her vegetables and fruits far more than we. In
+1917 she had over 2,000 commercial plants, and an elaborate system of
+distributing all the available fresh material to the different plants
+to avoid waste.
+
+Individuals and communities with gardens or wherever fresh products
+can be obtained should not be dependent upon commercial agencies.
+AS FAR AS POSSIBLE EVERY FAMILY AND EVERY NEIGHBORHOOD SHOULD BE
+SELF-SUPPORTING. HOME AND COMMUNITY CANNING AND DRYING ARE IMPORTANT
+DUTIES. CAN AND DRY THE SURPLUS. STORE UP ENOUGH TO CARRY THROUGH THE
+NEXT WINTER. FOLLOW EXPERT ADVICE AS TO METHODS. USE THE GREATEST CARE
+TO PREVENT SPOILAGE. WHEREVER POSSIBLE UNITE WITH YOUR NEIGHBORS IN
+COMMUNITY CANNERIES AND DRYERS SO THAT EVERY ONE CAN HAVE THE BENEFIT
+OF THE BEST EQUIPMENT AND THE MOST SKILLED SUPERVISION.
+
+A GREAT DEAL WAS DONE IN 1917; MILLIONS OF CANS WERE PUT UP AND GREAT
+WASTE PREVENTED. BUT IN 1918 MORE MUST BE DONE. MORE VEGETABLES MUST
+BE RAISED AND MORE MUST BE CANNED. A GREAT RESERVE FOR THE WINTER IS
+MORE NECESSARY THAN EVER.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Almost a year of food control in this country has passed and the great
+new experiment in democratic administration of the nation's food is
+succeeding. The method of well-directed voluntary co-operation, much
+more characteristic of our food control than of any other country's,
+can be judged by its results to date. We have sent abroad six times
+the wheat that we had believed was in the country for export. We have
+exported vastly increased shipments of the other cereals, of beef and
+pork, of fats and condensed milk. With Canada, we are supplying 50 per
+cent of the Allies' food, instead of barely 5 per cent, as before the
+war. Meanwhile our own population has been taken care of. No one has
+gone hungry because of the shipments of food out of the country. The
+price of the most important food, bread, has been kept stable--a new
+experience in time of war.
+
+These and others are great accomplishments, brought about through the
+co-operation of the nation, BUT THEY ARE SLIGHT IN COMPARISON WITH
+WHAT MUST STILL BE DONE. The huge resources for extra food production
+and conservation have hardly been touched. The imagination is just
+beginning to be stirred by the immensity of the whole undertaking and
+the sacrifice required to win the war. Men, ammunition and food, in a
+steadily increasing stream, must go across.
+
+"OUR DUTY, IF WE ARE TO DO THIS GREAT THING AND SHOW AMERICA TO
+BE WHAT WE BELIEVE HER TO BE--THE GREATEST HOPE AND ENERGY OF
+THE WORLD--IS TO STAND TOGETHER NIGHT AND DAY UNTIL THE JOB IS
+FINISHED."--PRESIDENT WILSON.
+
+
+
+
+A FEW REFERENCES
+
+American Academy of Political and Social Science. "World's Food."
+Philadelphia, 1917. (_Annals of the American Academy_, November,
+1917.)
+
+Carter, Howe and Mason. "Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics."
+Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1918.
+
+Holmes, A.D., and Lang, H.L. "Fats and Their Economical Use in the
+Home." Washington, 1916. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 469.)
+
+Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, Alonzo E. "Food Problems." New York,
+Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Langworthy, C.F. "Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Other Starchy Roots as
+Food." Washington, 1917. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 468.)
+
+Langworthy, C.F. "Eggs and Their Value as Food." Washington, 1917.
+(Department of Agriculture Bulletin 471.)
+
+Lusk, Graham. "Food in War Time." Philadelphia, Saunders, 1917.
+
+Lusk, Graham. "Fundamental Basis of Nutrition." New Haven, Yale
+University Press, 1915.
+
+Mendel, Lafayette B. "Changes in Food Supply and Their Relation to
+Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University Press, 1916.
+
+Mendenhall, Dorothy R. "Milk." Washington, 1918. (_Children's Bureau_,
+Publication 35.)
+
+Rose, Mary Swartz. "Everyday Foods in War Time." New York, Macmillan,
+1918.
+
+Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New York, Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition." New York,
+Macmillan, 1918.
+
+Sherman, Henry C. "Food Products." New York, Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Taylor, Alonzo E. "War Bread." New York, Macmillan, 1918.
+
+The publications of the United States Department of Agriculture and
+the United States Food Administration.
+
+The United States Food Leaflets.
+
+United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletin 487.
+"Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet." C.F. Langworthy and
+Caroline L. Hunt. 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 565. "Corn as a Food and Ways of Using It." C.F.
+Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 717. "Food for Young Children." Caroline L. Hunt,
+1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 808. "What the Body Needs." Caroline L. Hunt and
+Helen W. Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 817. "Cereal Foods." Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W.
+Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 824. "Foods Rich in Protein." Caroline L. Hunt and
+Helen W. Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 839. "Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack
+Method." O.H. Benson, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 841. "Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home."
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 853. "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables." M.E.
+Cresswell and Ola Powell, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 871. "Fresh Fruits and Vegetables as Conservers of
+Other Staple Foods." Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 881. "Preservation of Vegetables by Fermentation and
+Salting." L.A. Round and H.L. Lang, 1917.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Agriculture, Department of.--Aids wheat production, 8; campaign for
+increased use of milk, 53.
+
+Austria.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 20-30; sugar-supply, 45.
+
+
+Banana flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Barley as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+Beans.--Varieties, 56; as meat substitute, 57.
+
+Belgium.--Wheat-supply, 2; meat-supply, 29; sugar-supply, 44; milk
+supplied to children, 50.
+
+Bread.--Advantages of wheat loaf, 22-23; bakers' bread regulated, 23;
+conservation of, by housewives, 24-25; restrictions on use in Europe,
+25-26; rationing not necessary in United States, 27.
+
+Buckwheat as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Butter.--Consumption in England, 39; uneconomical way to use milk, 53.
+
+
+Calorie defined, 10.
+
+Candy.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46.
+
+Canning.--Sugar allowed for, 45-46; importance of industry, 60; urged
+upon housewives for conservation, 61.
+
+Cereals.--Defined, 10; food value, 12, 17; wide consumption of, 12-13.
+
+Cheese.--Valuable protein food, 34; as meat substitute, 35-36; a use
+for skim milk, 54.
+
+Corn as wheat substitute, 17-18; why Allies can not use, 26-27.
+
+Corn-syrup as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Cottonseed meal as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Cream.--Extravagant use of milk, 54.
+
+
+Drying.--Process, 60; importance of, 61.
+
+
+Eggs as meat substitute, 35.
+
+England.--Wheat-supply, 2; restrictions concerning bread, 25-26;
+meat-supply, 29; meat restrictions, 30-31; fat shortage, 39;
+sugar-supply, 44; milk regulations, 50, 54; cultivation of soil,
+55-56.
+
+Fats.--Food value, 37-38; shortage in Europe, 39; resources and
+exports of United States, 40-41; necessity for conservation, 41.
+
+Feterita as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Fifty-fifty rule, 16-17.
+
+Fish as meat substitute, 35.
+
+Flour.--Manufacture of, 14-15; 74 per cent extraction allowed, 15;
+consumption cut by licensing millers, 15; by fifty-fifty rule, 16-17.
+
+Food Administration.--Takes control of wheat business, 6, 8; licenses
+millers, 15; licenses bakers, 23-24; regulates sugar prices, 46-47;
+aids increased use of milk, 53; achievements in year of existence, 62.
+
+Foods.--Importance of different kinds, 10-11.
+
+France.--Wheat-supply, 1-2; bread regulations, 26; meat-supply, 29;
+meat regulations, 31-32; sugar-supply, 44; sugar restrictions, 45;
+production of fruit and vegetables, 56.
+
+Fruit.--As sugar substitute, 46, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation
+of, by canning and drying, 59-61.
+
+
+Garbage conservation, 41.
+
+Gardens.--See Production.
+
+Germany.--Wheat-supply, 3-4; meat-supply, 20-30; meat restrictions,
+32; fat shortage, 40; sugar restrictions, 45; conservation of food by
+drying, 61.
+
+Gluten.--Importance in bread, 22-23.
+
+Graham flour.--Manufacture, 14; inferiority to wheat, 15.
+
+Grain corporation, controls wheat trade, 6, 8.
+
+
+Honey as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Hotels and restaurants.--Regulations in use of bread, 24.
+
+
+Ice-cream.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46.
+
+Italy.--Restrictions on macaroni, 25; bread rations, 26; meat-supply,
+29; sugar-supply, 44.
+
+
+Jam as substitute for butter, 58.
+
+
+Kaffir as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+
+Legumes.--See Beans, Peanuts, Peas.
+
+
+Macaroni.--Restrictions in manufacture of in Italy, 25; not a wheat
+substitute, 25.
+
+Maple-syrup as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Margarine.--Use in England, 39.
+
+Meat.--Shortage in Europe, 28-32; exports from United States, 32-33;
+consumption, 33-34; food value, 34-35.
+
+Meat extenders, vegetables as, 57.
+
+Meat substitutes, 35-36; vegetables as, 57.
+
+Milk.--As meat substitute, 36; necessity for children, 49-50; shortage
+in Europe, 50; food value, 51-52; supply in United States, 52-53;
+economical uses of, 53-54.
+
+Milk, condensed.--Use in Europe, 50; amount exported from United
+States, 54.
+
+Milo as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Molasses as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+
+Nuts as meat substitutes, 36.
+
+
+Oats as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+Oils, vegetable.--Use in Germany, 40; supply in United States, 40-41;
+as substitute for animal fats, 41.
+
+
+Peanut flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Peanuts as meat substitute, 36.
+
+Peas as meat substitute, 56.
+
+Potato flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Potatoes as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58.
+
+Poultry as meat substitute, 35.
+
+Production.--Decreased in France, 1-2; of cereals doubled in England,
+2; of vegetables in England and America, 55.
+
+Protein.--Defined, 11; amount necessary in diet, 34-35.
+
+
+Rationing: Austria.--Sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: England.--Bread not rationed, 26; meat, 30-31; fats, 39;
+sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: France.--Bread, 26; meat, 31; sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: Germany.--Meat, 32; fats, 40; sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: Italy.--Bread, 26; meat, 32.
+
+Rationing: U.S.--Voluntary wheat ration, 25; reasons for not
+introducing system, 27.
+
+Rice.--Chief diet in India, 13; as wheat substitute, 19-20.
+
+Roumania.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 29.
+
+Russia.--Wheat-supply, 4.
+
+Rye, as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+
+Shipping.--Necessity for saving, 5; released by decreased use of
+sugar, 46.
+
+Soy bean flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Substitutes.--See Meat, Sugar, Wheat substitutes.
+
+Sugar.--Consumption in United States, 42; shortage, 42, 44-45;
+restrictions on, 45-46; price regulated, 46-47; conservation of,
+47-48.
+
+Sugar substitutes, 46, 58.
+
+
+Tapioca flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+
+United States: Exports.--Wheat, 5-6; meat, 33; fat, 40-41; sugar,
+44-45; milk, 54.
+
+
+Vegetables.--Importance in conservation, 55; production of, 56; as
+meat substitute, 36, 56-57; as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58; as sugar
+substitute, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation of by canning and
+drying, 50-61.
+
+Victory bread, 24.
+
+Vitamines.--Defined, 11; in fats, 38; in milk, 52; in fruit and
+vegetables, 59.
+
+
+War bread.--See Flour, Victory bread, Wheat substitutes.
+
+Wheat.--Necessity in war, 1; shortage in Europe, 1-4; distribution a
+problem, 4-5; supply and exports of United States, 5-6; controlled by
+United States Grain Corporation, 6, 8; conservation of by individuals,
+8-9.
+
+Wheat substitutes.--Corn, 18-19; oats, 19; barley, 19; rye, 19; rice,
+20; miscellaneous, 20; keeping quality, 20-21; vegetables, 57-58.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14055 ***
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Food Guide for War Service at Home, by Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al</title>
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14055 ***</div>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Food Guide for War Service at Home, by
+Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al</h1>
+<hr class="full" />
+<br />
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        <a href="images/1.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/1.png"
+             alt="Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society" />
+        </a>Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society
+    </div>
+
+    <h1>FOOD GUIDE</h1>
+
+    <h3>FOR</h3>
+
+    <h2>WAR SERVICE AT HOME</h2>
+
+    <h4>PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF</h4>
+
+    <h3>THE UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATION</h3>
+
+    <h4>IN CO-OPERATION WITH<br />
+    THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE<br />
+    AND THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION</h4>
+
+    <h3>WITH A PREFACE BY HERBERT HOOVER</h3>
+
+    <h4>UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATOR</h4>
+
+    <h4>1918</h4>
+    <hr />
+
+    <h3>ANNOUNCEMENT</h3>
+
+    <p>In the spring of 1918 the Collegiate Section of the United
+    States Food Administration was called upon to prepare a simple
+    statement of the food situation as affected by the war,
+    suitable for elementary and high school teachers, high-school
+    pupils, and the general public. The demand arose because of the
+    wide adoption of the three courses on this subject then being
+    sent out weekly to universities, colleges, and normal schools
+    throughout the country.</p>
+
+    <p>This little volume is the response to that request. It was
+    written by Katharine Blunt, of the University of Chicago,
+    Frances L. Swain, of the Chicago Normal School, and Florence
+    Powdermaker, of the United States Department of
+    Agriculture.</p>
+
+    <p>The records of the Food Administration have been open to the
+    writers and they have had the advice and criticism of its
+    officials and specialists. No effort has been spared to secure
+    accuracy of statement in the text.</p>
+
+    <p class="author">OLIN TEMPLIN,</p>
+
+    <p class="author"><i>Director of the Collegiate
+    Section.</i></p>
+
+    <p>July 1, 1918.</p>
+    <hr />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"
+       id="pagev"></a>[pg v]</span>
+
+    <h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+    <p>The long war has brought hunger to Europe; some of her
+    peoples stand constantly face to face with starvation.</p>
+
+    <p>All agriculture has been seriously interfered with. Food
+    production has been lessened to the point of danger. Millions
+    of men who had given all their time and energy to raising food
+    have been killed; more millions are still fighting; other
+    millions have gone from the farms into the great war-factories.
+    Women, too, have been drafted from the fields and home gardens
+    into the factories and to replace the absent men in a host of
+    occupations. Great stretches of once fertile land have been
+    temporarily ruined by the scourge of war; some are still under
+    falling shot and shell. Belgium and France have lost millions
+    of acres of productive land to the enemy. The fertilizers
+    necessary for keeping up the production of the land still
+    available are lacking.</p>
+
+    <p>All this means that the Allies have to rely on the outside
+    for the maintenance of their food-supply. But because ships are
+    fewer than they were, and because many of them must carry
+    troops and munitions exclusively, these ships cannot be sent on
+    voyages longer than absolutely necessary to find and bring back
+    the needed food. They cannot afford to go the long
+    time-consuming way to Australia and back; but few of them can
+    be let go to India and the Argentine. They must carry food by
+    the shortest routes. The shortest is from North America to
+    England and France.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"
+       id="pagevi"></a>[pg vi]</span>
+
+    <p>Therefore by far the greater part of the food provided for
+    the Allies from the outside must come from us. As a matter of
+    fact more than 50 per cent of this outside food for the Allies
+    does now come from North America. And that is a great deal. It
+    is very much more than we ever sent them before. Also we are
+    sending more and more food overseas for our own growing armies
+    in France and our growing fleets in European waters.</p>
+
+    <p>To meet all this great food need in Europe&mdash;and meeting
+    it is an imperative military necessity&mdash;we must be very
+    careful and economical in our food use here at home. We must
+    eat less; we must waste nothing; we must equalize the
+    distribution of what food we may retain for ourselves; we must
+    prevent extortion and profiteering which make prices so high
+    that the poor cannot buy the food they actually need; and we
+    must try to produce more food by planting more wheat and other
+    grain, raising more cattle and swine and sheep, and making
+    gardens everywhere.</p>
+
+    <p>To help the people of America do all these things, and to
+    coordinate their efforts, the President and Congress created
+    the United States Food Administration. The Food Administration,
+    therefore, asks all the people to help feed the Allies that
+    they may continue to fight, to help feed the hungry in Belgium
+    and other starving lands that they may continue to live, and to
+    help feed our own sailors and soldiers so that they may want
+    nothing. It asks help, also, in its great task of preventing
+    prices from going too high and of stabilizing them, and of
+    keeping the flow of distribution even, so that all our people,
+    rich and poor alike, may be able to obtain the food they
+    need.</p>
+
+    <p>For all this there is needed a "food education" of all our
+    people. Every home in our broad land must be reached. One of
+    the most effective ways of accomplishing this is by getting
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"
+       id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span> information to the children
+       of the nation about food and the possibilities and methods
+       of its most wise and economical use. To obtain this result
+       we must get this information into the hands of parents and
+       teachers.</p>
+
+    <p>For the purpose of diffusing this information this little
+    book has been prepared under the direction of the Food
+    Administration. By following the suggestions for food
+    conservation herein contained every one can render his country
+    an important war service. I am sure that all will be glad to do
+    this.</p>
+
+    <p class="author">HERBERT HOOVER.</p>
+    <hr />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"
+       id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span>
+
+    <h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER I. THE WHEAT SITUATION</b>
+    <a href="#page1">1</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The world's supply of wheat&mdash;Wheat in
+        the United States&mdash;Meeting the wheat shortage</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER II. THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER
+    CEREALS</b> <a href="#page10">10</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The significance of different kinds of
+        food&mdash;The social importance of cereals, especially
+        wheat&mdash;Wheat flour in war-time&mdash;The 50-50 rule.
+        Another way to cut the consumption of
+        wheat&mdash;Substitutes for wheat flour</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER III. WAR BREAD</b> <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The bakers' regulations. Victory
+        bread&mdash;The individual's answer to the bread
+        cry&mdash;Flour and bread in the Allied countries&mdash;Why
+        we in the United States do not have bread cards</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER IV. THE MEAT SITUATION</b>
+    <a href="#page28">28</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">Where Europe's meat has been
+        produced&mdash;The war and the European
+        meat-supply&mdash;The meat rations of Europe&mdash;The part
+        of the United States&mdash;Meat conservation&mdash;Meat and
+        other protein foods&mdash;The meat substitutes</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER V. FATS</b> <a href="#page37">37</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The situation abroad&mdash;The situation
+        in the United States</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER VI. SUGAR</b> <a href="#page42">42</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">Why is there a sugar shortage?&mdash;The
+        effect of the shortage&mdash;In place of sugar&mdash;The
+        price of sugar&mdash;To cut down on sugar</p>
+    </blockquote><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagex"
+       id="pagex"></a>[pg x]</span>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER VII. MILK&mdash;FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH</b>
+    <a href="#page49">49</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The valuable constituents of
+        milk&mdash;Our milk problem&mdash;Our milk abroad</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER VIII. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</b>
+    <a href="#page55">55</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">In the war diet&mdash;Canning and drying
+        vegetables and fruits</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CONCLUSION</b> <a href="#page62">62</a></p>
+
+    <p><b>A FEW REFERENCES</b> <a href="#page63">63</a></p>
+
+    <p><b>INDEX</b> <a href="#page65">65</a></p>
+    <hr />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"
+       id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+    <h2>THE WHEAT SITUATION</h2>
+
+    <p>Wheat is as much a war necessity as ammunition&mdash;wheat
+    is a war weapon. To produce it and distribute it where it is
+    needed and in sufficient quantities is the most serious food
+    problem of the Allied world. The continent of Europe, with her
+    devastated fields, can raise but a small fraction of the wheat
+    she needs, and ships are so few that she cannot import it from
+    many of the usual sources.</p>
+
+    <p>Not one of the warring European countries has escaped
+    serious suffering, and the neutral countries have suffered with
+    them.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF WHEAT</h3>
+
+    <p>France, always an agricultural nation, was the most nearly
+    self-sustaining of the western Allies. Now one-third of her
+    wheat-fields are barren. Thousands of her acres have been taken
+    by the enemy, or are in No Man's Land. Much of the land that
+    has been fought over these past four years is now hopeless for
+    farming, and will be for years to come. Even the territory
+    still under cultivation cannot be expected to yield large
+    returns, for laborers, tools, and fertilizers are lacking.</p>
+
+    <p>The men who have left the fields to fight have been replaced
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"
+       id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> chiefly by women, children, and
+       old men, while furloughed soldiers at times help to bring in
+       the crops. To get adequate return from the soil which has
+       been tilled for centuries, tons of fertilizer are necessary.
+       Fertilizers are an absolute necessity, and nitrates, one of
+       the most important of them, can no longer be imported from
+       Chile. The work-animals have been driven off by the enemy or
+       slaughtered for want of food, and mechanics are lacking to
+       repair and replace the worn-out farm-machinery. As a result
+       of this, in 1917 France raised only enough wheat to supply
+       40 per cent of her need, instead of 90 per cent, as in
+       pre-war years.</p>
+
+    <p>In England the situation is not much better. Unlike France,
+    England has always imported far more wheat than she raised. But
+    now through vigorous effort she alone of all the European
+    countries has increased her cereal production so that it has
+    actually been doubled. Being free from the devastation of war
+    at home, she has been able to convert the great lawns of her
+    parks and country estates into grain-fields. English women of
+    all classes, an army of half a million, are working on the
+    land. At the same time the consumption of wheat has been
+    reduced. Even yet, however, the home-grown supply in England is
+    only one-fourth of the wheat required.</p>
+
+    <p>In Belgium the devastation is so complete that the women,
+    children, and old people left there would die of famine if food
+    were not sent to them. Two and a half million Belgians daily
+    stand in line waiting for food to be doled out to them. The
+    United States must supply three-fourths of the wheat contained
+    in their meagre bread ration. In Italy, too, the condition is
+    serious, for she produces far less than she needs, despite
+    every effort of her Government to stimulate
+    production.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"
+       id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span>
+
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        <a href="images/13.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/13.png"
+             alt="WHEAT FIELDS OF THE WORLD" /></a>WHEAT FIELDS OF
+             THE WORLD
+    </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"
+       id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span>
+
+    <p>Germany and Austria-Hungary have not escaped universal
+    suffering from lack of wheat. Germany before the war was a
+    wheat-importing country, and Austria-Hungary was able to supply
+    herself with wheat, but had none to export. Their war crops
+    have been below normal, and even the wheat taken from conquered
+    territory has not been sufficient to prevent severe shortage,
+    resulting in bread riots in industrial centres.</p>
+
+    <p>The imports of wheat into both the Allied and enemy European
+    countries to supplement the wheat of their own raising came in
+    peace-times from seven countries&mdash;Russia, Roumania,
+    Australia, the United States, Canada, Argentina, and India.
+    Most of these have now failed as a source of supply.</p>
+
+    <p>Russia and Roumania were the great wheat-bins of Europe.
+    They produced as much wheat as the United States, and sometimes
+    more, and they were always able to make up or nearly make up
+    the deficiencies of western Europe. Russia and Roumania are now
+    themselves on the verge of famine. Even before their own
+    situation became so desperate, they could get little wheat to
+    the western Allies, because the enemy territory and the
+    battle-lines made a great wall of separation.</p>
+
+    <p>Australia and India both continue to grow large crops of
+    wheat, and have a surplus in storage, but it cannot be sent to
+    Europe because of lack of ships. Australia has wheat stored
+    from her last three crops. The Argentine had very poor crops in
+    1916 and 1917, and although the 1918 crop is good, it is
+    scarcely more available to Europe than Australia's wheat.</p>
+
+    <p><b>So the wheat scarcity is not a question only of the
+    amount of wheat in the world. It is a problem of getting it
+    where it is needed&mdash;wheat plus ships.</b> Not a single
+    ship must go farther than is absolutely necessary. A glance at
+    the map shows why wheat for Europe should come from North
+    America rather than from Australia or India, or even the
+    Argentine. The trip from Australia
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"
+       id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> is three times as long as from
+       North America, so it takes only one-third as many ships to
+       carry food to Europe from the United States as from
+       Australia. The Argentine is twice as far from Europe as the
+       United States, and therefore twice as many ships are needed
+       to carry an equal amount of Argentine food to Europe. If
+       this continent could produce and save enough next year to
+       provide the whole of the Allied food necessities, we could
+       save 1,500,000 tons of world shipping to be used for other
+       purposes. <b>Every ship saved is a ship built to carry more
+       men and more ammunition to France.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES</h3>
+
+    <p>The United States has never had a large wheat surplus to
+    export, and the last few years it has had an unusually low
+    supply to meet the extraordinary demand. The 1916 crop was
+    small. The 1917 crop was only four-fifths of normal, little
+    more than we ordinarily consume ourselves. We entered the last
+    harvest with our stocks of wheat and other cereals practically
+    exhausted. Hence to feed the Allies until the 1918 harvest, we
+    had to send wheat which we should ordinarily have eaten. All
+    that we could send under normal conditions from July, 1917, to
+    July, 1918, has usually been estimated at about 20,000,000
+    bushels, but in the first eleven months of this time we
+    actually did send 120,000,000 bushels, six times as much as we
+    could have shipped without conservation. One-half of the total
+    output of our flour-mills in the month of May, 1918, went
+    abroad.</p>
+
+    <p>This achievement in feeding the Allies has been made
+    possible and will continue to be possible, through the measures
+    of economy and substitution established by the Food
+    Administration, and the constant and continued personal
+    sacrifice of each one of
+    us.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"
+       id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span>
+
+    <p>Even the 1918 wheat crop, successful as it promises to be,
+    will not mean freedom from saving. Throughout the war there can
+    be no relaxation. We must build up a great national reserve in
+    years of good harvest for the greater and greater demands of
+    Europe. <b>Never again must we let ourselves and the world face
+    the danger that was before us in the spring of 1918.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>MEETING THE WHEAT SHORTAGE</h3>
+
+    <p>To keep wheat constantly going over to our Allies and
+    sufficient stores in the United States at the same time, is one
+    of the big problems of the Food Administration. Production has
+    had to be increased and consumption decreased. The price has
+    had to be kept down, for in a time of shortage prices always
+    tend to go up. It is true that high prices furnish one method
+    of decreasing the consumption of food, but it is a method that
+    means enforced conservation by the poor and no conservation by
+    the rich. The burden thus falls on those least able to bear
+    it.</p>
+
+    <p>To meet this situation the Food Administration has gone into
+    the wheat business itself. <b>Practically entire control of the
+    buying and selling of wheat is in the hands of the great United
+    States Food Administration Grain Corporation.</b> Through this
+    organization all wheat sales are made to the Army and Navy, to
+    our allies, and to the neutrals. The price which it pays for
+    these huge quantities sets the price for the entire country.
+    The Food Administration also makes the movement of wheat from
+    the farmer to the miller and to the wholesaler as simple and
+    direct as possible. It prevents hoarding and speculation. "I am
+    convinced," said Mr. Hoover, in April, 1918, "that at no time
+    in the last three years has there been as little speculation in
+    the nation's food as there is
+    to-day."</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"
+       id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span>
+
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        <a href="images/17.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/17.png"
+             alt="COST OF A POUND LOAF OF BREAD" /></a>
+    </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"
+       id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span>
+
+    <p>As a result of this business management of wheat, the
+    consumer pays less for flour, although the farmer gets more for
+    his wheat. In May, 1917, the difference between the price of
+    the farmer's wheat and of the flour made from it was $5.86 per
+    barrel of 196 pounds. Fifteen months later the difference was
+    64 cents. In February, 1917, before the United States went into
+    the war, flour sold at wholesale for $8.75 a barrel. In May,
+    1917, the war, with no food control, had driven the price up to
+    $17. But in February, 1918, after six months of the Food
+    Administration, it had gone down to $10.50 wholesale, and this
+    in spite of unprecedented demand for our very short supply.
+    Without control, flour would undoubtedly be selling for $50 a
+    barrel. During the Civil War, with no world wheat shortage, but
+    without food control, the price of wheat increased 130 per cent
+    over the price in 1861.</p>
+
+    <p>The milling and sale of flour, the baking of bread, and the
+    purchases of the individual are all regulated to a greater
+    extent than would have scarcely been thought possible before
+    the war.</p>
+
+    <p>Every effort has been made to produce a great 1918
+    wheat-crop. Congress, at the time the Food Control Bill was
+    passed, fixed the price of the 1918 wheat at a minimum of $2
+    per bushel, and the President later fixed the price at $2.20.
+    This has been high enough to encourage the farmer to increase
+    his crop and not too high to be fair to the consumer. The
+    Department of Agriculture, during the winter of 1917-18, had
+    for its slogan, "a billion-bushel crop for 1918." It has worked
+    intensively to help the farmer in selecting and testing seed
+    and in fighting destructive insects and plant-diseases, and in
+    every way to help him grow more wheat.</p>
+
+    <p>Constant reliance has been placed on the individual's
+    intelligence and patriotism in wheat-saving. One of the unusual
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"
+       id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> aspects of the Food
+       Administration is its confidence in the co-operation of the
+       country and the response which this confidence has met.
+       Wheatless meals are now a commonplace occurrence. Wheatless
+       days are being observed in many hotels and homes. People all
+       over the country have pledged themselves to do entirely
+       without wheat until the 1918 harvest is available. About
+       100,000 barrels of flour were returned by individuals and
+       companies during the spring of 1918, to be shipped to the
+       Allies and the Army and Navy. The individual all over the
+       country, consumer, dealer, miller, or farmer, has risen to
+       the occasion to do his share toward the fulfilment of the
+       Government's promise to
+       Europe.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"
+       id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+    <h2>THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS</h2>
+
+    <p>When the United States was called on to supply the Allies
+    with much of its wheat and flour, we fortunately found at hand
+    a plentiful supply of a great variety of other cereals. The use
+    of corn was, of course, not an experiment&mdash;generations of
+    Southerners have flourished on it. But we also had oats, rice,
+    barley, rye, buckwheat, and such local products as the grain
+    sorghums, which are grown in the South and West. All of them
+    are cereals and all can be used interchangeably with wheat in
+    our diet.</p>
+
+    <p>To understand clearly the value of cereals in the diet
+    to-day, it is well to review the part played by food in
+    general. Europe to-day is eating to live. She therefore thinks
+    of food not in terms of menus but as a means of keeping up
+    bodily functions, as sources of protein, carbohydrate and
+    fat&mdash;terms seldom heard outside of the university a few
+    years ago.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD</h3>
+
+    <p>We need food first of all to burn as fuel for all the
+    activities of the body, just as any other machine needs fuel.
+    The fuel value of food, or its energy, is measured in
+    <i>calories</i>. A calorie measures the amount of heat or
+    energy given off when anything burns, whether it is coal in a
+    stove or food in the body.</p>
+
+    <p>Practically all foods give this fuel or energy, but some
+    give <span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"
+       id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> much more than others. Fats
+       give more fuel than an equal weight of any other food. Sugar
+       and foods rich in starch like flour and corn meal are fuel
+       foods. This is one of the reasons why they are chosen to be
+       shipped abroad. The cereals always supply an important part
+       of the fuel of the diet. Watery foods, like many vegetables
+       and fruits, normally give less fuel. A person could not live
+       on lettuce any better than a house could be heated with
+       tissue paper.</p>
+
+    <p>If the food does not supply enough energy, a person will
+    burn up part of his own body for fuel and will grow emaciated.
+    Far too often we find children of the very poor who are
+    undernourished because of lack of food fuel. Sometimes even
+    well-to-do young people half starve themselves because they get
+    "notions" about food. One of the terrible tragedies abroad is
+    the hundreds and thousands of men and women and children who
+    are worn and thin and sick for lack of food.</p>
+
+    <p>We need food, too, to keep the organs of the body running
+    smoothly. Abroad, people are suffering not only because they
+    have not enough food, but because they have not the right kinds
+    of food. Milk and vegetables and fruits are especially useful.
+    They are the chief sources of the much-needed <i>mineral
+    salts</i> and the two <i>vitamines</i>. The vitamines are
+    substances of great importance about which has centred much
+    discussion lately and which scientists do not yet fully
+    understand, though they realize that they are essential for the
+    growth of children and for health in adults.</p>
+
+    <p>The <i>protein</i> of food is used to build the body if we
+    are young, and to restore the daily wear and tear if we are
+    older. The mineral salts are also necessary for this purpose.
+    Protein will be discussed further in the chapter on meat and
+    meat substitutes, but it should be realized here that the
+    protein we eat comes <span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"
+       id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> not only from these foods,
+       but also from the cereals. Cereals supply a full half of the
+       protein of many diets.</p>
+
+    <p>Cereals are therefore important for their fuel since they
+    are rich in starch, and for their protein, and, if we eat the
+    entire kernel, for their mineral matter and vitamines. They
+    also have the pleasant flavor and texture which we have grown
+    to like.</p>
+
+    <p>Wheat is no better than any of the other cereals. It
+    possesses absolutely no nutritional advantage for man or beast
+    over oats, corn, and rye. It has no more protein, and no better
+    protein. It has no more fat and no better fat. It has no better
+    mineral salts and in no larger amounts. It has no more fuel or
+    better fuel. It is just <i>one</i> of the cereals, and there is
+    not the slightest evidence that it is the best one. It has
+    merely become one of our habits.</p>
+
+    <p>Corn and wheat and the other cereals are just as well
+    digested if equally well prepared. A soggy piece of wheat bread
+    may, of course, be less readily digestible than a well-made
+    piece of corn-bread, but that is a question of skill in
+    cooking, not of difference in cereals. Complaints have been
+    heard in England about the war bread. It is true that it may be
+    hard on those of frail digestive powers to change their food
+    habits in any way, but Hutchison, an eminent London physician,
+    in tracing down complaints, found that frequently people laid
+    to the new bread ailments from which they had suffered before
+    the war. "When in doubt, blame the war bread," seemed to be the
+    motto.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CEREALS, ESPECIALLY WHEAT</h3>
+
+    <p>The world eats more cereals than any other kind of food.
+    They are so widely available, so cheap and nutritious, that
+    they are a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"
+       id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> main reliance of the human
+       race. A shortage is always extremely serious.</p>
+
+    <p>Not only is an abundance important, but an abundance of the
+    accustomed kind. In parts of India, the inhabitants use rice as
+    almost the only cereal. When the rice-crop failed some years
+    ago, thousands of people died of starvation with a supply of
+    wheat available. They did not know the use of wheat as
+    food.</p>
+
+    <p>Countries like France, which use their cereals chiefly for
+    bread, are the most dependent on wheat, since wheat is the most
+    easily made into bread.</p>
+
+    <p>In the United States cereals make up almost one-third of our
+    food. Although wheat in most parts of the country has been the
+    main dependence, we have used a much greater variety of cereals
+    than most people, so that it is comparatively simple for the
+    majority to make increased use of them.</p>
+
+    <p>The very poor must depend largely upon cereals because they
+    can get more for their money from them than from other foods.
+    Cereals, to most of them, mean bread. It is such a large part
+    of their diet that doing without it means a far more
+    fundamental and difficult change in their food habits than for
+    the well-to-do with greater freedom of choice. Besides, the
+    already overburdened working woman must get her bread in the
+    easiest possible way&mdash;a ready-made loaf from the baker.
+    The burden of scarcity or high prices falls on those least able
+    to bear it.</p>
+
+    <p>Europeans eat even larger amounts of wheat than we. Over
+    half the food of the French is bread, so if the wheat shortage
+    were near the danger-line, it might lead to a serious weakening
+    of the marvellous courage of the French
+    people.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"
+       id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span>
+
+    <h3>WHEAT FLOUR IN WAR-TIME</h3>
+
+    <p>To use this country's share of the short supply of wheat to
+    the greatest advantage the Food Administration has changed the
+    making of flour to include more of the wheat-kernel. The
+    difference between peace and war time flour is easily
+    understood if the structure of grains is considered. Wheat and
+    other cereals have kernels much alike; all have three principal
+    parts:</p>
+
+    <p>The outer covering, called <i>bran</i>, is made up of
+    several layers. This is rich in important mineral salts, and
+    the rest is largely cellulose, or woody fibre.</p>
+
+    <p>The <i>germ</i> is the small part from which the new plant
+    will develop. Here the small amount of fat in the kernel is
+    stored.</p>
+
+    <p>The largest part of the kernel, called the <i>endosperm</i>,
+    contains the nourishment to be used by the plant as it begins
+    to develop. This is mostly starch, with some protein. It is the
+    part of the wheat, for instance, which is chiefly used to make
+    our white flour.</p>
+
+    <p>The kind of flour made depends on how much and what parts of
+    the kernel are used. Graham flour is manufactured by grinding
+    practically all of the wheat-kernel&mdash;a 100-per-cent use of
+    the grain, called 100-per-cent extraction. Some people still
+    fail to realize that Graham flour and Graham bread are wheat,
+    perhaps because of the different name and brown color. The
+    so-called "whole-wheat" flour is often 95 per cent of the
+    kernel only, but may be as little as 85 per cent, depending on
+    the amount of the bran and germ removed in the making.</p>
+
+    <p>Ordinary white flour contains the endosperm alone, with
+    practically none of the bran and germ. Some brands before the
+    war used up as little as 56 per cent of the wheat, leaving the
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"
+       id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> rest of it to be turned into
+       lower-grade flours and cattle-feed. White flour thus uses
+       less of the wheat for human food than Graham or whole-wheat
+       flour.</p>
+
+    <p>Yet to convert all the country's wheat into Graham flour
+    would not be a wheat-saving measure, because it is not so well
+    suited to our trade conditions. Graham flour, for one thing,
+    does not keep so well as flour of lower extractions, as the fat
+    in the germ may become rancid in a comparatively short time.
+    Flour in this country is often thirty days or longer in transit
+    and may be months in warehouses, stores, and homes. A flour to
+    be satisfactory under extreme conditions here or for shipment
+    abroad must keep at least six months&mdash;too long to be sure
+    that Graham flour will keep. In small countries like England,
+    where flour is used up more promptly, a high extraction is more
+    practicable than in the United States.</p>
+
+    <p>Moreover, while Graham and whole-wheat flours with their
+    larger quantities of mineral salts are a more desirable food
+    for some people than white flour, they are occasionally
+    irritating to people with weak digestions, so that it would be
+    unfortunate to have only these flours on the market.</p>
+
+    <p>The Food Administration, therefore, has considered that the
+    most effective use of our wheat could be obtained by forbidding
+    the manufacture of fancy flours of low extraction and making
+    all flour contain at least 74 per cent of the wheat. This still
+    gives a fine white flour that keeps well and is difficult to
+    distinguish from that on the market before the war.</p>
+
+    <p>To help in the enforcement of its flour rulings, the Food
+    Administration has licensed all mills and elevators which
+    handle over 100 barrels of flour a day. If the rulings of the
+    Food Administration are not obeyed the license may be taken
+    away, and the business closed. The hoarding of flour has been
+    stopped <span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"
+       id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span> by prohibiting mills,
+       elevators, and bakers from having more than 30 days' supply
+       on hand.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE 50-50 RULE. ANOTHER WAY TO CUT THE CONSUMPTION OF
+    WHEAT</h3>
+
+    <p><b>Not only must the miller manufacture flour in accordance
+    with new regulations, but the individual consumer must buy it
+    under restrictions.</b> To many people the first realization
+    that war and food difficulties are necessarily associated, came
+    with the announcement in the spring of 1918 of the now familiar
+    rules for the purchase of flour. With every pound of white
+    wheat flour, the purchaser must buy a pound of some other
+    cereal; with every pound of Graham flour, three-fifths of a
+    pound of other cereal.</p>
+
+    <p>The purpose of this regulation is, of course, to lessen the
+    use of wheat by increasing the use of the substitutes. The
+    housekeeper who through lack of initiative or ingenuity fails
+    to feed the family the substitutes and lets them accumulate on
+    her shelf has just so far failed to co-operate with the Food
+    Administration. Many a housewife has learned the value of these
+    cereals and will continue to use them long after the war and
+    the Food Administration have passed into history.</p>
+
+    <p>A little thought will show the absence of any real burden in
+    the 50-50 rule. A housekeeper for her family of four buys five
+    pounds of wheat flour and five pounds of other cereals. She may
+    use 1ΒΌ pounds of the substitutes with the 5 pounds of wheat
+    flour to make about 8 pounds of Victory bread&mdash;sufficient
+    to give each member of her family 2 pounds of bread during the
+    week. She may serve an ounce of oatmeal as the breakfast cereal
+    and an ounce of rice, hominy, or other cereal for each person
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"
+       id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> daily and will then have used
+       all the substitutes. These cereals can be made into an
+       endless variety of quick breads, cakes, and pastry, or
+       combined with other foods as the main dish of the meal.</p>
+
+    <h3>SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT FLOUR</h3>
+
+    <p>The cereals on the market are varied enough to suit any
+    taste. <b>Remember that as far as nutritional value is
+    concerned, it makes practically no difference whether we eat
+    wheat or oats, rye or barley.</b> The quantities of starch,
+    protein, mineral matter, and fat are so nearly the same that
+    any one of them can take the place of another. Oatmeal has a
+    slight advantage over wheat both in protein and fat, and since
+    oats is an abundant crop in our country it is an excellent
+    substitute. Rice has a very little more starch and less protein
+    than the others.</p>
+
+    <p>There is just one advantage that wheat flour has over the
+    other cereals&mdash;it can be made into lighter and more
+    durable bread. The reason for this is given in the next
+    chapter.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Corn, the most abundant substitute.</i> Indian corn is
+    native to the United States. Since it carried the Pilgrims
+    through their year of famine, it has always been considered our
+    national grain. Other countries have adopted it to some extent,
+    but more than three quarters of the world's corn is grown here.
+    In 1917 our corn crop was 3,000,000,000 bushels, four times as
+    large as our wheat crop. Most of the crop has always been used
+    as a feed-grain, with only a small percentage for human food.
+    The South has always used much more corn than the North,
+    actually eating more corn than wheat.</p>
+
+    <p>The foods from corn and the ways of using them are more
+    numerous than is often appreciated. Corn meal and corn flour
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"
+       id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span> are the most important. We
+       are making almost as much corn meal as wheat flour. The
+       yellow and white corn meals, milled from different kinds of
+       corn, are practically the same in composition, though
+       slightly different in flavor. The method of milling corn
+       meal makes more difference in the composition than the kind
+       of corn used. The old "water-ground" meal was simply crushed
+       between millstones and only the coarsest particles of bran
+       bolted out. This ranks with Graham as a product of 100 per
+       cent extraction and like Graham, it may not keep well,
+       because the germ is left in. The new process, more like
+       modern flour-milling, removes some of the bran and germ. The
+       product is a granulated corn meal which keeps better than
+       the other, and has practically the same composition, though
+       to some people a less desirable flavor.</p>
+
+    <p>If corn meal is further ground and bolted, we have corn
+    flour. Some of this has been put on the market lately and is
+    proving a good substitute for wheat flour; but the amount
+    available is only a small fraction of the amount of corn meal.
+    Other important corn products are hominy of different kinds,
+    hulled corn, and popcorn. The latter, usually eaten as an
+    "extra," is really a valuable part of the diet.</p>
+
+    <p>Corn is the same satisfactory food whether it is eaten as
+    mush in New England, <i>polenta</i> in Italy, or <i>tamales</i>
+    in Mexico. Many of the people of Mexico and Central America
+    live on corn and beans to a surprising extent. In portions of
+    Italy the rural population have adopted the grain as their main
+    food. Our corn-meal mush is their <i>polenta</i>, which is
+    served sometimes with cheese, sometimes with tomato sauce or
+    meat gravy.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Oats</i>. An Englishman once taunted a Scotchman with the
+    fact that while England used oats only for her horses, Scotland
+    fed it to her men. "Ah!" said Sandy; "but where will you find
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"
+       id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> such horses as you raise in
+       England and such men as in Scotland!"</p>
+
+    <p>The United States, more like England than Scotland, has used
+    oats mostly for feed. The crop is second only to the corn-crop.
+    Oats are eaten in the form of oatmeal, which is a finely
+    granulated meal, and as the common rolled oats which have been
+    steamed and put through rollers. There is little oat flour on
+    the market at present. A successful and palatable home-made
+    flour may be prepared by putting rolled oats through a
+    food-chopper. Any of the forms of oats can be used in breads of
+    all kinds, but the more finely ground flour can be substituted
+    in larger proportion. The demand for oat products has grown so
+    rapidly the last year that mills are running to their limit.
+    Special machinery is required for its manufacture, so that a
+    great increase in the supply is not feasible in a short
+    time.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Barley and Rye</i>. In using barley and rye for bread we
+    are only going back to the methods of our forefathers. Barley
+    is supposed to be one of the first cereals used by man. Good
+    barley flour is a very acceptable substitute for wheat, but if
+    too large a proportion of the kernel is included, it may be
+    bitter in flavor.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Rye</i>, of all the cereals, makes bread nearest like
+    wheat, though the rye bread formerly made usually contained
+    from 20 per cent to 80 per cent wheat flour. The supply is far
+    below what we could well use. For this reason it is not
+    included among the cereals which the housekeeper is allowed to
+    buy on the 50-50 plan, and since March 31, 1918, bakers have
+    not been allowed to use it as a substitute in baking on the
+    same basis as the other substitutes.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Rice</i>. Rice forms the chief food of hundreds of
+    millions of people, and in many oriental countries is the
+    staple cereal, like <span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"
+       id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> wheat with us. As a wheat
+       substitute we may use it cooked whole or ground into a
+       flour. The rice flour may be mixed with other cereals in
+       making bread and cakes. The rice polish, which is a
+       by-product secured by rubbing off with brushes the outside
+       coating of the brown rice, is much cheaper. It has been sold
+       chiefly for stock-feed, but it has possibilities as a flour
+       substitute.</p>
+
+    <p>The rice-growers of the South are doing their best to supply
+    the country with rice in quantity and to make known the
+    possibilities of this cereal. The rice flour supply, though not
+    large now, will doubtless be much increased by next year. One
+    Louisiana mill, for example, is increasing its output from 150
+    to 1,200 barrels a day.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Other Cereal Substitutes</i>. Besides the substitutes
+    which are common all over the country, there are products
+    produced in too small amounts to make them universal
+    substitutes, such as buckwheat, cottonseed meal, and peanut
+    flour, any of which can be used with other flours for baking.
+    The Southwest produces both flour and meal from milo, kaffir,
+    and feterita.</p>
+
+    <p>Flours are made from the Irish and sweet potato, from
+    tapioca, from soy beans, and bananas, but they are manufactured
+    in such small amounts that they do not take the place of wheat
+    to any great extent. Potato flour comes nearest to doing this.
+    It has always been used to some extent in Europe and it is
+    being widely used in Germany now. Potato itself can be used
+    instead of wheat. An extra potato at a meal will take the place
+    of a large slice of bread.</p>
+
+    <p>Many of the substitute cereals do not keep so well as wheat,
+    especially if they contain more than a minimum of moisture and
+    fat. The housekeeper and the baker should therefore buy them in
+    small enough quantities to use them up promptly and should keep
+    them in a cool, well-ventilated place. May and
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"
+       id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> June and the summer months
+       are the time when most care is needed.</p>
+
+    <p>It is the free use of these many wholesome substitutes that
+    is making possible the necessary saving of wheat. We who
+    appreciate their wholesomeness and their value can well break
+    away from our wheat habit and gladly make the little effort
+    sometimes necessary to begin using newer
+    foods.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"
+       id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+    <h2>WAR BREAD</h2>
+
+    <p>Bread is the staff of life for all nations. But "bread" does
+    not necessarily mean the wheat loaf. At one time and place it
+    has been barley cake, at another oaten cake, and at another
+    corn pone. Bread has always been whatever cereal happened to be
+    convenient. Even such unbreadlike food as rice is to some races
+    what bread is to us.</p>
+
+    <p>Why, then, have we developed our wheat-bread habit? Partly
+    because wheat bread has been easy to get and we have grown to
+    like the taste, but chiefly because wheat flour gives the
+    lightest loaf. To understand why, make a dough with a little
+    white flour and water and then gently knead it in cold water.
+    The consistency changes, the starch is washed out and a
+    rubbery, sticky ball is left&mdash;the <i>gluten</i>, which is
+    the protein of the wheat. It is this gluten in the flour that
+    stretches when bread rises and then stiffens when it is baked,
+    making a light, porous loaf. Wheat is the only one of the
+    cereals that has much gluten; rye has a little and the others
+    practically none.</p>
+
+    <p>Gluten seems to be essential to the making of a light,
+    yeast-raised loaf. Products raised with baking-powder, for
+    which our standard of lightness is different&mdash;"quick
+    breads" like biscuits and muffins and cakes&mdash;do not
+    require the gluten and can easily be made from substitute
+    cereals. But for our ordinary loaf of bread, at least some
+    wheat seems to be almost essential, though with skill in the
+    making, rye can be made to serve in its place. Patriotic bakers
+    and housewives all over the country
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"
+       id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> have been trying to produce a
+       wheatless loaf which is light, palatable, and sufficiently
+       durable to stand transportation. The durability is a very
+       important consideration; crumbly corn bread cannot be
+       distributed by bakers nor served to armies. Corn bread and
+       the other quick breads are chiefly home-made products.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Our present problem, therefore, is to make the most
+    effective possible use of our wheat gluten, to make it go as
+    far as possible in our breads. Both bakers and private
+    individuals have their share in solving the problem.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>THE BAKERS' REGULATIONS. VICTORY BREAD</h3>
+
+    <p>The bakers have co-operated loyally. Probably no other food
+    industry has been more vitally affected by the war. <b>All
+    bakers using three or more barrels of flour a month have been
+    licensed and so are under the control of the Food
+    Administration.</b> This means practically all the commercial
+    bakers of the country, and many hotels, clubs, and
+    institutions. About two-fifths of the bread in the United
+    States is made in bakeries and three-fifths in the home. The
+    bakeries have used 35,000,000 barrels of flour each year, so
+    the importance of this field for conservation is plain.</p>
+
+    <p>The amount of wheat flour they are now permitted to have has
+    been reduced: at present 80 per cent of their last year's
+    quantity, or, if they are pastry and cracker bakers, 70 per
+    cent. They must make no bread wholly of wheat flour. Some
+    substitute must be mixed with the wheat. When the regulation
+    went into effect in February, 1918, 20 per cent was required
+    and later, 25 per cent. In pies and cakes there must be at
+    least one-third substitute. The amounts of sugar and fat used
+    are limited. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"
+       id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> Even the sizes of the loaves
+       are fixed, so that the extravagance of making and handling
+       all sorts of fancy shapes and sizes may be avoided. Bread
+       must not be sold to the retailer at unreasonable prices.</p>
+
+    <p>Victory bread is bread made in accordance with these
+    regulations. The name "Victory" was chosen as representing the
+    idea underlying the conservation of wheat. The name is really a
+    present to the Food Administration, having been used by two
+    large firms who gave up all rights to their trade-mark.</p>
+
+    <p>Hotels and restaurants are required to make or serve bread
+    containing at least as much of the wheat substitutes as Victory
+    bread. They may not serve more than two ounces of bread and
+    other wheat products to a guest at a meal. Many of them have
+    recently promised to use no wheat at all till the next harvest.
+    That means, of course, that only through intelligent effort can
+    they serve yeast bread.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE INDIVIDUAL'S ANSWER TO THE BREAD CRY</h3>
+
+    <p><b>Until the wheat-supply increases and the Food
+    Administration lessens restrictions, use no wheat at all if you
+    can possibly do without.</b> Remember that you can make
+    delicious muffins and other quick breads from the substitute
+    flours. And you need no bread at all at some meals. An extra
+    potato or a serving of rice can be eaten instead of the usual
+    two slices of bread and the body will be supplied with the same
+    amount of energy. Do not be the slave of old food habits.
+    <b>When all Europe is eating to keep alive, fastidiousness and
+    food "notions" must play no part in the dietary.</b></p>
+
+    <p>Some people find it is almost impossible to do without the
+    baker's loaf. Hundreds in crowded city quarters have no
+    facilities <span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"
+       id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> of their own for baking.
+       Women doing their share in factories and workshops cannot
+       get up earlier to make corn bread for breakfast. Victory
+       bread must be saved for them. For households which must use
+       wheat, the Food Administration has fixed a voluntary ration
+       of 1Β½ pounds of wheat per week for each person. This
+       includes wheat in the form of bread, pastry, macaroni,
+       crackers, noodles, and breakfast foods.</p>
+
+    <p>All who can should do more than their share&mdash;they must
+    do their utmost to make up for those whose circumstances
+    prevent them from doing it. <b>The interests and desires of
+    each of us in this war can be translated into service in no
+    more effective way than by conforming our food habits to the
+    needs of the hour.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>FLOUR AND BREAD IN THE ALLIED COUNTRIES</h3>
+
+    <p>All the Allied countries have been stretching their meagre
+    wheat-supply to the limit and are enforcing the most stringent
+    regulations.</p>
+
+    <p>The flour is required to be of high
+    extraction&mdash;ordinarily from 81 per cent to 90 per cent,
+    decidedly higher than our 74 per cent. Even with this coarse,
+    gray flour a large percentage of substitute must be mixed,
+    usually 25 per cent. In England there are local regulations on
+    the use of mashed potato in bread. Their bread must be twelve
+    hours old before it is sold, so that people will not be tempted
+    to eat too much. The result is seldom palatable. In France no
+    flour at all may be used to make the delectable pastries and
+    cakes which have long been the delight of the French people and
+    their guests. In Italy, macaroni, which in many regions is as
+    much the "staff of life" as bread, must contain 43 per cent
+    substitute, and in some places may not be manufactured at
+    all.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"
+       id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span>
+
+    <p>Both England and France have subsidized bread; the
+    Government has set a price below cost and itself makes up the
+    difference to the baker. England has appropriated $200,000,000
+    for the purpose.</p>
+
+    <p>Bread rations are in force in both France and Italy. France
+    has recently put her whole people on a rigorous ration which
+    limits them to two-thirds of the amount of bread that they have
+    been accustomed to. Remember that bread is a far more important
+    part of the French diet than of ours. Even children under three
+    have bread cards allowing them 3Β½ ounces a day. Rations are not
+    a guarantee that the amount mentioned will be forthcoming; they
+    only permit one to have it if it can be obtained. One
+    interesting result of the stringency, according to an American
+    officer writing from Paris, is that guests even at formal
+    dinners, may be asked to bring their own bread, finding this
+    postscript on their invitations: "Apportez un peu de pain si
+    vous le voulez."<a id="footnotetag1"
+       name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a>
+       In Italy the very limited bread rations are fixed
+       locally.</p>
+
+    <p>England has compulsory rations for meat and butter or
+    margarine and sugar, but not for bread. Her bread system is
+    voluntary like ours, but much more detailed. The voluntary
+    ration allows one-half pound of bread a day for sedentary and
+    unoccupied women and larger allowances up to a little over a
+    pound for men doing heavy labor. Waste of any kind is very
+    heavily punished&mdash;one woman was fined $500 for throwing
+    away stale bread.</p>
+
+    <p>"Why not send corn abroad?" One hears the question over and
+    over again. The answers are many. In the first place, we
+    <i>are</i> sending corn over&mdash;our exports of corn during
+    March, 1918, increased 180 per cent and of corn meal 383 per
+    cent over the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"
+       id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> pre-war average. This they
+       are using as we are using it in our Victory bread. But they
+       must have enough wheat to make a durable loaf of bread at
+       the bakeshops, where for generations all the baking has been
+       done. The French housewife has no facilities for
+       bread-making and the French woman does not know how and has
+       not the time to learn. She is doing a man's work and her own
+       woman's labor besides, and the extra unaccustomed labor of
+       bread-making cannot be added to her burdens.</p>
+
+    <h3>WHY WE IN THE UNITED STATES DO NOT HAVE BREAD CARDS</h3>
+
+    <p>Some people, disturbed either selfishly or patriotically by
+    the failure of a neighbor to conserve wheat, have asked why the
+    Food Administration trusts to voluntary methods, why it does
+    not ration the country.</p>
+
+    <p>Rationing may come yet, but any such system bristles with
+    difficulties. The cost to the Government has been variously
+    estimated all the way from $10,000,000 to $45,000,000 a year.
+    Fifty per cent of the population could not be restrained in
+    their consumption by rationing, for they are either producers
+    or live in intimate contact with the producer. A wheat ration
+    which would be fair for the North might actually increase the
+    consumption in the South. Finally, the burden of a bread card
+    would fall largely not on the well-to-do, who eat less wheat
+    already and can easily cut down further, but on those with
+    little to spend, who might have to change their whole food
+    habits.</p>
+
+    <p>The success that is meeting our method of voluntary
+    reduction of consumption "will be one of the remembered glories
+    of the American people in this titanic
+    struggle."</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"
+       id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+    <h2>THE MEAT SITUATION</h2>
+
+    <p>Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to
+    talk of it long before the war, and we shall find it with us
+    after peace is declared. Great production of beef can take
+    place only in sparse settlements. As the tide of increasing
+    population flows over a country, the great cattle-ranges are
+    crowded out, giving place to cultivated fields. More people
+    means less room for cattle&mdash;a relative or even absolute
+    decrease in the herds.</p>
+
+    <h3>WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED</h3>
+
+    <p>In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of
+    European countries have raised most of their meat themselves,
+    though usually they have had to import fodder to keep up their
+    herds. They have been less dependent on import for meat than
+    for wheat. Great Britain is the only country which has imported
+    much meat&mdash;almost one-half her supply. Her imports, and to
+    a lesser extent those of other European countries, have come
+    chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six
+    countries outside&mdash;the United States, Canada, Argentina,
+    Uruguay, Australia, and New Zealand.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY</h3>
+
+    <p>Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With
+    meat as with wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships.
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page29"
+       id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> Australia and New Zealand,
+       and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder
+       such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large
+       amounts as it takes three times as much shipping to
+       transport feed as it does the meat made by the animals from
+       it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great Britain has
+       practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and
+       because much of what she has goes to Germany.</p>
+
+    <p>The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the
+    warring countries has fewer meat animals now than before the
+    war. There were roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at
+    the end of 1917 than in 1914. Many of those left are in very
+    poor condition, so that the shortage is even more serious than
+    is indicated by the falling off in numbers.</p>
+
+    <p>Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition.
+    Practically all the animals in those countries have been killed
+    or confiscated by the invading German and Austrian armies. This
+    is one cause of their terrible famine conditions.</p>
+
+    <p>The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost
+    seriously. France is the greatest loser of the three, with more
+    than one-fifth of her herds gone. The enemy has driven off
+    large numbers of her cattle. She, like the others, is in
+    difficulty not only for meat, but for milk. Her situation is
+    complicated by the fact that she has no great cold-storage
+    plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at frequent
+    intervals.</p>
+
+    <p>Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the
+    Allies in that she had many more animals in proportion to her
+    population than they. But she was more dependent upon imports
+    of feed, and as her commerce has been cut off, she has had to
+    kill her animals faster. Counting up all her animals in terms
+    of cattle according to the amount of meat they would yield,
+    shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria, there are no
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"
+       id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> available figures, but her
+       decrease has probably been larger than Germany's.</p>
+
+    <p>Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely
+    connected with the shortage of available grain. When cereals
+    are short, they must be fed to human beings rather than to
+    animals. Feeding grain to animals and then eating the animals
+    is not nearly so economical as eating grain directly. For
+    example, when grain is fed to a cow, only 3Β½ per cent of the
+    energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat, and 96 per cent
+    is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When a man
+    eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its
+    energy. Thus 81Β½ per cent more of the grain is actually used
+    for human food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds,
+    and uses grain for bread instead of turning it into meat.</p>
+
+    <p>Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for
+    meat for the great armies. The soldier's ration always contains
+    more meat than is eaten by the civilian population.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE</h3>
+
+    <p>The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption
+    in order to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible.
+    Compulsory meat rations are enforced in all the warring
+    countries. They vary, of course, from time to time as the
+    amount of available meat changes, but the following statements
+    give a picture of how limited the allowances are in periods of
+    shortage.</p>
+
+    <p>England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the
+    war. Her voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2
+    pounds per week. In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very
+    low, and by the end of February London was put on meat rations,
+    and in April the rest of the country. The rationing
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"
+       id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> system has made distribution
+       easier and more fair and greatly lessened the distressing
+       "queues" of people waiting before butchers' shops for their
+       allowance. The regulations allow each person 4 coupons a
+       week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At first, 3 of
+       these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or
+       mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of
+       bacon, ham, poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 1ΒΌ
+       pounds of meat a week.</p>
+
+    <p>Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the
+    United States was able to send in the late spring, heavy
+    workers were permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they
+    might buy a pound of bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were
+    allowed 1 extra coupon for bacon, poultry, or game. But at the
+    same time only 2 instead of 3 coupons were to be used for fresh
+    meat, so as to cut down further the slaughtering of cattle.
+    Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or profiteering.</p>
+
+    <p>In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of
+    the size of those served in an American hotel. An American
+    staying in London said recently that he could eat two meals in
+    succession in a London restaurant, and leave the table still
+    minus that self-satisfied feeling that a meal in America
+    gives.</p>
+
+    <p>At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and
+    in the spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices
+    also keep down consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2
+    meatless days, and cattle could not be slaughtered on the 2
+    preceding days. Though this order was abolished in October,
+    1917, meat had gone up so high in price that consumption went
+    away down. The Paris letter of the London <i>Daily News</i> and
+    <i>Leader</i> on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was
+    selling for 4 shillings 2 pence&mdash;$1 per pound. Since May
+    15, 3 days a week must be meatless&mdash;Wednesday, Thursday,
+    and Friday. On <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32"
+       id="page32"></a>[pg 32]</span> these days all butchers'
+       shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry or
+       game. Fish is scarce and very expensive.</p>
+
+    <p>Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3.
+    The ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are
+    decided locally and strictly regulated.</p>
+
+    <p>The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The
+    quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but
+    the average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per
+    person. It was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in
+    the middle of May&mdash;barely two small servings each
+    week.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES</h3>
+
+    <p>As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the
+    United States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic
+    the shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the
+    loss from inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in
+    Europe. The United States is now exporting far larger
+    quantities than it has ever exported before. In March, 1918, we
+    sent over 87,000,000 pounds of beef. Ordinarily we export
+    between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a month. Of pork we sent
+    308,000,000 pounds&mdash;six times more than usual. It is
+    roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000
+    pounds of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to
+    the Allies and our army.</p>
+
+    <p>To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a
+    careful organization has been necessary. At first the Allied
+    nations bought meat in this country as best they could in
+    competition with the domestic market and each other, often
+    feverishly to meet emergencies. <b>Last December a commission
+    was formed to buy for all the Allies.</b> The prices to be paid
+    are settled by experts, after careful study, so that packers,
+    storage warehouses, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page33"
+       id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> and producers shall all have
+       adequate, but not excessive return for their labor. The
+       buying is planned ahead so that we can ship at times when we
+       have plenty.</p>
+
+    <p>The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an
+    increased slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may
+    have serious consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for
+    conservation is constant, though at times the situation becomes
+    easier in one kind of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we
+    were short on hogs. In the spring of 1918, thanks to the
+    "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous conservation, as well as
+    high prices, we temporarily had hogs in plenty. Beef is short
+    for the summer season. Policies must change frequently with
+    fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe. However,
+    the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited only
+    by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still
+    larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which
+    we can possibly accumulate.</p>
+
+    <h3>MEAT CONSERVATION</h3>
+
+    <p>Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's
+    dietary as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison,
+    in the quantity consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat
+    and sugar or potatoes. Half of the people of the earth eat
+    little or none of it. Only in two kinds of communities is meat
+    used largely&mdash;new and thinly populated countries with much
+    grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries.</p>
+
+    <p>Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming
+    more meat per person than any other country in the
+    world&mdash;5 pounds a week in Australia and 4 pounds in New
+    Zealand. The United States, parts of which may be considered in
+    both <span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"
+       id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> classes, eats about 3ΒΌ pounds
+       per person weekly. This is much less than some years ago,
+       when there was more grazing-land.</p>
+
+    <p>Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used
+    about 2ΒΌ pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption
+    was slightly lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer
+    animals or less wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average
+    amount being about 1Β½ pounds a week&mdash;about half as much as
+    our consumption.</p>
+
+    <h3>MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS</h3>
+
+    <p>Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and
+    partly because it is a source of protein which is necessary to
+    build or renew the various parts of the body. Every cell in the
+    body contains it and needs a steady supply.</p>
+
+    <p>Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of
+    others&mdash;fish, cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas,
+    nuts, cereals. Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein
+    of anything that we eat. We can get protein just as
+    satisfactorily from cheese and the other animal protein foods
+    as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily from the vegetable
+    protein foods. <b>The old idea that meat is especially
+    "strengthening" has no foundation.</b> Neither is one kind of
+    meat less thoroughly digested than another.</p>
+
+    <p>There is little danger in this country that our diet will
+    fall too low in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than
+    we need. Even those who must spend a dangerously limited amount
+    on their diet, are not apt to be low in protein, for they often
+    err on the side of spending an unwise proportion of their money
+    on meat. Most scientists now consider three ounces of carefully
+    chosen protein per day a safe allowance for an average man. An
+    average woman needs
+    less.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"
+       id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span>
+
+    <p>It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count
+    up roughly whether he is eating more or less than this
+    quantity. A small serving of lean meat or fish, about two
+    inches square and three-quarters of an inch thick, contains
+    about one-half ounce of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a
+    quarter of a cup of cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube
+    of American cheese, each have about this same amount. So does a
+    cup and a half of baked beans or two and a half cups of cooked
+    cereal or six half-inch slices of bread (3 x 3Β½ inches). A
+    person eating six of these portions daily will of course have
+    his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in his eating and
+    patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his
+    consumption not far from this quantity.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES</h3>
+
+    <p><i>Fish</i>. The possible supply of fish is practically
+    unlimited, and much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat
+    on the average only 18 pounds apiece per year, though our meat
+    consumption is 170 pounds. The British and Canadians use much
+    more fish than we do&mdash;56 and 29 pounds respectively. The
+    United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State colleges are
+    constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down. We
+    should learn to value the many kinds which are available,
+    fresh, dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be
+    used to.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Eggs</i> form a very valuable food not only for protein,
+    but for mineral salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate
+    that the price is often high, but it should be realized that
+    expenditure for eggs makes expenditure for meat
+    unnecessary.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Poultry</i> is not now listed as a meat substitute by the
+    Food Administration because the supply has become very
+    limited.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Cheese</i> is one of the best substitutes for meat. It
+    represents <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"
+       id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span> most of the food value of a
+       much greater bulk of milk, and its protein, fat, and mineral
+       salts make it an important food. We in America are very slow
+       to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for
+       its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat
+       more of it, to the advantage both of the palatability and
+       nutritive quality of our diet.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Milk</i>, one of the most easily digested and simplest
+    sources of protein in our diet and the most valuable of our
+    foods, is discussed in Chapter VII.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Nuts</i> are usually thought of as a luxury, but the
+    amount of protein and fat they contain makes them really an
+    important food. Peanuts are usually classed with the nuts and
+    are considered the most valuable nut-crop of the United States.
+    They are growing so fast in importance that the acreage was
+    increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for oil and for
+    fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag of
+    peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part
+    of the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional
+    indigestion following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is
+    probably often due to forgetting that they are very substantial
+    foods and eating them at the end of an already sufficient
+    meal.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Peas and Beans</i> are taken up with the other vegetables
+    in Chapter VIII.</p>
+
+    <p>Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because
+    they haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All
+    the fish and beans and peas that they can get are being used.
+    But it is not enough. <b>Their small meat ration must be
+    maintained, and their armies as well as ours must have meat.
+    Keep it going
+    over!</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"
+       id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+    <h2>FATS</h2>
+
+    <p>To a person who has been in Europe since the war began the
+    question of the importance of fats is no longer debatable.
+    Having practically gone without them, he knows they are
+    important. In Germany it is the lack of fat that is the cause,
+    perhaps, of the most discomfort and makes the German most
+    dissatisfied with his rations. Even when the diet was
+    sufficient, it was not satisfactory if low in fat.</p>
+
+    <p>This dependence on fat in the diet is due to several
+    reasons, both physiological and psychological. Some people, the
+    Japanese for example, habitually eat but little. But it is the
+    habit of both Europeans and Americans to use considerable fat
+    both on the table and in cooking. The taste of food is not so
+    pleasing without it. Their recipes almost all use fat in one
+    form or another, so that when little or none is available, a
+    change must be made in most of the methods of cooking.
+    Practically all food must be boiled, and is lacking in the
+    flavor and texture to which we are accustomed. The food, no
+    matter how nutritious it may be, will not taste good.</p>
+
+    <p>Fats are very concentrated food, a fact which gives them
+    added value in war-time, making them the most economical food
+    to ship. <b>A pound of any fat gives 2ΒΌ times as much energy as
+    a pound of sugar</b>&mdash;the reason for the slogan "Fats Are
+    Fuel for <span class="pagenum"><a name="page38"
+       id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> Fighters." Soldiers engaged
+       in the most strenuous physical activities need fuel for all
+       the energy they expend. Bacon, butter, all the forms of fat
+       give them the most energy in the smallest weight of
+       food.</p>
+
+    <p>Fats stave off the feeling of hunger longer than other foods
+    because they pass more slowly from the stomach and delay the
+    passage of foods eaten with them. A slice of bread and butter
+    will "satisfy" one for a much longer time than a slice of bread
+    and jelly, even though there is enough jelly to give exactly
+    the same amount of fuel. In the countries in which there is a
+    fat shortage, the appetite does not stay satisfied during the
+    usual period between meals, even when the previous meal
+    contained the customary amount of calories. The feeling of
+    hunger is sometimes almost constant.</p>
+
+    <p>Certain fats are valuable for an entirely different reason.
+    Milk fat, either in the milk or as butter, beef fat which is a
+    constituent of oleomargarine, the fat in the yolk of egg, all
+    contain one of the vitamines needed by children in order to
+    grow properly, and by grown people to keep in good health. Lard
+    and the vegetable fats and oils, like nut or vegetable
+    margarine and cottonseed-oil, do not contain this substance,
+    but if there is sufficient milk in the diet, there will be
+    plenty of this "fat-soluble vitamine." In all other respects
+    the fats are alike from a nutritional standpoint. One fat can
+    replace another without harm.</p>
+
+    <p>Until the war came there was little need of knowing or
+    bothering as to what kind of fats we ate, or of concerning
+    ourselves with the fact that many more varieties were available
+    than most of us used. Now it does make a decided difference.
+    <b>Our armies and those of the Allies need fat, a great deal of
+    it, and we must ship them the kind most suited to their
+    purposes. We can use what the Allies and the Army do not
+    need.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"
+       id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span>
+
+    <h3>THE SITUATION ABROAD</h3>
+
+    <p>There is a shortage of the animal fats, lard, butter, and
+    oleomargarine for the same reasons, of course, that cause the
+    meat shortage. England, particularly recently, has had very
+    little, less even than the French and Italians, who are not
+    accustomed to using much.</p>
+
+    <p>England was the largest butter importer in the world,
+    getting her supply mostly from northwestern Europe, Denmark,
+    Russia, Sweden, and Holland. Russia can no longer supply her.
+    Neither can the neutrals, who have been supplying Germany under
+    pressure; they need Germany's coal. Although the United States
+    has increased her butter exports to the United Kingdom, if our
+    entire exports went to them, it would supply only 6 per cent of
+    the amount needed.</p>
+
+    <p>To help the situation, England has greatly increased her
+    manufacture of oleomargarine. Oleo oil and vegetable oils are
+    being imported in large quantities and now England uses twice
+    as much margarine as butter. But even with the margarine to
+    help out, there is but little to go around. The weekly ration
+    of butter and margarine is one-fourth of a pound per person,
+    and at times even that amount has not been available. In April
+    an American newspaper man in London reported that he had
+    forgotten what butter tasted like. It could only be obtained on
+    the farms, and even those who made it were strictly limited in
+    the amount that they could keep themselves. Not even margarine
+    could be served at luncheon or dinner. There were long queues
+    in front of the shops before the distribution was better
+    systematized. At present the total amount of fat in the diet is
+    increased somewhat by the allowance of bacon and
+    ham.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"
+       id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span>
+
+    <p>In Germany the fat shortage, has been so severe that,
+    combined with the bread shortage, it has been the greatest
+    cause of food riots. Before the war the Germans imported about
+    half their supply, most of which is now cut off. Of course, the
+    vegetable oils from the United States and the tropics are not
+    available. The neutrals have had to lessen their exports
+    because of their own shortage, and the embargo which the United
+    States laid on its exports of fats to neutrals. Germany's
+    inability to feed her animals has greatly curtailed her supply
+    of animal fats.</p>
+
+    <p>As a result the rations have been decreasing steadily in
+    spite of every effort. Bones are collected and the fat
+    extracted. Seeds, such as those of the sunflower, and the
+    kernels of fruit have the oil pressed from them. During 1915-16
+    the rations varied from 3ΒΌ ounces to 10 ounces of table fat a
+    week. By December, 1917, it had been decreased, so that the
+    average total fat ration was a little under 3 ounces a week,
+    some communities receiving a little more, and others none at
+    all. The local newspapers give interesting side-lights showing
+    the results of this shortage. An owner of a boot-shop was
+    prosecuted by the police for having 70 pairs of good shoes
+    which he would sell only in exchange for butter or bacon.
+    (<i>Brunswick Volksfreund</i>, January 16, 1918.)</p>
+
+    <h3>THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES</h3>
+
+    <p>The United States has great resources of vegetable oils,
+    cottonseed, peanut, corn, and olive oil. It is this apparent
+    plenty that makes it so difficult for many to visualize the
+    shortage abroad. We are shipping about one-third of the lard
+    which we produce, and large quantities of oleo oil for
+    oleomargarine. Although the exports of butter in 1917 have
+    almost been doubled since the
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"
+       id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> preceding fiscal year, it is
+       relatively unimportant, representing only about 1 per cent
+       of the production. We are shipping cottonseed oil also, but
+       this requires tank-steamers, which are scarce. In general,
+       as the oils are much more difficult to handle and impossible
+       for the armies to use, we must ship the solid animal
+       fats.</p>
+
+    <p><i>The Individual's Part in Fat Conservation</i>. Although
+    at present there is butter and lard on the market, the need for
+    conserving it is important, just as in the case of meat.
+    <b>Waste of any kind should be abhorrent to all of us at this
+    time.</b> There probably has been a greater waste of fat than
+    of any other commodity, but it is encouraging to note that this
+    waste has been decreased by conservation. The amount of fat in
+    city garbage has gone down all over the country. In Columbus,
+    Ohio, the fat in the garbage was almost 50 per cent less in
+    1917 than in 1916. In fourteen large cities with a total
+    population of over 5,000,000 nearly 40 per cent less fat was
+    recovered in March, 1918, than in March, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p>Not only can fat be saved by carefully avoiding every bit of
+    waste, but less can actually be used. <b>Fry food less, and
+    bake, broil, or boil them more. Use vegetable oils.</b> In a
+    long view of the food situation, it is the animal fats that
+    cause gravest concern, because of the years necessary to build
+    up a herd. <b>We must send as much fat abroad as possible, and
+    create reserves for periods of shortage with a minimum
+    depletion of our
+    herds.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"
+       id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+    <h2>SUGAR</h2>
+
+    <p><b>Of all the foods which it is necessary to conserve, sugar
+    is the easiest to do without.</b> If the war and what it means
+    has become part of a person's consciousness, he wishes only the
+    bare essentials. Sugar is a luxury of former times which has
+    become a commonplace to-day. The average use in the United
+    States was 83 pounds per person last year&mdash;1-2/3 pounds a
+    week&mdash;less than one hundred years ago the yearly
+    consumption was 9 pounds. Sugar was a rare luxury. It will do
+    no harm to regard it so again.</p>
+
+    <h3>WHY IS THERE A SUGAR SHORTAGE?</h3>
+
+    <p>Sugar is scarce for two reasons&mdash;much less beet-sugar
+    is actually being grown, and some of the cane-sugar is too far
+    away to be available. The sugar-beet, grown in temperate
+    climates, and the sugar-cane, native in tropical and
+    semitropical regions, are the only two sources of sugar large
+    enough to be of more than local importance.</p>
+
+    <p>Before the war, 93 per cent of the entire world crop of
+    beet-sugar was grown in Europe. The industry was started by
+    Napoleon in the early nineteenth century when he was at war
+    with most of Europe, and France was shut off from her supply of
+    cane-sugar from the West Indies. The industry spread over the
+    great plain of Central Europe, from the north of France over
+    Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary to Central Russia. In 1914
+    all of these countries were producing enough sugar for their
+    own needs. England produced none at all, but the continent,
+    especially Germany and Austria, supplied her with about 54 per
+    cent of what she
+    needed.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"
+       id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span>
+
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR
+        FACTORIES&mdash;ALSO BATTLE LINES AT CLOSE OF 1916<br />
+         ESTIMATED THAT ONE-THIRD OF WORLD'S PROOUCTION BEFORE THE
+        WAR WAS PRODUCED WITHIN BATTLE
+        LINES<a href="images/53.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/53.png"
+             alt="MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR FACTORIES" />
+        </a>
+    </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"
+       id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span>
+
+    <p>The beet-sugar industry in the United States started in 1863
+    and has grown rapidly since 1897. In 1917 it supplied 22 per
+    cent of the consumption.</p>
+
+    <p>Sugar-cane is grown in tropical and semitropical countries
+    all over the globe. Cuba leads in the amount produced, and
+    consumes only a small fraction of her production herself. Java,
+    too, is a large exporter. India raises millions of tons but has
+    to import some to fill all her needs. In the United States,
+    Louisiana, Texas, and some parts of Florida produce about 6 per
+    cent of what we use, but our dependencies, Porto Rico, the
+    Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines all export to us, and
+    together with Cuba, make up the deficiency.</p>
+
+    <p>The war has changed entirely the peace-time distribution.
+    The map shows what the battle-lines have done to the beetfields
+    of Europe. Belgium and the northern part of France, in which
+    practically all the beets were grown, are in German hands. In
+    1914 the battle-line eliminated 203 of the 213 French
+    sugar-factories. In 1916-17 the falling back of the Germans had
+    returned 65 factories to the French, but now again some of
+    these have fallen into the enemy's hands. The French crop in
+    1915-16 was only one-fifth of the crop before the war and the
+    following year it was only a fourth. Italy's crop was 25 per
+    cent less in 1916-17 than before the war and the estimated
+    yield for this year is 50 per cent less. England, of course,
+    can no longer get sugar from the continent.</p>
+
+    <p>So the allied world must import cane-sugar or have almost no
+    sugar at all. The cane-sugar supply is largely dependent on
+    shipping. Ships cannot be spared to go to the East. Therefore
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"
+       id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span> the sugar of Cuba and the
+       rest of the West Indies, our main source of supply, must be
+       shared with the Allies. It is to the credit of all involved
+       that every effort is being made to see that the division is
+       a fair one. A commission representing the Allies, the United
+       States, and Cuba apportioned the 1917-18 Cuban crop and
+       fixed its price. Competitive bidding by the many purchasers,
+       with the danger of forcing up the price of the limited
+       supply, was in this way prevented.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE EFFECT OF THE SHORTAGE</h3>
+
+    <p>The rations of Europe are the most convincing evidence of
+    the extent of the sugar shortage. In England Β½ pound a week is
+    allowed for each person, half the average amount used in their
+    households before the war. France had sugar cards long before
+    she had any other ration. Seven ounces a week were allowed, and
+    later in the year only one-quarter of a pound. Germany and
+    Austria-Hungary in 1918 had an average household ration of 6
+    ounces a week.</p>
+
+    <p>The United States in accordance with its usual method is
+    asking the individual for voluntary conservation of sugar. Each
+    household is asked to observe a voluntary weekly ration of not
+    more than three-quarters of a pound per person. Extra amounts
+    of sugar for home canning may be secured by making a certified
+    declaration to the dealer that it is to be used only for
+    canning and preserving.</p>
+
+    <p>Food manufacturers using sugar are dealt with more strictly
+    than private individuals. Every business using sugar may
+    purchase it only on certificates obtained from the Federal Food
+    Administrators. At present manufacturers of essential products
+    such as canned vegetables and fruits may get the amount needed
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"
+       id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> to fill their necessary
+       requirements. Manufacturers of less essential products get a
+       percentage of what they used before&mdash;at present
+       soft-drink and candy manufacturers get 50 per cent and
+       ice-cream makers 75 per cent.</p>
+
+    <p>The decreased use of sugar has resulted in the release of
+    the ships which had been used to bring Cuban sugar to this
+    country&mdash;50,000 tons freed to carry men and munitions and
+    food to the Western front in the spring of 1918.</p>
+
+    <h3>IN PLACE OF SUGAR</h3>
+
+    <p>The United States is much more fortunate than Europe in
+    having sweets other than sugar at its disposal. As our
+    corn-crop is immense, the supply of corn-syrup is limited only
+    by the ability of the manufacturers to turn it out. It is a
+    wholesome, palatable syrup and can often take the place of
+    sugar both in cooking and on the table. Although it is not as
+    sweet as ordinary sugar, it serves the body for fuel in the
+    same way. We have cane-syrup, and also molasses and refiner's
+    syrup, by-products of sugar-making, and in some parts of the
+    country, local products such as honey, maple sugar and syrup,
+    and sorghum syrup. Sweet fruits, both fresh and dried, contain
+    considerable amounts of sugar, some of the dried fruits being
+    over two-thirds sugar, and when added to cereals, for example,
+    take the place of part or all of the sugar.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE PRICE OF SUGAR</h3>
+
+    <p>In spite of the short supply, the Food Administration has
+    kept down the price of sugar by an agreement with the
+    sugar-refineries that the wholesale price must not be more than
+    the cost of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page47"
+       id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> raw sugar plus a fixed amount
+       to cover costs of refining. Even during December, 1917, when
+       there was a severe shortage in the East, the price remained
+       stable. Refiners say that without regulation by the Food
+       Administration the price would have gone to 25 cents a pound
+       or higher.</p>
+
+    <p>At times the Food Administration has had to use compulsion
+    to keep the price level and has not hesitated to do so where
+    necessary. Licenses have been withdrawn for failure to comply
+    with regulations, and businesses closed for longer or shorter
+    times. One dealer who was charging 14 cents a pound for sugar
+    had his store closed for 2 weeks; another paid $200 to the Red
+    Cross for overcharging; another, for selling sugar and flour
+    without regard to regulations, was closed indefinitely.</p>
+
+    <h3>TO CUT DOWN ON SUGAR</h3>
+
+    <p><b>Use fewer sweets of any kind and use sugar
+    substitutes.</b> Sugar does serve a desirable purpose in making
+    certain of our foods more palatable, but the quantity necessary
+    for this is small, and for much of it other sweets can be used
+    instead. The household consumption uses by far the largest
+    percentage of the sugar-supply. Its economical use also helps
+    to provide a reserve for preserving surplus fruits. <b>Such
+    "extras" as candy and cakes can be entirely dispensed
+    with.</b></p>
+
+    <p>Of course, sugar is a food, as it is burned in the body for
+    fuel. But there are two good physiological reasons for avoiding
+    excessive amounts. If we eat a large quantity in candy after
+    already sufficient meals, we are overeating and may suffer from
+    digestive disturbances in consequence. Eating sweets instead of
+    other food is also bad and a cause of undernourishment. Sugar
+    is pure carbohydrate, and although we may eat enough to
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"
+       id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> satisfy the feeling of hunger
+       the body will lack minerals, protein, and other substances
+       absolutely necessary for its well-being. The person may feel
+       satisfied, but he will be undernourished nevertheless.</p>
+
+    <p>The conservation of sugar will not only permit a fair
+    distribution to our associates in the war, but insure a
+    sufficient amount for our own men. It is especially valuable
+    for them because it burns so rapidly in the body that it gives
+    energy more quickly than other
+    foods.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49"
+       id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+    <h2>MILK&mdash;FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH</h2>
+
+    <p>In war-time there is constant danger of letting down the
+    health standard. Food is high in price, demands on incomes are
+    many and insistent, worst of all, life is being expended so
+    freely abroad that we become careless about it at home. But
+    while we are fighting to make the world a decent place to live
+    in, we must keep up our health and vigor at home.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Milk is vital to national health and efficiency.</b> We
+    can conserve wheat and meat, sugar and fats, and be none the
+    worse for it, but <b>we must use milk</b>. The children of
+    to-day must have it for the sake of a vigorous, hardy manhood
+    to-morrow. A quart for every child, a pint for every adult is
+    not too high an ideal.</p>
+
+    <p>There is no lack of evidence that children suffer if they do
+    not have enough. In New York in this past winter, two things
+    were observed which are undoubtedly closely
+    connected&mdash;increased undernutrition among school children,
+    and decreased use of milk. The Mayor's Milk Committee in the
+    fall of 1917 reported that the city as a whole had cut down its
+    milk consumption 25 per cent, and certain tenement districts 50
+    per cent. The majority of the families who had reduced the milk
+    to little or none were giving their children tea and coffee
+    instead&mdash;substituting drinks actually harmful to children
+    for the most valuable food they could have.</p>
+
+    <p>About the same time as the milk investigation, a count was
+    made of the number of New York children who were seriously
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"
+       id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span>
+       undernourished&mdash;half-starved. Twelve were found in
+       every 100 children, twice as many as the year before.</p>
+
+    <p>The warring nations in Europe fully realize the value of
+    milk. In the face of a serious shortage they are making every
+    effort to get to the children as much milk as can be produced
+    or imported. Until children, mothers, and invalids are
+    supplied, no one else may buy any. For adults, milk is an
+    almost unknown luxury.</p>
+
+    <p>All the countries have definite milk rations for their
+    children. These rations would be adequate if they could be
+    obtained, but many times they fall short. Every effort is made
+    to treat all children, rich and poor, alike. The price of milk
+    is regulated, but parents who cannot afford to buy it are given
+    it free or at cost. Dried and condensed milk are used where
+    they can be obtained and fresh milk cannot. Thousands of tons
+    of condensed milk have been sent over from America. There has
+    been scarcely a child born in the north of France and none in
+    Belgium whose continued life during all that period has not
+    been dependent upon American condensed milk. At one time the
+    Ministry of Food in Great Britain, anticipating a milk shortage
+    in the winter bought large quantities of dried milk for
+    distribution by local health committees and infant welfare
+    societies.</p>
+
+    <p>In Belgium, in spite of the misery of the people, fewer
+    young children are dying than before the war, because of the
+    milk and bread and care that they get at the "soupes" and
+    children's canteens. But in Poland, Roumania, and Serbia,
+    thousands and tens of thousands of babies and young children
+    have died since the war for lack of milk and other food.</p>
+
+    <p>Grown people should use milk and appreciate that it is far
+    more than a beverage. Comparing it with tea and coffee is not
+    sensible. The idea that food is "something to chew" breaks
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"
+       id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> down completely when milk is
+       considered. "Milk is both meat and drink."</p>
+
+    <h3>THE VALUABLE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK</h3>
+
+    <p>What gives milk its unique value? It must contain especially
+    valuable substances, since it is an adequate food for the young
+    for several months after birth and is one of the most important
+    constituents of a grown person's diet.</p>
+
+    <p>It contains protein of a kind more valuable, especially for
+    growing children, than that of most other foods. Milk protein
+    separates out when milk sours and is the familiar
+    cottage-cheese. Because of it, milk, whole or skim, is a
+    valuable meat substitute. When we drink milk, therefore, we
+    need less meat.</p>
+
+    <p>It contains fat. A pint of milk has a little more than half
+    an ounce&mdash;the same amount as an ordinary serving of
+    butter. By drinking milk we can save fat as well as meat.</p>
+
+    <p>Milk-sugar is also present, more or less like ordinary
+    sugar, but not so sweet. The sugar, the fat, and part of the
+    protein burn in the body, giving the energy needed for the
+    body's activities. A pint gives as much fuel as 4 eggs, or half
+    a pound of meat, or 3 or 4 large slices of bread. Although
+    bread is cheaper fuel than milk, its economy compared with meat
+    or eggs is obvious. The pint of milk costs usually about 7
+    cents, while the eggs and meat cost at least two or three times
+    as much. The economy of substituting milk for at least part of
+    the meat in the diet is plain. It is the advice of an expert to
+    "let no family of 5 buy meat till it has bought 3 quarts of
+    milk."</p>
+
+    <p>But this is not the whole story of milk. Milk is
+    extraordinarily rich in calcium, commonly called lime,
+    necessary for the growth of the bones and teeth and also
+    important in the diet of adults,
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"
+       id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> even though they have stopped
+       growing. No other food has nearly as much. A pint has almost
+       enough calcium for one entire day's supply. It takes 2ΒΌ
+       pounds of carrots to give the same amount, or 7 pounds of
+       white bread or the impossible quantity of 21 pounds of beef!
+       A diet without milk (or cheese) is in great danger of being
+       too low in calcium, especially a meat-and-bread diet without
+       vegetables.</p>
+
+    <p>Among the most necessary constituents of milk are the two
+    vitamines. One is present chiefly in the fat and the other in
+    the watery part of the milk. Without milk fat, in whole milk or
+    in butter, we run considerable risk of having too little of the
+    fat-soluble vitamine. The other vitamine is more widely
+    distributed in our foods, so that with our varied diet there is
+    little danger of not getting enough.</p>
+
+    <p>Milk, therefore, fills all the needs of the child, except,
+    perhaps, for iron, and is one of the best foods in the diet of
+    grown people. <b>There is no other food that has all the
+    virtues of milk; it therefore has no substitute. "The regular
+    use of milk is the greatest single factor of safety in the
+    human diet."</b></p>
+
+    <h3>OUR MILK PROBLEM</h3>
+
+    <p>We have not nearly enough milk in the United States to give
+    every child the quart and every adult the pint which they
+    should have. Although we actually produce about a quart per
+    person, more than half of this is used for butter, cheese, and
+    cream, and only about two-thirds of a pint is drunk directly as
+    milk or used in cooking. This spring we have slightly more than
+    this amount because of the dairymen's response to the patriotic
+    appeal to maintain production, but our supply and consumption
+    of milk are still far below what they should
+    be.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"
+       id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span>
+
+    <p>To increase the quantity in the country the price of milk
+    must be low enough for people to afford it, but high enough to
+    keep the producer and distributer in the business. The question
+    of a fair price is a difficult one. The cost of feed has gone
+    up, labor is scarce and dear, but further economies in both
+    production and distribution are still possible. This past
+    winter the Food Administration and the Dairy Division of the
+    Department of Agriculture have assisted many local commissions
+    in determining fair milk prices and pointing out economies all
+    along the line of the milk business.</p>
+
+    <p>It is most unfortunate that ignorance of the value of milk
+    makes people particularly sensitive to a change in its price.
+    When it goes up even a cent a quart, many cut down their
+    consumption, while a considerably larger advance in the price
+    of meat will make little difference in the amount bought.</p>
+
+    <p>If diminished use of milk continues, dairymen may go out of
+    business and permanent harm be done, both to us and to those
+    dependent on us abroad. A factory may close down and when the
+    need comes reopen immediately, but if a cow is killed it takes
+    practically three years to replace her.</p>
+
+    <p>The milk we have should be used as effectively as possible.
+    The most economical way for a nation to use its milk so as to
+    get the benefit of all the food in it, is, of course, as whole
+    milk, or evaporated or dried whole milk. The next most
+    economical way is in the form of whole-milk cheese, since all
+    but the whey is used in it.</p>
+
+    <p>Cream and butter are much less economical unless all the
+    skim milk is used. As 41 per cent of our milk-supply goes to
+    make butter, we have large quantities of skim milk containing
+    as much protein, it is estimated, as all the beef we eat.</p>
+
+    <p>At present we feed the largest part of this to animals or
+    actually <span class="pagenum"><a name="page54"
+       id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> throw it away. Since the
+       cottage-cheese drive of the Department of Agriculture, an
+       increasing amount of it is being made into
+       cottage-cheese&mdash;a palatable and useful meat substitute.
+       It can, of course, be used as a beverage or in cooking. Whey
+       also has many food uses. Buttermilk, too, is justly popular
+       and healthful. Skim milk is not a substitute for whole milk
+       for children.</p>
+
+    <p>Cream, valuable food though it is, is also extravagant in
+    its use of milk. It takes five quarts of milk to produce a
+    quart of cream. Buying whole milk is, therefore, better policy
+    than buying cream and no milk. The sale of cream is now
+    forbidden in Great Britain for this reason.</p>
+
+    <h3>OUR MILK ABROAD</h3>
+
+    <p>It is our supply of milk that is helping to meet the milk
+    shortage abroad. Before the war we exported very little. By
+    1917 our export of evaporated, condensed, and dried milk had
+    gone up twentyfold. In the spring of 1918 we sent over the
+    equivalent in whole milk of almost 50,000,000 pounds a month,
+    and should probably have sent much more were it not for the
+    lack of ships. After the war, when ships are released, the
+    demand for it will be enormous. It will take years to build up
+    the dairy-herds of Europe again, so we shall continue to be
+    their main source of supply.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Learn and teach the unique value and economy of milk. Do
+    everything to prevent in this country the tragic results which
+    are following the cutting down of milk consumption
+    abroad.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"
+       id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+    <h2>VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</h2>
+
+    <p>Vegetables and fruits represent a different and happier
+    phase of the food situation than our short supplies of wheat
+    and meat. The vegetables especially are a great potential
+    reserve of food, for they can be produced in quantity in three
+    or four months on unused land by labor that otherwise might not
+    be used.</p>
+
+    <p>Abroad every resource for vegetable-raising is being
+    utilized to the utmost. France and Belgium have long made the
+    most of all their land. Now England has made it compulsory to
+    leave no ground uncultivated. Golf-courses are now
+    potato-patches. Parks and every bit of back yard all grow their
+    quota of vegetables. The boys in the old English public schools
+    work with the hoe where before they played football.</p>
+
+    <p>We in America have no more than touched our capacity for
+    raising gardens. What we have done is merely a beginning. As
+    the war goes on we shall realize more and more the necessity
+    for seizing every opportunity for active service. The
+    accomplishments of the summer of 1917 showed the possibilities
+    of the work, and placed it beyond the purely experimental
+    stage. They have given experience and emphasized the value of
+    expert advice and the economy of community efforts.</p>
+
+    <p>Not only is the "plant a garden" a civilian movement, but it
+    has taken hold in the armies as well. The American Army Garden
+    service is planning truck-gardens in France to supply our
+    troops. The Woman's Auxiliary Army Corps of England plants
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"
+       id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span> gardens back of the British
+       lines. Last summer the French fed 20,000 of their men from
+       similar gardens.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Every pound of food grown in these home and community
+    gardens relieves the railroad congestion and gives more space
+    for transporting munitions and coal. Every pound of food grown
+    releases staples for Europe.</b> Extra production of food of
+    any kind, anywhere, takes on a new significance in the presence
+    of half a world hungry.</p>
+
+    <p><b>If you cannot grow vegetables, use them in abundance
+    anyway.</b> They are too perishable to ship abroad and too
+    bulky, containing so much water that it would be an
+    uneconomical use of shipping to export them. But the more
+    America eats of almost any kind of vegetable or fruit, the less
+    of the more durable, concentrated foods will she require. The
+    products are so varied in kind and composition that they can be
+    used to serve almost any purpose&mdash;beans and peas to save
+    meat; potatoes and others to save wheat; sweet fruits to save
+    sugar; jams, even, when spread on bread, to save fat. All will
+    improve the health and therefore increase human energies for
+    winning the war.</p>
+
+    <h3>IN THE WAR DIET</h3>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Meat</i>. Beans and peas and peanuts are the only
+    vegetables with much protein, so that they are the ones thought
+    of primarily as meat substitutes. There are many kinds of them,
+    fresh or dried, more than most of us realize. It is worth while
+    to add to the diet not only the ordinary white or navy beans,
+    but kidney, lima, black or soy beans, cow-peas, the many
+    colored beans such as the pinto, frijoles, and the California
+    pinks. It is these latter kinds that are used by the Mexicans
+    as their chief standby. The Army and Navy use huge
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"
+       id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span> quantities of the white
+       beans, and the Allied Governments are also buying tons of
+       the pintos.</p>
+
+    <p>The 1917 bean-crop, in response to the patriotic appeal, was
+    50 per cent higher than the normal. Nearly all this increase
+    was in the colored beans, chiefly pintos. The Food
+    Administration, fearing that some of this unusual surplus might
+    be wasted and the farmer discouraged from producing a large
+    output in 1918, bought up the extra crop and distributed it for
+    sale at the different markets.</p>
+
+    <p>Though soy beans and peanuts at least are exceptions, the
+    protein in beans and peas is not so satisfactory as a
+    bodybuilder as that in animal foods, so that a diet in which
+    they are a large part should contain also some milk or eggs or
+    a little meat. Two cups (half a pound) of shelled green peas or
+    beans, or one cup with a cup of skim milk gives as much protein
+    as a quarter of a pound of beef. Dried beans and peas are, of
+    course, cheaper than the canned with their larger amount of
+    water. At the usual market prices as much fuel can be bought
+    for 5 cents spent for dried peas as for 25 cents for canned
+    peas.</p>
+
+    <p>Meat-savers do not all have to be high-protein foods, since
+    the diet of most of us contains considerably more protein than
+    is necessary. Any vegetable can be a "meat extender." The
+    pleasant flavor of meat can be obtained in meat stews, such as
+    the delicious French "pot-au-feu." Stews can easily be made
+    with less meat and more vegetables than usual. The meat
+    allowance is now so very small in France and the vegetables so
+    scarce in the cities, that the ingenuity of even the French
+    woman is taxed to get a meal.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Wheat</i>. Potatoes to save wheat! The great
+    potato drive to utilize the surplus of our huge 1917
+    potato-crop, 100,000,000 bushels above normal, has fixed in
+    every one's mind the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page58"
+       id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> interchangeableness of these
+       two foods. Potatoes are one-fifth starch&mdash;almost the
+       same quantity as in cooked breakfast cereals. Because of
+       this starch, they give as satisfactory a fuel as wheat or
+       corn or any other cereal. One medium-sized potato supplies
+       the same number of calories as a large slice of bread, and
+       contains more mineral salts than white bread. Europe has
+       learned to eat potatoes instead of wheat. When bread has
+       been short potatoes have been the mainstay in every country.
+       They are to-day the largest single element, in terms of
+       energy, in the German war ration.</p>
+
+    <p>Sweet potatoes are also first-class wheat-savers. So to a
+    lesser extent are most vegetables and fruits. Very few except
+    white and sweet potatoes contain much starch, but many of them
+    have considerable sugar, which serves as fuel just as starch
+    does&mdash;carrots, beets, onions, parsnips, and practically
+    all fruits such as bananas, oranges, and grapes.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Sugar</i>. We want sugar, of course, both for
+    fuel and flavor. The vegetables and some fruits have their
+    sugar so covered up by other tastes that it does not help to
+    make the food sweet. It does, of course, serve for fuel.
+    Bananas especially are fuel foods, containing much starch when
+    green, which changes to sugar as the fruit ripens. The sweetest
+    fruits are the dried ones&mdash;dates, figs, raisins, prunes.
+    They have so much sugar that they can well be used in place of
+    candy.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Fat</i>, Although few common fruits and
+    vegetables contain fat, jam is a real fat-saver. It is of high
+    fuel value, and has the advantage of being a "spreading
+    material" so that it can replace butter with bread and cereals.
+    Jam is of great importance in Europe to-day and all the
+    Governments have taken steps to keep up the supply. It is a
+    regular part of the English army ration.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Keep the Nation Well</i>. An increase in the use of
+    vegetables <span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"
+       id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span> and fruits is practically
+       sure to mean an increase in health. Many of us, especially
+       city-dwellers, do not eat enough of them. Many a young girl
+       who "does not like vegetables" probably owes part of her
+       languor to inadequate diet. The old-fashioned "touch of
+       scurvy" formerly noticed at the end of the winter and even
+       now not an unknown thing, was probably due to lack of
+       vegetables in the winter diet. The constipation which is so
+       disturbingly prevalent can usually be cured or prevented by
+       eating vegetables and fruits in sufficient quantities. One
+       of the most serious limitations in the diet of many of the
+       very poor is the lack of vegetables as well as milk and the
+       unduly large proportion of meat and bread. In a community in
+       New York City with high mortality rate, 75 mothers whose
+       diet was observed, ate vegetables on the average only twice
+       a week, and fruit about the same number of times.</p>
+
+    <p>It is not difficult to understand why vegetables and fruits
+    are so important. Only a few are especially valuable as fuel or
+    as a source of protein, but almost all are high in mineral
+    salts and can supply the "roughage" desirable in the diet. Some
+    also contain the vitamines, the leafy vegetables being
+    especially valuable because, like milk, they contain the two
+    kinds. The "greens," leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage,
+    Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and lettuce, are the ones that
+    help most in these last ways&mdash;"protective foods," they
+    have been called. They are rich in the iron, calcium, and other
+    minerals that some of the other foods lack. The use of plenty
+    of these vegetables should go far toward keeping up health.</p>
+
+    <h3>CANNING AND DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</h3>
+
+    <p>The value of these foods both for the nation's health and
+    for saving staples applies just as much in winter as in summer.
+    In <span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"
+       id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> war-time, a winter supply,
+       either stored, dried, or canned, takes on special
+       significance because of their substitute value if the supply
+       of staples runs critically low.</p>
+
+    <p>The canning industry, because it makes vegetables obtainable
+    at all times and places, has been of great importance in the
+    health and development of the country. Smith, in his
+    "Commercial Geography," says that "canning, more than any other
+    invention since the introduction of steam, has made possible
+    the building up of towns and communities beyond the bounds of
+    varied production." A century or two ago, sailors after a
+    voyage of a year or two, almost always came home with scurvy.
+    Recently Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for years
+    and remained in good health, because of their supply of canned
+    vegetables, fruits, and meats.</p>
+
+    <p>The Government has not been slow in appreciating the need of
+    canned vegetables for the Army and Navy. It has commandeered
+    about 25 per cent of the canned beans, 12 per cent of the corn,
+    and 18 per cent of the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts
+    will be needed this year also. Much of the 1918-19 supply for
+    our troops in France is to be canned in France, by arrangement
+    with the French Government, thus saving valuable shipping
+    space.</p>
+
+    <p>Drying, or dehydrating, has long been known for beans, peas,
+    and corn, and for dates, prunes, figs, and raisins. But dried
+    potatoes, beets, carrots, and "soup mixtures" are more or less
+    new. The drying, of course, merely removes most of the water
+    from the vegetable, and if the process is properly carried out,
+    soaking the vegetable in water restores its original
+    freshness.</p>
+
+    <p>The war, with the need for every ounce of food and the
+    increasing transportation difficulties, has brought the process
+    into prominence. The dehydrated products, if properly stored,
+    seem to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"
+       id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> keep a long time. Their
+       saving in freight and shipping is plain, when it is
+       remembered that the fresh vegetables and fruits often
+       contain over 90 per cent water, and the dried from 8 per
+       cent to 10 per cent. Ships are too precious to be used for
+       carrying unnecessary water. Our Government has placed orders
+       for several thousand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the
+       Army and may use other dried products as they can be
+       obtained.</p>
+
+    <p>Canada has sent abroad within the past 3 years over 50
+    million pounds of dehydrated vegetables, about two-thirds of
+    which was the vegetable-soup mixture and one-third dried sliced
+    potatoes. When reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000
+    pounds of vegetables. Germany has been drying her vegetables
+    and fruits far more than we. In 1917 she had over 2,000
+    commercial plants, and an elaborate system of distributing all
+    the available fresh material to the different plants to avoid
+    waste.</p>
+
+    <p>Individuals and communities with gardens or wherever fresh
+    products can be obtained should not be dependent upon
+    commercial agencies. <b>As far as possible every family and
+    every neighborhood should be self-supporting. Home and
+    community canning and drying are important duties. Can and dry
+    the surplus. Store up enough to carry through the next winter.
+    Follow expert advice as to methods. Use the greatest care to
+    prevent spoilage. Wherever possible unite with your neighbors
+    in community canneries and dryers so that every one can have
+    the benefit of the best equipment and the most skilled
+    supervision.</b></p>
+
+    <p><b>A great deal was done in 1917; millions of cans were put
+    up and great waste prevented. But in 1918 more must be done.
+    More vegetables must be raised and more must be canned. A great
+    reserve for the winter is more necessary than
+    ever.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"
+       id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span>
+
+    <h2>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+    <p>Almost a year of food control in this country has passed and
+    the great new experiment in democratic administration of the
+    nation's food is succeeding. The method of well-directed
+    voluntary co-operation, much more characteristic of our food
+    control than of any other country's, can be judged by its
+    results to date. We have sent abroad six times the wheat that
+    we had believed was in the country for export. We have exported
+    vastly increased shipments of the other cereals, of beef and
+    pork, of fats and condensed milk. With Canada, we are supplying
+    50 per cent of the Allies' food, instead of barely 5 per cent,
+    as before the war. Meanwhile our own population has been taken
+    care of. No one has gone hungry because of the shipments of
+    food out of the country. The price of the most important food,
+    bread, has been kept stable&mdash;a new experience in time of
+    war.</p>
+
+    <p>These and others are great accomplishments, brought about
+    through the co-operation of the nation, <b>but they are slight
+    in comparison with what must still be done.</b> The huge
+    resources for extra food production and conservation have
+    hardly been touched. The imagination is just beginning to be
+    stirred by the immensity of the whole undertaking and the
+    sacrifice required to win the war. Men, ammunition and food, in
+    a steadily increasing stream, must go across.</p>
+
+    <p><b>"Our duty, if we are to do this great thing and show
+    America to be what we believe her to be&mdash;the greatest hope
+    and energy of the world&mdash;is to stand together night and
+    day until the job is finished."</b>&mdash;PRESIDENT
+    WILSON.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page63"
+       id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span>
+
+    <h2>A FEW REFERENCES</h2>
+
+    <p class="index">American Academy of Political and Social
+    Science. "World's Food." Philadelphia, 1917. (<i>Annals of the
+    American Academy</i>, November, 1917.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Carter, Howe and Mason. "Nutrition and
+    Clinical Dietetics." Philadelphia, Lea &amp; Febiger, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Holmes, A.D., and Lang, H.L. "Fats and Their
+    Economical Use in the Home." Washington, 1916. (Department of
+    Agriculture Bulletin 469.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, Alonzo E. "Food
+    Problems." New York, Macmillan, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Langworthy, C.F. "Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes,
+    and Other Starchy Roots as Food." Washington, 1917. (Department
+    of Agriculture Bulletin 468.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Langworthy, C.F. "Eggs and Their Value as
+    Food." Washington, 1917. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin
+    471.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Lusk, Graham. "Food in War Time."
+    Philadelphia, Saunders, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Lusk, Graham. "Fundamental Basis of
+    Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University Press, 1915.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Mendel, Lafayette B. "Changes in Food Supply
+    and Their Relation to Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University
+    Press, 1916.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Mendenhall, Dorothy R. "Milk." Washington,
+    1918. (<i>Children's Bureau</i>, Publication 35.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rose, Mary Swartz. "Everyday Foods in War
+    Time." New York, Macmillan, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New
+    York, Macmillan, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and
+    Nutrition." New York, Macmillan, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sherman, Henry C. "Food Products." New York,
+    Macmillan, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Taylor, Alonzo E. "War Bread." New York,
+    Macmillan, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">The publications of the United States
+    Department of Agriculture and the United States Food
+    Administration.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">The United States Food Leaflets.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">United States Department of Agriculture:
+    Farmers' Bulletin 487. "Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the
+    Diet." C.F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 565. "Corn as a Food and
+    Ways of Using It." C.F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt,
+    1917.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"
+       id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 717. "Food for Young
+    Children." Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 808. "What the Body Needs."
+    Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 817. "Cereal Foods."
+    Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 824. "Foods Rich in
+    Protein." Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 839. "Home Canning by the
+    One-Period Cold-Pack Method." O.H. Benson, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 841. "Drying Fruits and
+    Vegetables in the Home."</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 853. "Home Canning of Fruits
+    and Vegetables." M.E. Cresswell and Ola Powell, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 871. "Fresh Fruits and
+    Vegetables as Conservers of Other Staple Foods." Caroline L.
+    Hunt, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 881. "Preservation of
+    Vegetables by Fermentation and Salting." L.A. Round and H.L.
+    Lang, 1917.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"
+       id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span>
+
+    <h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+    <p class="index">Agriculture, Department of.&mdash;Aids wheat
+    production, <a href="#page8">8</a>; campaign for increased use
+    of milk, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Austria.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>-30; sugar-supply,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Banana flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Barley as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Beans.&mdash;Varieties,
+    <a href="#page56">56</a>; as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Belgium.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page2">2</a>; meat-supply, <a href="#page29">29</a>;
+    sugar-supply, <a href="#page44">44</a>; milk supplied to
+    children, <a href="#page50">50</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Bread.&mdash;Advantages of wheat loaf,
+    <a href="#page22">22</a>-23; bakers' bread regulated,
+    <a href="#page23">23</a>; conservation of, by housewives,
+    <a href="#page24">24</a>-25; restrictions on use in Europe,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>-26; rationing not necessary in United
+    States, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Buckwheat as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Butter.&mdash;Consumption in England,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>; uneconomical way to use milk,
+    <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Calorie defined, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Candy.&mdash;Manufacturers restricted in use
+    of sugar, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Canning.&mdash;Sugar allowed for,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>-46; importance of industry,
+    <a href="#page60">60</a>; urged upon housewives for
+    conservation, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cereals.&mdash;Defined,
+    <a href="#page10">10</a>; food value, <a href="#page12">12</a>,
+    <a href="#page17">17</a>; wide consumption of,
+    <a href="#page12">12</a>-13.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cheese.&mdash;Valuable protein food,
+    <a href="#page34">34</a>; as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>-36; a use for skim milk,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Corn as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page17">17</a>-18; why Allies can not use,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>-27.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Corn-syrup as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cottonseed meal as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cream.&mdash;Extravagant use of milk,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Drying.&mdash;Process,
+    <a href="#page60">60</a>; importance of,
+    <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Eggs as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">England.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page2">2</a>; restrictions concerning bread,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>-26; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>; meat restrictions,
+    <a href="#page30">30</a>-31; fat shortage,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>; sugar-supply,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>; milk regulations,
+    <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>; cultivation
+    of soil, <a href="#page55">55</a>-56.</p><br />
+
+    <p class="index">Fats.&mdash;Food value,
+    <a href="#page37">37</a>-38; shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>; resources and exports of United
+    States, <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; necessity for
+    conservation, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Feterita as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Fifty-fifty rule,
+    <a href="#page16">16</a>-17.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Fish as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Flour.&mdash;Manufacture of,
+    <a href="#page14">14</a>-15; 74 per cent extraction allowed,
+    <a href="#page15">15</a>; consumption cut by licensing millers,
+    <a href="#page15">15</a>; by fifty-fifty rule,
+    <a href="#page16">16</a>-17.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Food Administration.&mdash;Takes control of
+    wheat business, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>;
+    licenses millers, <a href="#page15">15</a>; licenses bakers,
+    <a href="#page23">23</a>-24; regulates sugar prices,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>-47; aids increased use of milk,
+    <a href="#page53">53</a>; achievements in year of existence,
+    <a href="#page62">62</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Foods.&mdash;Importance of different kinds,
+    <a href="#page10">10</a>-11.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">France.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>-2; bread regulations,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>; meat regulations,
+    <a href="#page31">31</a>-32; sugar-supply,
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"
+       id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span> <a href="#page44">44</a>;
+       sugar restrictions, <a href="#page45">45</a>; production of
+       fruit and vegetables, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Fruit.&mdash;As sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>; food value,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>-59; conservation of, by canning and
+    drying, <a href="#page59">59</a>-61.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Garbage conservation,
+    <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Gardens.&mdash;See Production.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Germany.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page3">3</a>-4; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>-30; meat restrictions,
+    <a href="#page32">32</a>; fat shortage,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>; sugar restrictions,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>; conservation of food by drying,
+    <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Gluten.&mdash;Importance in bread,
+    <a href="#page22">22</a>-23.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Graham flour.&mdash;Manufacture,
+    <a href="#page14">14</a>; inferiority to wheat,
+    <a href="#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Grain corporation, controls wheat trade,
+    <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Honey as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Hotels and restaurants.&mdash;Regulations in
+    use of bread, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Ice-cream.&mdash;Manufacturers restricted in
+    use of sugar, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Italy.&mdash;Restrictions on macaroni,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>; bread rations,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>; sugar-supply,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Jam as substitute for butter,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Kaffir as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Legumes.&mdash;See Beans, Peanuts,
+    Peas.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Macaroni.&mdash;Restrictions in manufacture of
+    in Italy, <a href="#page25">25</a>; not a wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Maple-syrup as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Margarine.&mdash;Use in England,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Meat.&mdash;Shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page28">28</a>-32; exports from United States,
+    <a href="#page32">32</a>-33; consumption,
+    <a href="#page33">33</a>-34; food value,
+    <a href="#page34">34</a>-35.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Meat extenders, vegetables as,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Meat substitutes, <a href="#page35">35</a>-36;
+    vegetables as, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Milk.&mdash;As meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>; necessity for children,
+    <a href="#page49">49</a>-50; shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page50">50</a>; food value,
+    <a href="#page51">51</a>-52; supply in United States,
+    <a href="#page52">52</a>-53; economical uses of,
+    <a href="#page53">53</a>-54.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Milk, condensed.&mdash;Use in Europe,
+    <a href="#page50">50</a>; amount exported from United States,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Milo as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Molasses as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Nuts as meat substitutes,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Oats as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Oils, vegetable.&mdash;Use in Germany,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>; supply in United States,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; as substitute for animal fats,
+    <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Peanut flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Peanuts as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Peas as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Potato flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Potatoes as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>-58.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Poultry as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Production.&mdash;Decreased in France,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>-2; of cereals doubled in England,
+    <a href="#page2">2</a>; of vegetables in England and America,
+    <a href="#page55">55</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Protein.&mdash;Defined,
+    <a href="#page11">11</a>; amount necessary in diet,
+    <a href="#page34">34</a>-35.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: Austria.&mdash;Sugar,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: England.&mdash;Bread not rationed,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page30">30</a>-31;
+    fats, <a href="#page39">39</a>; sugar,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: France.&mdash;Bread,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page31">31</a>;
+    sugar, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: Germany.&mdash;Meat,
+    <a href="#page32">32</a>; fats, <a href="#page40">40</a>;
+    sugar, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: Italy.&mdash;Bread,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: U.S.&mdash;Voluntary wheat ration,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>; reasons for not introducing system,
+    <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"
+       id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span>
+
+    <p class="index">Rice.&mdash;Chief diet in India,
+    <a href="#page13">13</a>; as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>-20.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Roumania.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Russia.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rye, as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Shipping.&mdash;Necessity for saving,
+    <a href="#page5">5</a>; released by decreased use of sugar,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Soy bean flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Substitutes.&mdash;See Meat, Sugar, Wheat
+    substitutes.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sugar.&mdash;Consumption in United States,
+    <a href="#page42">42</a>; shortage, <a href="#page42">42</a>,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>-45; restrictions on,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>-46; price regulated,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>-47; conservation of,
+    <a href="#page47">47</a>-48.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sugar substitutes, <a href="#page46">46</a>,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Tapioca flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">United States: Exports.&mdash;Wheat,
+    <a href="#page5">5</a>-6; meat, <a href="#page33">33</a>; fat,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; sugar,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>-45; milk,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Vegetables.&mdash;Importance in conservation,
+    <a href="#page55">55</a>; production of,
+    <a href="#page56">56</a>; as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>-57; as wheat
+    substitute, <a href="#page20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>-58; as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>; food value,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>-59; conservation of by canning and
+    drying, <a href="#page50">50</a>-61.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Victory bread, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Vitamines.&mdash;Defined,
+    <a href="#page11">11</a>; in fats, <a href="#page38">38</a>; in
+    milk, <a href="#page52">52</a>; in fruit and vegetables,
+    <a href="#page59">59</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">War bread.&mdash;See Flour, Victory bread,
+    Wheat substitutes.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Wheat.&mdash;Necessity in war,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>; shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>-4; distribution a problem,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>-5; supply and exports of United States,
+    <a href="#page5">5</a>-6; controlled by United States Grain
+    Corporation, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>;
+    conservation of by individuals, <a href="#page8">8</a>-9.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Wheat substitutes.&mdash;Corn,
+    <a href="#page18">18</a>-19; oats, <a href="#page19">19</a>;
+    barley, <a href="#page19">19</a>; rye,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>; rice, <a href="#page20">20</a>;
+    miscellaneous, <a href="#page20">20</a>; keeping quality,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>-21; vegetables,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>-58.</p>
+    <hr />
+    <blockquote class="footnote">
+        <a id="footnote1"
+                    name="footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b>
+                    <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a>
+
+        <p>"Bring a little bread if you wish it."</p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <br />
+    <br />
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14055 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
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+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #14055 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14055)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Food Guide for War Service at Home, by
+Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Food Guide for War Service at Home
+
+Author: Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker
+
+Release Date: November 15, 2004  [eBook #14055]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT
+HOME***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Audrey Longhurst, William Flis, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 14055-h.htm or 14055-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h/14055-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME
+
+Prepared under the Direction of the United States Food Administration
+in Co-Operation with the United States Department of Agriculture and
+the Bureau of Education
+
+With a Preface by Herbert Hoover
+United States Food Administrator
+
+1918
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society]
+
+
+
+ANNOUNCEMENT
+
+In the spring of 1918 the Collegiate Section of the United States Food
+Administration was called upon to prepare a simple statement of the
+food situation as affected by the war, suitable for elementary and
+high school teachers, high-school pupils, and the general public. The
+demand arose because of the wide adoption of the three courses on
+this subject then being sent out weekly to universities, colleges, and
+normal schools throughout the country.
+
+This little volume is the response to that request. It was written by
+Katharine Blunt, of the University of Chicago, Frances L. Swain, of
+the Chicago Normal School, and Florence Powdermaker, of the United
+States Department of Agriculture.
+
+The records of the Food Administration have been open to the writers
+and they have had the advice and criticism of its officials and
+specialists. No effort has been spared to secure accuracy of statement
+in the text.
+
+OLIN TEMPLIN,
+Director of the Collegiate Section.
+July 1, 1918.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The long war has brought hunger to Europe; some of her peoples stand
+constantly face to face with starvation.
+
+All agriculture has been seriously interfered with. Food production
+has been lessened to the point of danger. Millions of men who had
+given all their time and energy to raising food have been killed; more
+millions are still fighting; other millions have gone from the farms
+into the great war-factories. Women, too, have been drafted from the
+fields and home gardens into the factories and to replace the absent
+men in a host of occupations. Great stretches of once fertile land
+have been temporarily ruined by the scourge of war; some are still
+under falling shot and shell. Belgium and France have lost millions of
+acres of productive land to the enemy. The fertilizers necessary for
+keeping up the production of the land still available are lacking.
+
+All this means that the Allies have to rely on the outside for the
+maintenance of their food-supply. But because ships are fewer than
+they were, and because many of them must carry troops and munitions
+exclusively, these ships cannot be sent on voyages longer than
+absolutely necessary to find and bring back the needed food. They
+cannot afford to go the long time-consuming way to Australia and back;
+but few of them can be let go to India and the Argentine. They must
+carry food by the shortest routes. The shortest is from North America
+to England and France.
+
+Therefore by far the greater part of the food provided for the Allies
+from the outside must come from us. As a matter of fact more than 50
+per cent of this outside food for the Allies does now come from North
+America. And that is a great deal. It is very much more than we ever
+sent them before. Also we are sending more and more food overseas for
+our own growing armies in France and our growing fleets in European
+waters.
+
+To meet all this great food need in Europe--and meeting it is an
+imperative military necessity--we must be very careful and economical
+in our food use here at home. We must eat less; we must waste nothing;
+we must equalize the distribution of what food we may retain for
+ourselves; we must prevent extortion and profiteering which make
+prices so high that the poor cannot buy the food they actually need;
+and we must try to produce more food by planting more wheat and other
+grain, raising more cattle and swine and sheep, and making gardens
+everywhere.
+
+To help the people of America do all these things, and to coordinate
+their efforts, the President and Congress created the United States
+Food Administration. The Food Administration, therefore, asks all the
+people to help feed the Allies that they may continue to fight, to
+help feed the hungry in Belgium and other starving lands that they
+may continue to live, and to help feed our own sailors and soldiers so
+that they may want nothing. It asks help, also, in its great task of
+preventing prices from going too high and of stabilizing them, and of
+keeping the flow of distribution even, so that all our people, rich
+and poor alike, may be able to obtain the food they need.
+
+For all this there is needed a "food education" of all our people.
+Every home in our broad land must be reached. One of the most
+effective ways of accomplishing this is by getting information to the
+children of the nation about food and the possibilities and methods
+of its most wise and economical use. To obtain this result we must get
+this information into the hands of parents and teachers.
+
+For the purpose of diffusing this information this little book has
+been prepared under the direction of the Food Administration. By
+following the suggestions for food conservation herein contained every
+one can render his country an important war service. I am sure that
+all will be glad to do this.
+
+HERBERT HOOVER.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I. THE WHEAT SITUATION
+
+    The world's supply of wheat--Wheat in the United
+    States--Meeting the wheat shortage
+
+CHAPTER II. THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS
+
+    The significance of different kinds of food--The social
+    importance of cereals, especially wheat--Wheat flour in
+    war-time--The 50-50 rule. Another way to cut the consumption
+    of wheat--Substitutes for wheat flour
+
+CHAPTER III. WAR BREAD
+
+    The bakers' regulations. Victory bread--The individual's
+    answer to the bread cry--Flour and bread in the Allied
+    countries--Why we in the United States do not have bread cards
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE MEAT SITUATION
+
+    Where Europe's meat has been produced--The war and the
+    European meat-supply--The meat rations of Europe--The part of
+    the United States--Meat conservation--Meat and other protein
+    foods--The meat substitutes
+
+CHAPTER V. FATS
+
+    The situation abroad--The situation in the United States
+
+CHAPTER VI. SUGAR
+
+    Why is there a sugar shortage?--The effect of the shortage--In
+    place of sugar--The price of sugar--To cut down on sugar
+
+CHAPTER VII. MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH
+
+    The valuable constituents of milk--Our milk problem--Our milk
+    abroad
+
+CHAPTER VIII. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+    In the war diet--Canning and drying vegetables and fruits
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+A FEW REFERENCES
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE WHEAT SITUATION
+
+
+Wheat is as much a war necessity as ammunition--wheat is a war weapon.
+To produce it and distribute it where it is needed and in sufficient
+quantities is the most serious food problem of the Allied world. The
+continent of Europe, with her devastated fields, can raise but a small
+fraction of the wheat she needs, and ships are so few that she cannot
+import it from many of the usual sources.
+
+Not one of the warring European countries has escaped serious
+suffering, and the neutral countries have suffered with them.
+
+
+THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF WHEAT
+
+France, always an agricultural nation, was the most nearly
+self-sustaining of the western Allies. Now one-third of her
+wheat-fields are barren. Thousands of her acres have been taken by the
+enemy, or are in No Man's Land. Much of the land that has been fought
+over these past four years is now hopeless for farming, and will
+be for years to come. Even the territory still under cultivation
+cannot be expected to yield large returns, for laborers, tools, and
+fertilizers are lacking.
+
+The men who have left the fields to fight have been replaced chiefly
+by women, children, and old men, while furloughed soldiers at times
+help to bring in the crops. To get adequate return from the soil
+which has been tilled for centuries, tons of fertilizer are necessary.
+Fertilizers are an absolute necessity, and nitrates, one of the
+most important of them, can no longer be imported from Chile. The
+work-animals have been driven off by the enemy or slaughtered for want
+of food, and mechanics are lacking to repair and replace the worn-out
+farm-machinery. As a result of this, in 1917 France raised only enough
+wheat to supply 40 per cent of her need, instead of 90 per cent, as in
+pre-war years.
+
+In England the situation is not much better. Unlike France, England
+has always imported far more wheat than she raised. But now through
+vigorous effort she alone of all the European countries has increased
+her cereal production so that it has actually been doubled. Being free
+from the devastation of war at home, she has been able to convert
+the great lawns of her parks and country estates into grain-fields.
+English women of all classes, an army of half a million, are working
+on the land. At the same time the consumption of wheat has been
+reduced. Even yet, however, the home-grown supply in England is only
+one-fourth of the wheat required.
+
+In Belgium the devastation is so complete that the women, children,
+and old people left there would die of famine if food were not sent
+to them. Two and a half million Belgians daily stand in line waiting
+for food to be doled out to them. The United States must supply
+three-fourths of the wheat contained in their meagre bread ration.
+In Italy, too, the condition is serious, for she produces far less
+than she needs, despite every effort of her Government to stimulate
+production.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT FIELDS OF THE WORLD]
+
+Germany and Austria-Hungary have not escaped universal suffering from
+lack of wheat. Germany before the war was a wheat-importing country,
+and Austria-Hungary was able to supply herself with wheat, but had
+none to export. Their war crops have been below normal, and even
+the wheat taken from conquered territory has not been sufficient
+to prevent severe shortage, resulting in bread riots in industrial
+centres.
+
+The imports of wheat into both the Allied and enemy European countries
+to supplement the wheat of their own raising came in peace-times
+from seven countries--Russia, Roumania, Australia, the United States,
+Canada, Argentina, and India. Most of these have now failed as a
+source of supply.
+
+Russia and Roumania were the great wheat-bins of Europe. They produced
+as much wheat as the United States, and sometimes more, and they were
+always able to make up or nearly make up the deficiencies of western
+Europe. Russia and Roumania are now themselves on the verge of famine.
+Even before their own situation became so desperate, they could get
+little wheat to the western Allies, because the enemy territory and
+the battle-lines made a great wall of separation.
+
+Australia and India both continue to grow large crops of wheat, and
+have a surplus in storage, but it cannot be sent to Europe because of
+lack of ships. Australia has wheat stored from her last three crops.
+The Argentine had very poor crops in 1916 and 1917, and although
+the 1918 crop is good, it is scarcely more available to Europe than
+Australia's wheat.
+
+SO THE WHEAT SCARCITY IS NOT A QUESTION ONLY OF THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT
+IN THE WORLD. IT IS A PROBLEM OF GETTING IT WHERE IT IS NEEDED--WHEAT
+PLUS SHIPS. Not a single ship must go farther than is absolutely
+necessary. A glance at the map shows why wheat for Europe should come
+from North America rather than from Australia or India, or even the
+Argentine. The trip from Australia is three times as long as from
+North America, so it takes only one-third as many ships to carry food
+to Europe from the United States as from Australia. The Argentine is
+twice as far from Europe as the United States, and therefore twice
+as many ships are needed to carry an equal amount of Argentine food
+to Europe. If this continent could produce and save enough next year
+to provide the whole of the Allied food necessities, we could save
+1,500,000 tons of world shipping to be used for other purposes. EVERY
+SHIP SAVED IS A SHIP BUILT TO CARRY MORE MEN AND MORE AMMUNITION TO
+FRANCE.
+
+
+WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The United States has never had a large wheat surplus to export, and
+the last few years it has had an unusually low supply to meet the
+extraordinary demand. The 1916 crop was small. The 1917 crop was
+only four-fifths of normal, little more than we ordinarily consume
+ourselves. We entered the last harvest with our stocks of wheat and
+other cereals practically exhausted. Hence to feed the Allies until
+the 1918 harvest, we had to send wheat which we should ordinarily have
+eaten. All that we could send under normal conditions from July, 1917,
+to July, 1918, has usually been estimated at about 20,000,000 bushels,
+but in the first eleven months of this time we actually did send
+120,000,000 bushels, six times as much as we could have shipped
+without conservation. One-half of the total output of our flour-mills
+in the month of May, 1918, went abroad.
+
+This achievement in feeding the Allies has been made possible and
+will continue to be possible, through the measures of economy and
+substitution established by the Food Administration, and the constant
+and continued personal sacrifice of each one of us.
+
+Even the 1918 wheat crop, successful as it promises to be, will
+not mean freedom from saving. Throughout the war there can be no
+relaxation. We must build up a great national reserve in years of good
+harvest for the greater and greater demands of Europe. NEVER AGAIN
+MUST WE LET OURSELVES AND THE WORLD FACE THE DANGER THAT WAS BEFORE US
+IN THE SPRING OF 1918.
+
+
+MEETING THE WHEAT SHORTAGE
+
+To keep wheat constantly going over to our Allies and sufficient
+stores in the United States at the same time, is one of the big
+problems of the Food Administration. Production has had to be
+increased and consumption decreased. The price has had to be kept
+down, for in a time of shortage prices always tend to go up. It is
+true that high prices furnish one method of decreasing the consumption
+of food, but it is a method that means enforced conservation by the
+poor and no conservation by the rich. The burden thus falls on those
+least able to bear it.
+
+To meet this situation the Food Administration has gone into the
+wheat business itself. PRACTICALLY ENTIRE CONTROL OF THE BUYING AND
+SELLING OF WHEAT IS IN THE HANDS OF THE GREAT UNITED STATES FOOD
+ADMINISTRATION GRAIN CORPORATION. Through this organization all
+wheat sales are made to the Army and Navy, to our allies, and to
+the neutrals. The price which it pays for these huge quantities
+sets the price for the entire country. The Food Administration also
+makes the movement of wheat from the farmer to the miller and to the
+wholesaler as simple and direct as possible. It prevents hoarding
+and speculation. "I am convinced," said Mr. Hoover, in April, 1918,
+"that at no time in the last three years has there been as little
+speculation in the nation's food as there is to-day."
+
+[Illustration: COST OF A POUND LOAF OF BREAD]
+
+As a result of this business management of wheat, the consumer pays
+less for flour, although the farmer gets more for his wheat. In May,
+1917, the difference between the price of the farmer's wheat and of
+the flour made from it was $5.86 per barrel of 196 pounds. Fifteen
+months later the difference was 64 cents. In February, 1917, before
+the United States went into the war, flour sold at wholesale for $8.75
+a barrel. In May, 1917, the war, with no food control, had driven the
+price up to $17. But in February, 1918, after six months of the Food
+Administration, it had gone down to $10.50 wholesale, and this in
+spite of unprecedented demand for our very short supply. Without
+control, flour would undoubtedly be selling for $50 a barrel. During
+the Civil War, with no world wheat shortage, but without food control,
+the price of wheat increased 130 per cent over the price in 1861.
+
+The milling and sale of flour, the baking of bread, and the purchases
+of the individual are all regulated to a greater extent than would
+have scarcely been thought possible before the war.
+
+Every effort has been made to produce a great 1918 wheat-crop.
+Congress, at the time the Food Control Bill was passed, fixed the
+price of the 1918 wheat at a minimum of $2 per bushel, and the
+President later fixed the price at $2.20. This has been high enough to
+encourage the farmer to increase his crop and not too high to be fair
+to the consumer. The Department of Agriculture, during the winter of
+1917-18, had for its slogan, "a billion-bushel crop for 1918." It has
+worked intensively to help the farmer in selecting and testing seed
+and in fighting destructive insects and plant-diseases, and in every
+way to help him grow more wheat.
+
+Constant reliance has been placed on the individual's intelligence
+and patriotism in wheat-saving. One of the unusual aspects of the Food
+Administration is its confidence in the co-operation of the country
+and the response which this confidence has met. Wheatless meals are
+now a commonplace occurrence. Wheatless days are being observed
+in many hotels and homes. People all over the country have pledged
+themselves to do entirely without wheat until the 1918 harvest is
+available. About 100,000 barrels of flour were returned by individuals
+and companies during the spring of 1918, to be shipped to the Allies
+and the Army and Navy. The individual all over the country, consumer,
+dealer, miller, or farmer, has risen to the occasion to do his share
+toward the fulfilment of the Government's promise to Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS
+
+
+When the United States was called on to supply the Allies with much of
+its wheat and flour, we fortunately found at hand a plentiful supply
+of a great variety of other cereals. The use of corn was, of course,
+not an experiment--generations of Southerners have flourished on it.
+But we also had oats, rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and such local
+products as the grain sorghums, which are grown in the South and West.
+All of them are cereals and all can be used interchangeably with wheat
+in our diet.
+
+To understand clearly the value of cereals in the diet to-day, it is
+well to review the part played by food in general. Europe to-day is
+eating to live. She therefore thinks of food not in terms of menus
+but as a means of keeping up bodily functions, as sources of protein,
+carbohydrate and fat--terms seldom heard outside of the university a
+few years ago.
+
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD
+
+We need food first of all to burn as fuel for all the activities of
+the body, just as any other machine needs fuel. The fuel value of
+food, or its energy, is measured in _calories_. A calorie measures the
+amount of heat or energy given off when anything burns, whether it is
+coal in a stove or food in the body.
+
+Practically all foods give this fuel or energy, but some give much
+more than others. Fats give more fuel than an equal weight of any
+other food. Sugar and foods rich in starch like flour and corn meal
+are fuel foods. This is one of the reasons why they are chosen to be
+shipped abroad. The cereals always supply an important part of the
+fuel of the diet. Watery foods, like many vegetables and fruits,
+normally give less fuel. A person could not live on lettuce any better
+than a house could be heated with tissue paper.
+
+If the food does not supply enough energy, a person will burn up
+part of his own body for fuel and will grow emaciated. Far too often
+we find children of the very poor who are undernourished because of
+lack of food fuel. Sometimes even well-to-do young people half starve
+themselves because they get "notions" about food. One of the terrible
+tragedies abroad is the hundreds and thousands of men and women and
+children who are worn and thin and sick for lack of food.
+
+We need food, too, to keep the organs of the body running smoothly.
+Abroad, people are suffering not only because they have not enough
+food, but because they have not the right kinds of food. Milk and
+vegetables and fruits are especially useful. They are the chief
+sources of the much-needed _mineral salts_ and the two _vitamines_.
+The vitamines are substances of great importance about which has
+centred much discussion lately and which scientists do not yet fully
+understand, though they realize that they are essential for the growth
+of children and for health in adults.
+
+The _protein_ of food is used to build the body if we are young, and
+to restore the daily wear and tear if we are older. The mineral salts
+are also necessary for this purpose. Protein will be discussed further
+in the chapter on meat and meat substitutes, but it should be realized
+here that the protein we eat comes not only from these foods, but also
+from the cereals. Cereals supply a full half of the protein of many
+diets.
+
+Cereals are therefore important for their fuel since they are rich in
+starch, and for their protein, and, if we eat the entire kernel, for
+their mineral matter and vitamines. They also have the pleasant flavor
+and texture which we have grown to like.
+
+Wheat is no better than any of the other cereals. It possesses
+absolutely no nutritional advantage for man or beast over oats, corn,
+and rye. It has no more protein, and no better protein. It has no more
+fat and no better fat. It has no better mineral salts and in no larger
+amounts. It has no more fuel or better fuel. It is just _one_ of the
+cereals, and there is not the slightest evidence that it is the best
+one. It has merely become one of our habits.
+
+Corn and wheat and the other cereals are just as well digested if
+equally well prepared. A soggy piece of wheat bread may, of course,
+be less readily digestible than a well-made piece of corn-bread, but
+that is a question of skill in cooking, not of difference in cereals.
+Complaints have been heard in England about the war bread. It is true
+that it may be hard on those of frail digestive powers to change their
+food habits in any way, but Hutchison, an eminent London physician, in
+tracing down complaints, found that frequently people laid to the new
+bread ailments from which they had suffered before the war. "When in
+doubt, blame the war bread," seemed to be the motto.
+
+
+THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CEREALS, ESPECIALLY WHEAT
+
+The world eats more cereals than any other kind of food. They are
+so widely available, so cheap and nutritious, that they are a main
+reliance of the human race. A shortage is always extremely serious.
+
+Not only is an abundance important, but an abundance of the accustomed
+kind. In parts of India, the inhabitants use rice as almost the only
+cereal. When the rice-crop failed some years ago, thousands of people
+died of starvation with a supply of wheat available. They did not know
+the use of wheat as food.
+
+Countries like France, which use their cereals chiefly for bread, are
+the most dependent on wheat, since wheat is the most easily made into
+bread.
+
+In the United States cereals make up almost one-third of our food.
+Although wheat in most parts of the country has been the main
+dependence, we have used a much greater variety of cereals than most
+people, so that it is comparatively simple for the majority to make
+increased use of them.
+
+The very poor must depend largely upon cereals because they can get
+more for their money from them than from other foods. Cereals, to most
+of them, mean bread. It is such a large part of their diet that doing
+without it means a far more fundamental and difficult change in their
+food habits than for the well-to-do with greater freedom of choice.
+Besides, the already overburdened working woman must get her bread in
+the easiest possible way--a ready-made loaf from the baker. The burden
+of scarcity or high prices falls on those least able to bear it.
+
+Europeans eat even larger amounts of wheat than we. Over half the
+food of the French is bread, so if the wheat shortage were near the
+danger-line, it might lead to a serious weakening of the marvellous
+courage of the French people.
+
+
+WHEAT FLOUR IN WAR-TIME
+
+To use this country's share of the short supply of wheat to the
+greatest advantage the Food Administration has changed the making
+of flour to include more of the wheat-kernel. The difference between
+peace and war time flour is easily understood if the structure of
+grains is considered. Wheat and other cereals have kernels much alike;
+all have three principal parts:
+
+The outer covering, called _bran_, is made up of several layers. This
+is rich in important mineral salts, and the rest is largely cellulose,
+or woody fibre.
+
+The _germ_ is the small part from which the new plant will develop.
+Here the small amount of fat in the kernel is stored.
+
+The largest part of the kernel, called the _endosperm_, contains the
+nourishment to be used by the plant as it begins to develop. This is
+mostly starch, with some protein. It is the part of the wheat, for
+instance, which is chiefly used to make our white flour.
+
+The kind of flour made depends on how much and what parts of the
+kernel are used. Graham flour is manufactured by grinding practically
+all of the wheat-kernel--a 100-per-cent use of the grain, called
+100-per-cent extraction. Some people still fail to realize that Graham
+flour and Graham bread are wheat, perhaps because of the different
+name and brown color. The so-called "whole-wheat" flour is often 95
+per cent of the kernel only, but may be as little as 85 per cent,
+depending on the amount of the bran and germ removed in the making.
+
+Ordinary white flour contains the endosperm alone, with practically
+none of the bran and germ. Some brands before the war used up as
+little as 56 per cent of the wheat, leaving the rest of it to be
+turned into lower-grade flours and cattle-feed. White flour thus uses
+less of the wheat for human food than Graham or whole-wheat flour.
+
+Yet to convert all the country's wheat into Graham flour would not be
+a wheat-saving measure, because it is not so well suited to our trade
+conditions. Graham flour, for one thing, does not keep so well as
+flour of lower extractions, as the fat in the germ may become rancid
+in a comparatively short time. Flour in this country is often thirty
+days or longer in transit and may be months in warehouses, stores, and
+homes. A flour to be satisfactory under extreme conditions here or
+for shipment abroad must keep at least six months--too long to be sure
+that Graham flour will keep. In small countries like England, where
+flour is used up more promptly, a high extraction is more practicable
+than in the United States.
+
+Moreover, while Graham and whole-wheat flours with their larger
+quantities of mineral salts are a more desirable food for some people
+than white flour, they are occasionally irritating to people with weak
+digestions, so that it would be unfortunate to have only these flours
+on the market.
+
+The Food Administration, therefore, has considered that the most
+effective use of our wheat could be obtained by forbidding the
+manufacture of fancy flours of low extraction and making all flour
+contain at least 74 per cent of the wheat. This still gives a fine
+white flour that keeps well and is difficult to distinguish from that
+on the market before the war.
+
+To help in the enforcement of its flour rulings, the Food
+Administration has licensed all mills and elevators which handle over
+100 barrels of flour a day. If the rulings of the Food Administration
+are not obeyed the license may be taken away, and the business
+closed. The hoarding of flour has been stopped by prohibiting mills,
+elevators, and bakers from having more than 30 days' supply on hand.
+
+
+THE 50-50 RULE. ANOTHER WAY TO CUT THE CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT
+
+NOT ONLY MUST THE MILLER MANUFACTURE FLOUR IN ACCORDANCE WITH
+NEW REGULATIONS, BUT THE INDIVIDUAL CONSUMER MUST BUY IT UNDER
+RESTRICTIONS. To many people the first realization that war and food
+difficulties are necessarily associated, came with the announcement
+in the spring of 1918 of the now familiar rules for the purchase of
+flour. With every pound of white wheat flour, the purchaser must
+buy a pound of some other cereal; with every pound of Graham flour,
+three-fifths of a pound of other cereal.
+
+The purpose of this regulation is, of course, to lessen the use of
+wheat by increasing the use of the substitutes. The housekeeper who
+through lack of initiative or ingenuity fails to feed the family the
+substitutes and lets them accumulate on her shelf has just so far
+failed to co-operate with the Food Administration. Many a housewife
+has learned the value of these cereals and will continue to use
+them long after the war and the Food Administration have passed into
+history.
+
+A little thought will show the absence of any real burden in the 50-50
+rule. A housekeeper for her family of four buys five pounds of wheat
+flour and five pounds of other cereals. She may use 1Ό pounds of the
+substitutes with the 5 pounds of wheat flour to make about 8 pounds of
+Victory bread--sufficient to give each member of her family 2 pounds
+of bread during the week. She may serve an ounce of oatmeal as the
+breakfast cereal and an ounce of rice, hominy, or other cereal for
+each person daily and will then have used all the substitutes. These
+cereals can be made into an endless variety of quick breads, cakes,
+and pastry, or combined with other foods as the main dish of the meal.
+
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT FLOUR
+
+The cereals on the market are varied enough to suit any taste.
+REMEMBER THAT AS FAR AS NUTRITIONAL VALUE IS CONCERNED, IT MAKES
+PRACTICALLY NO DIFFERENCE WHETHER WE EAT WHEAT OR OATS, RYE OR
+BARLEY. The quantities of starch, protein, mineral matter, and fat
+are so nearly the same that any one of them can take the place of
+another. Oatmeal has a slight advantage over wheat both in protein
+and fat, and since oats is an abundant crop in our country it is an
+excellent substitute. Rice has a very little more starch and less
+protein than the others.
+
+There is just one advantage that wheat flour has over the other
+cereals--it can be made into lighter and more durable bread. The
+reason for this is given in the next chapter.
+
+_Corn, the most abundant substitute._ Indian corn is native to the
+United States. Since it carried the Pilgrims through their year
+of famine, it has always been considered our national grain. Other
+countries have adopted it to some extent, but more than three
+quarters of the world's corn is grown here. In 1917 our corn crop was
+3,000,000,000 bushels, four times as large as our wheat crop. Most
+of the crop has always been used as a feed-grain, with only a small
+percentage for human food. The South has always used much more corn
+than the North, actually eating more corn than wheat.
+
+The foods from corn and the ways of using them are more numerous than
+is often appreciated. Corn meal and corn flour are the most important.
+We are making almost as much corn meal as wheat flour. The yellow and
+white corn meals, milled from different kinds of corn, are practically
+the same in composition, though slightly different in flavor. The
+method of milling corn meal makes more difference in the composition
+than the kind of corn used. The old "water-ground" meal was simply
+crushed between millstones and only the coarsest particles of bran
+bolted out. This ranks with Graham as a product of 100 per cent
+extraction and like Graham, it may not keep well, because the germ
+is left in. The new process, more like modern flour-milling, removes
+some of the bran and germ. The product is a granulated corn meal which
+keeps better than the other, and has practically the same composition,
+though to some people a less desirable flavor.
+
+If corn meal is further ground and bolted, we have corn flour. Some
+of this has been put on the market lately and is proving a good
+substitute for wheat flour; but the amount available is only a small
+fraction of the amount of corn meal. Other important corn products
+are hominy of different kinds, hulled corn, and popcorn. The latter,
+usually eaten as an "extra," is really a valuable part of the diet.
+
+Corn is the same satisfactory food whether it is eaten as mush in
+New England, _polenta_ in Italy, or _tamales_ in Mexico. Many of
+the people of Mexico and Central America live on corn and beans to
+a surprising extent. In portions of Italy the rural population have
+adopted the grain as their main food. Our corn-meal mush is their
+_polenta_, which is served sometimes with cheese, sometimes with
+tomato sauce or meat gravy.
+
+_Oats_. An Englishman once taunted a Scotchman with the fact that
+while England used oats only for her horses, Scotland fed it to her
+men. "Ah!" said Sandy; "but where will you find such horses as you
+raise in England and such men as in Scotland!"
+
+The United States, more like England than Scotland, has used oats
+mostly for feed. The crop is second only to the corn-crop. Oats are
+eaten in the form of oatmeal, which is a finely granulated meal, and
+as the common rolled oats which have been steamed and put through
+rollers. There is little oat flour on the market at present. A
+successful and palatable home-made flour may be prepared by putting
+rolled oats through a food-chopper. Any of the forms of oats can be
+used in breads of all kinds, but the more finely ground flour can
+be substituted in larger proportion. The demand for oat products has
+grown so rapidly the last year that mills are running to their limit.
+Special machinery is required for its manufacture, so that a great
+increase in the supply is not feasible in a short time.
+
+_Barley and Rye_. In using barley and rye for bread we are only going
+back to the methods of our forefathers. Barley is supposed to be
+one of the first cereals used by man. Good barley flour is a very
+acceptable substitute for wheat, but if too large a proportion of the
+kernel is included, it may be bitter in flavor.
+
+_Rye_, of all the cereals, makes bread nearest like wheat, though the
+rye bread formerly made usually contained from 20 per cent to 80 per
+cent wheat flour. The supply is far below what we could well use. For
+this reason it is not included among the cereals which the housekeeper
+is allowed to buy on the 50-50 plan, and since March 31, 1918, bakers
+have not been allowed to use it as a substitute in baking on the same
+basis as the other substitutes.
+
+_Rice_. Rice forms the chief food of hundreds of millions of people,
+and in many oriental countries is the staple cereal, like wheat with
+us. As a wheat substitute we may use it cooked whole or ground into
+a flour. The rice flour may be mixed with other cereals in making
+bread and cakes. The rice polish, which is a by-product secured by
+rubbing off with brushes the outside coating of the brown rice, is
+much cheaper. It has been sold chiefly for stock-feed, but it has
+possibilities as a flour substitute.
+
+The rice-growers of the South are doing their best to supply the
+country with rice in quantity and to make known the possibilities
+of this cereal. The rice flour supply, though not large now, will
+doubtless be much increased by next year. One Louisiana mill, for
+example, is increasing its output from 150 to 1,200 barrels a day.
+
+_Other Cereal Substitutes_. Besides the substitutes which are common
+all over the country, there are products produced in too small amounts
+to make them universal substitutes, such as buckwheat, cottonseed
+meal, and peanut flour, any of which can be used with other flours for
+baking. The Southwest produces both flour and meal from milo, kaffir,
+and feterita.
+
+Flours are made from the Irish and sweet potato, from tapioca, from
+soy beans, and bananas, but they are manufactured in such small
+amounts that they do not take the place of wheat to any great extent.
+Potato flour comes nearest to doing this. It has always been used
+to some extent in Europe and it is being widely used in Germany now.
+Potato itself can be used instead of wheat. An extra potato at a meal
+will take the place of a large slice of bread.
+
+Many of the substitute cereals do not keep so well as wheat,
+especially if they contain more than a minimum of moisture and fat.
+The housekeeper and the baker should therefore buy them in small
+enough quantities to use them up promptly and should keep them in a
+cool, well-ventilated place. May and June and the summer months are
+the time when most care is needed.
+
+It is the free use of these many wholesome substitutes that is making
+possible the necessary saving of wheat. We who appreciate their
+wholesomeness and their value can well break away from our wheat habit
+and gladly make the little effort sometimes necessary to begin using
+newer foods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WAR BREAD
+
+
+Bread is the staff of life for all nations. But "bread" does not
+necessarily mean the wheat loaf. At one time and place it has been
+barley cake, at another oaten cake, and at another corn pone. Bread
+has always been whatever cereal happened to be convenient. Even such
+unbreadlike food as rice is to some races what bread is to us.
+
+Why, then, have we developed our wheat-bread habit? Partly because
+wheat bread has been easy to get and we have grown to like the taste,
+but chiefly because wheat flour gives the lightest loaf. To understand
+why, make a dough with a little white flour and water and then gently
+knead it in cold water. The consistency changes, the starch is washed
+out and a rubbery, sticky ball is left--the _gluten_, which is the
+protein of the wheat. It is this gluten in the flour that stretches
+when bread rises and then stiffens when it is baked, making a light,
+porous loaf. Wheat is the only one of the cereals that has much
+gluten; rye has a little and the others practically none.
+
+Gluten seems to be essential to the making of a light, yeast-raised
+loaf. Products raised with baking-powder, for which our standard of
+lightness is different--"quick breads" like biscuits and muffins
+and cakes--do not require the gluten and can easily be made from
+substitute cereals. But for our ordinary loaf of bread, at least some
+wheat seems to be almost essential, though with skill in the making,
+rye can be made to serve in its place. Patriotic bakers and housewives
+all over the country have been trying to produce a wheatless
+loaf which is light, palatable, and sufficiently durable to stand
+transportation. The durability is a very important consideration;
+crumbly corn bread cannot be distributed by bakers nor served to
+armies. Corn bread and the other quick breads are chiefly home-made
+products.
+
+OUR PRESENT PROBLEM, THEREFORE, IS TO MAKE THE MOST EFFECTIVE
+POSSIBLE USE OF OUR WHEAT GLUTEN, TO MAKE IT GO AS FAR AS POSSIBLE IN
+OUR BREADS. BOTH BAKERS AND PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS HAVE THEIR SHARE IN
+SOLVING THE PROBLEM.
+
+
+THE BAKERS' REGULATIONS. VICTORY BREAD
+
+The bakers have co-operated loyally. Probably no other food industry
+has been more vitally affected by the war. ALL BAKERS USING THREE
+OR MORE BARRELS OF FLOUR A MONTH HAVE BEEN LICENSED AND SO ARE UNDER
+THE CONTROL OF THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION. This means practically all
+the commercial bakers of the country, and many hotels, clubs, and
+institutions. About two-fifths of the bread in the United States is
+made in bakeries and three-fifths in the home. The bakeries have used
+35,000,000 barrels of flour each year, so the importance of this field
+for conservation is plain.
+
+The amount of wheat flour they are now permitted to have has been
+reduced: at present 80 per cent of their last year's quantity, or,
+if they are pastry and cracker bakers, 70 per cent. They must make no
+bread wholly of wheat flour. Some substitute must be mixed with the
+wheat. When the regulation went into effect in February, 1918, 20 per
+cent was required and later, 25 per cent. In pies and cakes there must
+be at least one-third substitute. The amounts of sugar and fat used
+are limited. Even the sizes of the loaves are fixed, so that the
+extravagance of making and handling all sorts of fancy shapes and
+sizes may be avoided. Bread must not be sold to the retailer at
+unreasonable prices.
+
+Victory bread is bread made in accordance with these regulations.
+The name "Victory" was chosen as representing the idea underlying
+the conservation of wheat. The name is really a present to the Food
+Administration, having been used by two large firms who gave up all
+rights to their trade-mark.
+
+Hotels and restaurants are required to make or serve bread containing
+at least as much of the wheat substitutes as Victory bread. They may
+not serve more than two ounces of bread and other wheat products to a
+guest at a meal. Many of them have recently promised to use no wheat
+at all till the next harvest. That means, of course, that only through
+intelligent effort can they serve yeast bread.
+
+
+THE INDIVIDUAL'S ANSWER TO THE BREAD CRY
+
+UNTIL THE WHEAT-SUPPLY INCREASES AND THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION LESSENS
+RESTRICTIONS, USE NO WHEAT AT ALL IF YOU CAN POSSIBLY DO WITHOUT.
+Remember that you can make delicious muffins and other quick breads
+from the substitute flours. And you need no bread at all at some
+meals. An extra potato or a serving of rice can be eaten instead of
+the usual two slices of bread and the body will be supplied with the
+same amount of energy. Do not be the slave of old food habits. WHEN
+ALL EUROPE IS EATING TO KEEP ALIVE, FASTIDIOUSNESS AND FOOD "NOTIONS"
+MUST PLAY NO PART IN THE DIETARY.
+
+Some people find it is almost impossible to do without the baker's
+loaf. Hundreds in crowded city quarters have no facilities of their
+own for baking. Women doing their share in factories and workshops
+cannot get up earlier to make corn bread for breakfast. Victory bread
+must be saved for them. For households which must use wheat, the Food
+Administration has fixed a voluntary ration of 1½ pounds of wheat
+per week for each person. This includes wheat in the form of bread,
+pastry, macaroni, crackers, noodles, and breakfast foods.
+
+All who can should do more than their share--they must do their utmost
+to make up for those whose circumstances prevent them from doing it.
+THE INTERESTS AND DESIRES OF EACH OF US IN THIS WAR CAN BE TRANSLATED
+INTO SERVICE IN NO MORE EFFECTIVE WAY THAN BY CONFORMING OUR FOOD
+HABITS TO THE NEEDS OF THE HOUR.
+
+
+FLOUR AND BREAD IN THE ALLIED COUNTRIES
+
+All the Allied countries have been stretching their meagre
+wheat-supply to the limit and are enforcing the most stringent
+regulations.
+
+The flour is required to be of high extraction--ordinarily from 81
+per cent to 90 per cent, decidedly higher than our 74 per cent. Even
+with this coarse, gray flour a large percentage of substitute must be
+mixed, usually 25 per cent. In England there are local regulations on
+the use of mashed potato in bread. Their bread must be twelve hours
+old before it is sold, so that people will not be tempted to eat too
+much. The result is seldom palatable. In France no flour at all may
+be used to make the delectable pastries and cakes which have long been
+the delight of the French people and their guests. In Italy, macaroni,
+which in many regions is as much the "staff of life" as bread,
+must contain 43 per cent substitute, and in some places may not be
+manufactured at all.
+
+Both England and France have subsidized bread; the Government has set
+a price below cost and itself makes up the difference to the baker.
+England has appropriated $200,000,000 for the purpose.
+
+Bread rations are in force in both France and Italy. France has
+recently put her whole people on a rigorous ration which limits them
+to two-thirds of the amount of bread that they have been accustomed
+to. Remember that bread is a far more important part of the French
+diet than of ours. Even children under three have bread cards allowing
+them 3½ ounces a day. Rations are not a guarantee that the amount
+mentioned will be forthcoming; they only permit one to have it if it
+can be obtained. One interesting result of the stringency, according
+to an American officer writing from Paris, is that guests even at
+formal dinners, may be asked to bring their own bread, finding this
+postscript on their invitations: "Apportez un peu de pain si vous le
+voulez."[1] In Italy the very limited bread rations are fixed locally.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Bring a little bread if you wish it."]
+
+England has compulsory rations for meat and butter or margarine and
+sugar, but not for bread. Her bread system is voluntary like ours,
+but much more detailed. The voluntary ration allows one-half pound of
+bread a day for sedentary and unoccupied women and larger allowances
+up to a little over a pound for men doing heavy labor. Waste of any
+kind is very heavily punished--one woman was fined $500 for throwing
+away stale bread.
+
+"Why not send corn abroad?" One hears the question over and over
+again. The answers are many. In the first place, we _are_ sending corn
+over--our exports of corn during March, 1918, increased 180 per cent
+and of corn meal 383 per cent over the pre-war average. This they
+are using as we are using it in our Victory bread. But they must have
+enough wheat to make a durable loaf of bread at the bakeshops, where
+for generations all the baking has been done. The French housewife
+has no facilities for bread-making and the French woman does not know
+how and has not the time to learn. She is doing a man's work and her
+own woman's labor besides, and the extra unaccustomed labor of
+bread-making cannot be added to her burdens.
+
+
+WHY WE IN THE UNITED STATES DO NOT HAVE BREAD CARDS
+
+Some people, disturbed either selfishly or patriotically by the
+failure of a neighbor to conserve wheat, have asked why the Food
+Administration trusts to voluntary methods, why it does not ration
+the country.
+
+Rationing may come yet, but any such system bristles with
+difficulties. The cost to the Government has been variously estimated
+all the way from $10,000,000 to $45,000,000 a year. Fifty per cent
+of the population could not be restrained in their consumption by
+rationing, for they are either producers or live in intimate contact
+with the producer. A wheat ration which would be fair for the North
+might actually increase the consumption in the South. Finally, the
+burden of a bread card would fall largely not on the well-to-do, who
+eat less wheat already and can easily cut down further, but on those
+with little to spend, who might have to change their whole food
+habits.
+
+The success that is meeting our method of voluntary reduction of
+consumption "will be one of the remembered glories of the American
+people in this titanic struggle."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE MEAT SITUATION
+
+
+Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to talk of
+it long before the war, and we shall find it with us after peace
+is declared. Great production of beef can take place only in sparse
+settlements. As the tide of increasing population flows over a
+country, the great cattle-ranges are crowded out, giving place to
+cultivated fields. More people means less room for cattle--a relative
+or even absolute decrease in the herds.
+
+
+WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED
+
+In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of European
+countries have raised most of their meat themselves, though usually
+they have had to import fodder to keep up their herds. They have been
+less dependent on import for meat than for wheat. Great Britain is the
+only country which has imported much meat--almost one-half her supply.
+Her imports, and to a lesser extent those of other European countries,
+have come chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six
+countries outside--the United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay,
+Australia, and New Zealand.
+
+
+THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY
+
+Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With meat as with
+wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships. Australia and New
+Zealand, and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder
+such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large amounts as
+it takes three times as much shipping to transport feed as it does the
+meat made by the animals from it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great
+Britain has practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and
+because much of what she has goes to Germany.
+
+The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the warring
+countries has fewer meat animals now than before the war. There were
+roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at the end of 1917 than
+in 1914. Many of those left are in very poor condition, so that the
+shortage is even more serious than is indicated by the falling off in
+numbers.
+
+Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition. Practically
+all the animals in those countries have been killed or confiscated by
+the invading German and Austrian armies. This is one cause of their
+terrible famine conditions.
+
+The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost seriously. France
+is the greatest loser of the three, with more than one-fifth of her
+herds gone. The enemy has driven off large numbers of her cattle. She,
+like the others, is in difficulty not only for meat, but for milk.
+Her situation is complicated by the fact that she has no great
+cold-storage plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at
+frequent intervals.
+
+Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the Allies in
+that she had many more animals in proportion to her population than
+they. But she was more dependent upon imports of feed, and as her
+commerce has been cut off, she has had to kill her animals faster.
+Counting up all her animals in terms of cattle according to the amount
+of meat they would yield, shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria,
+there are no available figures, but her decrease has probably been
+larger than Germany's.
+
+Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely connected
+with the shortage of available grain. When cereals are short, they
+must be fed to human beings rather than to animals. Feeding grain to
+animals and then eating the animals is not nearly so economical as
+eating grain directly. For example, when grain is fed to a cow, only
+3½ per cent of the energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat,
+and 96 per cent is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When
+a man eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its
+energy. Thus 81½ per cent more of the grain is actually used for human
+food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds, and uses grain for
+bread instead of turning it into meat.
+
+Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for meat for the
+great armies. The soldier's ration always contains more meat than is
+eaten by the civilian population.
+
+
+THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE
+
+The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption in order
+to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible. Compulsory meat
+rations are enforced in all the warring countries. They vary, of
+course, from time to time as the amount of available meat changes, but
+the following statements give a picture of how limited the allowances
+are in periods of shortage.
+
+England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the war. Her
+voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2 pounds per week.
+In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very low, and by the end of
+February London was put on meat rations, and in April the rest of the
+country. The rationing system has made distribution easier and more
+fair and greatly lessened the distressing "queues" of people waiting
+before butchers' shops for their allowance. The regulations allow each
+person 4 coupons a week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At
+first, 3 of these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or
+mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of bacon, ham,
+poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 1Ό pounds of meat a
+week.
+
+Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the United
+States was able to send in the late spring, heavy workers were
+permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they might buy a pound of
+bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were allowed 1 extra coupon for
+bacon, poultry, or game. But at the same time only 2 instead of 3
+coupons were to be used for fresh meat, so as to cut down further the
+slaughtering of cattle. Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or
+profiteering.
+
+In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of the size
+of those served in an American hotel. An American staying in London
+said recently that he could eat two meals in succession in a London
+restaurant, and leave the table still minus that self-satisfied
+feeling that a meal in America gives.
+
+At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and in the
+spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices also keep down
+consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2 meatless days, and cattle
+could not be slaughtered on the 2 preceding days. Though this order
+was abolished in October, 1917, meat had gone up so high in price
+that consumption went away down. The Paris letter of the London _Daily
+News_ and _Leader_ on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was
+selling for 4 shillings 2 pence--$1 per pound. Since May 15, 3 days a
+week must be meatless--Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. On these days
+all butchers' shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry
+or game. Fish is scarce and very expensive.
+
+Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3. The
+ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are decided locally
+and strictly regulated.
+
+The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The
+quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but the
+average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per person. It
+was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in the middle of
+May--barely two small servings each week.
+
+
+THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the United
+States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic the
+shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the loss from
+inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in Europe. The United
+States is now exporting far larger quantities than it has ever
+exported before. In March, 1918, we sent over 87,000,000 pounds of
+beef. Ordinarily we export between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a
+month. Of pork we sent 308,000,000 pounds--six times more than usual.
+It is roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000 pounds
+of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to the Allies and
+our army.
+
+To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a careful
+organization has been necessary. At first the Allied nations bought
+meat in this country as best they could in competition with the
+domestic market and each other, often feverishly to meet emergencies.
+LAST DECEMBER A COMMISSION WAS FORMED TO BUY FOR ALL THE ALLIES. The
+prices to be paid are settled by experts, after careful study, so that
+packers, storage warehouses, and producers shall all have adequate,
+but not excessive return for their labor. The buying is planned ahead
+so that we can ship at times when we have plenty.
+
+The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an increased
+slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may have serious
+consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for conservation is
+constant, though at times the situation becomes easier in one kind
+of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we were short on hogs. In
+the spring of 1918, thanks to the "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous
+conservation, as well as high prices, we temporarily had hogs in
+plenty. Beef is short for the summer season. Policies must change
+frequently with fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe.
+However, the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited
+only by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still
+larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which we can
+possibly accumulate.
+
+
+MEAT CONSERVATION
+
+Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's dietary
+as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison, in the quantity
+consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat and sugar or potatoes.
+Half of the people of the earth eat little or none of it. Only in two
+kinds of communities is meat used largely--new and thinly populated
+countries with much grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries.
+
+Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming more meat
+per person than any other country in the world--5 pounds a week in
+Australia and 4 pounds in New Zealand. The United States, parts of
+which may be considered in both classes, eats about 3Ό pounds per
+person weekly. This is much less than some years ago, when there was
+more grazing-land.
+
+Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used about 2Ό
+pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption was slightly
+lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer animals or less
+wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average amount being about 1½
+pounds a week--about half as much as our consumption.
+
+
+MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS
+
+Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and partly because
+it is a source of protein which is necessary to build or renew the
+various parts of the body. Every cell in the body contains it and
+needs a steady supply.
+
+Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of others--fish,
+cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas, nuts, cereals.
+Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein of anything that we
+eat. We can get protein just as satisfactorily from cheese and the
+other animal protein foods as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily
+from the vegetable protein foods. THE OLD IDEA THAT MEAT IS
+ESPECIALLY "STRENGTHENING" HAS NO FOUNDATION. Neither is one kind of
+meat less thoroughly digested than another.
+
+There is little danger in this country that our diet will fall too low
+in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than we need. Even those
+who must spend a dangerously limited amount on their diet, are not apt
+to be low in protein, for they often err on the side of spending an
+unwise proportion of their money on meat. Most scientists now consider
+three ounces of carefully chosen protein per day a safe allowance for
+an average man. An average woman needs less.
+
+It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count up
+roughly whether he is eating more or less than this quantity. A
+small serving of lean meat or fish, about two inches square and
+three-quarters of an inch thick, contains about one-half ounce
+of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a quarter of a cup of
+cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube of American cheese, each
+have about this same amount. So does a cup and a half of baked beans
+or two and a half cups of cooked cereal or six half-inch slices of
+bread (3 x 3½ inches). A person eating six of these portions daily
+will of course have his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in
+his eating and patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his
+consumption not far from this quantity.
+
+
+THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES
+
+_Fish_. The possible supply of fish is practically unlimited, and
+much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat on the average only 18
+pounds apiece per year, though our meat consumption is 170 pounds. The
+British and Canadians use much more fish than we do--56 and 29 pounds
+respectively. The United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State
+colleges are constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down.
+We should learn to value the many kinds which are available, fresh,
+dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be used to.
+
+_Eggs_ form a very valuable food not only for protein, but for mineral
+salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate that the price is
+often high, but it should be realized that expenditure for eggs makes
+expenditure for meat unnecessary.
+
+_Poultry_ is not now listed as a meat substitute by the Food
+Administration because the supply has become very limited.
+
+_Cheese_ is one of the best substitutes for meat. It represents most
+of the food value of a much greater bulk of milk, and its protein,
+fat, and mineral salts make it an important food. We in America are
+very slow to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for
+its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat more of it,
+to the advantage both of the palatability and nutritive quality of our
+diet.
+
+_Milk_, one of the most easily digested and simplest sources of
+protein in our diet and the most valuable of our foods, is discussed
+in Chapter VII.
+
+_Nuts_ are usually thought of as a luxury, but the amount of protein
+and fat they contain makes them really an important food. Peanuts are
+usually classed with the nuts and are considered the most valuable
+nut-crop of the United States. They are growing so fast in importance
+that the acreage was increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for
+oil and for fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag
+of peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part of
+the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional indigestion
+following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is probably often due
+to forgetting that they are very substantial foods and eating them at
+the end of an already sufficient meal.
+
+_Peas and Beans_ are taken up with the other vegetables in Chapter
+VIII.
+
+Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because they
+haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All the fish and
+beans and peas that they can get are being used. But it is not enough.
+THEIR SMALL MEAT RATION MUST BE MAINTAINED, AND THEIR ARMIES AS WELL
+AS OURS MUST HAVE MEAT. KEEP IT GOING OVER!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FATS
+
+
+To a person who has been in Europe since the war began the question of
+the importance of fats is no longer debatable. Having practically gone
+without them, he knows they are important. In Germany it is the lack
+of fat that is the cause, perhaps, of the most discomfort and makes
+the German most dissatisfied with his rations. Even when the diet was
+sufficient, it was not satisfactory if low in fat.
+
+This dependence on fat in the diet is due to several reasons, both
+physiological and psychological. Some people, the Japanese for
+example, habitually eat but little. But it is the habit of both
+Europeans and Americans to use considerable fat both on the table and
+in cooking. The taste of food is not so pleasing without it. Their
+recipes almost all use fat in one form or another, so that when little
+or none is available, a change must be made in most of the methods of
+cooking. Practically all food must be boiled, and is lacking in the
+flavor and texture to which we are accustomed. The food, no matter how
+nutritious it may be, will not taste good.
+
+Fats are very concentrated food, a fact which gives them added value
+in war-time, making them the most economical food to ship. A POUND OF
+ANY FAT GIVES 2Ό TIMES AS MUCH ENERGY AS A POUND OF SUGAR--the reason
+for the slogan "Fats Are Fuel for Fighters." Soldiers engaged in the
+most strenuous physical activities need fuel for all the energy they
+expend. Bacon, butter, all the forms of fat give them the most energy
+in the smallest weight of food.
+
+Fats stave off the feeling of hunger longer than other foods because
+they pass more slowly from the stomach and delay the passage of foods
+eaten with them. A slice of bread and butter will "satisfy" one for a
+much longer time than a slice of bread and jelly, even though there is
+enough jelly to give exactly the same amount of fuel. In the countries
+in which there is a fat shortage, the appetite does not stay satisfied
+during the usual period between meals, even when the previous meal
+contained the customary amount of calories. The feeling of hunger is
+sometimes almost constant.
+
+Certain fats are valuable for an entirely different reason. Milk fat,
+either in the milk or as butter, beef fat which is a constituent of
+oleomargarine, the fat in the yolk of egg, all contain one of the
+vitamines needed by children in order to grow properly, and by grown
+people to keep in good health. Lard and the vegetable fats and oils,
+like nut or vegetable margarine and cottonseed-oil, do not contain
+this substance, but if there is sufficient milk in the diet, there
+will be plenty of this "fat-soluble vitamine." In all other respects
+the fats are alike from a nutritional standpoint. One fat can replace
+another without harm.
+
+Until the war came there was little need of knowing or bothering as
+to what kind of fats we ate, or of concerning ourselves with the fact
+that many more varieties were available than most of us used. Now it
+does make a decided difference. OUR ARMIES AND THOSE OF THE ALLIES
+NEED FAT, A GREAT DEAL OF IT, AND WE MUST SHIP THEM THE KIND MOST
+SUITED TO THEIR PURPOSES. WE CAN USE WHAT THE ALLIES AND THE ARMY DO
+NOT NEED.
+
+
+THE SITUATION ABROAD
+
+There is a shortage of the animal fats, lard, butter, and
+oleomargarine for the same reasons, of course, that cause the meat
+shortage. England, particularly recently, has had very little, less
+even than the French and Italians, who are not accustomed to using
+much.
+
+England was the largest butter importer in the world, getting her
+supply mostly from northwestern Europe, Denmark, Russia, Sweden, and
+Holland. Russia can no longer supply her. Neither can the neutrals,
+who have been supplying Germany under pressure; they need Germany's
+coal. Although the United States has increased her butter exports
+to the United Kingdom, if our entire exports went to them, it would
+supply only 6 per cent of the amount needed.
+
+To help the situation, England has greatly increased her manufacture
+of oleomargarine. Oleo oil and vegetable oils are being imported
+in large quantities and now England uses twice as much margarine as
+butter. But even with the margarine to help out, there is but little
+to go around. The weekly ration of butter and margarine is one-fourth
+of a pound per person, and at times even that amount has not been
+available. In April an American newspaper man in London reported that
+he had forgotten what butter tasted like. It could only be obtained
+on the farms, and even those who made it were strictly limited in the
+amount that they could keep themselves. Not even margarine could be
+served at luncheon or dinner. There were long queues in front of the
+shops before the distribution was better systematized. At present the
+total amount of fat in the diet is increased somewhat by the allowance
+of bacon and ham.
+
+In Germany the fat shortage, has been so severe that, combined with
+the bread shortage, it has been the greatest cause of food riots.
+Before the war the Germans imported about half their supply, most of
+which is now cut off. Of course, the vegetable oils from the United
+States and the tropics are not available. The neutrals have had to
+lessen their exports because of their own shortage, and the embargo
+which the United States laid on its exports of fats to neutrals.
+Germany's inability to feed her animals has greatly curtailed her
+supply of animal fats.
+
+As a result the rations have been decreasing steadily in spite of
+every effort. Bones are collected and the fat extracted. Seeds, such
+as those of the sunflower, and the kernels of fruit have the oil
+pressed from them. During 1915-16 the rations varied from 3Ό ounces
+to 10 ounces of table fat a week. By December, 1917, it had been
+decreased, so that the average total fat ration was a little under 3
+ounces a week, some communities receiving a little more, and others
+none at all. The local newspapers give interesting side-lights showing
+the results of this shortage. An owner of a boot-shop was prosecuted
+by the police for having 70 pairs of good shoes which he would sell
+only in exchange for butter or bacon. (_Brunswick Volksfreund_,
+January 16, 1918.)
+
+
+THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The United States has great resources of vegetable oils, cottonseed,
+peanut, corn, and olive oil. It is this apparent plenty that makes
+it so difficult for many to visualize the shortage abroad. We are
+shipping about one-third of the lard which we produce, and large
+quantities of oleo oil for oleomargarine. Although the exports of
+butter in 1917 have almost been doubled since the preceding fiscal
+year, it is relatively unimportant, representing only about 1 per
+cent of the production. We are shipping cottonseed oil also, but this
+requires tank-steamers, which are scarce. In general, as the oils are
+much more difficult to handle and impossible for the armies to use, we
+must ship the solid animal fats.
+
+_The Individual's Part in Fat Conservation_. Although at present
+there is butter and lard on the market, the need for conserving
+it is important, just as in the case of meat. WASTE OF ANY KIND
+SHOULD BE ABHORRENT TO ALL OF US AT THIS TIME. There probably
+has been a greater waste of fat than of any other commodity, but
+it is encouraging to note that this waste has been decreased by
+conservation. The amount of fat in city garbage has gone down all over
+the country. In Columbus, Ohio, the fat in the garbage was almost 50
+per cent less in 1917 than in 1916. In fourteen large cities with a
+total population of over 5,000,000 nearly 40 per cent less fat was
+recovered in March, 1918, than in March, 1917.
+
+Not only can fat be saved by carefully avoiding every bit of waste,
+but less can actually be used. FRY FOOD LESS, AND BAKE, BROIL,
+OR BOIL THEM MORE. USE VEGETABLE OILS. In a long view of the food
+situation, it is the animal fats that cause gravest concern, because
+of the years necessary to build up a herd. WE MUST SEND AS MUCH FAT
+ABROAD AS POSSIBLE, AND CREATE RESERVES FOR PERIODS OF SHORTAGE WITH A
+MINIMUM DEPLETION OF OUR HERDS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SUGAR
+
+
+OF ALL THE FOODS WHICH IT IS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE, SUGAR IS THE
+EASIEST TO DO WITHOUT. If the war and what it means has become part
+of a person's consciousness, he wishes only the bare essentials. Sugar
+is a luxury of former times which has become a commonplace to-day.
+The average use in the United States was 83 pounds per person last
+year--1-2/3 pounds a week--less than one hundred years ago the yearly
+consumption was 9 pounds. Sugar was a rare luxury. It will do no harm
+to regard it so again.
+
+
+WHY IS THERE A SUGAR SHORTAGE?
+
+Sugar is scarce for two reasons--much less beet-sugar is actually
+being grown, and some of the cane-sugar is too far away to be
+available. The sugar-beet, grown in temperate climates, and the
+sugar-cane, native in tropical and semitropical regions, are the only
+two sources of sugar large enough to be of more than local importance.
+
+Before the war, 93 per cent of the entire world crop of beet-sugar
+was grown in Europe. The industry was started by Napoleon in the early
+nineteenth century when he was at war with most of Europe, and France
+was shut off from her supply of cane-sugar from the West Indies. The
+industry spread over the great plain of Central Europe, from the north
+of France over Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary to Central Russia. In
+1914 all of these countries were producing enough sugar for their own
+needs. England produced none at all, but the continent, especially
+Germany and Austria, supplied her with about 54 per cent of what she
+needed.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR
+FACTORIES--ALSO BATTLE LINES AT CLOSE OF 1916
+
+ESTIMATED THAT ONE-THIRD OF WORLD'S PROOUCTION BEFORE THE WAR WAS
+PRODUCED WITHIN BATTLE LINES]
+
+The beet-sugar industry in the United States started in 1863 and
+has grown rapidly since 1897. In 1917 it supplied 22 per cent of the
+consumption.
+
+Sugar-cane is grown in tropical and semitropical countries all over
+the globe. Cuba leads in the amount produced, and consumes only
+a small fraction of her production herself. Java, too, is a large
+exporter. India raises millions of tons but has to import some to
+fill all her needs. In the United States, Louisiana, Texas, and some
+parts of Florida produce about 6 per cent of what we use, but our
+dependencies, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines all
+export to us, and together with Cuba, make up the deficiency.
+
+The war has changed entirely the peace-time distribution. The map
+shows what the battle-lines have done to the beetfields of Europe.
+Belgium and the northern part of France, in which practically all
+the beets were grown, are in German hands. In 1914 the battle-line
+eliminated 203 of the 213 French sugar-factories. In 1916-17 the
+falling back of the Germans had returned 65 factories to the French,
+but now again some of these have fallen into the enemy's hands. The
+French crop in 1915-16 was only one-fifth of the crop before the war
+and the following year it was only a fourth. Italy's crop was 25 per
+cent less in 1916-17 than before the war and the estimated yield for
+this year is 50 per cent less. England, of course, can no longer get
+sugar from the continent.
+
+So the allied world must import cane-sugar or have almost no sugar
+at all. The cane-sugar supply is largely dependent on shipping. Ships
+cannot be spared to go to the East. Therefore the sugar of Cuba and
+the rest of the West Indies, our main source of supply, must be shared
+with the Allies. It is to the credit of all involved that every effort
+is being made to see that the division is a fair one. A commission
+representing the Allies, the United States, and Cuba apportioned the
+1917-18 Cuban crop and fixed its price. Competitive bidding by the
+many purchasers, with the danger of forcing up the price of the
+limited supply, was in this way prevented.
+
+
+THE EFFECT OF THE SHORTAGE
+
+The rations of Europe are the most convincing evidence of the extent
+of the sugar shortage. In England ½ pound a week is allowed for each
+person, half the average amount used in their households before the
+war. France had sugar cards long before she had any other ration.
+Seven ounces a week were allowed, and later in the year only
+one-quarter of a pound. Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1918 had an
+average household ration of 6 ounces a week.
+
+The United States in accordance with its usual method is asking
+the individual for voluntary conservation of sugar. Each household
+is asked to observe a voluntary weekly ration of not more than
+three-quarters of a pound per person. Extra amounts of sugar for home
+canning may be secured by making a certified declaration to the dealer
+that it is to be used only for canning and preserving.
+
+Food manufacturers using sugar are dealt with more strictly than
+private individuals. Every business using sugar may purchase it only
+on certificates obtained from the Federal Food Administrators. At
+present manufacturers of essential products such as canned vegetables
+and fruits may get the amount needed to fill their necessary
+requirements. Manufacturers of less essential products get a
+percentage of what they used before--at present soft-drink and candy
+manufacturers get 50 per cent and ice-cream makers 75 per cent.
+
+The decreased use of sugar has resulted in the release of the ships
+which had been used to bring Cuban sugar to this country--50,000 tons
+freed to carry men and munitions and food to the Western front in the
+spring of 1918.
+
+
+IN PLACE OF SUGAR
+
+The United States is much more fortunate than Europe in having sweets
+other than sugar at its disposal. As our corn-crop is immense,
+the supply of corn-syrup is limited only by the ability of the
+manufacturers to turn it out. It is a wholesome, palatable syrup and
+can often take the place of sugar both in cooking and on the table.
+Although it is not as sweet as ordinary sugar, it serves the body
+for fuel in the same way. We have cane-syrup, and also molasses and
+refiner's syrup, by-products of sugar-making, and in some parts of
+the country, local products such as honey, maple sugar and syrup,
+and sorghum syrup. Sweet fruits, both fresh and dried, contain
+considerable amounts of sugar, some of the dried fruits being over
+two-thirds sugar, and when added to cereals, for example, take the
+place of part or all of the sugar.
+
+
+THE PRICE OF SUGAR
+
+In spite of the short supply, the Food Administration has kept down
+the price of sugar by an agreement with the sugar-refineries that the
+wholesale price must not be more than the cost of the raw sugar plus
+a fixed amount to cover costs of refining. Even during December,
+1917, when there was a severe shortage in the East, the price
+remained stable. Refiners say that without regulation by the Food
+Administration the price would have gone to 25 cents a pound or
+higher.
+
+At times the Food Administration has had to use compulsion to keep the
+price level and has not hesitated to do so where necessary. Licenses
+have been withdrawn for failure to comply with regulations, and
+businesses closed for longer or shorter times. One dealer who was
+charging 14 cents a pound for sugar had his store closed for 2 weeks;
+another paid $200 to the Red Cross for overcharging; another, for
+selling sugar and flour without regard to regulations, was closed
+indefinitely.
+
+
+TO CUT DOWN ON SUGAR
+
+USE FEWER SWEETS OF ANY KIND AND USE SUGAR SUBSTITUTES. Sugar
+does serve a desirable purpose in making certain of our foods more
+palatable, but the quantity necessary for this is small, and for much
+of it other sweets can be used instead. The household consumption uses
+by far the largest percentage of the sugar-supply. Its economical use
+also helps to provide a reserve for preserving surplus fruits. SUCH
+"EXTRAS" AS CANDY AND CAKES CAN BE ENTIRELY DISPENSED WITH.
+
+Of course, sugar is a food, as it is burned in the body for fuel.
+But there are two good physiological reasons for avoiding excessive
+amounts. If we eat a large quantity in candy after already sufficient
+meals, we are overeating and may suffer from digestive disturbances
+in consequence. Eating sweets instead of other food is also bad and a
+cause of undernourishment. Sugar is pure carbohydrate, and although
+we may eat enough to satisfy the feeling of hunger the body will lack
+minerals, protein, and other substances absolutely necessary for
+its well-being. The person may feel satisfied, but he will be
+undernourished nevertheless.
+
+The conservation of sugar will not only permit a fair distribution to
+our associates in the war, but insure a sufficient amount for our own
+men. It is especially valuable for them because it burns so rapidly in
+the body that it gives energy more quickly than other foods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH
+
+
+In war-time there is constant danger of letting down the health
+standard. Food is high in price, demands on incomes are many and
+insistent, worst of all, life is being expended so freely abroad that
+we become careless about it at home. But while we are fighting to make
+the world a decent place to live in, we must keep up our health and
+vigor at home.
+
+MILK IS VITAL TO NATIONAL HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY. We can conserve
+wheat and meat, sugar and fats, and be none the worse for it, but WE
+MUST USE MILK. The children of to-day must have it for the sake of a
+vigorous, hardy manhood to-morrow. A quart for every child, a pint for
+every adult is not too high an ideal.
+
+There is no lack of evidence that children suffer if they do not have
+enough. In New York in this past winter, two things were observed
+which are undoubtedly closely connected--increased undernutrition
+among school children, and decreased use of milk. The Mayor's Milk
+Committee in the fall of 1917 reported that the city as a whole
+had cut down its milk consumption 25 per cent, and certain tenement
+districts 50 per cent. The majority of the families who had reduced
+the milk to little or none were giving their children tea and coffee
+instead--substituting drinks actually harmful to children for the most
+valuable food they could have.
+
+About the same time as the milk investigation, a count was made of
+the number of New York children who were seriously undernourished--
+half-starved. Twelve were found in every 100 children, twice as many
+as the year before.
+
+The warring nations in Europe fully realize the value of milk. In the
+face of a serious shortage they are making every effort to get to the
+children as much milk as can be produced or imported. Until children,
+mothers, and invalids are supplied, no one else may buy any. For adults,
+milk is an almost unknown luxury.
+
+All the countries have definite milk rations for their children. These
+rations would be adequate if they could be obtained, but many times
+they fall short. Every effort is made to treat all children, rich and
+poor, alike. The price of milk is regulated, but parents who cannot
+afford to buy it are given it free or at cost. Dried and condensed
+milk are used where they can be obtained and fresh milk cannot.
+Thousands of tons of condensed milk have been sent over from America.
+There has been scarcely a child born in the north of France and none
+in Belgium whose continued life during all that period has not been
+dependent upon American condensed milk. At one time the Ministry of
+Food in Great Britain, anticipating a milk shortage in the winter
+bought large quantities of dried milk for distribution by local health
+committees and infant welfare societies.
+
+In Belgium, in spite of the misery of the people, fewer young children
+are dying than before the war, because of the milk and bread and care
+that they get at the "soupes" and children's canteens. But in Poland,
+Roumania, and Serbia, thousands and tens of thousands of babies and
+young children have died since the war for lack of milk and other
+food.
+
+Grown people should use milk and appreciate that it is far more than
+a beverage. Comparing it with tea and coffee is not sensible. The idea
+that food is "something to chew" breaks down completely when milk is
+considered. "Milk is both meat and drink."
+
+
+THE VALUABLE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK
+
+What gives milk its unique value? It must contain especially valuable
+substances, since it is an adequate food for the young for several
+months after birth and is one of the most important constituents of a
+grown person's diet.
+
+It contains protein of a kind more valuable, especially for growing
+children, than that of most other foods. Milk protein separates out
+when milk sours and is the familiar cottage-cheese. Because of it,
+milk, whole or skim, is a valuable meat substitute. When we drink
+milk, therefore, we need less meat.
+
+It contains fat. A pint of milk has a little more than half an
+ounce--the same amount as an ordinary serving of butter. By drinking
+milk we can save fat as well as meat.
+
+Milk-sugar is also present, more or less like ordinary sugar, but
+not so sweet. The sugar, the fat, and part of the protein burn in
+the body, giving the energy needed for the body's activities. A pint
+gives as much fuel as 4 eggs, or half a pound of meat, or 3 or 4 large
+slices of bread. Although bread is cheaper fuel than milk, its economy
+compared with meat or eggs is obvious. The pint of milk costs usually
+about 7 cents, while the eggs and meat cost at least two or three
+times as much. The economy of substituting milk for at least part of
+the meat in the diet is plain. It is the advice of an expert to "let
+no family of 5 buy meat till it has bought 3 quarts of milk."
+
+But this is not the whole story of milk. Milk is extraordinarily rich
+in calcium, commonly called lime, necessary for the growth of the
+bones and teeth and also important in the diet of adults, even though
+they have stopped growing. No other food has nearly as much. A pint
+has almost enough calcium for one entire day's supply. It takes 2Ό
+pounds of carrots to give the same amount, or 7 pounds of white bread
+or the impossible quantity of 21 pounds of beef! A diet without milk
+(or cheese) is in great danger of being too low in calcium, especially
+a meat-and-bread diet without vegetables.
+
+Among the most necessary constituents of milk are the two vitamines.
+One is present chiefly in the fat and the other in the watery part
+of the milk. Without milk fat, in whole milk or in butter, we run
+considerable risk of having too little of the fat-soluble vitamine.
+The other vitamine is more widely distributed in our foods, so that
+with our varied diet there is little danger of not getting enough.
+
+Milk, therefore, fills all the needs of the child, except, perhaps,
+for iron, and is one of the best foods in the diet of grown people.
+THERE IS NO OTHER FOOD THAT HAS ALL THE VIRTUES OF MILK; IT THEREFORE
+HAS NO SUBSTITUTE. "THE REGULAR USE OF MILK IS THE GREATEST SINGLE
+FACTOR OF SAFETY IN THE HUMAN DIET."
+
+
+OUR MILK PROBLEM
+
+We have not nearly enough milk in the United States to give every
+child the quart and every adult the pint which they should have.
+Although we actually produce about a quart per person, more than
+half of this is used for butter, cheese, and cream, and only about
+two-thirds of a pint is drunk directly as milk or used in cooking.
+This spring we have slightly more than this amount because of the
+dairymen's response to the patriotic appeal to maintain production,
+but our supply and consumption of milk are still far below what they
+should be.
+
+To increase the quantity in the country the price of milk must be low
+enough for people to afford it, but high enough to keep the producer
+and distributer in the business. The question of a fair price is a
+difficult one. The cost of feed has gone up, labor is scarce and dear,
+but further economies in both production and distribution are still
+possible. This past winter the Food Administration and the Dairy
+Division of the Department of Agriculture have assisted many local
+commissions in determining fair milk prices and pointing out economies
+all along the line of the milk business.
+
+It is most unfortunate that ignorance of the value of milk makes
+people particularly sensitive to a change in its price. When it goes
+up even a cent a quart, many cut down their consumption, while a
+considerably larger advance in the price of meat will make little
+difference in the amount bought.
+
+If diminished use of milk continues, dairymen may go out of business
+and permanent harm be done, both to us and to those dependent on
+us abroad. A factory may close down and when the need comes reopen
+immediately, but if a cow is killed it takes practically three years
+to replace her.
+
+The milk we have should be used as effectively as possible. The most
+economical way for a nation to use its milk so as to get the benefit
+of all the food in it, is, of course, as whole milk, or evaporated
+or dried whole milk. The next most economical way is in the form of
+whole-milk cheese, since all but the whey is used in it.
+
+Cream and butter are much less economical unless all the skim milk
+is used. As 41 per cent of our milk-supply goes to make butter, we
+have large quantities of skim milk containing as much protein, it is
+estimated, as all the beef we eat.
+
+At present we feed the largest part of this to animals or actually
+throw it away. Since the cottage-cheese drive of the Department
+of Agriculture, an increasing amount of it is being made into
+cottage-cheese--a palatable and useful meat substitute. It can, of
+course, be used as a beverage or in cooking. Whey also has many food
+uses. Buttermilk, too, is justly popular and healthful. Skim milk is
+not a substitute for whole milk for children.
+
+Cream, valuable food though it is, is also extravagant in its use of
+milk. It takes five quarts of milk to produce a quart of cream. Buying
+whole milk is, therefore, better policy than buying cream and no milk.
+The sale of cream is now forbidden in Great Britain for this reason.
+
+
+OUR MILK ABROAD
+
+It is our supply of milk that is helping to meet the milk shortage
+abroad. Before the war we exported very little. By 1917 our export of
+evaporated, condensed, and dried milk had gone up twentyfold. In the
+spring of 1918 we sent over the equivalent in whole milk of almost
+50,000,000 pounds a month, and should probably have sent much more
+were it not for the lack of ships. After the war, when ships are
+released, the demand for it will be enormous. It will take years to
+build up the dairy-herds of Europe again, so we shall continue to be
+their main source of supply.
+
+LEARN AND TEACH THE UNIQUE VALUE AND ECONOMY OF MILK. DO EVERYTHING
+TO PREVENT IN THIS COUNTRY THE TRAGIC RESULTS WHICH ARE FOLLOWING THE
+CUTTING DOWN OF MILK CONSUMPTION ABROAD.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+
+Vegetables and fruits represent a different and happier phase of
+the food situation than our short supplies of wheat and meat. The
+vegetables especially are a great potential reserve of food, for they
+can be produced in quantity in three or four months on unused land by
+labor that otherwise might not be used.
+
+Abroad every resource for vegetable-raising is being utilized to the
+utmost. France and Belgium have long made the most of all their land.
+Now England has made it compulsory to leave no ground uncultivated.
+Golf-courses are now potato-patches. Parks and every bit of back yard
+all grow their quota of vegetables. The boys in the old English public
+schools work with the hoe where before they played football.
+
+We in America have no more than touched our capacity for raising
+gardens. What we have done is merely a beginning. As the war goes
+on we shall realize more and more the necessity for seizing every
+opportunity for active service. The accomplishments of the summer of
+1917 showed the possibilities of the work, and placed it beyond the
+purely experimental stage. They have given experience and emphasized
+the value of expert advice and the economy of community efforts.
+
+Not only is the "plant a garden" a civilian movement, but it has
+taken hold in the armies as well. The American Army Garden service
+is planning truck-gardens in France to supply our troops. The Woman's
+Auxiliary Army Corps of England plants gardens back of the British
+lines. Last summer the French fed 20,000 of their men from similar
+gardens.
+
+EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN IN THESE HOME AND COMMUNITY GARDENS
+RELIEVES THE RAILROAD CONGESTION AND GIVES MORE SPACE FOR TRANSPORTING
+MUNITIONS AND COAL. EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN RELEASES STAPLES FOR
+EUROPE. Extra production of food of any kind, anywhere, takes on a
+new significance in the presence of half a world hungry.
+
+IF YOU CANNOT GROW VEGETABLES, USE THEM IN ABUNDANCE ANYWAY. They
+are too perishable to ship abroad and too bulky, containing so much
+water that it would be an uneconomical use of shipping to export them.
+But the more America eats of almost any kind of vegetable or fruit,
+the less of the more durable, concentrated foods will she require. The
+products are so varied in kind and composition that they can be used
+to serve almost any purpose--beans and peas to save meat; potatoes
+and others to save wheat; sweet fruits to save sugar; jams, even,
+when spread on bread, to save fat. All will improve the health and
+therefore increase human energies for winning the war.
+
+
+IN THE WAR DIET
+
+_To Save Meat_. Beans and peas and peanuts are the only vegetables
+with much protein, so that they are the ones thought of primarily as
+meat substitutes. There are many kinds of them, fresh or dried, more
+than most of us realize. It is worth while to add to the diet not
+only the ordinary white or navy beans, but kidney, lima, black or soy
+beans, cow-peas, the many colored beans such as the pinto, frijoles,
+and the California pinks. It is these latter kinds that are used
+by the Mexicans as their chief standby. The Army and Navy use huge
+quantities of the white beans, and the Allied Governments are also
+buying tons of the pintos.
+
+The 1917 bean-crop, in response to the patriotic appeal, was 50 per
+cent higher than the normal. Nearly all this increase was in the
+colored beans, chiefly pintos. The Food Administration, fearing
+that some of this unusual surplus might be wasted and the farmer
+discouraged from producing a large output in 1918, bought up the extra
+crop and distributed it for sale at the different markets.
+
+Though soy beans and peanuts at least are exceptions, the protein
+in beans and peas is not so satisfactory as a bodybuilder as that in
+animal foods, so that a diet in which they are a large part should
+contain also some milk or eggs or a little meat. Two cups (half a
+pound) of shelled green peas or beans, or one cup with a cup of skim
+milk gives as much protein as a quarter of a pound of beef. Dried
+beans and peas are, of course, cheaper than the canned with their
+larger amount of water. At the usual market prices as much fuel can
+be bought for 5 cents spent for dried peas as for 25 cents for canned
+peas.
+
+Meat-savers do not all have to be high-protein foods, since the diet
+of most of us contains considerably more protein than is necessary.
+Any vegetable can be a "meat extender." The pleasant flavor of
+meat can be obtained in meat stews, such as the delicious French
+"pot-au-feu." Stews can easily be made with less meat and more
+vegetables than usual. The meat allowance is now so very small in
+France and the vegetables so scarce in the cities, that the ingenuity
+of even the French woman is taxed to get a meal.
+
+_To Save Wheat_. Potatoes to save wheat! The great potato drive to
+utilize the surplus of our huge 1917 potato-crop, 100,000,000 bushels
+above normal, has fixed in every one's mind the interchangeableness
+of these two foods. Potatoes are one-fifth starch--almost the same
+quantity as in cooked breakfast cereals. Because of this starch, they
+give as satisfactory a fuel as wheat or corn or any other cereal. One
+medium-sized potato supplies the same number of calories as a large
+slice of bread, and contains more mineral salts than white bread.
+Europe has learned to eat potatoes instead of wheat. When bread has
+been short potatoes have been the mainstay in every country. They are
+to-day the largest single element, in terms of energy, in the German
+war ration.
+
+Sweet potatoes are also first-class wheat-savers. So to a lesser
+extent are most vegetables and fruits. Very few except white and
+sweet potatoes contain much starch, but many of them have considerable
+sugar, which serves as fuel just as starch does--carrots, beets,
+onions, parsnips, and practically all fruits such as bananas, oranges,
+and grapes.
+
+_To Save Sugar_. We want sugar, of course, both for fuel and flavor.
+The vegetables and some fruits have their sugar so covered up by
+other tastes that it does not help to make the food sweet. It does, of
+course, serve for fuel. Bananas especially are fuel foods, containing
+much starch when green, which changes to sugar as the fruit ripens.
+The sweetest fruits are the dried ones--dates, figs, raisins, prunes.
+They have so much sugar that they can well be used in place of candy.
+
+_To Save Fat_, Although few common fruits and vegetables contain
+fat, jam is a real fat-saver. It is of high fuel value, and has the
+advantage of being a "spreading material" so that it can replace
+butter with bread and cereals. Jam is of great importance in Europe
+to-day and all the Governments have taken steps to keep up the supply.
+It is a regular part of the English army ration.
+
+_To Keep the Nation Well_. An increase in the use of vegetables and
+fruits is practically sure to mean an increase in health. Many of us,
+especially city-dwellers, do not eat enough of them. Many a young
+girl who "does not like vegetables" probably owes part of her languor
+to inadequate diet. The old-fashioned "touch of scurvy" formerly
+noticed at the end of the winter and even now not an unknown thing,
+was probably due to lack of vegetables in the winter diet. The
+constipation which is so disturbingly prevalent can usually be cured
+or prevented by eating vegetables and fruits in sufficient quantities.
+One of the most serious limitations in the diet of many of the
+very poor is the lack of vegetables as well as milk and the unduly
+large proportion of meat and bread. In a community in New York City
+with high mortality rate, 75 mothers whose diet was observed, ate
+vegetables on the average only twice a week, and fruit about the same
+number of times.
+
+It is not difficult to understand why vegetables and fruits are so
+important. Only a few are especially valuable as fuel or as a source
+of protein, but almost all are high in mineral salts and can supply
+the "roughage" desirable in the diet. Some also contain the vitamines,
+the leafy vegetables being especially valuable because, like milk,
+they contain the two kinds. The "greens," leafy vegetables like
+spinach, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and lettuce, are the
+ones that help most in these last ways--"protective foods," they have
+been called. They are rich in the iron, calcium, and other minerals
+that some of the other foods lack. The use of plenty of these
+vegetables should go far toward keeping up health.
+
+
+CANNING AND DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+The value of these foods both for the nation's health and for saving
+staples applies just as much in winter as in summer. In war-time,
+a winter supply, either stored, dried, or canned, takes on special
+significance because of their substitute value if the supply of
+staples runs critically low.
+
+The canning industry, because it makes vegetables obtainable at all
+times and places, has been of great importance in the health and
+development of the country. Smith, in his "Commercial Geography," says
+that "canning, more than any other invention since the introduction
+of steam, has made possible the building up of towns and communities
+beyond the bounds of varied production." A century or two ago, sailors
+after a voyage of a year or two, almost always came home with scurvy.
+Recently Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for years and
+remained in good health, because of their supply of canned vegetables,
+fruits, and meats.
+
+The Government has not been slow in appreciating the need of canned
+vegetables for the Army and Navy. It has commandeered about 25 per
+cent of the canned beans, 12 per cent of the corn, and 18 per cent of
+the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts will be needed this year
+also. Much of the 1918-19 supply for our troops in France is to be
+canned in France, by arrangement with the French Government, thus
+saving valuable shipping space.
+
+Drying, or dehydrating, has long been known for beans, peas, and corn,
+and for dates, prunes, figs, and raisins. But dried potatoes, beets,
+carrots, and "soup mixtures" are more or less new. The drying, of
+course, merely removes most of the water from the vegetable, and if
+the process is properly carried out, soaking the vegetable in water
+restores its original freshness.
+
+The war, with the need for every ounce of food and the increasing
+transportation difficulties, has brought the process into prominence.
+The dehydrated products, if properly stored, seem to keep a long time.
+Their saving in freight and shipping is plain, when it is remembered
+that the fresh vegetables and fruits often contain over 90 per cent
+water, and the dried from 8 per cent to 10 per cent. Ships are too
+precious to be used for carrying unnecessary water. Our Government has
+placed orders for several thousand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the
+Army and may use other dried products as they can be obtained.
+
+Canada has sent abroad within the past 3 years over 50 million
+pounds of dehydrated vegetables, about two-thirds of which was the
+vegetable-soup mixture and one-third dried sliced potatoes. When
+reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000 pounds of vegetables.
+Germany has been drying her vegetables and fruits far more than we. In
+1917 she had over 2,000 commercial plants, and an elaborate system of
+distributing all the available fresh material to the different plants
+to avoid waste.
+
+Individuals and communities with gardens or wherever fresh products
+can be obtained should not be dependent upon commercial agencies.
+AS FAR AS POSSIBLE EVERY FAMILY AND EVERY NEIGHBORHOOD SHOULD BE
+SELF-SUPPORTING. HOME AND COMMUNITY CANNING AND DRYING ARE IMPORTANT
+DUTIES. CAN AND DRY THE SURPLUS. STORE UP ENOUGH TO CARRY THROUGH THE
+NEXT WINTER. FOLLOW EXPERT ADVICE AS TO METHODS. USE THE GREATEST CARE
+TO PREVENT SPOILAGE. WHEREVER POSSIBLE UNITE WITH YOUR NEIGHBORS IN
+COMMUNITY CANNERIES AND DRYERS SO THAT EVERY ONE CAN HAVE THE BENEFIT
+OF THE BEST EQUIPMENT AND THE MOST SKILLED SUPERVISION.
+
+A GREAT DEAL WAS DONE IN 1917; MILLIONS OF CANS WERE PUT UP AND GREAT
+WASTE PREVENTED. BUT IN 1918 MORE MUST BE DONE. MORE VEGETABLES MUST
+BE RAISED AND MORE MUST BE CANNED. A GREAT RESERVE FOR THE WINTER IS
+MORE NECESSARY THAN EVER.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Almost a year of food control in this country has passed and the great
+new experiment in democratic administration of the nation's food is
+succeeding. The method of well-directed voluntary co-operation, much
+more characteristic of our food control than of any other country's,
+can be judged by its results to date. We have sent abroad six times
+the wheat that we had believed was in the country for export. We have
+exported vastly increased shipments of the other cereals, of beef and
+pork, of fats and condensed milk. With Canada, we are supplying 50 per
+cent of the Allies' food, instead of barely 5 per cent, as before the
+war. Meanwhile our own population has been taken care of. No one has
+gone hungry because of the shipments of food out of the country. The
+price of the most important food, bread, has been kept stable--a new
+experience in time of war.
+
+These and others are great accomplishments, brought about through the
+co-operation of the nation, BUT THEY ARE SLIGHT IN COMPARISON WITH
+WHAT MUST STILL BE DONE. The huge resources for extra food production
+and conservation have hardly been touched. The imagination is just
+beginning to be stirred by the immensity of the whole undertaking and
+the sacrifice required to win the war. Men, ammunition and food, in a
+steadily increasing stream, must go across.
+
+"OUR DUTY, IF WE ARE TO DO THIS GREAT THING AND SHOW AMERICA TO
+BE WHAT WE BELIEVE HER TO BE--THE GREATEST HOPE AND ENERGY OF
+THE WORLD--IS TO STAND TOGETHER NIGHT AND DAY UNTIL THE JOB IS
+FINISHED."--PRESIDENT WILSON.
+
+
+
+
+A FEW REFERENCES
+
+American Academy of Political and Social Science. "World's Food."
+Philadelphia, 1917. (_Annals of the American Academy_, November,
+1917.)
+
+Carter, Howe and Mason. "Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics."
+Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1918.
+
+Holmes, A.D., and Lang, H.L. "Fats and Their Economical Use in the
+Home." Washington, 1916. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 469.)
+
+Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, Alonzo E. "Food Problems." New York,
+Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Langworthy, C.F. "Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Other Starchy Roots as
+Food." Washington, 1917. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 468.)
+
+Langworthy, C.F. "Eggs and Their Value as Food." Washington, 1917.
+(Department of Agriculture Bulletin 471.)
+
+Lusk, Graham. "Food in War Time." Philadelphia, Saunders, 1917.
+
+Lusk, Graham. "Fundamental Basis of Nutrition." New Haven, Yale
+University Press, 1915.
+
+Mendel, Lafayette B. "Changes in Food Supply and Their Relation to
+Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University Press, 1916.
+
+Mendenhall, Dorothy R. "Milk." Washington, 1918. (_Children's Bureau_,
+Publication 35.)
+
+Rose, Mary Swartz. "Everyday Foods in War Time." New York, Macmillan,
+1918.
+
+Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New York, Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition." New York,
+Macmillan, 1918.
+
+Sherman, Henry C. "Food Products." New York, Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Taylor, Alonzo E. "War Bread." New York, Macmillan, 1918.
+
+The publications of the United States Department of Agriculture and
+the United States Food Administration.
+
+The United States Food Leaflets.
+
+United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletin 487.
+"Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet." C.F. Langworthy and
+Caroline L. Hunt. 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 565. "Corn as a Food and Ways of Using It." C.F.
+Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 717. "Food for Young Children." Caroline L. Hunt,
+1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 808. "What the Body Needs." Caroline L. Hunt and
+Helen W. Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 817. "Cereal Foods." Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W.
+Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 824. "Foods Rich in Protein." Caroline L. Hunt and
+Helen W. Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 839. "Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack
+Method." O.H. Benson, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 841. "Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home."
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 853. "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables." M.E.
+Cresswell and Ola Powell, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 871. "Fresh Fruits and Vegetables as Conservers of
+Other Staple Foods." Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 881. "Preservation of Vegetables by Fermentation and
+Salting." L.A. Round and H.L. Lang, 1917.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Agriculture, Department of.--Aids wheat production, 8; campaign for
+increased use of milk, 53.
+
+Austria.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 20-30; sugar-supply, 45.
+
+
+Banana flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Barley as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+Beans.--Varieties, 56; as meat substitute, 57.
+
+Belgium.--Wheat-supply, 2; meat-supply, 29; sugar-supply, 44; milk
+supplied to children, 50.
+
+Bread.--Advantages of wheat loaf, 22-23; bakers' bread regulated, 23;
+conservation of, by housewives, 24-25; restrictions on use in Europe,
+25-26; rationing not necessary in United States, 27.
+
+Buckwheat as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Butter.--Consumption in England, 39; uneconomical way to use milk, 53.
+
+
+Calorie defined, 10.
+
+Candy.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46.
+
+Canning.--Sugar allowed for, 45-46; importance of industry, 60; urged
+upon housewives for conservation, 61.
+
+Cereals.--Defined, 10; food value, 12, 17; wide consumption of, 12-13.
+
+Cheese.--Valuable protein food, 34; as meat substitute, 35-36; a use
+for skim milk, 54.
+
+Corn as wheat substitute, 17-18; why Allies can not use, 26-27.
+
+Corn-syrup as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Cottonseed meal as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Cream.--Extravagant use of milk, 54.
+
+
+Drying.--Process, 60; importance of, 61.
+
+
+Eggs as meat substitute, 35.
+
+England.--Wheat-supply, 2; restrictions concerning bread, 25-26;
+meat-supply, 29; meat restrictions, 30-31; fat shortage, 39;
+sugar-supply, 44; milk regulations, 50, 54; cultivation of soil,
+55-56.
+
+Fats.--Food value, 37-38; shortage in Europe, 39; resources and
+exports of United States, 40-41; necessity for conservation, 41.
+
+Feterita as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Fifty-fifty rule, 16-17.
+
+Fish as meat substitute, 35.
+
+Flour.--Manufacture of, 14-15; 74 per cent extraction allowed, 15;
+consumption cut by licensing millers, 15; by fifty-fifty rule, 16-17.
+
+Food Administration.--Takes control of wheat business, 6, 8; licenses
+millers, 15; licenses bakers, 23-24; regulates sugar prices, 46-47;
+aids increased use of milk, 53; achievements in year of existence, 62.
+
+Foods.--Importance of different kinds, 10-11.
+
+France.--Wheat-supply, 1-2; bread regulations, 26; meat-supply, 29;
+meat regulations, 31-32; sugar-supply, 44; sugar restrictions, 45;
+production of fruit and vegetables, 56.
+
+Fruit.--As sugar substitute, 46, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation
+of, by canning and drying, 59-61.
+
+
+Garbage conservation, 41.
+
+Gardens.--See Production.
+
+Germany.--Wheat-supply, 3-4; meat-supply, 20-30; meat restrictions,
+32; fat shortage, 40; sugar restrictions, 45; conservation of food by
+drying, 61.
+
+Gluten.--Importance in bread, 22-23.
+
+Graham flour.--Manufacture, 14; inferiority to wheat, 15.
+
+Grain corporation, controls wheat trade, 6, 8.
+
+
+Honey as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Hotels and restaurants.--Regulations in use of bread, 24.
+
+
+Ice-cream.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46.
+
+Italy.--Restrictions on macaroni, 25; bread rations, 26; meat-supply,
+29; sugar-supply, 44.
+
+
+Jam as substitute for butter, 58.
+
+
+Kaffir as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+
+Legumes.--See Beans, Peanuts, Peas.
+
+
+Macaroni.--Restrictions in manufacture of in Italy, 25; not a wheat
+substitute, 25.
+
+Maple-syrup as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Margarine.--Use in England, 39.
+
+Meat.--Shortage in Europe, 28-32; exports from United States, 32-33;
+consumption, 33-34; food value, 34-35.
+
+Meat extenders, vegetables as, 57.
+
+Meat substitutes, 35-36; vegetables as, 57.
+
+Milk.--As meat substitute, 36; necessity for children, 49-50; shortage
+in Europe, 50; food value, 51-52; supply in United States, 52-53;
+economical uses of, 53-54.
+
+Milk, condensed.--Use in Europe, 50; amount exported from United
+States, 54.
+
+Milo as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Molasses as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+
+Nuts as meat substitutes, 36.
+
+
+Oats as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+Oils, vegetable.--Use in Germany, 40; supply in United States, 40-41;
+as substitute for animal fats, 41.
+
+
+Peanut flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Peanuts as meat substitute, 36.
+
+Peas as meat substitute, 56.
+
+Potato flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Potatoes as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58.
+
+Poultry as meat substitute, 35.
+
+Production.--Decreased in France, 1-2; of cereals doubled in England,
+2; of vegetables in England and America, 55.
+
+Protein.--Defined, 11; amount necessary in diet, 34-35.
+
+
+Rationing: Austria.--Sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: England.--Bread not rationed, 26; meat, 30-31; fats, 39;
+sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: France.--Bread, 26; meat, 31; sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: Germany.--Meat, 32; fats, 40; sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: Italy.--Bread, 26; meat, 32.
+
+Rationing: U.S.--Voluntary wheat ration, 25; reasons for not
+introducing system, 27.
+
+Rice.--Chief diet in India, 13; as wheat substitute, 19-20.
+
+Roumania.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 29.
+
+Russia.--Wheat-supply, 4.
+
+Rye, as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+
+Shipping.--Necessity for saving, 5; released by decreased use of
+sugar, 46.
+
+Soy bean flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Substitutes.--See Meat, Sugar, Wheat substitutes.
+
+Sugar.--Consumption in United States, 42; shortage, 42, 44-45;
+restrictions on, 45-46; price regulated, 46-47; conservation of,
+47-48.
+
+Sugar substitutes, 46, 58.
+
+
+Tapioca flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+
+United States: Exports.--Wheat, 5-6; meat, 33; fat, 40-41; sugar,
+44-45; milk, 54.
+
+
+Vegetables.--Importance in conservation, 55; production of, 56; as
+meat substitute, 36, 56-57; as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58; as sugar
+substitute, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation of by canning and
+drying, 50-61.
+
+Victory bread, 24.
+
+Vitamines.--Defined, 11; in fats, 38; in milk, 52; in fruit and
+vegetables, 59.
+
+
+War bread.--See Flour, Victory bread, Wheat substitutes.
+
+Wheat.--Necessity in war, 1; shortage in Europe, 1-4; distribution a
+problem, 4-5; supply and exports of United States, 5-6; controlled by
+United States Grain Corporation, 6, 8; conservation of by individuals,
+8-9.
+
+Wheat substitutes.--Corn, 18-19; oats, 19; barley, 19; rye, 19; rice,
+20; miscellaneous, 20; keeping quality, 20-21; vegetables, 57-58.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME***
+
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Food Guide for War Service at Home, by Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al</title>
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Food Guide for War Service at Home, by
+Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Food Guide for War Service at Home</p>
+<p>Author: Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker</p>
+<p>Release Date: November 15, 2004  [eBook #14055]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME***</p>
+<br /><br /><h4>E-text prepared by Audrey Longhurst, William Flis,<br />
+                and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h4><br /><br />
+<hr class="full" />
+<br />
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        <a href="images/1.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/1.png"
+             alt="Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society" />
+        </a>Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society
+    </div>
+
+    <h1>FOOD GUIDE</h1>
+
+    <h3>FOR</h3>
+
+    <h2>WAR SERVICE AT HOME</h2>
+
+    <h4>PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF</h4>
+
+    <h3>THE UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATION</h3>
+
+    <h4>IN CO-OPERATION WITH<br />
+    THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE<br />
+    AND THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION</h4>
+
+    <h3>WITH A PREFACE BY HERBERT HOOVER</h3>
+
+    <h4>UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATOR</h4>
+
+    <h4>1918</h4>
+    <hr />
+
+    <h3>ANNOUNCEMENT</h3>
+
+    <p>In the spring of 1918 the Collegiate Section of the United
+    States Food Administration was called upon to prepare a simple
+    statement of the food situation as affected by the war,
+    suitable for elementary and high school teachers, high-school
+    pupils, and the general public. The demand arose because of the
+    wide adoption of the three courses on this subject then being
+    sent out weekly to universities, colleges, and normal schools
+    throughout the country.</p>
+
+    <p>This little volume is the response to that request. It was
+    written by Katharine Blunt, of the University of Chicago,
+    Frances L. Swain, of the Chicago Normal School, and Florence
+    Powdermaker, of the United States Department of
+    Agriculture.</p>
+
+    <p>The records of the Food Administration have been open to the
+    writers and they have had the advice and criticism of its
+    officials and specialists. No effort has been spared to secure
+    accuracy of statement in the text.</p>
+
+    <p class="author">OLIN TEMPLIN,</p>
+
+    <p class="author"><i>Director of the Collegiate
+    Section.</i></p>
+
+    <p>July 1, 1918.</p>
+    <hr />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"
+       id="pagev"></a>[pg v]</span>
+
+    <h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+    <p>The long war has brought hunger to Europe; some of her
+    peoples stand constantly face to face with starvation.</p>
+
+    <p>All agriculture has been seriously interfered with. Food
+    production has been lessened to the point of danger. Millions
+    of men who had given all their time and energy to raising food
+    have been killed; more millions are still fighting; other
+    millions have gone from the farms into the great war-factories.
+    Women, too, have been drafted from the fields and home gardens
+    into the factories and to replace the absent men in a host of
+    occupations. Great stretches of once fertile land have been
+    temporarily ruined by the scourge of war; some are still under
+    falling shot and shell. Belgium and France have lost millions
+    of acres of productive land to the enemy. The fertilizers
+    necessary for keeping up the production of the land still
+    available are lacking.</p>
+
+    <p>All this means that the Allies have to rely on the outside
+    for the maintenance of their food-supply. But because ships are
+    fewer than they were, and because many of them must carry
+    troops and munitions exclusively, these ships cannot be sent on
+    voyages longer than absolutely necessary to find and bring back
+    the needed food. They cannot afford to go the long
+    time-consuming way to Australia and back; but few of them can
+    be let go to India and the Argentine. They must carry food by
+    the shortest routes. The shortest is from North America to
+    England and France.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"
+       id="pagevi"></a>[pg vi]</span>
+
+    <p>Therefore by far the greater part of the food provided for
+    the Allies from the outside must come from us. As a matter of
+    fact more than 50 per cent of this outside food for the Allies
+    does now come from North America. And that is a great deal. It
+    is very much more than we ever sent them before. Also we are
+    sending more and more food overseas for our own growing armies
+    in France and our growing fleets in European waters.</p>
+
+    <p>To meet all this great food need in Europe&mdash;and meeting
+    it is an imperative military necessity&mdash;we must be very
+    careful and economical in our food use here at home. We must
+    eat less; we must waste nothing; we must equalize the
+    distribution of what food we may retain for ourselves; we must
+    prevent extortion and profiteering which make prices so high
+    that the poor cannot buy the food they actually need; and we
+    must try to produce more food by planting more wheat and other
+    grain, raising more cattle and swine and sheep, and making
+    gardens everywhere.</p>
+
+    <p>To help the people of America do all these things, and to
+    coordinate their efforts, the President and Congress created
+    the United States Food Administration. The Food Administration,
+    therefore, asks all the people to help feed the Allies that
+    they may continue to fight, to help feed the hungry in Belgium
+    and other starving lands that they may continue to live, and to
+    help feed our own sailors and soldiers so that they may want
+    nothing. It asks help, also, in its great task of preventing
+    prices from going too high and of stabilizing them, and of
+    keeping the flow of distribution even, so that all our people,
+    rich and poor alike, may be able to obtain the food they
+    need.</p>
+
+    <p>For all this there is needed a "food education" of all our
+    people. Every home in our broad land must be reached. One of
+    the most effective ways of accomplishing this is by getting
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"
+       id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span> information to the children
+       of the nation about food and the possibilities and methods
+       of its most wise and economical use. To obtain this result
+       we must get this information into the hands of parents and
+       teachers.</p>
+
+    <p>For the purpose of diffusing this information this little
+    book has been prepared under the direction of the Food
+    Administration. By following the suggestions for food
+    conservation herein contained every one can render his country
+    an important war service. I am sure that all will be glad to do
+    this.</p>
+
+    <p class="author">HERBERT HOOVER.</p>
+    <hr />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"
+       id="pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span>
+
+    <h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER I. THE WHEAT SITUATION</b>
+    <a href="#page1">1</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The world's supply of wheat&mdash;Wheat in
+        the United States&mdash;Meeting the wheat shortage</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER II. THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER
+    CEREALS</b> <a href="#page10">10</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The significance of different kinds of
+        food&mdash;The social importance of cereals, especially
+        wheat&mdash;Wheat flour in war-time&mdash;The 50-50 rule.
+        Another way to cut the consumption of
+        wheat&mdash;Substitutes for wheat flour</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER III. WAR BREAD</b> <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The bakers' regulations. Victory
+        bread&mdash;The individual's answer to the bread
+        cry&mdash;Flour and bread in the Allied countries&mdash;Why
+        we in the United States do not have bread cards</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER IV. THE MEAT SITUATION</b>
+    <a href="#page28">28</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">Where Europe's meat has been
+        produced&mdash;The war and the European
+        meat-supply&mdash;The meat rations of Europe&mdash;The part
+        of the United States&mdash;Meat conservation&mdash;Meat and
+        other protein foods&mdash;The meat substitutes</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER V. FATS</b> <a href="#page37">37</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The situation abroad&mdash;The situation
+        in the United States</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER VI. SUGAR</b> <a href="#page42">42</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">Why is there a sugar shortage?&mdash;The
+        effect of the shortage&mdash;In place of sugar&mdash;The
+        price of sugar&mdash;To cut down on sugar</p>
+    </blockquote><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagex"
+       id="pagex"></a>[pg x]</span>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER VII. MILK&mdash;FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH</b>
+    <a href="#page49">49</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">The valuable constituents of
+        milk&mdash;Our milk problem&mdash;Our milk abroad</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CHAPTER VIII. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</b>
+    <a href="#page55">55</a></p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+        <p class="index">In the war diet&mdash;Canning and drying
+        vegetables and fruits</p>
+    </blockquote>
+
+    <p><b>CONCLUSION</b> <a href="#page62">62</a></p>
+
+    <p><b>A FEW REFERENCES</b> <a href="#page63">63</a></p>
+
+    <p><b>INDEX</b> <a href="#page65">65</a></p>
+    <hr />
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"
+       id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+    <h2>THE WHEAT SITUATION</h2>
+
+    <p>Wheat is as much a war necessity as ammunition&mdash;wheat
+    is a war weapon. To produce it and distribute it where it is
+    needed and in sufficient quantities is the most serious food
+    problem of the Allied world. The continent of Europe, with her
+    devastated fields, can raise but a small fraction of the wheat
+    she needs, and ships are so few that she cannot import it from
+    many of the usual sources.</p>
+
+    <p>Not one of the warring European countries has escaped
+    serious suffering, and the neutral countries have suffered with
+    them.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF WHEAT</h3>
+
+    <p>France, always an agricultural nation, was the most nearly
+    self-sustaining of the western Allies. Now one-third of her
+    wheat-fields are barren. Thousands of her acres have been taken
+    by the enemy, or are in No Man's Land. Much of the land that
+    has been fought over these past four years is now hopeless for
+    farming, and will be for years to come. Even the territory
+    still under cultivation cannot be expected to yield large
+    returns, for laborers, tools, and fertilizers are lacking.</p>
+
+    <p>The men who have left the fields to fight have been replaced
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page2"
+       id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> chiefly by women, children, and
+       old men, while furloughed soldiers at times help to bring in
+       the crops. To get adequate return from the soil which has
+       been tilled for centuries, tons of fertilizer are necessary.
+       Fertilizers are an absolute necessity, and nitrates, one of
+       the most important of them, can no longer be imported from
+       Chile. The work-animals have been driven off by the enemy or
+       slaughtered for want of food, and mechanics are lacking to
+       repair and replace the worn-out farm-machinery. As a result
+       of this, in 1917 France raised only enough wheat to supply
+       40 per cent of her need, instead of 90 per cent, as in
+       pre-war years.</p>
+
+    <p>In England the situation is not much better. Unlike France,
+    England has always imported far more wheat than she raised. But
+    now through vigorous effort she alone of all the European
+    countries has increased her cereal production so that it has
+    actually been doubled. Being free from the devastation of war
+    at home, she has been able to convert the great lawns of her
+    parks and country estates into grain-fields. English women of
+    all classes, an army of half a million, are working on the
+    land. At the same time the consumption of wheat has been
+    reduced. Even yet, however, the home-grown supply in England is
+    only one-fourth of the wheat required.</p>
+
+    <p>In Belgium the devastation is so complete that the women,
+    children, and old people left there would die of famine if food
+    were not sent to them. Two and a half million Belgians daily
+    stand in line waiting for food to be doled out to them. The
+    United States must supply three-fourths of the wheat contained
+    in their meagre bread ration. In Italy, too, the condition is
+    serious, for she produces far less than she needs, despite
+    every effort of her Government to stimulate
+    production.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"
+       id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span>
+
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        <a href="images/13.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/13.png"
+             alt="WHEAT FIELDS OF THE WORLD" /></a>WHEAT FIELDS OF
+             THE WORLD
+    </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"
+       id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span>
+
+    <p>Germany and Austria-Hungary have not escaped universal
+    suffering from lack of wheat. Germany before the war was a
+    wheat-importing country, and Austria-Hungary was able to supply
+    herself with wheat, but had none to export. Their war crops
+    have been below normal, and even the wheat taken from conquered
+    territory has not been sufficient to prevent severe shortage,
+    resulting in bread riots in industrial centres.</p>
+
+    <p>The imports of wheat into both the Allied and enemy European
+    countries to supplement the wheat of their own raising came in
+    peace-times from seven countries&mdash;Russia, Roumania,
+    Australia, the United States, Canada, Argentina, and India.
+    Most of these have now failed as a source of supply.</p>
+
+    <p>Russia and Roumania were the great wheat-bins of Europe.
+    They produced as much wheat as the United States, and sometimes
+    more, and they were always able to make up or nearly make up
+    the deficiencies of western Europe. Russia and Roumania are now
+    themselves on the verge of famine. Even before their own
+    situation became so desperate, they could get little wheat to
+    the western Allies, because the enemy territory and the
+    battle-lines made a great wall of separation.</p>
+
+    <p>Australia and India both continue to grow large crops of
+    wheat, and have a surplus in storage, but it cannot be sent to
+    Europe because of lack of ships. Australia has wheat stored
+    from her last three crops. The Argentine had very poor crops in
+    1916 and 1917, and although the 1918 crop is good, it is
+    scarcely more available to Europe than Australia's wheat.</p>
+
+    <p><b>So the wheat scarcity is not a question only of the
+    amount of wheat in the world. It is a problem of getting it
+    where it is needed&mdash;wheat plus ships.</b> Not a single
+    ship must go farther than is absolutely necessary. A glance at
+    the map shows why wheat for Europe should come from North
+    America rather than from Australia or India, or even the
+    Argentine. The trip from Australia
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page5"
+       id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> is three times as long as from
+       North America, so it takes only one-third as many ships to
+       carry food to Europe from the United States as from
+       Australia. The Argentine is twice as far from Europe as the
+       United States, and therefore twice as many ships are needed
+       to carry an equal amount of Argentine food to Europe. If
+       this continent could produce and save enough next year to
+       provide the whole of the Allied food necessities, we could
+       save 1,500,000 tons of world shipping to be used for other
+       purposes. <b>Every ship saved is a ship built to carry more
+       men and more ammunition to France.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES</h3>
+
+    <p>The United States has never had a large wheat surplus to
+    export, and the last few years it has had an unusually low
+    supply to meet the extraordinary demand. The 1916 crop was
+    small. The 1917 crop was only four-fifths of normal, little
+    more than we ordinarily consume ourselves. We entered the last
+    harvest with our stocks of wheat and other cereals practically
+    exhausted. Hence to feed the Allies until the 1918 harvest, we
+    had to send wheat which we should ordinarily have eaten. All
+    that we could send under normal conditions from July, 1917, to
+    July, 1918, has usually been estimated at about 20,000,000
+    bushels, but in the first eleven months of this time we
+    actually did send 120,000,000 bushels, six times as much as we
+    could have shipped without conservation. One-half of the total
+    output of our flour-mills in the month of May, 1918, went
+    abroad.</p>
+
+    <p>This achievement in feeding the Allies has been made
+    possible and will continue to be possible, through the measures
+    of economy and substitution established by the Food
+    Administration, and the constant and continued personal
+    sacrifice of each one of
+    us.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"
+       id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span>
+
+    <p>Even the 1918 wheat crop, successful as it promises to be,
+    will not mean freedom from saving. Throughout the war there can
+    be no relaxation. We must build up a great national reserve in
+    years of good harvest for the greater and greater demands of
+    Europe. <b>Never again must we let ourselves and the world face
+    the danger that was before us in the spring of 1918.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>MEETING THE WHEAT SHORTAGE</h3>
+
+    <p>To keep wheat constantly going over to our Allies and
+    sufficient stores in the United States at the same time, is one
+    of the big problems of the Food Administration. Production has
+    had to be increased and consumption decreased. The price has
+    had to be kept down, for in a time of shortage prices always
+    tend to go up. It is true that high prices furnish one method
+    of decreasing the consumption of food, but it is a method that
+    means enforced conservation by the poor and no conservation by
+    the rich. The burden thus falls on those least able to bear
+    it.</p>
+
+    <p>To meet this situation the Food Administration has gone into
+    the wheat business itself. <b>Practically entire control of the
+    buying and selling of wheat is in the hands of the great United
+    States Food Administration Grain Corporation.</b> Through this
+    organization all wheat sales are made to the Army and Navy, to
+    our allies, and to the neutrals. The price which it pays for
+    these huge quantities sets the price for the entire country.
+    The Food Administration also makes the movement of wheat from
+    the farmer to the miller and to the wholesaler as simple and
+    direct as possible. It prevents hoarding and speculation. "I am
+    convinced," said Mr. Hoover, in April, 1918, "that at no time
+    in the last three years has there been as little speculation in
+    the nation's food as there is
+    to-day."</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"
+       id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span>
+
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        <a href="images/17.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/17.png"
+             alt="COST OF A POUND LOAF OF BREAD" /></a>
+    </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"
+       id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span>
+
+    <p>As a result of this business management of wheat, the
+    consumer pays less for flour, although the farmer gets more for
+    his wheat. In May, 1917, the difference between the price of
+    the farmer's wheat and of the flour made from it was $5.86 per
+    barrel of 196 pounds. Fifteen months later the difference was
+    64 cents. In February, 1917, before the United States went into
+    the war, flour sold at wholesale for $8.75 a barrel. In May,
+    1917, the war, with no food control, had driven the price up to
+    $17. But in February, 1918, after six months of the Food
+    Administration, it had gone down to $10.50 wholesale, and this
+    in spite of unprecedented demand for our very short supply.
+    Without control, flour would undoubtedly be selling for $50 a
+    barrel. During the Civil War, with no world wheat shortage, but
+    without food control, the price of wheat increased 130 per cent
+    over the price in 1861.</p>
+
+    <p>The milling and sale of flour, the baking of bread, and the
+    purchases of the individual are all regulated to a greater
+    extent than would have scarcely been thought possible before
+    the war.</p>
+
+    <p>Every effort has been made to produce a great 1918
+    wheat-crop. Congress, at the time the Food Control Bill was
+    passed, fixed the price of the 1918 wheat at a minimum of $2
+    per bushel, and the President later fixed the price at $2.20.
+    This has been high enough to encourage the farmer to increase
+    his crop and not too high to be fair to the consumer. The
+    Department of Agriculture, during the winter of 1917-18, had
+    for its slogan, "a billion-bushel crop for 1918." It has worked
+    intensively to help the farmer in selecting and testing seed
+    and in fighting destructive insects and plant-diseases, and in
+    every way to help him grow more wheat.</p>
+
+    <p>Constant reliance has been placed on the individual's
+    intelligence and patriotism in wheat-saving. One of the unusual
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"
+       id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> aspects of the Food
+       Administration is its confidence in the co-operation of the
+       country and the response which this confidence has met.
+       Wheatless meals are now a commonplace occurrence. Wheatless
+       days are being observed in many hotels and homes. People all
+       over the country have pledged themselves to do entirely
+       without wheat until the 1918 harvest is available. About
+       100,000 barrels of flour were returned by individuals and
+       companies during the spring of 1918, to be shipped to the
+       Allies and the Army and Navy. The individual all over the
+       country, consumer, dealer, miller, or farmer, has risen to
+       the occasion to do his share toward the fulfilment of the
+       Government's promise to
+       Europe.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"
+       id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+    <h2>THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS</h2>
+
+    <p>When the United States was called on to supply the Allies
+    with much of its wheat and flour, we fortunately found at hand
+    a plentiful supply of a great variety of other cereals. The use
+    of corn was, of course, not an experiment&mdash;generations of
+    Southerners have flourished on it. But we also had oats, rice,
+    barley, rye, buckwheat, and such local products as the grain
+    sorghums, which are grown in the South and West. All of them
+    are cereals and all can be used interchangeably with wheat in
+    our diet.</p>
+
+    <p>To understand clearly the value of cereals in the diet
+    to-day, it is well to review the part played by food in
+    general. Europe to-day is eating to live. She therefore thinks
+    of food not in terms of menus but as a means of keeping up
+    bodily functions, as sources of protein, carbohydrate and
+    fat&mdash;terms seldom heard outside of the university a few
+    years ago.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD</h3>
+
+    <p>We need food first of all to burn as fuel for all the
+    activities of the body, just as any other machine needs fuel.
+    The fuel value of food, or its energy, is measured in
+    <i>calories</i>. A calorie measures the amount of heat or
+    energy given off when anything burns, whether it is coal in a
+    stove or food in the body.</p>
+
+    <p>Practically all foods give this fuel or energy, but some
+    give <span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"
+       id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> much more than others. Fats
+       give more fuel than an equal weight of any other food. Sugar
+       and foods rich in starch like flour and corn meal are fuel
+       foods. This is one of the reasons why they are chosen to be
+       shipped abroad. The cereals always supply an important part
+       of the fuel of the diet. Watery foods, like many vegetables
+       and fruits, normally give less fuel. A person could not live
+       on lettuce any better than a house could be heated with
+       tissue paper.</p>
+
+    <p>If the food does not supply enough energy, a person will
+    burn up part of his own body for fuel and will grow emaciated.
+    Far too often we find children of the very poor who are
+    undernourished because of lack of food fuel. Sometimes even
+    well-to-do young people half starve themselves because they get
+    "notions" about food. One of the terrible tragedies abroad is
+    the hundreds and thousands of men and women and children who
+    are worn and thin and sick for lack of food.</p>
+
+    <p>We need food, too, to keep the organs of the body running
+    smoothly. Abroad, people are suffering not only because they
+    have not enough food, but because they have not the right kinds
+    of food. Milk and vegetables and fruits are especially useful.
+    They are the chief sources of the much-needed <i>mineral
+    salts</i> and the two <i>vitamines</i>. The vitamines are
+    substances of great importance about which has centred much
+    discussion lately and which scientists do not yet fully
+    understand, though they realize that they are essential for the
+    growth of children and for health in adults.</p>
+
+    <p>The <i>protein</i> of food is used to build the body if we
+    are young, and to restore the daily wear and tear if we are
+    older. The mineral salts are also necessary for this purpose.
+    Protein will be discussed further in the chapter on meat and
+    meat substitutes, but it should be realized here that the
+    protein we eat comes <span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"
+       id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> not only from these foods,
+       but also from the cereals. Cereals supply a full half of the
+       protein of many diets.</p>
+
+    <p>Cereals are therefore important for their fuel since they
+    are rich in starch, and for their protein, and, if we eat the
+    entire kernel, for their mineral matter and vitamines. They
+    also have the pleasant flavor and texture which we have grown
+    to like.</p>
+
+    <p>Wheat is no better than any of the other cereals. It
+    possesses absolutely no nutritional advantage for man or beast
+    over oats, corn, and rye. It has no more protein, and no better
+    protein. It has no more fat and no better fat. It has no better
+    mineral salts and in no larger amounts. It has no more fuel or
+    better fuel. It is just <i>one</i> of the cereals, and there is
+    not the slightest evidence that it is the best one. It has
+    merely become one of our habits.</p>
+
+    <p>Corn and wheat and the other cereals are just as well
+    digested if equally well prepared. A soggy piece of wheat bread
+    may, of course, be less readily digestible than a well-made
+    piece of corn-bread, but that is a question of skill in
+    cooking, not of difference in cereals. Complaints have been
+    heard in England about the war bread. It is true that it may be
+    hard on those of frail digestive powers to change their food
+    habits in any way, but Hutchison, an eminent London physician,
+    in tracing down complaints, found that frequently people laid
+    to the new bread ailments from which they had suffered before
+    the war. "When in doubt, blame the war bread," seemed to be the
+    motto.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CEREALS, ESPECIALLY WHEAT</h3>
+
+    <p>The world eats more cereals than any other kind of food.
+    They are so widely available, so cheap and nutritious, that
+    they are a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page13"
+       id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> main reliance of the human
+       race. A shortage is always extremely serious.</p>
+
+    <p>Not only is an abundance important, but an abundance of the
+    accustomed kind. In parts of India, the inhabitants use rice as
+    almost the only cereal. When the rice-crop failed some years
+    ago, thousands of people died of starvation with a supply of
+    wheat available. They did not know the use of wheat as
+    food.</p>
+
+    <p>Countries like France, which use their cereals chiefly for
+    bread, are the most dependent on wheat, since wheat is the most
+    easily made into bread.</p>
+
+    <p>In the United States cereals make up almost one-third of our
+    food. Although wheat in most parts of the country has been the
+    main dependence, we have used a much greater variety of cereals
+    than most people, so that it is comparatively simple for the
+    majority to make increased use of them.</p>
+
+    <p>The very poor must depend largely upon cereals because they
+    can get more for their money from them than from other foods.
+    Cereals, to most of them, mean bread. It is such a large part
+    of their diet that doing without it means a far more
+    fundamental and difficult change in their food habits than for
+    the well-to-do with greater freedom of choice. Besides, the
+    already overburdened working woman must get her bread in the
+    easiest possible way&mdash;a ready-made loaf from the baker.
+    The burden of scarcity or high prices falls on those least able
+    to bear it.</p>
+
+    <p>Europeans eat even larger amounts of wheat than we. Over
+    half the food of the French is bread, so if the wheat shortage
+    were near the danger-line, it might lead to a serious weakening
+    of the marvellous courage of the French
+    people.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"
+       id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span>
+
+    <h3>WHEAT FLOUR IN WAR-TIME</h3>
+
+    <p>To use this country's share of the short supply of wheat to
+    the greatest advantage the Food Administration has changed the
+    making of flour to include more of the wheat-kernel. The
+    difference between peace and war time flour is easily
+    understood if the structure of grains is considered. Wheat and
+    other cereals have kernels much alike; all have three principal
+    parts:</p>
+
+    <p>The outer covering, called <i>bran</i>, is made up of
+    several layers. This is rich in important mineral salts, and
+    the rest is largely cellulose, or woody fibre.</p>
+
+    <p>The <i>germ</i> is the small part from which the new plant
+    will develop. Here the small amount of fat in the kernel is
+    stored.</p>
+
+    <p>The largest part of the kernel, called the <i>endosperm</i>,
+    contains the nourishment to be used by the plant as it begins
+    to develop. This is mostly starch, with some protein. It is the
+    part of the wheat, for instance, which is chiefly used to make
+    our white flour.</p>
+
+    <p>The kind of flour made depends on how much and what parts of
+    the kernel are used. Graham flour is manufactured by grinding
+    practically all of the wheat-kernel&mdash;a 100-per-cent use of
+    the grain, called 100-per-cent extraction. Some people still
+    fail to realize that Graham flour and Graham bread are wheat,
+    perhaps because of the different name and brown color. The
+    so-called "whole-wheat" flour is often 95 per cent of the
+    kernel only, but may be as little as 85 per cent, depending on
+    the amount of the bran and germ removed in the making.</p>
+
+    <p>Ordinary white flour contains the endosperm alone, with
+    practically none of the bran and germ. Some brands before the
+    war used up as little as 56 per cent of the wheat, leaving the
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page15"
+       id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> rest of it to be turned into
+       lower-grade flours and cattle-feed. White flour thus uses
+       less of the wheat for human food than Graham or whole-wheat
+       flour.</p>
+
+    <p>Yet to convert all the country's wheat into Graham flour
+    would not be a wheat-saving measure, because it is not so well
+    suited to our trade conditions. Graham flour, for one thing,
+    does not keep so well as flour of lower extractions, as the fat
+    in the germ may become rancid in a comparatively short time.
+    Flour in this country is often thirty days or longer in transit
+    and may be months in warehouses, stores, and homes. A flour to
+    be satisfactory under extreme conditions here or for shipment
+    abroad must keep at least six months&mdash;too long to be sure
+    that Graham flour will keep. In small countries like England,
+    where flour is used up more promptly, a high extraction is more
+    practicable than in the United States.</p>
+
+    <p>Moreover, while Graham and whole-wheat flours with their
+    larger quantities of mineral salts are a more desirable food
+    for some people than white flour, they are occasionally
+    irritating to people with weak digestions, so that it would be
+    unfortunate to have only these flours on the market.</p>
+
+    <p>The Food Administration, therefore, has considered that the
+    most effective use of our wheat could be obtained by forbidding
+    the manufacture of fancy flours of low extraction and making
+    all flour contain at least 74 per cent of the wheat. This still
+    gives a fine white flour that keeps well and is difficult to
+    distinguish from that on the market before the war.</p>
+
+    <p>To help in the enforcement of its flour rulings, the Food
+    Administration has licensed all mills and elevators which
+    handle over 100 barrels of flour a day. If the rulings of the
+    Food Administration are not obeyed the license may be taken
+    away, and the business closed. The hoarding of flour has been
+    stopped <span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"
+       id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span> by prohibiting mills,
+       elevators, and bakers from having more than 30 days' supply
+       on hand.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE 50-50 RULE. ANOTHER WAY TO CUT THE CONSUMPTION OF
+    WHEAT</h3>
+
+    <p><b>Not only must the miller manufacture flour in accordance
+    with new regulations, but the individual consumer must buy it
+    under restrictions.</b> To many people the first realization
+    that war and food difficulties are necessarily associated, came
+    with the announcement in the spring of 1918 of the now familiar
+    rules for the purchase of flour. With every pound of white
+    wheat flour, the purchaser must buy a pound of some other
+    cereal; with every pound of Graham flour, three-fifths of a
+    pound of other cereal.</p>
+
+    <p>The purpose of this regulation is, of course, to lessen the
+    use of wheat by increasing the use of the substitutes. The
+    housekeeper who through lack of initiative or ingenuity fails
+    to feed the family the substitutes and lets them accumulate on
+    her shelf has just so far failed to co-operate with the Food
+    Administration. Many a housewife has learned the value of these
+    cereals and will continue to use them long after the war and
+    the Food Administration have passed into history.</p>
+
+    <p>A little thought will show the absence of any real burden in
+    the 50-50 rule. A housekeeper for her family of four buys five
+    pounds of wheat flour and five pounds of other cereals. She may
+    use 1Ό pounds of the substitutes with the 5 pounds of wheat
+    flour to make about 8 pounds of Victory bread&mdash;sufficient
+    to give each member of her family 2 pounds of bread during the
+    week. She may serve an ounce of oatmeal as the breakfast cereal
+    and an ounce of rice, hominy, or other cereal for each person
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page17"
+       id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> daily and will then have used
+       all the substitutes. These cereals can be made into an
+       endless variety of quick breads, cakes, and pastry, or
+       combined with other foods as the main dish of the meal.</p>
+
+    <h3>SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT FLOUR</h3>
+
+    <p>The cereals on the market are varied enough to suit any
+    taste. <b>Remember that as far as nutritional value is
+    concerned, it makes practically no difference whether we eat
+    wheat or oats, rye or barley.</b> The quantities of starch,
+    protein, mineral matter, and fat are so nearly the same that
+    any one of them can take the place of another. Oatmeal has a
+    slight advantage over wheat both in protein and fat, and since
+    oats is an abundant crop in our country it is an excellent
+    substitute. Rice has a very little more starch and less protein
+    than the others.</p>
+
+    <p>There is just one advantage that wheat flour has over the
+    other cereals&mdash;it can be made into lighter and more
+    durable bread. The reason for this is given in the next
+    chapter.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Corn, the most abundant substitute.</i> Indian corn is
+    native to the United States. Since it carried the Pilgrims
+    through their year of famine, it has always been considered our
+    national grain. Other countries have adopted it to some extent,
+    but more than three quarters of the world's corn is grown here.
+    In 1917 our corn crop was 3,000,000,000 bushels, four times as
+    large as our wheat crop. Most of the crop has always been used
+    as a feed-grain, with only a small percentage for human food.
+    The South has always used much more corn than the North,
+    actually eating more corn than wheat.</p>
+
+    <p>The foods from corn and the ways of using them are more
+    numerous than is often appreciated. Corn meal and corn flour
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"
+       id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span> are the most important. We
+       are making almost as much corn meal as wheat flour. The
+       yellow and white corn meals, milled from different kinds of
+       corn, are practically the same in composition, though
+       slightly different in flavor. The method of milling corn
+       meal makes more difference in the composition than the kind
+       of corn used. The old "water-ground" meal was simply crushed
+       between millstones and only the coarsest particles of bran
+       bolted out. This ranks with Graham as a product of 100 per
+       cent extraction and like Graham, it may not keep well,
+       because the germ is left in. The new process, more like
+       modern flour-milling, removes some of the bran and germ. The
+       product is a granulated corn meal which keeps better than
+       the other, and has practically the same composition, though
+       to some people a less desirable flavor.</p>
+
+    <p>If corn meal is further ground and bolted, we have corn
+    flour. Some of this has been put on the market lately and is
+    proving a good substitute for wheat flour; but the amount
+    available is only a small fraction of the amount of corn meal.
+    Other important corn products are hominy of different kinds,
+    hulled corn, and popcorn. The latter, usually eaten as an
+    "extra," is really a valuable part of the diet.</p>
+
+    <p>Corn is the same satisfactory food whether it is eaten as
+    mush in New England, <i>polenta</i> in Italy, or <i>tamales</i>
+    in Mexico. Many of the people of Mexico and Central America
+    live on corn and beans to a surprising extent. In portions of
+    Italy the rural population have adopted the grain as their main
+    food. Our corn-meal mush is their <i>polenta</i>, which is
+    served sometimes with cheese, sometimes with tomato sauce or
+    meat gravy.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Oats</i>. An Englishman once taunted a Scotchman with the
+    fact that while England used oats only for her horses, Scotland
+    fed it to her men. "Ah!" said Sandy; "but where will you find
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page19"
+       id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> such horses as you raise in
+       England and such men as in Scotland!"</p>
+
+    <p>The United States, more like England than Scotland, has used
+    oats mostly for feed. The crop is second only to the corn-crop.
+    Oats are eaten in the form of oatmeal, which is a finely
+    granulated meal, and as the common rolled oats which have been
+    steamed and put through rollers. There is little oat flour on
+    the market at present. A successful and palatable home-made
+    flour may be prepared by putting rolled oats through a
+    food-chopper. Any of the forms of oats can be used in breads of
+    all kinds, but the more finely ground flour can be substituted
+    in larger proportion. The demand for oat products has grown so
+    rapidly the last year that mills are running to their limit.
+    Special machinery is required for its manufacture, so that a
+    great increase in the supply is not feasible in a short
+    time.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Barley and Rye</i>. In using barley and rye for bread we
+    are only going back to the methods of our forefathers. Barley
+    is supposed to be one of the first cereals used by man. Good
+    barley flour is a very acceptable substitute for wheat, but if
+    too large a proportion of the kernel is included, it may be
+    bitter in flavor.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Rye</i>, of all the cereals, makes bread nearest like
+    wheat, though the rye bread formerly made usually contained
+    from 20 per cent to 80 per cent wheat flour. The supply is far
+    below what we could well use. For this reason it is not
+    included among the cereals which the housekeeper is allowed to
+    buy on the 50-50 plan, and since March 31, 1918, bakers have
+    not been allowed to use it as a substitute in baking on the
+    same basis as the other substitutes.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Rice</i>. Rice forms the chief food of hundreds of
+    millions of people, and in many oriental countries is the
+    staple cereal, like <span class="pagenum"><a name="page20"
+       id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> wheat with us. As a wheat
+       substitute we may use it cooked whole or ground into a
+       flour. The rice flour may be mixed with other cereals in
+       making bread and cakes. The rice polish, which is a
+       by-product secured by rubbing off with brushes the outside
+       coating of the brown rice, is much cheaper. It has been sold
+       chiefly for stock-feed, but it has possibilities as a flour
+       substitute.</p>
+
+    <p>The rice-growers of the South are doing their best to supply
+    the country with rice in quantity and to make known the
+    possibilities of this cereal. The rice flour supply, though not
+    large now, will doubtless be much increased by next year. One
+    Louisiana mill, for example, is increasing its output from 150
+    to 1,200 barrels a day.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Other Cereal Substitutes</i>. Besides the substitutes
+    which are common all over the country, there are products
+    produced in too small amounts to make them universal
+    substitutes, such as buckwheat, cottonseed meal, and peanut
+    flour, any of which can be used with other flours for baking.
+    The Southwest produces both flour and meal from milo, kaffir,
+    and feterita.</p>
+
+    <p>Flours are made from the Irish and sweet potato, from
+    tapioca, from soy beans, and bananas, but they are manufactured
+    in such small amounts that they do not take the place of wheat
+    to any great extent. Potato flour comes nearest to doing this.
+    It has always been used to some extent in Europe and it is
+    being widely used in Germany now. Potato itself can be used
+    instead of wheat. An extra potato at a meal will take the place
+    of a large slice of bread.</p>
+
+    <p>Many of the substitute cereals do not keep so well as wheat,
+    especially if they contain more than a minimum of moisture and
+    fat. The housekeeper and the baker should therefore buy them in
+    small enough quantities to use them up promptly and should keep
+    them in a cool, well-ventilated place. May and
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"
+       id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> June and the summer months
+       are the time when most care is needed.</p>
+
+    <p>It is the free use of these many wholesome substitutes that
+    is making possible the necessary saving of wheat. We who
+    appreciate their wholesomeness and their value can well break
+    away from our wheat habit and gladly make the little effort
+    sometimes necessary to begin using newer
+    foods.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"
+       id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+    <h2>WAR BREAD</h2>
+
+    <p>Bread is the staff of life for all nations. But "bread" does
+    not necessarily mean the wheat loaf. At one time and place it
+    has been barley cake, at another oaten cake, and at another
+    corn pone. Bread has always been whatever cereal happened to be
+    convenient. Even such unbreadlike food as rice is to some races
+    what bread is to us.</p>
+
+    <p>Why, then, have we developed our wheat-bread habit? Partly
+    because wheat bread has been easy to get and we have grown to
+    like the taste, but chiefly because wheat flour gives the
+    lightest loaf. To understand why, make a dough with a little
+    white flour and water and then gently knead it in cold water.
+    The consistency changes, the starch is washed out and a
+    rubbery, sticky ball is left&mdash;the <i>gluten</i>, which is
+    the protein of the wheat. It is this gluten in the flour that
+    stretches when bread rises and then stiffens when it is baked,
+    making a light, porous loaf. Wheat is the only one of the
+    cereals that has much gluten; rye has a little and the others
+    practically none.</p>
+
+    <p>Gluten seems to be essential to the making of a light,
+    yeast-raised loaf. Products raised with baking-powder, for
+    which our standard of lightness is different&mdash;"quick
+    breads" like biscuits and muffins and cakes&mdash;do not
+    require the gluten and can easily be made from substitute
+    cereals. But for our ordinary loaf of bread, at least some
+    wheat seems to be almost essential, though with skill in the
+    making, rye can be made to serve in its place. Patriotic bakers
+    and housewives all over the country
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"
+       id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> have been trying to produce a
+       wheatless loaf which is light, palatable, and sufficiently
+       durable to stand transportation. The durability is a very
+       important consideration; crumbly corn bread cannot be
+       distributed by bakers nor served to armies. Corn bread and
+       the other quick breads are chiefly home-made products.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Our present problem, therefore, is to make the most
+    effective possible use of our wheat gluten, to make it go as
+    far as possible in our breads. Both bakers and private
+    individuals have their share in solving the problem.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>THE BAKERS' REGULATIONS. VICTORY BREAD</h3>
+
+    <p>The bakers have co-operated loyally. Probably no other food
+    industry has been more vitally affected by the war. <b>All
+    bakers using three or more barrels of flour a month have been
+    licensed and so are under the control of the Food
+    Administration.</b> This means practically all the commercial
+    bakers of the country, and many hotels, clubs, and
+    institutions. About two-fifths of the bread in the United
+    States is made in bakeries and three-fifths in the home. The
+    bakeries have used 35,000,000 barrels of flour each year, so
+    the importance of this field for conservation is plain.</p>
+
+    <p>The amount of wheat flour they are now permitted to have has
+    been reduced: at present 80 per cent of their last year's
+    quantity, or, if they are pastry and cracker bakers, 70 per
+    cent. They must make no bread wholly of wheat flour. Some
+    substitute must be mixed with the wheat. When the regulation
+    went into effect in February, 1918, 20 per cent was required
+    and later, 25 per cent. In pies and cakes there must be at
+    least one-third substitute. The amounts of sugar and fat used
+    are limited. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"
+       id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> Even the sizes of the loaves
+       are fixed, so that the extravagance of making and handling
+       all sorts of fancy shapes and sizes may be avoided. Bread
+       must not be sold to the retailer at unreasonable prices.</p>
+
+    <p>Victory bread is bread made in accordance with these
+    regulations. The name "Victory" was chosen as representing the
+    idea underlying the conservation of wheat. The name is really a
+    present to the Food Administration, having been used by two
+    large firms who gave up all rights to their trade-mark.</p>
+
+    <p>Hotels and restaurants are required to make or serve bread
+    containing at least as much of the wheat substitutes as Victory
+    bread. They may not serve more than two ounces of bread and
+    other wheat products to a guest at a meal. Many of them have
+    recently promised to use no wheat at all till the next harvest.
+    That means, of course, that only through intelligent effort can
+    they serve yeast bread.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE INDIVIDUAL'S ANSWER TO THE BREAD CRY</h3>
+
+    <p><b>Until the wheat-supply increases and the Food
+    Administration lessens restrictions, use no wheat at all if you
+    can possibly do without.</b> Remember that you can make
+    delicious muffins and other quick breads from the substitute
+    flours. And you need no bread at all at some meals. An extra
+    potato or a serving of rice can be eaten instead of the usual
+    two slices of bread and the body will be supplied with the same
+    amount of energy. Do not be the slave of old food habits.
+    <b>When all Europe is eating to keep alive, fastidiousness and
+    food "notions" must play no part in the dietary.</b></p>
+
+    <p>Some people find it is almost impossible to do without the
+    baker's loaf. Hundreds in crowded city quarters have no
+    facilities <span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"
+       id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> of their own for baking.
+       Women doing their share in factories and workshops cannot
+       get up earlier to make corn bread for breakfast. Victory
+       bread must be saved for them. For households which must use
+       wheat, the Food Administration has fixed a voluntary ration
+       of 1½ pounds of wheat per week for each person. This
+       includes wheat in the form of bread, pastry, macaroni,
+       crackers, noodles, and breakfast foods.</p>
+
+    <p>All who can should do more than their share&mdash;they must
+    do their utmost to make up for those whose circumstances
+    prevent them from doing it. <b>The interests and desires of
+    each of us in this war can be translated into service in no
+    more effective way than by conforming our food habits to the
+    needs of the hour.</b></p>
+
+    <h3>FLOUR AND BREAD IN THE ALLIED COUNTRIES</h3>
+
+    <p>All the Allied countries have been stretching their meagre
+    wheat-supply to the limit and are enforcing the most stringent
+    regulations.</p>
+
+    <p>The flour is required to be of high
+    extraction&mdash;ordinarily from 81 per cent to 90 per cent,
+    decidedly higher than our 74 per cent. Even with this coarse,
+    gray flour a large percentage of substitute must be mixed,
+    usually 25 per cent. In England there are local regulations on
+    the use of mashed potato in bread. Their bread must be twelve
+    hours old before it is sold, so that people will not be tempted
+    to eat too much. The result is seldom palatable. In France no
+    flour at all may be used to make the delectable pastries and
+    cakes which have long been the delight of the French people and
+    their guests. In Italy, macaroni, which in many regions is as
+    much the "staff of life" as bread, must contain 43 per cent
+    substitute, and in some places may not be manufactured at
+    all.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"
+       id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span>
+
+    <p>Both England and France have subsidized bread; the
+    Government has set a price below cost and itself makes up the
+    difference to the baker. England has appropriated $200,000,000
+    for the purpose.</p>
+
+    <p>Bread rations are in force in both France and Italy. France
+    has recently put her whole people on a rigorous ration which
+    limits them to two-thirds of the amount of bread that they have
+    been accustomed to. Remember that bread is a far more important
+    part of the French diet than of ours. Even children under three
+    have bread cards allowing them 3½ ounces a day. Rations are not
+    a guarantee that the amount mentioned will be forthcoming; they
+    only permit one to have it if it can be obtained. One
+    interesting result of the stringency, according to an American
+    officer writing from Paris, is that guests even at formal
+    dinners, may be asked to bring their own bread, finding this
+    postscript on their invitations: "Apportez un peu de pain si
+    vous le voulez."<a id="footnotetag1"
+       name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a>
+       In Italy the very limited bread rations are fixed
+       locally.</p>
+
+    <p>England has compulsory rations for meat and butter or
+    margarine and sugar, but not for bread. Her bread system is
+    voluntary like ours, but much more detailed. The voluntary
+    ration allows one-half pound of bread a day for sedentary and
+    unoccupied women and larger allowances up to a little over a
+    pound for men doing heavy labor. Waste of any kind is very
+    heavily punished&mdash;one woman was fined $500 for throwing
+    away stale bread.</p>
+
+    <p>"Why not send corn abroad?" One hears the question over and
+    over again. The answers are many. In the first place, we
+    <i>are</i> sending corn over&mdash;our exports of corn during
+    March, 1918, increased 180 per cent and of corn meal 383 per
+    cent over the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"
+       id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> pre-war average. This they
+       are using as we are using it in our Victory bread. But they
+       must have enough wheat to make a durable loaf of bread at
+       the bakeshops, where for generations all the baking has been
+       done. The French housewife has no facilities for
+       bread-making and the French woman does not know how and has
+       not the time to learn. She is doing a man's work and her own
+       woman's labor besides, and the extra unaccustomed labor of
+       bread-making cannot be added to her burdens.</p>
+
+    <h3>WHY WE IN THE UNITED STATES DO NOT HAVE BREAD CARDS</h3>
+
+    <p>Some people, disturbed either selfishly or patriotically by
+    the failure of a neighbor to conserve wheat, have asked why the
+    Food Administration trusts to voluntary methods, why it does
+    not ration the country.</p>
+
+    <p>Rationing may come yet, but any such system bristles with
+    difficulties. The cost to the Government has been variously
+    estimated all the way from $10,000,000 to $45,000,000 a year.
+    Fifty per cent of the population could not be restrained in
+    their consumption by rationing, for they are either producers
+    or live in intimate contact with the producer. A wheat ration
+    which would be fair for the North might actually increase the
+    consumption in the South. Finally, the burden of a bread card
+    would fall largely not on the well-to-do, who eat less wheat
+    already and can easily cut down further, but on those with
+    little to spend, who might have to change their whole food
+    habits.</p>
+
+    <p>The success that is meeting our method of voluntary
+    reduction of consumption "will be one of the remembered glories
+    of the American people in this titanic
+    struggle."</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"
+       id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+    <h2>THE MEAT SITUATION</h2>
+
+    <p>Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to
+    talk of it long before the war, and we shall find it with us
+    after peace is declared. Great production of beef can take
+    place only in sparse settlements. As the tide of increasing
+    population flows over a country, the great cattle-ranges are
+    crowded out, giving place to cultivated fields. More people
+    means less room for cattle&mdash;a relative or even absolute
+    decrease in the herds.</p>
+
+    <h3>WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED</h3>
+
+    <p>In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of
+    European countries have raised most of their meat themselves,
+    though usually they have had to import fodder to keep up their
+    herds. They have been less dependent on import for meat than
+    for wheat. Great Britain is the only country which has imported
+    much meat&mdash;almost one-half her supply. Her imports, and to
+    a lesser extent those of other European countries, have come
+    chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six
+    countries outside&mdash;the United States, Canada, Argentina,
+    Uruguay, Australia, and New Zealand.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY</h3>
+
+    <p>Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With
+    meat as with wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships.
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page29"
+       id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> Australia and New Zealand,
+       and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder
+       such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large
+       amounts as it takes three times as much shipping to
+       transport feed as it does the meat made by the animals from
+       it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great Britain has
+       practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and
+       because much of what she has goes to Germany.</p>
+
+    <p>The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the
+    warring countries has fewer meat animals now than before the
+    war. There were roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at
+    the end of 1917 than in 1914. Many of those left are in very
+    poor condition, so that the shortage is even more serious than
+    is indicated by the falling off in numbers.</p>
+
+    <p>Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition.
+    Practically all the animals in those countries have been killed
+    or confiscated by the invading German and Austrian armies. This
+    is one cause of their terrible famine conditions.</p>
+
+    <p>The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost
+    seriously. France is the greatest loser of the three, with more
+    than one-fifth of her herds gone. The enemy has driven off
+    large numbers of her cattle. She, like the others, is in
+    difficulty not only for meat, but for milk. Her situation is
+    complicated by the fact that she has no great cold-storage
+    plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at frequent
+    intervals.</p>
+
+    <p>Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the
+    Allies in that she had many more animals in proportion to her
+    population than they. But she was more dependent upon imports
+    of feed, and as her commerce has been cut off, she has had to
+    kill her animals faster. Counting up all her animals in terms
+    of cattle according to the amount of meat they would yield,
+    shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria, there are no
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page30"
+       id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> available figures, but her
+       decrease has probably been larger than Germany's.</p>
+
+    <p>Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely
+    connected with the shortage of available grain. When cereals
+    are short, they must be fed to human beings rather than to
+    animals. Feeding grain to animals and then eating the animals
+    is not nearly so economical as eating grain directly. For
+    example, when grain is fed to a cow, only 3½ per cent of the
+    energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat, and 96 per cent
+    is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When a man
+    eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its
+    energy. Thus 81½ per cent more of the grain is actually used
+    for human food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds,
+    and uses grain for bread instead of turning it into meat.</p>
+
+    <p>Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for
+    meat for the great armies. The soldier's ration always contains
+    more meat than is eaten by the civilian population.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE</h3>
+
+    <p>The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption
+    in order to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible.
+    Compulsory meat rations are enforced in all the warring
+    countries. They vary, of course, from time to time as the
+    amount of available meat changes, but the following statements
+    give a picture of how limited the allowances are in periods of
+    shortage.</p>
+
+    <p>England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the
+    war. Her voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2
+    pounds per week. In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very
+    low, and by the end of February London was put on meat rations,
+    and in April the rest of the country. The rationing
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"
+       id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> system has made distribution
+       easier and more fair and greatly lessened the distressing
+       "queues" of people waiting before butchers' shops for their
+       allowance. The regulations allow each person 4 coupons a
+       week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At first, 3 of
+       these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or
+       mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of
+       bacon, ham, poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 1Ό
+       pounds of meat a week.</p>
+
+    <p>Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the
+    United States was able to send in the late spring, heavy
+    workers were permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they
+    might buy a pound of bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were
+    allowed 1 extra coupon for bacon, poultry, or game. But at the
+    same time only 2 instead of 3 coupons were to be used for fresh
+    meat, so as to cut down further the slaughtering of cattle.
+    Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or profiteering.</p>
+
+    <p>In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of
+    the size of those served in an American hotel. An American
+    staying in London said recently that he could eat two meals in
+    succession in a London restaurant, and leave the table still
+    minus that self-satisfied feeling that a meal in America
+    gives.</p>
+
+    <p>At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and
+    in the spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices
+    also keep down consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2
+    meatless days, and cattle could not be slaughtered on the 2
+    preceding days. Though this order was abolished in October,
+    1917, meat had gone up so high in price that consumption went
+    away down. The Paris letter of the London <i>Daily News</i> and
+    <i>Leader</i> on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was
+    selling for 4 shillings 2 pence&mdash;$1 per pound. Since May
+    15, 3 days a week must be meatless&mdash;Wednesday, Thursday,
+    and Friday. On <span class="pagenum"><a name="page32"
+       id="page32"></a>[pg 32]</span> these days all butchers'
+       shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry or
+       game. Fish is scarce and very expensive.</p>
+
+    <p>Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3.
+    The ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are
+    decided locally and strictly regulated.</p>
+
+    <p>The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The
+    quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but
+    the average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per
+    person. It was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in
+    the middle of May&mdash;barely two small servings each
+    week.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES</h3>
+
+    <p>As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the
+    United States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic
+    the shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the
+    loss from inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in
+    Europe. The United States is now exporting far larger
+    quantities than it has ever exported before. In March, 1918, we
+    sent over 87,000,000 pounds of beef. Ordinarily we export
+    between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a month. Of pork we sent
+    308,000,000 pounds&mdash;six times more than usual. It is
+    roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000
+    pounds of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to
+    the Allies and our army.</p>
+
+    <p>To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a
+    careful organization has been necessary. At first the Allied
+    nations bought meat in this country as best they could in
+    competition with the domestic market and each other, often
+    feverishly to meet emergencies. <b>Last December a commission
+    was formed to buy for all the Allies.</b> The prices to be paid
+    are settled by experts, after careful study, so that packers,
+    storage warehouses, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page33"
+       id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> and producers shall all have
+       adequate, but not excessive return for their labor. The
+       buying is planned ahead so that we can ship at times when we
+       have plenty.</p>
+
+    <p>The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an
+    increased slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may
+    have serious consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for
+    conservation is constant, though at times the situation becomes
+    easier in one kind of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we
+    were short on hogs. In the spring of 1918, thanks to the
+    "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous conservation, as well as
+    high prices, we temporarily had hogs in plenty. Beef is short
+    for the summer season. Policies must change frequently with
+    fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe. However,
+    the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited only
+    by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still
+    larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which
+    we can possibly accumulate.</p>
+
+    <h3>MEAT CONSERVATION</h3>
+
+    <p>Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's
+    dietary as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison,
+    in the quantity consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat
+    and sugar or potatoes. Half of the people of the earth eat
+    little or none of it. Only in two kinds of communities is meat
+    used largely&mdash;new and thinly populated countries with much
+    grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries.</p>
+
+    <p>Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming
+    more meat per person than any other country in the
+    world&mdash;5 pounds a week in Australia and 4 pounds in New
+    Zealand. The United States, parts of which may be considered in
+    both <span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"
+       id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> classes, eats about 3Ό pounds
+       per person weekly. This is much less than some years ago,
+       when there was more grazing-land.</p>
+
+    <p>Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used
+    about 2Ό pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption
+    was slightly lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer
+    animals or less wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average
+    amount being about 1½ pounds a week&mdash;about half as much as
+    our consumption.</p>
+
+    <h3>MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS</h3>
+
+    <p>Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and
+    partly because it is a source of protein which is necessary to
+    build or renew the various parts of the body. Every cell in the
+    body contains it and needs a steady supply.</p>
+
+    <p>Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of
+    others&mdash;fish, cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas,
+    nuts, cereals. Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein
+    of anything that we eat. We can get protein just as
+    satisfactorily from cheese and the other animal protein foods
+    as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily from the vegetable
+    protein foods. <b>The old idea that meat is especially
+    "strengthening" has no foundation.</b> Neither is one kind of
+    meat less thoroughly digested than another.</p>
+
+    <p>There is little danger in this country that our diet will
+    fall too low in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than
+    we need. Even those who must spend a dangerously limited amount
+    on their diet, are not apt to be low in protein, for they often
+    err on the side of spending an unwise proportion of their money
+    on meat. Most scientists now consider three ounces of carefully
+    chosen protein per day a safe allowance for an average man. An
+    average woman needs
+    less.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"
+       id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span>
+
+    <p>It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count
+    up roughly whether he is eating more or less than this
+    quantity. A small serving of lean meat or fish, about two
+    inches square and three-quarters of an inch thick, contains
+    about one-half ounce of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a
+    quarter of a cup of cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube
+    of American cheese, each have about this same amount. So does a
+    cup and a half of baked beans or two and a half cups of cooked
+    cereal or six half-inch slices of bread (3 x 3½ inches). A
+    person eating six of these portions daily will of course have
+    his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in his eating and
+    patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his
+    consumption not far from this quantity.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES</h3>
+
+    <p><i>Fish</i>. The possible supply of fish is practically
+    unlimited, and much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat
+    on the average only 18 pounds apiece per year, though our meat
+    consumption is 170 pounds. The British and Canadians use much
+    more fish than we do&mdash;56 and 29 pounds respectively. The
+    United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State colleges are
+    constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down. We
+    should learn to value the many kinds which are available,
+    fresh, dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be
+    used to.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Eggs</i> form a very valuable food not only for protein,
+    but for mineral salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate
+    that the price is often high, but it should be realized that
+    expenditure for eggs makes expenditure for meat
+    unnecessary.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Poultry</i> is not now listed as a meat substitute by the
+    Food Administration because the supply has become very
+    limited.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Cheese</i> is one of the best substitutes for meat. It
+    represents <span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"
+       id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span> most of the food value of a
+       much greater bulk of milk, and its protein, fat, and mineral
+       salts make it an important food. We in America are very slow
+       to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for
+       its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat
+       more of it, to the advantage both of the palatability and
+       nutritive quality of our diet.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Milk</i>, one of the most easily digested and simplest
+    sources of protein in our diet and the most valuable of our
+    foods, is discussed in Chapter VII.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Nuts</i> are usually thought of as a luxury, but the
+    amount of protein and fat they contain makes them really an
+    important food. Peanuts are usually classed with the nuts and
+    are considered the most valuable nut-crop of the United States.
+    They are growing so fast in importance that the acreage was
+    increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for oil and for
+    fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag of
+    peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part
+    of the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional
+    indigestion following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is
+    probably often due to forgetting that they are very substantial
+    foods and eating them at the end of an already sufficient
+    meal.</p>
+
+    <p><i>Peas and Beans</i> are taken up with the other vegetables
+    in Chapter VIII.</p>
+
+    <p>Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because
+    they haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All
+    the fish and beans and peas that they can get are being used.
+    But it is not enough. <b>Their small meat ration must be
+    maintained, and their armies as well as ours must have meat.
+    Keep it going
+    over!</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"
+       id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+    <h2>FATS</h2>
+
+    <p>To a person who has been in Europe since the war began the
+    question of the importance of fats is no longer debatable.
+    Having practically gone without them, he knows they are
+    important. In Germany it is the lack of fat that is the cause,
+    perhaps, of the most discomfort and makes the German most
+    dissatisfied with his rations. Even when the diet was
+    sufficient, it was not satisfactory if low in fat.</p>
+
+    <p>This dependence on fat in the diet is due to several
+    reasons, both physiological and psychological. Some people, the
+    Japanese for example, habitually eat but little. But it is the
+    habit of both Europeans and Americans to use considerable fat
+    both on the table and in cooking. The taste of food is not so
+    pleasing without it. Their recipes almost all use fat in one
+    form or another, so that when little or none is available, a
+    change must be made in most of the methods of cooking.
+    Practically all food must be boiled, and is lacking in the
+    flavor and texture to which we are accustomed. The food, no
+    matter how nutritious it may be, will not taste good.</p>
+
+    <p>Fats are very concentrated food, a fact which gives them
+    added value in war-time, making them the most economical food
+    to ship. <b>A pound of any fat gives 2Ό times as much energy as
+    a pound of sugar</b>&mdash;the reason for the slogan "Fats Are
+    Fuel for <span class="pagenum"><a name="page38"
+       id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> Fighters." Soldiers engaged
+       in the most strenuous physical activities need fuel for all
+       the energy they expend. Bacon, butter, all the forms of fat
+       give them the most energy in the smallest weight of
+       food.</p>
+
+    <p>Fats stave off the feeling of hunger longer than other foods
+    because they pass more slowly from the stomach and delay the
+    passage of foods eaten with them. A slice of bread and butter
+    will "satisfy" one for a much longer time than a slice of bread
+    and jelly, even though there is enough jelly to give exactly
+    the same amount of fuel. In the countries in which there is a
+    fat shortage, the appetite does not stay satisfied during the
+    usual period between meals, even when the previous meal
+    contained the customary amount of calories. The feeling of
+    hunger is sometimes almost constant.</p>
+
+    <p>Certain fats are valuable for an entirely different reason.
+    Milk fat, either in the milk or as butter, beef fat which is a
+    constituent of oleomargarine, the fat in the yolk of egg, all
+    contain one of the vitamines needed by children in order to
+    grow properly, and by grown people to keep in good health. Lard
+    and the vegetable fats and oils, like nut or vegetable
+    margarine and cottonseed-oil, do not contain this substance,
+    but if there is sufficient milk in the diet, there will be
+    plenty of this "fat-soluble vitamine." In all other respects
+    the fats are alike from a nutritional standpoint. One fat can
+    replace another without harm.</p>
+
+    <p>Until the war came there was little need of knowing or
+    bothering as to what kind of fats we ate, or of concerning
+    ourselves with the fact that many more varieties were available
+    than most of us used. Now it does make a decided difference.
+    <b>Our armies and those of the Allies need fat, a great deal of
+    it, and we must ship them the kind most suited to their
+    purposes. We can use what the Allies and the Army do not
+    need.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"
+       id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span>
+
+    <h3>THE SITUATION ABROAD</h3>
+
+    <p>There is a shortage of the animal fats, lard, butter, and
+    oleomargarine for the same reasons, of course, that cause the
+    meat shortage. England, particularly recently, has had very
+    little, less even than the French and Italians, who are not
+    accustomed to using much.</p>
+
+    <p>England was the largest butter importer in the world,
+    getting her supply mostly from northwestern Europe, Denmark,
+    Russia, Sweden, and Holland. Russia can no longer supply her.
+    Neither can the neutrals, who have been supplying Germany under
+    pressure; they need Germany's coal. Although the United States
+    has increased her butter exports to the United Kingdom, if our
+    entire exports went to them, it would supply only 6 per cent of
+    the amount needed.</p>
+
+    <p>To help the situation, England has greatly increased her
+    manufacture of oleomargarine. Oleo oil and vegetable oils are
+    being imported in large quantities and now England uses twice
+    as much margarine as butter. But even with the margarine to
+    help out, there is but little to go around. The weekly ration
+    of butter and margarine is one-fourth of a pound per person,
+    and at times even that amount has not been available. In April
+    an American newspaper man in London reported that he had
+    forgotten what butter tasted like. It could only be obtained on
+    the farms, and even those who made it were strictly limited in
+    the amount that they could keep themselves. Not even margarine
+    could be served at luncheon or dinner. There were long queues
+    in front of the shops before the distribution was better
+    systematized. At present the total amount of fat in the diet is
+    increased somewhat by the allowance of bacon and
+    ham.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"
+       id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span>
+
+    <p>In Germany the fat shortage, has been so severe that,
+    combined with the bread shortage, it has been the greatest
+    cause of food riots. Before the war the Germans imported about
+    half their supply, most of which is now cut off. Of course, the
+    vegetable oils from the United States and the tropics are not
+    available. The neutrals have had to lessen their exports
+    because of their own shortage, and the embargo which the United
+    States laid on its exports of fats to neutrals. Germany's
+    inability to feed her animals has greatly curtailed her supply
+    of animal fats.</p>
+
+    <p>As a result the rations have been decreasing steadily in
+    spite of every effort. Bones are collected and the fat
+    extracted. Seeds, such as those of the sunflower, and the
+    kernels of fruit have the oil pressed from them. During 1915-16
+    the rations varied from 3Ό ounces to 10 ounces of table fat a
+    week. By December, 1917, it had been decreased, so that the
+    average total fat ration was a little under 3 ounces a week,
+    some communities receiving a little more, and others none at
+    all. The local newspapers give interesting side-lights showing
+    the results of this shortage. An owner of a boot-shop was
+    prosecuted by the police for having 70 pairs of good shoes
+    which he would sell only in exchange for butter or bacon.
+    (<i>Brunswick Volksfreund</i>, January 16, 1918.)</p>
+
+    <h3>THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES</h3>
+
+    <p>The United States has great resources of vegetable oils,
+    cottonseed, peanut, corn, and olive oil. It is this apparent
+    plenty that makes it so difficult for many to visualize the
+    shortage abroad. We are shipping about one-third of the lard
+    which we produce, and large quantities of oleo oil for
+    oleomargarine. Although the exports of butter in 1917 have
+    almost been doubled since the
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"
+       id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> preceding fiscal year, it is
+       relatively unimportant, representing only about 1 per cent
+       of the production. We are shipping cottonseed oil also, but
+       this requires tank-steamers, which are scarce. In general,
+       as the oils are much more difficult to handle and impossible
+       for the armies to use, we must ship the solid animal
+       fats.</p>
+
+    <p><i>The Individual's Part in Fat Conservation</i>. Although
+    at present there is butter and lard on the market, the need for
+    conserving it is important, just as in the case of meat.
+    <b>Waste of any kind should be abhorrent to all of us at this
+    time.</b> There probably has been a greater waste of fat than
+    of any other commodity, but it is encouraging to note that this
+    waste has been decreased by conservation. The amount of fat in
+    city garbage has gone down all over the country. In Columbus,
+    Ohio, the fat in the garbage was almost 50 per cent less in
+    1917 than in 1916. In fourteen large cities with a total
+    population of over 5,000,000 nearly 40 per cent less fat was
+    recovered in March, 1918, than in March, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p>Not only can fat be saved by carefully avoiding every bit of
+    waste, but less can actually be used. <b>Fry food less, and
+    bake, broil, or boil them more. Use vegetable oils.</b> In a
+    long view of the food situation, it is the animal fats that
+    cause gravest concern, because of the years necessary to build
+    up a herd. <b>We must send as much fat abroad as possible, and
+    create reserves for periods of shortage with a minimum
+    depletion of our
+    herds.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"
+       id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+    <h2>SUGAR</h2>
+
+    <p><b>Of all the foods which it is necessary to conserve, sugar
+    is the easiest to do without.</b> If the war and what it means
+    has become part of a person's consciousness, he wishes only the
+    bare essentials. Sugar is a luxury of former times which has
+    become a commonplace to-day. The average use in the United
+    States was 83 pounds per person last year&mdash;1-2/3 pounds a
+    week&mdash;less than one hundred years ago the yearly
+    consumption was 9 pounds. Sugar was a rare luxury. It will do
+    no harm to regard it so again.</p>
+
+    <h3>WHY IS THERE A SUGAR SHORTAGE?</h3>
+
+    <p>Sugar is scarce for two reasons&mdash;much less beet-sugar
+    is actually being grown, and some of the cane-sugar is too far
+    away to be available. The sugar-beet, grown in temperate
+    climates, and the sugar-cane, native in tropical and
+    semitropical regions, are the only two sources of sugar large
+    enough to be of more than local importance.</p>
+
+    <p>Before the war, 93 per cent of the entire world crop of
+    beet-sugar was grown in Europe. The industry was started by
+    Napoleon in the early nineteenth century when he was at war
+    with most of Europe, and France was shut off from her supply of
+    cane-sugar from the West Indies. The industry spread over the
+    great plain of Central Europe, from the north of France over
+    Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary to Central Russia. In 1914
+    all of these countries were producing enough sugar for their
+    own needs. England produced none at all, but the continent,
+    especially Germany and Austria, supplied her with about 54 per
+    cent of what she
+    needed.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"
+       id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span>
+
+    <div class="figcenter"
+         style="width:100%;">
+        MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR
+        FACTORIES&mdash;ALSO BATTLE LINES AT CLOSE OF 1916<br />
+         ESTIMATED THAT ONE-THIRD OF WORLD'S PROOUCTION BEFORE THE
+        WAR WAS PRODUCED WITHIN BATTLE
+        LINES<a href="images/53.png"><img width="100%"
+             src="images/53.png"
+             alt="MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR FACTORIES" />
+        </a>
+    </div><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"
+       id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span>
+
+    <p>The beet-sugar industry in the United States started in 1863
+    and has grown rapidly since 1897. In 1917 it supplied 22 per
+    cent of the consumption.</p>
+
+    <p>Sugar-cane is grown in tropical and semitropical countries
+    all over the globe. Cuba leads in the amount produced, and
+    consumes only a small fraction of her production herself. Java,
+    too, is a large exporter. India raises millions of tons but has
+    to import some to fill all her needs. In the United States,
+    Louisiana, Texas, and some parts of Florida produce about 6 per
+    cent of what we use, but our dependencies, Porto Rico, the
+    Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines all export to us, and
+    together with Cuba, make up the deficiency.</p>
+
+    <p>The war has changed entirely the peace-time distribution.
+    The map shows what the battle-lines have done to the beetfields
+    of Europe. Belgium and the northern part of France, in which
+    practically all the beets were grown, are in German hands. In
+    1914 the battle-line eliminated 203 of the 213 French
+    sugar-factories. In 1916-17 the falling back of the Germans had
+    returned 65 factories to the French, but now again some of
+    these have fallen into the enemy's hands. The French crop in
+    1915-16 was only one-fifth of the crop before the war and the
+    following year it was only a fourth. Italy's crop was 25 per
+    cent less in 1916-17 than before the war and the estimated
+    yield for this year is 50 per cent less. England, of course,
+    can no longer get sugar from the continent.</p>
+
+    <p>So the allied world must import cane-sugar or have almost no
+    sugar at all. The cane-sugar supply is largely dependent on
+    shipping. Ships cannot be spared to go to the East. Therefore
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"
+       id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span> the sugar of Cuba and the
+       rest of the West Indies, our main source of supply, must be
+       shared with the Allies. It is to the credit of all involved
+       that every effort is being made to see that the division is
+       a fair one. A commission representing the Allies, the United
+       States, and Cuba apportioned the 1917-18 Cuban crop and
+       fixed its price. Competitive bidding by the many purchasers,
+       with the danger of forcing up the price of the limited
+       supply, was in this way prevented.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE EFFECT OF THE SHORTAGE</h3>
+
+    <p>The rations of Europe are the most convincing evidence of
+    the extent of the sugar shortage. In England ½ pound a week is
+    allowed for each person, half the average amount used in their
+    households before the war. France had sugar cards long before
+    she had any other ration. Seven ounces a week were allowed, and
+    later in the year only one-quarter of a pound. Germany and
+    Austria-Hungary in 1918 had an average household ration of 6
+    ounces a week.</p>
+
+    <p>The United States in accordance with its usual method is
+    asking the individual for voluntary conservation of sugar. Each
+    household is asked to observe a voluntary weekly ration of not
+    more than three-quarters of a pound per person. Extra amounts
+    of sugar for home canning may be secured by making a certified
+    declaration to the dealer that it is to be used only for
+    canning and preserving.</p>
+
+    <p>Food manufacturers using sugar are dealt with more strictly
+    than private individuals. Every business using sugar may
+    purchase it only on certificates obtained from the Federal Food
+    Administrators. At present manufacturers of essential products
+    such as canned vegetables and fruits may get the amount needed
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page46"
+       id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> to fill their necessary
+       requirements. Manufacturers of less essential products get a
+       percentage of what they used before&mdash;at present
+       soft-drink and candy manufacturers get 50 per cent and
+       ice-cream makers 75 per cent.</p>
+
+    <p>The decreased use of sugar has resulted in the release of
+    the ships which had been used to bring Cuban sugar to this
+    country&mdash;50,000 tons freed to carry men and munitions and
+    food to the Western front in the spring of 1918.</p>
+
+    <h3>IN PLACE OF SUGAR</h3>
+
+    <p>The United States is much more fortunate than Europe in
+    having sweets other than sugar at its disposal. As our
+    corn-crop is immense, the supply of corn-syrup is limited only
+    by the ability of the manufacturers to turn it out. It is a
+    wholesome, palatable syrup and can often take the place of
+    sugar both in cooking and on the table. Although it is not as
+    sweet as ordinary sugar, it serves the body for fuel in the
+    same way. We have cane-syrup, and also molasses and refiner's
+    syrup, by-products of sugar-making, and in some parts of the
+    country, local products such as honey, maple sugar and syrup,
+    and sorghum syrup. Sweet fruits, both fresh and dried, contain
+    considerable amounts of sugar, some of the dried fruits being
+    over two-thirds sugar, and when added to cereals, for example,
+    take the place of part or all of the sugar.</p>
+
+    <h3>THE PRICE OF SUGAR</h3>
+
+    <p>In spite of the short supply, the Food Administration has
+    kept down the price of sugar by an agreement with the
+    sugar-refineries that the wholesale price must not be more than
+    the cost of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page47"
+       id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> raw sugar plus a fixed amount
+       to cover costs of refining. Even during December, 1917, when
+       there was a severe shortage in the East, the price remained
+       stable. Refiners say that without regulation by the Food
+       Administration the price would have gone to 25 cents a pound
+       or higher.</p>
+
+    <p>At times the Food Administration has had to use compulsion
+    to keep the price level and has not hesitated to do so where
+    necessary. Licenses have been withdrawn for failure to comply
+    with regulations, and businesses closed for longer or shorter
+    times. One dealer who was charging 14 cents a pound for sugar
+    had his store closed for 2 weeks; another paid $200 to the Red
+    Cross for overcharging; another, for selling sugar and flour
+    without regard to regulations, was closed indefinitely.</p>
+
+    <h3>TO CUT DOWN ON SUGAR</h3>
+
+    <p><b>Use fewer sweets of any kind and use sugar
+    substitutes.</b> Sugar does serve a desirable purpose in making
+    certain of our foods more palatable, but the quantity necessary
+    for this is small, and for much of it other sweets can be used
+    instead. The household consumption uses by far the largest
+    percentage of the sugar-supply. Its economical use also helps
+    to provide a reserve for preserving surplus fruits. <b>Such
+    "extras" as candy and cakes can be entirely dispensed
+    with.</b></p>
+
+    <p>Of course, sugar is a food, as it is burned in the body for
+    fuel. But there are two good physiological reasons for avoiding
+    excessive amounts. If we eat a large quantity in candy after
+    already sufficient meals, we are overeating and may suffer from
+    digestive disturbances in consequence. Eating sweets instead of
+    other food is also bad and a cause of undernourishment. Sugar
+    is pure carbohydrate, and although we may eat enough to
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"
+       id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> satisfy the feeling of hunger
+       the body will lack minerals, protein, and other substances
+       absolutely necessary for its well-being. The person may feel
+       satisfied, but he will be undernourished nevertheless.</p>
+
+    <p>The conservation of sugar will not only permit a fair
+    distribution to our associates in the war, but insure a
+    sufficient amount for our own men. It is especially valuable
+    for them because it burns so rapidly in the body that it gives
+    energy more quickly than other
+    foods.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49"
+       id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+    <h2>MILK&mdash;FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH</h2>
+
+    <p>In war-time there is constant danger of letting down the
+    health standard. Food is high in price, demands on incomes are
+    many and insistent, worst of all, life is being expended so
+    freely abroad that we become careless about it at home. But
+    while we are fighting to make the world a decent place to live
+    in, we must keep up our health and vigor at home.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Milk is vital to national health and efficiency.</b> We
+    can conserve wheat and meat, sugar and fats, and be none the
+    worse for it, but <b>we must use milk</b>. The children of
+    to-day must have it for the sake of a vigorous, hardy manhood
+    to-morrow. A quart for every child, a pint for every adult is
+    not too high an ideal.</p>
+
+    <p>There is no lack of evidence that children suffer if they do
+    not have enough. In New York in this past winter, two things
+    were observed which are undoubtedly closely
+    connected&mdash;increased undernutrition among school children,
+    and decreased use of milk. The Mayor's Milk Committee in the
+    fall of 1917 reported that the city as a whole had cut down its
+    milk consumption 25 per cent, and certain tenement districts 50
+    per cent. The majority of the families who had reduced the milk
+    to little or none were giving their children tea and coffee
+    instead&mdash;substituting drinks actually harmful to children
+    for the most valuable food they could have.</p>
+
+    <p>About the same time as the milk investigation, a count was
+    made of the number of New York children who were seriously
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"
+       id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span>
+       undernourished&mdash;half-starved. Twelve were found in
+       every 100 children, twice as many as the year before.</p>
+
+    <p>The warring nations in Europe fully realize the value of
+    milk. In the face of a serious shortage they are making every
+    effort to get to the children as much milk as can be produced
+    or imported. Until children, mothers, and invalids are
+    supplied, no one else may buy any. For adults, milk is an
+    almost unknown luxury.</p>
+
+    <p>All the countries have definite milk rations for their
+    children. These rations would be adequate if they could be
+    obtained, but many times they fall short. Every effort is made
+    to treat all children, rich and poor, alike. The price of milk
+    is regulated, but parents who cannot afford to buy it are given
+    it free or at cost. Dried and condensed milk are used where
+    they can be obtained and fresh milk cannot. Thousands of tons
+    of condensed milk have been sent over from America. There has
+    been scarcely a child born in the north of France and none in
+    Belgium whose continued life during all that period has not
+    been dependent upon American condensed milk. At one time the
+    Ministry of Food in Great Britain, anticipating a milk shortage
+    in the winter bought large quantities of dried milk for
+    distribution by local health committees and infant welfare
+    societies.</p>
+
+    <p>In Belgium, in spite of the misery of the people, fewer
+    young children are dying than before the war, because of the
+    milk and bread and care that they get at the "soupes" and
+    children's canteens. But in Poland, Roumania, and Serbia,
+    thousands and tens of thousands of babies and young children
+    have died since the war for lack of milk and other food.</p>
+
+    <p>Grown people should use milk and appreciate that it is far
+    more than a beverage. Comparing it with tea and coffee is not
+    sensible. The idea that food is "something to chew" breaks
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"
+       id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> down completely when milk is
+       considered. "Milk is both meat and drink."</p>
+
+    <h3>THE VALUABLE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK</h3>
+
+    <p>What gives milk its unique value? It must contain especially
+    valuable substances, since it is an adequate food for the young
+    for several months after birth and is one of the most important
+    constituents of a grown person's diet.</p>
+
+    <p>It contains protein of a kind more valuable, especially for
+    growing children, than that of most other foods. Milk protein
+    separates out when milk sours and is the familiar
+    cottage-cheese. Because of it, milk, whole or skim, is a
+    valuable meat substitute. When we drink milk, therefore, we
+    need less meat.</p>
+
+    <p>It contains fat. A pint of milk has a little more than half
+    an ounce&mdash;the same amount as an ordinary serving of
+    butter. By drinking milk we can save fat as well as meat.</p>
+
+    <p>Milk-sugar is also present, more or less like ordinary
+    sugar, but not so sweet. The sugar, the fat, and part of the
+    protein burn in the body, giving the energy needed for the
+    body's activities. A pint gives as much fuel as 4 eggs, or half
+    a pound of meat, or 3 or 4 large slices of bread. Although
+    bread is cheaper fuel than milk, its economy compared with meat
+    or eggs is obvious. The pint of milk costs usually about 7
+    cents, while the eggs and meat cost at least two or three times
+    as much. The economy of substituting milk for at least part of
+    the meat in the diet is plain. It is the advice of an expert to
+    "let no family of 5 buy meat till it has bought 3 quarts of
+    milk."</p>
+
+    <p>But this is not the whole story of milk. Milk is
+    extraordinarily rich in calcium, commonly called lime,
+    necessary for the growth of the bones and teeth and also
+    important in the diet of adults,
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"
+       id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> even though they have stopped
+       growing. No other food has nearly as much. A pint has almost
+       enough calcium for one entire day's supply. It takes 2Ό
+       pounds of carrots to give the same amount, or 7 pounds of
+       white bread or the impossible quantity of 21 pounds of beef!
+       A diet without milk (or cheese) is in great danger of being
+       too low in calcium, especially a meat-and-bread diet without
+       vegetables.</p>
+
+    <p>Among the most necessary constituents of milk are the two
+    vitamines. One is present chiefly in the fat and the other in
+    the watery part of the milk. Without milk fat, in whole milk or
+    in butter, we run considerable risk of having too little of the
+    fat-soluble vitamine. The other vitamine is more widely
+    distributed in our foods, so that with our varied diet there is
+    little danger of not getting enough.</p>
+
+    <p>Milk, therefore, fills all the needs of the child, except,
+    perhaps, for iron, and is one of the best foods in the diet of
+    grown people. <b>There is no other food that has all the
+    virtues of milk; it therefore has no substitute. "The regular
+    use of milk is the greatest single factor of safety in the
+    human diet."</b></p>
+
+    <h3>OUR MILK PROBLEM</h3>
+
+    <p>We have not nearly enough milk in the United States to give
+    every child the quart and every adult the pint which they
+    should have. Although we actually produce about a quart per
+    person, more than half of this is used for butter, cheese, and
+    cream, and only about two-thirds of a pint is drunk directly as
+    milk or used in cooking. This spring we have slightly more than
+    this amount because of the dairymen's response to the patriotic
+    appeal to maintain production, but our supply and consumption
+    of milk are still far below what they should
+    be.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"
+       id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span>
+
+    <p>To increase the quantity in the country the price of milk
+    must be low enough for people to afford it, but high enough to
+    keep the producer and distributer in the business. The question
+    of a fair price is a difficult one. The cost of feed has gone
+    up, labor is scarce and dear, but further economies in both
+    production and distribution are still possible. This past
+    winter the Food Administration and the Dairy Division of the
+    Department of Agriculture have assisted many local commissions
+    in determining fair milk prices and pointing out economies all
+    along the line of the milk business.</p>
+
+    <p>It is most unfortunate that ignorance of the value of milk
+    makes people particularly sensitive to a change in its price.
+    When it goes up even a cent a quart, many cut down their
+    consumption, while a considerably larger advance in the price
+    of meat will make little difference in the amount bought.</p>
+
+    <p>If diminished use of milk continues, dairymen may go out of
+    business and permanent harm be done, both to us and to those
+    dependent on us abroad. A factory may close down and when the
+    need comes reopen immediately, but if a cow is killed it takes
+    practically three years to replace her.</p>
+
+    <p>The milk we have should be used as effectively as possible.
+    The most economical way for a nation to use its milk so as to
+    get the benefit of all the food in it, is, of course, as whole
+    milk, or evaporated or dried whole milk. The next most
+    economical way is in the form of whole-milk cheese, since all
+    but the whey is used in it.</p>
+
+    <p>Cream and butter are much less economical unless all the
+    skim milk is used. As 41 per cent of our milk-supply goes to
+    make butter, we have large quantities of skim milk containing
+    as much protein, it is estimated, as all the beef we eat.</p>
+
+    <p>At present we feed the largest part of this to animals or
+    actually <span class="pagenum"><a name="page54"
+       id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> throw it away. Since the
+       cottage-cheese drive of the Department of Agriculture, an
+       increasing amount of it is being made into
+       cottage-cheese&mdash;a palatable and useful meat substitute.
+       It can, of course, be used as a beverage or in cooking. Whey
+       also has many food uses. Buttermilk, too, is justly popular
+       and healthful. Skim milk is not a substitute for whole milk
+       for children.</p>
+
+    <p>Cream, valuable food though it is, is also extravagant in
+    its use of milk. It takes five quarts of milk to produce a
+    quart of cream. Buying whole milk is, therefore, better policy
+    than buying cream and no milk. The sale of cream is now
+    forbidden in Great Britain for this reason.</p>
+
+    <h3>OUR MILK ABROAD</h3>
+
+    <p>It is our supply of milk that is helping to meet the milk
+    shortage abroad. Before the war we exported very little. By
+    1917 our export of evaporated, condensed, and dried milk had
+    gone up twentyfold. In the spring of 1918 we sent over the
+    equivalent in whole milk of almost 50,000,000 pounds a month,
+    and should probably have sent much more were it not for the
+    lack of ships. After the war, when ships are released, the
+    demand for it will be enormous. It will take years to build up
+    the dairy-herds of Europe again, so we shall continue to be
+    their main source of supply.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Learn and teach the unique value and economy of milk. Do
+    everything to prevent in this country the tragic results which
+    are following the cutting down of milk consumption
+    abroad.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"
+       id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span>
+
+    <h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+    <h2>VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</h2>
+
+    <p>Vegetables and fruits represent a different and happier
+    phase of the food situation than our short supplies of wheat
+    and meat. The vegetables especially are a great potential
+    reserve of food, for they can be produced in quantity in three
+    or four months on unused land by labor that otherwise might not
+    be used.</p>
+
+    <p>Abroad every resource for vegetable-raising is being
+    utilized to the utmost. France and Belgium have long made the
+    most of all their land. Now England has made it compulsory to
+    leave no ground uncultivated. Golf-courses are now
+    potato-patches. Parks and every bit of back yard all grow their
+    quota of vegetables. The boys in the old English public schools
+    work with the hoe where before they played football.</p>
+
+    <p>We in America have no more than touched our capacity for
+    raising gardens. What we have done is merely a beginning. As
+    the war goes on we shall realize more and more the necessity
+    for seizing every opportunity for active service. The
+    accomplishments of the summer of 1917 showed the possibilities
+    of the work, and placed it beyond the purely experimental
+    stage. They have given experience and emphasized the value of
+    expert advice and the economy of community efforts.</p>
+
+    <p>Not only is the "plant a garden" a civilian movement, but it
+    has taken hold in the armies as well. The American Army Garden
+    service is planning truck-gardens in France to supply our
+    troops. The Woman's Auxiliary Army Corps of England plants
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"
+       id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span> gardens back of the British
+       lines. Last summer the French fed 20,000 of their men from
+       similar gardens.</p>
+
+    <p><b>Every pound of food grown in these home and community
+    gardens relieves the railroad congestion and gives more space
+    for transporting munitions and coal. Every pound of food grown
+    releases staples for Europe.</b> Extra production of food of
+    any kind, anywhere, takes on a new significance in the presence
+    of half a world hungry.</p>
+
+    <p><b>If you cannot grow vegetables, use them in abundance
+    anyway.</b> They are too perishable to ship abroad and too
+    bulky, containing so much water that it would be an
+    uneconomical use of shipping to export them. But the more
+    America eats of almost any kind of vegetable or fruit, the less
+    of the more durable, concentrated foods will she require. The
+    products are so varied in kind and composition that they can be
+    used to serve almost any purpose&mdash;beans and peas to save
+    meat; potatoes and others to save wheat; sweet fruits to save
+    sugar; jams, even, when spread on bread, to save fat. All will
+    improve the health and therefore increase human energies for
+    winning the war.</p>
+
+    <h3>IN THE WAR DIET</h3>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Meat</i>. Beans and peas and peanuts are the only
+    vegetables with much protein, so that they are the ones thought
+    of primarily as meat substitutes. There are many kinds of them,
+    fresh or dried, more than most of us realize. It is worth while
+    to add to the diet not only the ordinary white or navy beans,
+    but kidney, lima, black or soy beans, cow-peas, the many
+    colored beans such as the pinto, frijoles, and the California
+    pinks. It is these latter kinds that are used by the Mexicans
+    as their chief standby. The Army and Navy use huge
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"
+       id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span> quantities of the white
+       beans, and the Allied Governments are also buying tons of
+       the pintos.</p>
+
+    <p>The 1917 bean-crop, in response to the patriotic appeal, was
+    50 per cent higher than the normal. Nearly all this increase
+    was in the colored beans, chiefly pintos. The Food
+    Administration, fearing that some of this unusual surplus might
+    be wasted and the farmer discouraged from producing a large
+    output in 1918, bought up the extra crop and distributed it for
+    sale at the different markets.</p>
+
+    <p>Though soy beans and peanuts at least are exceptions, the
+    protein in beans and peas is not so satisfactory as a
+    bodybuilder as that in animal foods, so that a diet in which
+    they are a large part should contain also some milk or eggs or
+    a little meat. Two cups (half a pound) of shelled green peas or
+    beans, or one cup with a cup of skim milk gives as much protein
+    as a quarter of a pound of beef. Dried beans and peas are, of
+    course, cheaper than the canned with their larger amount of
+    water. At the usual market prices as much fuel can be bought
+    for 5 cents spent for dried peas as for 25 cents for canned
+    peas.</p>
+
+    <p>Meat-savers do not all have to be high-protein foods, since
+    the diet of most of us contains considerably more protein than
+    is necessary. Any vegetable can be a "meat extender." The
+    pleasant flavor of meat can be obtained in meat stews, such as
+    the delicious French "pot-au-feu." Stews can easily be made
+    with less meat and more vegetables than usual. The meat
+    allowance is now so very small in France and the vegetables so
+    scarce in the cities, that the ingenuity of even the French
+    woman is taxed to get a meal.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Wheat</i>. Potatoes to save wheat! The great
+    potato drive to utilize the surplus of our huge 1917
+    potato-crop, 100,000,000 bushels above normal, has fixed in
+    every one's mind the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page58"
+       id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> interchangeableness of these
+       two foods. Potatoes are one-fifth starch&mdash;almost the
+       same quantity as in cooked breakfast cereals. Because of
+       this starch, they give as satisfactory a fuel as wheat or
+       corn or any other cereal. One medium-sized potato supplies
+       the same number of calories as a large slice of bread, and
+       contains more mineral salts than white bread. Europe has
+       learned to eat potatoes instead of wheat. When bread has
+       been short potatoes have been the mainstay in every country.
+       They are to-day the largest single element, in terms of
+       energy, in the German war ration.</p>
+
+    <p>Sweet potatoes are also first-class wheat-savers. So to a
+    lesser extent are most vegetables and fruits. Very few except
+    white and sweet potatoes contain much starch, but many of them
+    have considerable sugar, which serves as fuel just as starch
+    does&mdash;carrots, beets, onions, parsnips, and practically
+    all fruits such as bananas, oranges, and grapes.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Sugar</i>. We want sugar, of course, both for
+    fuel and flavor. The vegetables and some fruits have their
+    sugar so covered up by other tastes that it does not help to
+    make the food sweet. It does, of course, serve for fuel.
+    Bananas especially are fuel foods, containing much starch when
+    green, which changes to sugar as the fruit ripens. The sweetest
+    fruits are the dried ones&mdash;dates, figs, raisins, prunes.
+    They have so much sugar that they can well be used in place of
+    candy.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Save Fat</i>, Although few common fruits and
+    vegetables contain fat, jam is a real fat-saver. It is of high
+    fuel value, and has the advantage of being a "spreading
+    material" so that it can replace butter with bread and cereals.
+    Jam is of great importance in Europe to-day and all the
+    Governments have taken steps to keep up the supply. It is a
+    regular part of the English army ration.</p>
+
+    <p><i>To Keep the Nation Well</i>. An increase in the use of
+    vegetables <span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"
+       id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span> and fruits is practically
+       sure to mean an increase in health. Many of us, especially
+       city-dwellers, do not eat enough of them. Many a young girl
+       who "does not like vegetables" probably owes part of her
+       languor to inadequate diet. The old-fashioned "touch of
+       scurvy" formerly noticed at the end of the winter and even
+       now not an unknown thing, was probably due to lack of
+       vegetables in the winter diet. The constipation which is so
+       disturbingly prevalent can usually be cured or prevented by
+       eating vegetables and fruits in sufficient quantities. One
+       of the most serious limitations in the diet of many of the
+       very poor is the lack of vegetables as well as milk and the
+       unduly large proportion of meat and bread. In a community in
+       New York City with high mortality rate, 75 mothers whose
+       diet was observed, ate vegetables on the average only twice
+       a week, and fruit about the same number of times.</p>
+
+    <p>It is not difficult to understand why vegetables and fruits
+    are so important. Only a few are especially valuable as fuel or
+    as a source of protein, but almost all are high in mineral
+    salts and can supply the "roughage" desirable in the diet. Some
+    also contain the vitamines, the leafy vegetables being
+    especially valuable because, like milk, they contain the two
+    kinds. The "greens," leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage,
+    Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and lettuce, are the ones that
+    help most in these last ways&mdash;"protective foods," they
+    have been called. They are rich in the iron, calcium, and other
+    minerals that some of the other foods lack. The use of plenty
+    of these vegetables should go far toward keeping up health.</p>
+
+    <h3>CANNING AND DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS</h3>
+
+    <p>The value of these foods both for the nation's health and
+    for saving staples applies just as much in winter as in summer.
+    In <span class="pagenum"><a name="page60"
+       id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> war-time, a winter supply,
+       either stored, dried, or canned, takes on special
+       significance because of their substitute value if the supply
+       of staples runs critically low.</p>
+
+    <p>The canning industry, because it makes vegetables obtainable
+    at all times and places, has been of great importance in the
+    health and development of the country. Smith, in his
+    "Commercial Geography," says that "canning, more than any other
+    invention since the introduction of steam, has made possible
+    the building up of towns and communities beyond the bounds of
+    varied production." A century or two ago, sailors after a
+    voyage of a year or two, almost always came home with scurvy.
+    Recently Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for years
+    and remained in good health, because of their supply of canned
+    vegetables, fruits, and meats.</p>
+
+    <p>The Government has not been slow in appreciating the need of
+    canned vegetables for the Army and Navy. It has commandeered
+    about 25 per cent of the canned beans, 12 per cent of the corn,
+    and 18 per cent of the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts
+    will be needed this year also. Much of the 1918-19 supply for
+    our troops in France is to be canned in France, by arrangement
+    with the French Government, thus saving valuable shipping
+    space.</p>
+
+    <p>Drying, or dehydrating, has long been known for beans, peas,
+    and corn, and for dates, prunes, figs, and raisins. But dried
+    potatoes, beets, carrots, and "soup mixtures" are more or less
+    new. The drying, of course, merely removes most of the water
+    from the vegetable, and if the process is properly carried out,
+    soaking the vegetable in water restores its original
+    freshness.</p>
+
+    <p>The war, with the need for every ounce of food and the
+    increasing transportation difficulties, has brought the process
+    into prominence. The dehydrated products, if properly stored,
+    seem to <span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"
+       id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> keep a long time. Their
+       saving in freight and shipping is plain, when it is
+       remembered that the fresh vegetables and fruits often
+       contain over 90 per cent water, and the dried from 8 per
+       cent to 10 per cent. Ships are too precious to be used for
+       carrying unnecessary water. Our Government has placed orders
+       for several thousand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the
+       Army and may use other dried products as they can be
+       obtained.</p>
+
+    <p>Canada has sent abroad within the past 3 years over 50
+    million pounds of dehydrated vegetables, about two-thirds of
+    which was the vegetable-soup mixture and one-third dried sliced
+    potatoes. When reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000
+    pounds of vegetables. Germany has been drying her vegetables
+    and fruits far more than we. In 1917 she had over 2,000
+    commercial plants, and an elaborate system of distributing all
+    the available fresh material to the different plants to avoid
+    waste.</p>
+
+    <p>Individuals and communities with gardens or wherever fresh
+    products can be obtained should not be dependent upon
+    commercial agencies. <b>As far as possible every family and
+    every neighborhood should be self-supporting. Home and
+    community canning and drying are important duties. Can and dry
+    the surplus. Store up enough to carry through the next winter.
+    Follow expert advice as to methods. Use the greatest care to
+    prevent spoilage. Wherever possible unite with your neighbors
+    in community canneries and dryers so that every one can have
+    the benefit of the best equipment and the most skilled
+    supervision.</b></p>
+
+    <p><b>A great deal was done in 1917; millions of cans were put
+    up and great waste prevented. But in 1918 more must be done.
+    More vegetables must be raised and more must be canned. A great
+    reserve for the winter is more necessary than
+    ever.</b></p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"
+       id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span>
+
+    <h2>CONCLUSION</h2>
+
+    <p>Almost a year of food control in this country has passed and
+    the great new experiment in democratic administration of the
+    nation's food is succeeding. The method of well-directed
+    voluntary co-operation, much more characteristic of our food
+    control than of any other country's, can be judged by its
+    results to date. We have sent abroad six times the wheat that
+    we had believed was in the country for export. We have exported
+    vastly increased shipments of the other cereals, of beef and
+    pork, of fats and condensed milk. With Canada, we are supplying
+    50 per cent of the Allies' food, instead of barely 5 per cent,
+    as before the war. Meanwhile our own population has been taken
+    care of. No one has gone hungry because of the shipments of
+    food out of the country. The price of the most important food,
+    bread, has been kept stable&mdash;a new experience in time of
+    war.</p>
+
+    <p>These and others are great accomplishments, brought about
+    through the co-operation of the nation, <b>but they are slight
+    in comparison with what must still be done.</b> The huge
+    resources for extra food production and conservation have
+    hardly been touched. The imagination is just beginning to be
+    stirred by the immensity of the whole undertaking and the
+    sacrifice required to win the war. Men, ammunition and food, in
+    a steadily increasing stream, must go across.</p>
+
+    <p><b>"Our duty, if we are to do this great thing and show
+    America to be what we believe her to be&mdash;the greatest hope
+    and energy of the world&mdash;is to stand together night and
+    day until the job is finished."</b>&mdash;PRESIDENT
+    WILSON.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page63"
+       id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span>
+
+    <h2>A FEW REFERENCES</h2>
+
+    <p class="index">American Academy of Political and Social
+    Science. "World's Food." Philadelphia, 1917. (<i>Annals of the
+    American Academy</i>, November, 1917.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Carter, Howe and Mason. "Nutrition and
+    Clinical Dietetics." Philadelphia, Lea &amp; Febiger, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Holmes, A.D., and Lang, H.L. "Fats and Their
+    Economical Use in the Home." Washington, 1916. (Department of
+    Agriculture Bulletin 469.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, Alonzo E. "Food
+    Problems." New York, Macmillan, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Langworthy, C.F. "Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes,
+    and Other Starchy Roots as Food." Washington, 1917. (Department
+    of Agriculture Bulletin 468.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Langworthy, C.F. "Eggs and Their Value as
+    Food." Washington, 1917. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin
+    471.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Lusk, Graham. "Food in War Time."
+    Philadelphia, Saunders, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Lusk, Graham. "Fundamental Basis of
+    Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University Press, 1915.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Mendel, Lafayette B. "Changes in Food Supply
+    and Their Relation to Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University
+    Press, 1916.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Mendenhall, Dorothy R. "Milk." Washington,
+    1918. (<i>Children's Bureau</i>, Publication 35.)</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rose, Mary Swartz. "Everyday Foods in War
+    Time." New York, Macmillan, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New
+    York, Macmillan, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and
+    Nutrition." New York, Macmillan, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sherman, Henry C. "Food Products." New York,
+    Macmillan, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Taylor, Alonzo E. "War Bread." New York,
+    Macmillan, 1918.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">The publications of the United States
+    Department of Agriculture and the United States Food
+    Administration.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">The United States Food Leaflets.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">United States Department of Agriculture:
+    Farmers' Bulletin 487. "Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the
+    Diet." C.F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 565. "Corn as a Food and
+    Ways of Using It." C.F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt,
+    1917.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"
+       id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 717. "Food for Young
+    Children." Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 808. "What the Body Needs."
+    Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 817. "Cereal Foods."
+    Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 824. "Foods Rich in
+    Protein." Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. Atwater, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 839. "Home Canning by the
+    One-Period Cold-Pack Method." O.H. Benson, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 841. "Drying Fruits and
+    Vegetables in the Home."</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 853. "Home Canning of Fruits
+    and Vegetables." M.E. Cresswell and Ola Powell, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 871. "Fresh Fruits and
+    Vegetables as Conservers of Other Staple Foods." Caroline L.
+    Hunt, 1917.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Farmers' Bulletin 881. "Preservation of
+    Vegetables by Fermentation and Salting." L.A. Round and H.L.
+    Lang, 1917.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"
+       id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span>
+
+    <h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+    <p class="index">Agriculture, Department of.&mdash;Aids wheat
+    production, <a href="#page8">8</a>; campaign for increased use
+    of milk, <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Austria.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>-30; sugar-supply,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Banana flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Barley as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Beans.&mdash;Varieties,
+    <a href="#page56">56</a>; as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Belgium.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page2">2</a>; meat-supply, <a href="#page29">29</a>;
+    sugar-supply, <a href="#page44">44</a>; milk supplied to
+    children, <a href="#page50">50</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Bread.&mdash;Advantages of wheat loaf,
+    <a href="#page22">22</a>-23; bakers' bread regulated,
+    <a href="#page23">23</a>; conservation of, by housewives,
+    <a href="#page24">24</a>-25; restrictions on use in Europe,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>-26; rationing not necessary in United
+    States, <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Buckwheat as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Butter.&mdash;Consumption in England,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>; uneconomical way to use milk,
+    <a href="#page53">53</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Calorie defined, <a href="#page10">10</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Candy.&mdash;Manufacturers restricted in use
+    of sugar, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Canning.&mdash;Sugar allowed for,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>-46; importance of industry,
+    <a href="#page60">60</a>; urged upon housewives for
+    conservation, <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cereals.&mdash;Defined,
+    <a href="#page10">10</a>; food value, <a href="#page12">12</a>,
+    <a href="#page17">17</a>; wide consumption of,
+    <a href="#page12">12</a>-13.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cheese.&mdash;Valuable protein food,
+    <a href="#page34">34</a>; as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>-36; a use for skim milk,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Corn as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page17">17</a>-18; why Allies can not use,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>-27.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Corn-syrup as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cottonseed meal as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Cream.&mdash;Extravagant use of milk,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Drying.&mdash;Process,
+    <a href="#page60">60</a>; importance of,
+    <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Eggs as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">England.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page2">2</a>; restrictions concerning bread,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>-26; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>; meat restrictions,
+    <a href="#page30">30</a>-31; fat shortage,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>; sugar-supply,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>; milk regulations,
+    <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a>; cultivation
+    of soil, <a href="#page55">55</a>-56.</p><br />
+
+    <p class="index">Fats.&mdash;Food value,
+    <a href="#page37">37</a>-38; shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>; resources and exports of United
+    States, <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; necessity for
+    conservation, <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Feterita as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Fifty-fifty rule,
+    <a href="#page16">16</a>-17.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Fish as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Flour.&mdash;Manufacture of,
+    <a href="#page14">14</a>-15; 74 per cent extraction allowed,
+    <a href="#page15">15</a>; consumption cut by licensing millers,
+    <a href="#page15">15</a>; by fifty-fifty rule,
+    <a href="#page16">16</a>-17.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Food Administration.&mdash;Takes control of
+    wheat business, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>;
+    licenses millers, <a href="#page15">15</a>; licenses bakers,
+    <a href="#page23">23</a>-24; regulates sugar prices,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>-47; aids increased use of milk,
+    <a href="#page53">53</a>; achievements in year of existence,
+    <a href="#page62">62</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Foods.&mdash;Importance of different kinds,
+    <a href="#page10">10</a>-11.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">France.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>-2; bread regulations,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>; meat regulations,
+    <a href="#page31">31</a>-32; sugar-supply,
+    <span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"
+       id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span> <a href="#page44">44</a>;
+       sugar restrictions, <a href="#page45">45</a>; production of
+       fruit and vegetables, <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Fruit.&mdash;As sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a>; food value,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>-59; conservation of, by canning and
+    drying, <a href="#page59">59</a>-61.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Garbage conservation,
+    <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Gardens.&mdash;See Production.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Germany.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page3">3</a>-4; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>-30; meat restrictions,
+    <a href="#page32">32</a>; fat shortage,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>; sugar restrictions,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>; conservation of food by drying,
+    <a href="#page61">61</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Gluten.&mdash;Importance in bread,
+    <a href="#page22">22</a>-23.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Graham flour.&mdash;Manufacture,
+    <a href="#page14">14</a>; inferiority to wheat,
+    <a href="#page15">15</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Grain corporation, controls wheat trade,
+    <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Honey as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Hotels and restaurants.&mdash;Regulations in
+    use of bread, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Ice-cream.&mdash;Manufacturers restricted in
+    use of sugar, <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Italy.&mdash;Restrictions on macaroni,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>; bread rations,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>; sugar-supply,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Jam as substitute for butter,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Kaffir as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Legumes.&mdash;See Beans, Peanuts,
+    Peas.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Macaroni.&mdash;Restrictions in manufacture of
+    in Italy, <a href="#page25">25</a>; not a wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Maple-syrup as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Margarine.&mdash;Use in England,
+    <a href="#page39">39</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Meat.&mdash;Shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page28">28</a>-32; exports from United States,
+    <a href="#page32">32</a>-33; consumption,
+    <a href="#page33">33</a>-34; food value,
+    <a href="#page34">34</a>-35.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Meat extenders, vegetables as,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Meat substitutes, <a href="#page35">35</a>-36;
+    vegetables as, <a href="#page57">57</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Milk.&mdash;As meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>; necessity for children,
+    <a href="#page49">49</a>-50; shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page50">50</a>; food value,
+    <a href="#page51">51</a>-52; supply in United States,
+    <a href="#page52">52</a>-53; economical uses of,
+    <a href="#page53">53</a>-54.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Milk, condensed.&mdash;Use in Europe,
+    <a href="#page50">50</a>; amount exported from United States,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Milo as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Molasses as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Nuts as meat substitutes,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Oats as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Oils, vegetable.&mdash;Use in Germany,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>; supply in United States,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; as substitute for animal fats,
+    <a href="#page41">41</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Peanut flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Peanuts as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Peas as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page56">56</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Potato flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Potatoes as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a>-58.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Poultry as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page35">35</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Production.&mdash;Decreased in France,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>-2; of cereals doubled in England,
+    <a href="#page2">2</a>; of vegetables in England and America,
+    <a href="#page55">55</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Protein.&mdash;Defined,
+    <a href="#page11">11</a>; amount necessary in diet,
+    <a href="#page34">34</a>-35.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: Austria.&mdash;Sugar,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: England.&mdash;Bread not rationed,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page30">30</a>-31;
+    fats, <a href="#page39">39</a>; sugar,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: France.&mdash;Bread,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page31">31</a>;
+    sugar, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: Germany.&mdash;Meat,
+    <a href="#page32">32</a>; fats, <a href="#page40">40</a>;
+    sugar, <a href="#page45">45</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: Italy.&mdash;Bread,
+    <a href="#page26">26</a>; meat, <a href="#page32">32</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rationing: U.S.&mdash;Voluntary wheat ration,
+    <a href="#page25">25</a>; reasons for not introducing system,
+    <a href="#page27">27</a>.</p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"
+       id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span>
+
+    <p class="index">Rice.&mdash;Chief diet in India,
+    <a href="#page13">13</a>; as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>-20.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Roumania.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>; meat-supply,
+    <a href="#page29">29</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Russia.&mdash;Wheat-supply,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Rye, as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Shipping.&mdash;Necessity for saving,
+    <a href="#page5">5</a>; released by decreased use of sugar,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Soy bean flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Substitutes.&mdash;See Meat, Sugar, Wheat
+    substitutes.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sugar.&mdash;Consumption in United States,
+    <a href="#page42">42</a>; shortage, <a href="#page42">42</a>,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>-45; restrictions on,
+    <a href="#page45">45</a>-46; price regulated,
+    <a href="#page46">46</a>-47; conservation of,
+    <a href="#page47">47</a>-48.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Sugar substitutes, <a href="#page46">46</a>,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Tapioca flour as wheat substitute,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">United States: Exports.&mdash;Wheat,
+    <a href="#page5">5</a>-6; meat, <a href="#page33">33</a>; fat,
+    <a href="#page40">40</a>-41; sugar,
+    <a href="#page44">44</a>-45; milk,
+    <a href="#page54">54</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">Vegetables.&mdash;Importance in conservation,
+    <a href="#page55">55</a>; production of,
+    <a href="#page56">56</a>; as meat substitute,
+    <a href="#page36">36</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>-57; as wheat
+    substitute, <a href="#page20">20</a>,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>-58; as sugar substitute,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>; food value,
+    <a href="#page58">58</a>-59; conservation of by canning and
+    drying, <a href="#page50">50</a>-61.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Victory bread, <a href="#page24">24</a>.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Vitamines.&mdash;Defined,
+    <a href="#page11">11</a>; in fats, <a href="#page38">38</a>; in
+    milk, <a href="#page52">52</a>; in fruit and vegetables,
+    <a href="#page59">59</a>.</p><br />
+
+
+    <p class="index">War bread.&mdash;See Flour, Victory bread,
+    Wheat substitutes.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Wheat.&mdash;Necessity in war,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>; shortage in Europe,
+    <a href="#page1">1</a>-4; distribution a problem,
+    <a href="#page4">4</a>-5; supply and exports of United States,
+    <a href="#page5">5</a>-6; controlled by United States Grain
+    Corporation, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page8">8</a>;
+    conservation of by individuals, <a href="#page8">8</a>-9.</p>
+
+    <p class="index">Wheat substitutes.&mdash;Corn,
+    <a href="#page18">18</a>-19; oats, <a href="#page19">19</a>;
+    barley, <a href="#page19">19</a>; rye,
+    <a href="#page19">19</a>; rice, <a href="#page20">20</a>;
+    miscellaneous, <a href="#page20">20</a>; keeping quality,
+    <a href="#page20">20</a>-21; vegetables,
+    <a href="#page57">57</a>-58.</p>
+    <hr />
+    <blockquote class="footnote">
+        <a id="footnote1"
+                    name="footnote1"></a><b>Footnote 1:</b>
+                    <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a>
+
+        <p>"Bring a little bread if you wish it."</p>
+    </blockquote>
+    <br />
+    <br />
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 14055-h.txt or 14055-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/0/5/14055</a></p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Food Guide for War Service at Home, by
+Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Food Guide for War Service at Home
+
+Author: Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker
+
+Release Date: November 15, 2004  [eBook #14055]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT
+HOME***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Audrey Longhurst, William Flis, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 14055-h.htm or 14055-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h/14055-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME
+
+Prepared under the Direction of the United States Food Administration
+in Co-Operation with the United States Department of Agriculture and
+the Bureau of Education
+
+With a Preface by Herbert Hoover
+United States Food Administrator
+
+1918
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society]
+
+
+
+ANNOUNCEMENT
+
+In the spring of 1918 the Collegiate Section of the United States Food
+Administration was called upon to prepare a simple statement of the
+food situation as affected by the war, suitable for elementary and
+high school teachers, high-school pupils, and the general public. The
+demand arose because of the wide adoption of the three courses on
+this subject then being sent out weekly to universities, colleges, and
+normal schools throughout the country.
+
+This little volume is the response to that request. It was written by
+Katharine Blunt, of the University of Chicago, Frances L. Swain, of
+the Chicago Normal School, and Florence Powdermaker, of the United
+States Department of Agriculture.
+
+The records of the Food Administration have been open to the writers
+and they have had the advice and criticism of its officials and
+specialists. No effort has been spared to secure accuracy of statement
+in the text.
+
+OLIN TEMPLIN,
+Director of the Collegiate Section.
+July 1, 1918.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The long war has brought hunger to Europe; some of her peoples stand
+constantly face to face with starvation.
+
+All agriculture has been seriously interfered with. Food production
+has been lessened to the point of danger. Millions of men who had
+given all their time and energy to raising food have been killed; more
+millions are still fighting; other millions have gone from the farms
+into the great war-factories. Women, too, have been drafted from the
+fields and home gardens into the factories and to replace the absent
+men in a host of occupations. Great stretches of once fertile land
+have been temporarily ruined by the scourge of war; some are still
+under falling shot and shell. Belgium and France have lost millions of
+acres of productive land to the enemy. The fertilizers necessary for
+keeping up the production of the land still available are lacking.
+
+All this means that the Allies have to rely on the outside for the
+maintenance of their food-supply. But because ships are fewer than
+they were, and because many of them must carry troops and munitions
+exclusively, these ships cannot be sent on voyages longer than
+absolutely necessary to find and bring back the needed food. They
+cannot afford to go the long time-consuming way to Australia and back;
+but few of them can be let go to India and the Argentine. They must
+carry food by the shortest routes. The shortest is from North America
+to England and France.
+
+Therefore by far the greater part of the food provided for the Allies
+from the outside must come from us. As a matter of fact more than 50
+per cent of this outside food for the Allies does now come from North
+America. And that is a great deal. It is very much more than we ever
+sent them before. Also we are sending more and more food overseas for
+our own growing armies in France and our growing fleets in European
+waters.
+
+To meet all this great food need in Europe--and meeting it is an
+imperative military necessity--we must be very careful and economical
+in our food use here at home. We must eat less; we must waste nothing;
+we must equalize the distribution of what food we may retain for
+ourselves; we must prevent extortion and profiteering which make
+prices so high that the poor cannot buy the food they actually need;
+and we must try to produce more food by planting more wheat and other
+grain, raising more cattle and swine and sheep, and making gardens
+everywhere.
+
+To help the people of America do all these things, and to coordinate
+their efforts, the President and Congress created the United States
+Food Administration. The Food Administration, therefore, asks all the
+people to help feed the Allies that they may continue to fight, to
+help feed the hungry in Belgium and other starving lands that they
+may continue to live, and to help feed our own sailors and soldiers so
+that they may want nothing. It asks help, also, in its great task of
+preventing prices from going too high and of stabilizing them, and of
+keeping the flow of distribution even, so that all our people, rich
+and poor alike, may be able to obtain the food they need.
+
+For all this there is needed a "food education" of all our people.
+Every home in our broad land must be reached. One of the most
+effective ways of accomplishing this is by getting information to the
+children of the nation about food and the possibilities and methods
+of its most wise and economical use. To obtain this result we must get
+this information into the hands of parents and teachers.
+
+For the purpose of diffusing this information this little book has
+been prepared under the direction of the Food Administration. By
+following the suggestions for food conservation herein contained every
+one can render his country an important war service. I am sure that
+all will be glad to do this.
+
+HERBERT HOOVER.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I. THE WHEAT SITUATION
+
+    The world's supply of wheat--Wheat in the United
+    States--Meeting the wheat shortage
+
+CHAPTER II. THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS
+
+    The significance of different kinds of food--The social
+    importance of cereals, especially wheat--Wheat flour in
+    war-time--The 50-50 rule. Another way to cut the consumption
+    of wheat--Substitutes for wheat flour
+
+CHAPTER III. WAR BREAD
+
+    The bakers' regulations. Victory bread--The individual's
+    answer to the bread cry--Flour and bread in the Allied
+    countries--Why we in the United States do not have bread cards
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE MEAT SITUATION
+
+    Where Europe's meat has been produced--The war and the
+    European meat-supply--The meat rations of Europe--The part of
+    the United States--Meat conservation--Meat and other protein
+    foods--The meat substitutes
+
+CHAPTER V. FATS
+
+    The situation abroad--The situation in the United States
+
+CHAPTER VI. SUGAR
+
+    Why is there a sugar shortage?--The effect of the shortage--In
+    place of sugar--The price of sugar--To cut down on sugar
+
+CHAPTER VII. MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH
+
+    The valuable constituents of milk--Our milk problem--Our milk
+    abroad
+
+CHAPTER VIII. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+    In the war diet--Canning and drying vegetables and fruits
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+A FEW REFERENCES
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE WHEAT SITUATION
+
+
+Wheat is as much a war necessity as ammunition--wheat is a war weapon.
+To produce it and distribute it where it is needed and in sufficient
+quantities is the most serious food problem of the Allied world. The
+continent of Europe, with her devastated fields, can raise but a small
+fraction of the wheat she needs, and ships are so few that she cannot
+import it from many of the usual sources.
+
+Not one of the warring European countries has escaped serious
+suffering, and the neutral countries have suffered with them.
+
+
+THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF WHEAT
+
+France, always an agricultural nation, was the most nearly
+self-sustaining of the western Allies. Now one-third of her
+wheat-fields are barren. Thousands of her acres have been taken by the
+enemy, or are in No Man's Land. Much of the land that has been fought
+over these past four years is now hopeless for farming, and will
+be for years to come. Even the territory still under cultivation
+cannot be expected to yield large returns, for laborers, tools, and
+fertilizers are lacking.
+
+The men who have left the fields to fight have been replaced chiefly
+by women, children, and old men, while furloughed soldiers at times
+help to bring in the crops. To get adequate return from the soil
+which has been tilled for centuries, tons of fertilizer are necessary.
+Fertilizers are an absolute necessity, and nitrates, one of the
+most important of them, can no longer be imported from Chile. The
+work-animals have been driven off by the enemy or slaughtered for want
+of food, and mechanics are lacking to repair and replace the worn-out
+farm-machinery. As a result of this, in 1917 France raised only enough
+wheat to supply 40 per cent of her need, instead of 90 per cent, as in
+pre-war years.
+
+In England the situation is not much better. Unlike France, England
+has always imported far more wheat than she raised. But now through
+vigorous effort she alone of all the European countries has increased
+her cereal production so that it has actually been doubled. Being free
+from the devastation of war at home, she has been able to convert
+the great lawns of her parks and country estates into grain-fields.
+English women of all classes, an army of half a million, are working
+on the land. At the same time the consumption of wheat has been
+reduced. Even yet, however, the home-grown supply in England is only
+one-fourth of the wheat required.
+
+In Belgium the devastation is so complete that the women, children,
+and old people left there would die of famine if food were not sent
+to them. Two and a half million Belgians daily stand in line waiting
+for food to be doled out to them. The United States must supply
+three-fourths of the wheat contained in their meagre bread ration.
+In Italy, too, the condition is serious, for she produces far less
+than she needs, despite every effort of her Government to stimulate
+production.
+
+[Illustration: WHEAT FIELDS OF THE WORLD]
+
+Germany and Austria-Hungary have not escaped universal suffering from
+lack of wheat. Germany before the war was a wheat-importing country,
+and Austria-Hungary was able to supply herself with wheat, but had
+none to export. Their war crops have been below normal, and even
+the wheat taken from conquered territory has not been sufficient
+to prevent severe shortage, resulting in bread riots in industrial
+centres.
+
+The imports of wheat into both the Allied and enemy European countries
+to supplement the wheat of their own raising came in peace-times
+from seven countries--Russia, Roumania, Australia, the United States,
+Canada, Argentina, and India. Most of these have now failed as a
+source of supply.
+
+Russia and Roumania were the great wheat-bins of Europe. They produced
+as much wheat as the United States, and sometimes more, and they were
+always able to make up or nearly make up the deficiencies of western
+Europe. Russia and Roumania are now themselves on the verge of famine.
+Even before their own situation became so desperate, they could get
+little wheat to the western Allies, because the enemy territory and
+the battle-lines made a great wall of separation.
+
+Australia and India both continue to grow large crops of wheat, and
+have a surplus in storage, but it cannot be sent to Europe because of
+lack of ships. Australia has wheat stored from her last three crops.
+The Argentine had very poor crops in 1916 and 1917, and although
+the 1918 crop is good, it is scarcely more available to Europe than
+Australia's wheat.
+
+SO THE WHEAT SCARCITY IS NOT A QUESTION ONLY OF THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT
+IN THE WORLD. IT IS A PROBLEM OF GETTING IT WHERE IT IS NEEDED--WHEAT
+PLUS SHIPS. Not a single ship must go farther than is absolutely
+necessary. A glance at the map shows why wheat for Europe should come
+from North America rather than from Australia or India, or even the
+Argentine. The trip from Australia is three times as long as from
+North America, so it takes only one-third as many ships to carry food
+to Europe from the United States as from Australia. The Argentine is
+twice as far from Europe as the United States, and therefore twice
+as many ships are needed to carry an equal amount of Argentine food
+to Europe. If this continent could produce and save enough next year
+to provide the whole of the Allied food necessities, we could save
+1,500,000 tons of world shipping to be used for other purposes. EVERY
+SHIP SAVED IS A SHIP BUILT TO CARRY MORE MEN AND MORE AMMUNITION TO
+FRANCE.
+
+
+WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The United States has never had a large wheat surplus to export, and
+the last few years it has had an unusually low supply to meet the
+extraordinary demand. The 1916 crop was small. The 1917 crop was
+only four-fifths of normal, little more than we ordinarily consume
+ourselves. We entered the last harvest with our stocks of wheat and
+other cereals practically exhausted. Hence to feed the Allies until
+the 1918 harvest, we had to send wheat which we should ordinarily have
+eaten. All that we could send under normal conditions from July, 1917,
+to July, 1918, has usually been estimated at about 20,000,000 bushels,
+but in the first eleven months of this time we actually did send
+120,000,000 bushels, six times as much as we could have shipped
+without conservation. One-half of the total output of our flour-mills
+in the month of May, 1918, went abroad.
+
+This achievement in feeding the Allies has been made possible and
+will continue to be possible, through the measures of economy and
+substitution established by the Food Administration, and the constant
+and continued personal sacrifice of each one of us.
+
+Even the 1918 wheat crop, successful as it promises to be, will
+not mean freedom from saving. Throughout the war there can be no
+relaxation. We must build up a great national reserve in years of good
+harvest for the greater and greater demands of Europe. NEVER AGAIN
+MUST WE LET OURSELVES AND THE WORLD FACE THE DANGER THAT WAS BEFORE US
+IN THE SPRING OF 1918.
+
+
+MEETING THE WHEAT SHORTAGE
+
+To keep wheat constantly going over to our Allies and sufficient
+stores in the United States at the same time, is one of the big
+problems of the Food Administration. Production has had to be
+increased and consumption decreased. The price has had to be kept
+down, for in a time of shortage prices always tend to go up. It is
+true that high prices furnish one method of decreasing the consumption
+of food, but it is a method that means enforced conservation by the
+poor and no conservation by the rich. The burden thus falls on those
+least able to bear it.
+
+To meet this situation the Food Administration has gone into the
+wheat business itself. PRACTICALLY ENTIRE CONTROL OF THE BUYING AND
+SELLING OF WHEAT IS IN THE HANDS OF THE GREAT UNITED STATES FOOD
+ADMINISTRATION GRAIN CORPORATION. Through this organization all
+wheat sales are made to the Army and Navy, to our allies, and to
+the neutrals. The price which it pays for these huge quantities
+sets the price for the entire country. The Food Administration also
+makes the movement of wheat from the farmer to the miller and to the
+wholesaler as simple and direct as possible. It prevents hoarding
+and speculation. "I am convinced," said Mr. Hoover, in April, 1918,
+"that at no time in the last three years has there been as little
+speculation in the nation's food as there is to-day."
+
+[Illustration: COST OF A POUND LOAF OF BREAD]
+
+As a result of this business management of wheat, the consumer pays
+less for flour, although the farmer gets more for his wheat. In May,
+1917, the difference between the price of the farmer's wheat and of
+the flour made from it was $5.86 per barrel of 196 pounds. Fifteen
+months later the difference was 64 cents. In February, 1917, before
+the United States went into the war, flour sold at wholesale for $8.75
+a barrel. In May, 1917, the war, with no food control, had driven the
+price up to $17. But in February, 1918, after six months of the Food
+Administration, it had gone down to $10.50 wholesale, and this in
+spite of unprecedented demand for our very short supply. Without
+control, flour would undoubtedly be selling for $50 a barrel. During
+the Civil War, with no world wheat shortage, but without food control,
+the price of wheat increased 130 per cent over the price in 1861.
+
+The milling and sale of flour, the baking of bread, and the purchases
+of the individual are all regulated to a greater extent than would
+have scarcely been thought possible before the war.
+
+Every effort has been made to produce a great 1918 wheat-crop.
+Congress, at the time the Food Control Bill was passed, fixed the
+price of the 1918 wheat at a minimum of $2 per bushel, and the
+President later fixed the price at $2.20. This has been high enough to
+encourage the farmer to increase his crop and not too high to be fair
+to the consumer. The Department of Agriculture, during the winter of
+1917-18, had for its slogan, "a billion-bushel crop for 1918." It has
+worked intensively to help the farmer in selecting and testing seed
+and in fighting destructive insects and plant-diseases, and in every
+way to help him grow more wheat.
+
+Constant reliance has been placed on the individual's intelligence
+and patriotism in wheat-saving. One of the unusual aspects of the Food
+Administration is its confidence in the co-operation of the country
+and the response which this confidence has met. Wheatless meals are
+now a commonplace occurrence. Wheatless days are being observed
+in many hotels and homes. People all over the country have pledged
+themselves to do entirely without wheat until the 1918 harvest is
+available. About 100,000 barrels of flour were returned by individuals
+and companies during the spring of 1918, to be shipped to the Allies
+and the Army and Navy. The individual all over the country, consumer,
+dealer, miller, or farmer, has risen to the occasion to do his share
+toward the fulfilment of the Government's promise to Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS
+
+
+When the United States was called on to supply the Allies with much of
+its wheat and flour, we fortunately found at hand a plentiful supply
+of a great variety of other cereals. The use of corn was, of course,
+not an experiment--generations of Southerners have flourished on it.
+But we also had oats, rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and such local
+products as the grain sorghums, which are grown in the South and West.
+All of them are cereals and all can be used interchangeably with wheat
+in our diet.
+
+To understand clearly the value of cereals in the diet to-day, it is
+well to review the part played by food in general. Europe to-day is
+eating to live. She therefore thinks of food not in terms of menus
+but as a means of keeping up bodily functions, as sources of protein,
+carbohydrate and fat--terms seldom heard outside of the university a
+few years ago.
+
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD
+
+We need food first of all to burn as fuel for all the activities of
+the body, just as any other machine needs fuel. The fuel value of
+food, or its energy, is measured in _calories_. A calorie measures the
+amount of heat or energy given off when anything burns, whether it is
+coal in a stove or food in the body.
+
+Practically all foods give this fuel or energy, but some give much
+more than others. Fats give more fuel than an equal weight of any
+other food. Sugar and foods rich in starch like flour and corn meal
+are fuel foods. This is one of the reasons why they are chosen to be
+shipped abroad. The cereals always supply an important part of the
+fuel of the diet. Watery foods, like many vegetables and fruits,
+normally give less fuel. A person could not live on lettuce any better
+than a house could be heated with tissue paper.
+
+If the food does not supply enough energy, a person will burn up
+part of his own body for fuel and will grow emaciated. Far too often
+we find children of the very poor who are undernourished because of
+lack of food fuel. Sometimes even well-to-do young people half starve
+themselves because they get "notions" about food. One of the terrible
+tragedies abroad is the hundreds and thousands of men and women and
+children who are worn and thin and sick for lack of food.
+
+We need food, too, to keep the organs of the body running smoothly.
+Abroad, people are suffering not only because they have not enough
+food, but because they have not the right kinds of food. Milk and
+vegetables and fruits are especially useful. They are the chief
+sources of the much-needed _mineral salts_ and the two _vitamines_.
+The vitamines are substances of great importance about which has
+centred much discussion lately and which scientists do not yet fully
+understand, though they realize that they are essential for the growth
+of children and for health in adults.
+
+The _protein_ of food is used to build the body if we are young, and
+to restore the daily wear and tear if we are older. The mineral salts
+are also necessary for this purpose. Protein will be discussed further
+in the chapter on meat and meat substitutes, but it should be realized
+here that the protein we eat comes not only from these foods, but also
+from the cereals. Cereals supply a full half of the protein of many
+diets.
+
+Cereals are therefore important for their fuel since they are rich in
+starch, and for their protein, and, if we eat the entire kernel, for
+their mineral matter and vitamines. They also have the pleasant flavor
+and texture which we have grown to like.
+
+Wheat is no better than any of the other cereals. It possesses
+absolutely no nutritional advantage for man or beast over oats, corn,
+and rye. It has no more protein, and no better protein. It has no more
+fat and no better fat. It has no better mineral salts and in no larger
+amounts. It has no more fuel or better fuel. It is just _one_ of the
+cereals, and there is not the slightest evidence that it is the best
+one. It has merely become one of our habits.
+
+Corn and wheat and the other cereals are just as well digested if
+equally well prepared. A soggy piece of wheat bread may, of course,
+be less readily digestible than a well-made piece of corn-bread, but
+that is a question of skill in cooking, not of difference in cereals.
+Complaints have been heard in England about the war bread. It is true
+that it may be hard on those of frail digestive powers to change their
+food habits in any way, but Hutchison, an eminent London physician, in
+tracing down complaints, found that frequently people laid to the new
+bread ailments from which they had suffered before the war. "When in
+doubt, blame the war bread," seemed to be the motto.
+
+
+THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CEREALS, ESPECIALLY WHEAT
+
+The world eats more cereals than any other kind of food. They are
+so widely available, so cheap and nutritious, that they are a main
+reliance of the human race. A shortage is always extremely serious.
+
+Not only is an abundance important, but an abundance of the accustomed
+kind. In parts of India, the inhabitants use rice as almost the only
+cereal. When the rice-crop failed some years ago, thousands of people
+died of starvation with a supply of wheat available. They did not know
+the use of wheat as food.
+
+Countries like France, which use their cereals chiefly for bread, are
+the most dependent on wheat, since wheat is the most easily made into
+bread.
+
+In the United States cereals make up almost one-third of our food.
+Although wheat in most parts of the country has been the main
+dependence, we have used a much greater variety of cereals than most
+people, so that it is comparatively simple for the majority to make
+increased use of them.
+
+The very poor must depend largely upon cereals because they can get
+more for their money from them than from other foods. Cereals, to most
+of them, mean bread. It is such a large part of their diet that doing
+without it means a far more fundamental and difficult change in their
+food habits than for the well-to-do with greater freedom of choice.
+Besides, the already overburdened working woman must get her bread in
+the easiest possible way--a ready-made loaf from the baker. The burden
+of scarcity or high prices falls on those least able to bear it.
+
+Europeans eat even larger amounts of wheat than we. Over half the
+food of the French is bread, so if the wheat shortage were near the
+danger-line, it might lead to a serious weakening of the marvellous
+courage of the French people.
+
+
+WHEAT FLOUR IN WAR-TIME
+
+To use this country's share of the short supply of wheat to the
+greatest advantage the Food Administration has changed the making
+of flour to include more of the wheat-kernel. The difference between
+peace and war time flour is easily understood if the structure of
+grains is considered. Wheat and other cereals have kernels much alike;
+all have three principal parts:
+
+The outer covering, called _bran_, is made up of several layers. This
+is rich in important mineral salts, and the rest is largely cellulose,
+or woody fibre.
+
+The _germ_ is the small part from which the new plant will develop.
+Here the small amount of fat in the kernel is stored.
+
+The largest part of the kernel, called the _endosperm_, contains the
+nourishment to be used by the plant as it begins to develop. This is
+mostly starch, with some protein. It is the part of the wheat, for
+instance, which is chiefly used to make our white flour.
+
+The kind of flour made depends on how much and what parts of the
+kernel are used. Graham flour is manufactured by grinding practically
+all of the wheat-kernel--a 100-per-cent use of the grain, called
+100-per-cent extraction. Some people still fail to realize that Graham
+flour and Graham bread are wheat, perhaps because of the different
+name and brown color. The so-called "whole-wheat" flour is often 95
+per cent of the kernel only, but may be as little as 85 per cent,
+depending on the amount of the bran and germ removed in the making.
+
+Ordinary white flour contains the endosperm alone, with practically
+none of the bran and germ. Some brands before the war used up as
+little as 56 per cent of the wheat, leaving the rest of it to be
+turned into lower-grade flours and cattle-feed. White flour thus uses
+less of the wheat for human food than Graham or whole-wheat flour.
+
+Yet to convert all the country's wheat into Graham flour would not be
+a wheat-saving measure, because it is not so well suited to our trade
+conditions. Graham flour, for one thing, does not keep so well as
+flour of lower extractions, as the fat in the germ may become rancid
+in a comparatively short time. Flour in this country is often thirty
+days or longer in transit and may be months in warehouses, stores, and
+homes. A flour to be satisfactory under extreme conditions here or
+for shipment abroad must keep at least six months--too long to be sure
+that Graham flour will keep. In small countries like England, where
+flour is used up more promptly, a high extraction is more practicable
+than in the United States.
+
+Moreover, while Graham and whole-wheat flours with their larger
+quantities of mineral salts are a more desirable food for some people
+than white flour, they are occasionally irritating to people with weak
+digestions, so that it would be unfortunate to have only these flours
+on the market.
+
+The Food Administration, therefore, has considered that the most
+effective use of our wheat could be obtained by forbidding the
+manufacture of fancy flours of low extraction and making all flour
+contain at least 74 per cent of the wheat. This still gives a fine
+white flour that keeps well and is difficult to distinguish from that
+on the market before the war.
+
+To help in the enforcement of its flour rulings, the Food
+Administration has licensed all mills and elevators which handle over
+100 barrels of flour a day. If the rulings of the Food Administration
+are not obeyed the license may be taken away, and the business
+closed. The hoarding of flour has been stopped by prohibiting mills,
+elevators, and bakers from having more than 30 days' supply on hand.
+
+
+THE 50-50 RULE. ANOTHER WAY TO CUT THE CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT
+
+NOT ONLY MUST THE MILLER MANUFACTURE FLOUR IN ACCORDANCE WITH
+NEW REGULATIONS, BUT THE INDIVIDUAL CONSUMER MUST BUY IT UNDER
+RESTRICTIONS. To many people the first realization that war and food
+difficulties are necessarily associated, came with the announcement
+in the spring of 1918 of the now familiar rules for the purchase of
+flour. With every pound of white wheat flour, the purchaser must
+buy a pound of some other cereal; with every pound of Graham flour,
+three-fifths of a pound of other cereal.
+
+The purpose of this regulation is, of course, to lessen the use of
+wheat by increasing the use of the substitutes. The housekeeper who
+through lack of initiative or ingenuity fails to feed the family the
+substitutes and lets them accumulate on her shelf has just so far
+failed to co-operate with the Food Administration. Many a housewife
+has learned the value of these cereals and will continue to use
+them long after the war and the Food Administration have passed into
+history.
+
+A little thought will show the absence of any real burden in the 50-50
+rule. A housekeeper for her family of four buys five pounds of wheat
+flour and five pounds of other cereals. She may use 11/4 pounds of the
+substitutes with the 5 pounds of wheat flour to make about 8 pounds of
+Victory bread--sufficient to give each member of her family 2 pounds
+of bread during the week. She may serve an ounce of oatmeal as the
+breakfast cereal and an ounce of rice, hominy, or other cereal for
+each person daily and will then have used all the substitutes. These
+cereals can be made into an endless variety of quick breads, cakes,
+and pastry, or combined with other foods as the main dish of the meal.
+
+
+SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT FLOUR
+
+The cereals on the market are varied enough to suit any taste.
+REMEMBER THAT AS FAR AS NUTRITIONAL VALUE IS CONCERNED, IT MAKES
+PRACTICALLY NO DIFFERENCE WHETHER WE EAT WHEAT OR OATS, RYE OR
+BARLEY. The quantities of starch, protein, mineral matter, and fat
+are so nearly the same that any one of them can take the place of
+another. Oatmeal has a slight advantage over wheat both in protein
+and fat, and since oats is an abundant crop in our country it is an
+excellent substitute. Rice has a very little more starch and less
+protein than the others.
+
+There is just one advantage that wheat flour has over the other
+cereals--it can be made into lighter and more durable bread. The
+reason for this is given in the next chapter.
+
+_Corn, the most abundant substitute._ Indian corn is native to the
+United States. Since it carried the Pilgrims through their year
+of famine, it has always been considered our national grain. Other
+countries have adopted it to some extent, but more than three
+quarters of the world's corn is grown here. In 1917 our corn crop was
+3,000,000,000 bushels, four times as large as our wheat crop. Most
+of the crop has always been used as a feed-grain, with only a small
+percentage for human food. The South has always used much more corn
+than the North, actually eating more corn than wheat.
+
+The foods from corn and the ways of using them are more numerous than
+is often appreciated. Corn meal and corn flour are the most important.
+We are making almost as much corn meal as wheat flour. The yellow and
+white corn meals, milled from different kinds of corn, are practically
+the same in composition, though slightly different in flavor. The
+method of milling corn meal makes more difference in the composition
+than the kind of corn used. The old "water-ground" meal was simply
+crushed between millstones and only the coarsest particles of bran
+bolted out. This ranks with Graham as a product of 100 per cent
+extraction and like Graham, it may not keep well, because the germ
+is left in. The new process, more like modern flour-milling, removes
+some of the bran and germ. The product is a granulated corn meal which
+keeps better than the other, and has practically the same composition,
+though to some people a less desirable flavor.
+
+If corn meal is further ground and bolted, we have corn flour. Some
+of this has been put on the market lately and is proving a good
+substitute for wheat flour; but the amount available is only a small
+fraction of the amount of corn meal. Other important corn products
+are hominy of different kinds, hulled corn, and popcorn. The latter,
+usually eaten as an "extra," is really a valuable part of the diet.
+
+Corn is the same satisfactory food whether it is eaten as mush in
+New England, _polenta_ in Italy, or _tamales_ in Mexico. Many of
+the people of Mexico and Central America live on corn and beans to
+a surprising extent. In portions of Italy the rural population have
+adopted the grain as their main food. Our corn-meal mush is their
+_polenta_, which is served sometimes with cheese, sometimes with
+tomato sauce or meat gravy.
+
+_Oats_. An Englishman once taunted a Scotchman with the fact that
+while England used oats only for her horses, Scotland fed it to her
+men. "Ah!" said Sandy; "but where will you find such horses as you
+raise in England and such men as in Scotland!"
+
+The United States, more like England than Scotland, has used oats
+mostly for feed. The crop is second only to the corn-crop. Oats are
+eaten in the form of oatmeal, which is a finely granulated meal, and
+as the common rolled oats which have been steamed and put through
+rollers. There is little oat flour on the market at present. A
+successful and palatable home-made flour may be prepared by putting
+rolled oats through a food-chopper. Any of the forms of oats can be
+used in breads of all kinds, but the more finely ground flour can
+be substituted in larger proportion. The demand for oat products has
+grown so rapidly the last year that mills are running to their limit.
+Special machinery is required for its manufacture, so that a great
+increase in the supply is not feasible in a short time.
+
+_Barley and Rye_. In using barley and rye for bread we are only going
+back to the methods of our forefathers. Barley is supposed to be
+one of the first cereals used by man. Good barley flour is a very
+acceptable substitute for wheat, but if too large a proportion of the
+kernel is included, it may be bitter in flavor.
+
+_Rye_, of all the cereals, makes bread nearest like wheat, though the
+rye bread formerly made usually contained from 20 per cent to 80 per
+cent wheat flour. The supply is far below what we could well use. For
+this reason it is not included among the cereals which the housekeeper
+is allowed to buy on the 50-50 plan, and since March 31, 1918, bakers
+have not been allowed to use it as a substitute in baking on the same
+basis as the other substitutes.
+
+_Rice_. Rice forms the chief food of hundreds of millions of people,
+and in many oriental countries is the staple cereal, like wheat with
+us. As a wheat substitute we may use it cooked whole or ground into
+a flour. The rice flour may be mixed with other cereals in making
+bread and cakes. The rice polish, which is a by-product secured by
+rubbing off with brushes the outside coating of the brown rice, is
+much cheaper. It has been sold chiefly for stock-feed, but it has
+possibilities as a flour substitute.
+
+The rice-growers of the South are doing their best to supply the
+country with rice in quantity and to make known the possibilities
+of this cereal. The rice flour supply, though not large now, will
+doubtless be much increased by next year. One Louisiana mill, for
+example, is increasing its output from 150 to 1,200 barrels a day.
+
+_Other Cereal Substitutes_. Besides the substitutes which are common
+all over the country, there are products produced in too small amounts
+to make them universal substitutes, such as buckwheat, cottonseed
+meal, and peanut flour, any of which can be used with other flours for
+baking. The Southwest produces both flour and meal from milo, kaffir,
+and feterita.
+
+Flours are made from the Irish and sweet potato, from tapioca, from
+soy beans, and bananas, but they are manufactured in such small
+amounts that they do not take the place of wheat to any great extent.
+Potato flour comes nearest to doing this. It has always been used
+to some extent in Europe and it is being widely used in Germany now.
+Potato itself can be used instead of wheat. An extra potato at a meal
+will take the place of a large slice of bread.
+
+Many of the substitute cereals do not keep so well as wheat,
+especially if they contain more than a minimum of moisture and fat.
+The housekeeper and the baker should therefore buy them in small
+enough quantities to use them up promptly and should keep them in a
+cool, well-ventilated place. May and June and the summer months are
+the time when most care is needed.
+
+It is the free use of these many wholesome substitutes that is making
+possible the necessary saving of wheat. We who appreciate their
+wholesomeness and their value can well break away from our wheat habit
+and gladly make the little effort sometimes necessary to begin using
+newer foods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+WAR BREAD
+
+
+Bread is the staff of life for all nations. But "bread" does not
+necessarily mean the wheat loaf. At one time and place it has been
+barley cake, at another oaten cake, and at another corn pone. Bread
+has always been whatever cereal happened to be convenient. Even such
+unbreadlike food as rice is to some races what bread is to us.
+
+Why, then, have we developed our wheat-bread habit? Partly because
+wheat bread has been easy to get and we have grown to like the taste,
+but chiefly because wheat flour gives the lightest loaf. To understand
+why, make a dough with a little white flour and water and then gently
+knead it in cold water. The consistency changes, the starch is washed
+out and a rubbery, sticky ball is left--the _gluten_, which is the
+protein of the wheat. It is this gluten in the flour that stretches
+when bread rises and then stiffens when it is baked, making a light,
+porous loaf. Wheat is the only one of the cereals that has much
+gluten; rye has a little and the others practically none.
+
+Gluten seems to be essential to the making of a light, yeast-raised
+loaf. Products raised with baking-powder, for which our standard of
+lightness is different--"quick breads" like biscuits and muffins
+and cakes--do not require the gluten and can easily be made from
+substitute cereals. But for our ordinary loaf of bread, at least some
+wheat seems to be almost essential, though with skill in the making,
+rye can be made to serve in its place. Patriotic bakers and housewives
+all over the country have been trying to produce a wheatless
+loaf which is light, palatable, and sufficiently durable to stand
+transportation. The durability is a very important consideration;
+crumbly corn bread cannot be distributed by bakers nor served to
+armies. Corn bread and the other quick breads are chiefly home-made
+products.
+
+OUR PRESENT PROBLEM, THEREFORE, IS TO MAKE THE MOST EFFECTIVE
+POSSIBLE USE OF OUR WHEAT GLUTEN, TO MAKE IT GO AS FAR AS POSSIBLE IN
+OUR BREADS. BOTH BAKERS AND PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS HAVE THEIR SHARE IN
+SOLVING THE PROBLEM.
+
+
+THE BAKERS' REGULATIONS. VICTORY BREAD
+
+The bakers have co-operated loyally. Probably no other food industry
+has been more vitally affected by the war. ALL BAKERS USING THREE
+OR MORE BARRELS OF FLOUR A MONTH HAVE BEEN LICENSED AND SO ARE UNDER
+THE CONTROL OF THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION. This means practically all
+the commercial bakers of the country, and many hotels, clubs, and
+institutions. About two-fifths of the bread in the United States is
+made in bakeries and three-fifths in the home. The bakeries have used
+35,000,000 barrels of flour each year, so the importance of this field
+for conservation is plain.
+
+The amount of wheat flour they are now permitted to have has been
+reduced: at present 80 per cent of their last year's quantity, or,
+if they are pastry and cracker bakers, 70 per cent. They must make no
+bread wholly of wheat flour. Some substitute must be mixed with the
+wheat. When the regulation went into effect in February, 1918, 20 per
+cent was required and later, 25 per cent. In pies and cakes there must
+be at least one-third substitute. The amounts of sugar and fat used
+are limited. Even the sizes of the loaves are fixed, so that the
+extravagance of making and handling all sorts of fancy shapes and
+sizes may be avoided. Bread must not be sold to the retailer at
+unreasonable prices.
+
+Victory bread is bread made in accordance with these regulations.
+The name "Victory" was chosen as representing the idea underlying
+the conservation of wheat. The name is really a present to the Food
+Administration, having been used by two large firms who gave up all
+rights to their trade-mark.
+
+Hotels and restaurants are required to make or serve bread containing
+at least as much of the wheat substitutes as Victory bread. They may
+not serve more than two ounces of bread and other wheat products to a
+guest at a meal. Many of them have recently promised to use no wheat
+at all till the next harvest. That means, of course, that only through
+intelligent effort can they serve yeast bread.
+
+
+THE INDIVIDUAL'S ANSWER TO THE BREAD CRY
+
+UNTIL THE WHEAT-SUPPLY INCREASES AND THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION LESSENS
+RESTRICTIONS, USE NO WHEAT AT ALL IF YOU CAN POSSIBLY DO WITHOUT.
+Remember that you can make delicious muffins and other quick breads
+from the substitute flours. And you need no bread at all at some
+meals. An extra potato or a serving of rice can be eaten instead of
+the usual two slices of bread and the body will be supplied with the
+same amount of energy. Do not be the slave of old food habits. WHEN
+ALL EUROPE IS EATING TO KEEP ALIVE, FASTIDIOUSNESS AND FOOD "NOTIONS"
+MUST PLAY NO PART IN THE DIETARY.
+
+Some people find it is almost impossible to do without the baker's
+loaf. Hundreds in crowded city quarters have no facilities of their
+own for baking. Women doing their share in factories and workshops
+cannot get up earlier to make corn bread for breakfast. Victory bread
+must be saved for them. For households which must use wheat, the Food
+Administration has fixed a voluntary ration of 11/2 pounds of wheat
+per week for each person. This includes wheat in the form of bread,
+pastry, macaroni, crackers, noodles, and breakfast foods.
+
+All who can should do more than their share--they must do their utmost
+to make up for those whose circumstances prevent them from doing it.
+THE INTERESTS AND DESIRES OF EACH OF US IN THIS WAR CAN BE TRANSLATED
+INTO SERVICE IN NO MORE EFFECTIVE WAY THAN BY CONFORMING OUR FOOD
+HABITS TO THE NEEDS OF THE HOUR.
+
+
+FLOUR AND BREAD IN THE ALLIED COUNTRIES
+
+All the Allied countries have been stretching their meagre
+wheat-supply to the limit and are enforcing the most stringent
+regulations.
+
+The flour is required to be of high extraction--ordinarily from 81
+per cent to 90 per cent, decidedly higher than our 74 per cent. Even
+with this coarse, gray flour a large percentage of substitute must be
+mixed, usually 25 per cent. In England there are local regulations on
+the use of mashed potato in bread. Their bread must be twelve hours
+old before it is sold, so that people will not be tempted to eat too
+much. The result is seldom palatable. In France no flour at all may
+be used to make the delectable pastries and cakes which have long been
+the delight of the French people and their guests. In Italy, macaroni,
+which in many regions is as much the "staff of life" as bread,
+must contain 43 per cent substitute, and in some places may not be
+manufactured at all.
+
+Both England and France have subsidized bread; the Government has set
+a price below cost and itself makes up the difference to the baker.
+England has appropriated $200,000,000 for the purpose.
+
+Bread rations are in force in both France and Italy. France has
+recently put her whole people on a rigorous ration which limits them
+to two-thirds of the amount of bread that they have been accustomed
+to. Remember that bread is a far more important part of the French
+diet than of ours. Even children under three have bread cards allowing
+them 31/2 ounces a day. Rations are not a guarantee that the amount
+mentioned will be forthcoming; they only permit one to have it if it
+can be obtained. One interesting result of the stringency, according
+to an American officer writing from Paris, is that guests even at
+formal dinners, may be asked to bring their own bread, finding this
+postscript on their invitations: "Apportez un peu de pain si vous le
+voulez."[1] In Italy the very limited bread rations are fixed locally.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Bring a little bread if you wish it."]
+
+England has compulsory rations for meat and butter or margarine and
+sugar, but not for bread. Her bread system is voluntary like ours,
+but much more detailed. The voluntary ration allows one-half pound of
+bread a day for sedentary and unoccupied women and larger allowances
+up to a little over a pound for men doing heavy labor. Waste of any
+kind is very heavily punished--one woman was fined $500 for throwing
+away stale bread.
+
+"Why not send corn abroad?" One hears the question over and over
+again. The answers are many. In the first place, we _are_ sending corn
+over--our exports of corn during March, 1918, increased 180 per cent
+and of corn meal 383 per cent over the pre-war average. This they
+are using as we are using it in our Victory bread. But they must have
+enough wheat to make a durable loaf of bread at the bakeshops, where
+for generations all the baking has been done. The French housewife
+has no facilities for bread-making and the French woman does not know
+how and has not the time to learn. She is doing a man's work and her
+own woman's labor besides, and the extra unaccustomed labor of
+bread-making cannot be added to her burdens.
+
+
+WHY WE IN THE UNITED STATES DO NOT HAVE BREAD CARDS
+
+Some people, disturbed either selfishly or patriotically by the
+failure of a neighbor to conserve wheat, have asked why the Food
+Administration trusts to voluntary methods, why it does not ration
+the country.
+
+Rationing may come yet, but any such system bristles with
+difficulties. The cost to the Government has been variously estimated
+all the way from $10,000,000 to $45,000,000 a year. Fifty per cent
+of the population could not be restrained in their consumption by
+rationing, for they are either producers or live in intimate contact
+with the producer. A wheat ration which would be fair for the North
+might actually increase the consumption in the South. Finally, the
+burden of a bread card would fall largely not on the well-to-do, who
+eat less wheat already and can easily cut down further, but on those
+with little to spend, who might have to change their whole food
+habits.
+
+The success that is meeting our method of voluntary reduction of
+consumption "will be one of the remembered glories of the American
+people in this titanic struggle."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE MEAT SITUATION
+
+
+Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to talk of
+it long before the war, and we shall find it with us after peace
+is declared. Great production of beef can take place only in sparse
+settlements. As the tide of increasing population flows over a
+country, the great cattle-ranges are crowded out, giving place to
+cultivated fields. More people means less room for cattle--a relative
+or even absolute decrease in the herds.
+
+
+WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED
+
+In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of European
+countries have raised most of their meat themselves, though usually
+they have had to import fodder to keep up their herds. They have been
+less dependent on import for meat than for wheat. Great Britain is the
+only country which has imported much meat--almost one-half her supply.
+Her imports, and to a lesser extent those of other European countries,
+have come chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six
+countries outside--the United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay,
+Australia, and New Zealand.
+
+
+THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY
+
+Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With meat as with
+wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships. Australia and New
+Zealand, and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder
+such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large amounts as
+it takes three times as much shipping to transport feed as it does the
+meat made by the animals from it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great
+Britain has practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and
+because much of what she has goes to Germany.
+
+The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the warring
+countries has fewer meat animals now than before the war. There were
+roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at the end of 1917 than
+in 1914. Many of those left are in very poor condition, so that the
+shortage is even more serious than is indicated by the falling off in
+numbers.
+
+Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition. Practically
+all the animals in those countries have been killed or confiscated by
+the invading German and Austrian armies. This is one cause of their
+terrible famine conditions.
+
+The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost seriously. France
+is the greatest loser of the three, with more than one-fifth of her
+herds gone. The enemy has driven off large numbers of her cattle. She,
+like the others, is in difficulty not only for meat, but for milk.
+Her situation is complicated by the fact that she has no great
+cold-storage plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at
+frequent intervals.
+
+Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the Allies in
+that she had many more animals in proportion to her population than
+they. But she was more dependent upon imports of feed, and as her
+commerce has been cut off, she has had to kill her animals faster.
+Counting up all her animals in terms of cattle according to the amount
+of meat they would yield, shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria,
+there are no available figures, but her decrease has probably been
+larger than Germany's.
+
+Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely connected
+with the shortage of available grain. When cereals are short, they
+must be fed to human beings rather than to animals. Feeding grain to
+animals and then eating the animals is not nearly so economical as
+eating grain directly. For example, when grain is fed to a cow, only
+31/2 per cent of the energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat,
+and 96 per cent is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When
+a man eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its
+energy. Thus 811/2 per cent more of the grain is actually used for human
+food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds, and uses grain for
+bread instead of turning it into meat.
+
+Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for meat for the
+great armies. The soldier's ration always contains more meat than is
+eaten by the civilian population.
+
+
+THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE
+
+The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption in order
+to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible. Compulsory meat
+rations are enforced in all the warring countries. They vary, of
+course, from time to time as the amount of available meat changes, but
+the following statements give a picture of how limited the allowances
+are in periods of shortage.
+
+England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the war. Her
+voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2 pounds per week.
+In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very low, and by the end of
+February London was put on meat rations, and in April the rest of the
+country. The rationing system has made distribution easier and more
+fair and greatly lessened the distressing "queues" of people waiting
+before butchers' shops for their allowance. The regulations allow each
+person 4 coupons a week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At
+first, 3 of these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or
+mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of bacon, ham,
+poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 11/4 pounds of meat a
+week.
+
+Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the United
+States was able to send in the late spring, heavy workers were
+permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they might buy a pound of
+bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were allowed 1 extra coupon for
+bacon, poultry, or game. But at the same time only 2 instead of 3
+coupons were to be used for fresh meat, so as to cut down further the
+slaughtering of cattle. Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or
+profiteering.
+
+In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of the size
+of those served in an American hotel. An American staying in London
+said recently that he could eat two meals in succession in a London
+restaurant, and leave the table still minus that self-satisfied
+feeling that a meal in America gives.
+
+At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and in the
+spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices also keep down
+consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2 meatless days, and cattle
+could not be slaughtered on the 2 preceding days. Though this order
+was abolished in October, 1917, meat had gone up so high in price
+that consumption went away down. The Paris letter of the London _Daily
+News_ and _Leader_ on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was
+selling for 4 shillings 2 pence--$1 per pound. Since May 15, 3 days a
+week must be meatless--Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. On these days
+all butchers' shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry
+or game. Fish is scarce and very expensive.
+
+Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3. The
+ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are decided locally
+and strictly regulated.
+
+The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The
+quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but the
+average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per person. It
+was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in the middle of
+May--barely two small servings each week.
+
+
+THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the United
+States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic the
+shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the loss from
+inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in Europe. The United
+States is now exporting far larger quantities than it has ever
+exported before. In March, 1918, we sent over 87,000,000 pounds of
+beef. Ordinarily we export between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a
+month. Of pork we sent 308,000,000 pounds--six times more than usual.
+It is roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000 pounds
+of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to the Allies and
+our army.
+
+To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a careful
+organization has been necessary. At first the Allied nations bought
+meat in this country as best they could in competition with the
+domestic market and each other, often feverishly to meet emergencies.
+LAST DECEMBER A COMMISSION WAS FORMED TO BUY FOR ALL THE ALLIES. The
+prices to be paid are settled by experts, after careful study, so that
+packers, storage warehouses, and producers shall all have adequate,
+but not excessive return for their labor. The buying is planned ahead
+so that we can ship at times when we have plenty.
+
+The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an increased
+slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may have serious
+consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for conservation is
+constant, though at times the situation becomes easier in one kind
+of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we were short on hogs. In
+the spring of 1918, thanks to the "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous
+conservation, as well as high prices, we temporarily had hogs in
+plenty. Beef is short for the summer season. Policies must change
+frequently with fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe.
+However, the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited
+only by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still
+larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which we can
+possibly accumulate.
+
+
+MEAT CONSERVATION
+
+Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's dietary
+as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison, in the quantity
+consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat and sugar or potatoes.
+Half of the people of the earth eat little or none of it. Only in two
+kinds of communities is meat used largely--new and thinly populated
+countries with much grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries.
+
+Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming more meat
+per person than any other country in the world--5 pounds a week in
+Australia and 4 pounds in New Zealand. The United States, parts of
+which may be considered in both classes, eats about 31/4 pounds per
+person weekly. This is much less than some years ago, when there was
+more grazing-land.
+
+Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used about 21/4
+pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption was slightly
+lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer animals or less
+wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average amount being about 11/2
+pounds a week--about half as much as our consumption.
+
+
+MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS
+
+Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and partly because
+it is a source of protein which is necessary to build or renew the
+various parts of the body. Every cell in the body contains it and
+needs a steady supply.
+
+Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of others--fish,
+cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas, nuts, cereals.
+Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein of anything that we
+eat. We can get protein just as satisfactorily from cheese and the
+other animal protein foods as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily
+from the vegetable protein foods. THE OLD IDEA THAT MEAT IS
+ESPECIALLY "STRENGTHENING" HAS NO FOUNDATION. Neither is one kind of
+meat less thoroughly digested than another.
+
+There is little danger in this country that our diet will fall too low
+in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than we need. Even those
+who must spend a dangerously limited amount on their diet, are not apt
+to be low in protein, for they often err on the side of spending an
+unwise proportion of their money on meat. Most scientists now consider
+three ounces of carefully chosen protein per day a safe allowance for
+an average man. An average woman needs less.
+
+It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count up
+roughly whether he is eating more or less than this quantity. A
+small serving of lean meat or fish, about two inches square and
+three-quarters of an inch thick, contains about one-half ounce
+of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a quarter of a cup of
+cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube of American cheese, each
+have about this same amount. So does a cup and a half of baked beans
+or two and a half cups of cooked cereal or six half-inch slices of
+bread (3 x 31/2 inches). A person eating six of these portions daily
+will of course have his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in
+his eating and patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his
+consumption not far from this quantity.
+
+
+THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES
+
+_Fish_. The possible supply of fish is practically unlimited, and
+much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat on the average only 18
+pounds apiece per year, though our meat consumption is 170 pounds. The
+British and Canadians use much more fish than we do--56 and 29 pounds
+respectively. The United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State
+colleges are constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down.
+We should learn to value the many kinds which are available, fresh,
+dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be used to.
+
+_Eggs_ form a very valuable food not only for protein, but for mineral
+salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate that the price is
+often high, but it should be realized that expenditure for eggs makes
+expenditure for meat unnecessary.
+
+_Poultry_ is not now listed as a meat substitute by the Food
+Administration because the supply has become very limited.
+
+_Cheese_ is one of the best substitutes for meat. It represents most
+of the food value of a much greater bulk of milk, and its protein,
+fat, and mineral salts make it an important food. We in America are
+very slow to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for
+its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat more of it,
+to the advantage both of the palatability and nutritive quality of our
+diet.
+
+_Milk_, one of the most easily digested and simplest sources of
+protein in our diet and the most valuable of our foods, is discussed
+in Chapter VII.
+
+_Nuts_ are usually thought of as a luxury, but the amount of protein
+and fat they contain makes them really an important food. Peanuts are
+usually classed with the nuts and are considered the most valuable
+nut-crop of the United States. They are growing so fast in importance
+that the acreage was increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for
+oil and for fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag
+of peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part of
+the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional indigestion
+following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is probably often due
+to forgetting that they are very substantial foods and eating them at
+the end of an already sufficient meal.
+
+_Peas and Beans_ are taken up with the other vegetables in Chapter
+VIII.
+
+Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because they
+haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All the fish and
+beans and peas that they can get are being used. But it is not enough.
+THEIR SMALL MEAT RATION MUST BE MAINTAINED, AND THEIR ARMIES AS WELL
+AS OURS MUST HAVE MEAT. KEEP IT GOING OVER!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+FATS
+
+
+To a person who has been in Europe since the war began the question of
+the importance of fats is no longer debatable. Having practically gone
+without them, he knows they are important. In Germany it is the lack
+of fat that is the cause, perhaps, of the most discomfort and makes
+the German most dissatisfied with his rations. Even when the diet was
+sufficient, it was not satisfactory if low in fat.
+
+This dependence on fat in the diet is due to several reasons, both
+physiological and psychological. Some people, the Japanese for
+example, habitually eat but little. But it is the habit of both
+Europeans and Americans to use considerable fat both on the table and
+in cooking. The taste of food is not so pleasing without it. Their
+recipes almost all use fat in one form or another, so that when little
+or none is available, a change must be made in most of the methods of
+cooking. Practically all food must be boiled, and is lacking in the
+flavor and texture to which we are accustomed. The food, no matter how
+nutritious it may be, will not taste good.
+
+Fats are very concentrated food, a fact which gives them added value
+in war-time, making them the most economical food to ship. A POUND OF
+ANY FAT GIVES 21/4 TIMES AS MUCH ENERGY AS A POUND OF SUGAR--the reason
+for the slogan "Fats Are Fuel for Fighters." Soldiers engaged in the
+most strenuous physical activities need fuel for all the energy they
+expend. Bacon, butter, all the forms of fat give them the most energy
+in the smallest weight of food.
+
+Fats stave off the feeling of hunger longer than other foods because
+they pass more slowly from the stomach and delay the passage of foods
+eaten with them. A slice of bread and butter will "satisfy" one for a
+much longer time than a slice of bread and jelly, even though there is
+enough jelly to give exactly the same amount of fuel. In the countries
+in which there is a fat shortage, the appetite does not stay satisfied
+during the usual period between meals, even when the previous meal
+contained the customary amount of calories. The feeling of hunger is
+sometimes almost constant.
+
+Certain fats are valuable for an entirely different reason. Milk fat,
+either in the milk or as butter, beef fat which is a constituent of
+oleomargarine, the fat in the yolk of egg, all contain one of the
+vitamines needed by children in order to grow properly, and by grown
+people to keep in good health. Lard and the vegetable fats and oils,
+like nut or vegetable margarine and cottonseed-oil, do not contain
+this substance, but if there is sufficient milk in the diet, there
+will be plenty of this "fat-soluble vitamine." In all other respects
+the fats are alike from a nutritional standpoint. One fat can replace
+another without harm.
+
+Until the war came there was little need of knowing or bothering as
+to what kind of fats we ate, or of concerning ourselves with the fact
+that many more varieties were available than most of us used. Now it
+does make a decided difference. OUR ARMIES AND THOSE OF THE ALLIES
+NEED FAT, A GREAT DEAL OF IT, AND WE MUST SHIP THEM THE KIND MOST
+SUITED TO THEIR PURPOSES. WE CAN USE WHAT THE ALLIES AND THE ARMY DO
+NOT NEED.
+
+
+THE SITUATION ABROAD
+
+There is a shortage of the animal fats, lard, butter, and
+oleomargarine for the same reasons, of course, that cause the meat
+shortage. England, particularly recently, has had very little, less
+even than the French and Italians, who are not accustomed to using
+much.
+
+England was the largest butter importer in the world, getting her
+supply mostly from northwestern Europe, Denmark, Russia, Sweden, and
+Holland. Russia can no longer supply her. Neither can the neutrals,
+who have been supplying Germany under pressure; they need Germany's
+coal. Although the United States has increased her butter exports
+to the United Kingdom, if our entire exports went to them, it would
+supply only 6 per cent of the amount needed.
+
+To help the situation, England has greatly increased her manufacture
+of oleomargarine. Oleo oil and vegetable oils are being imported
+in large quantities and now England uses twice as much margarine as
+butter. But even with the margarine to help out, there is but little
+to go around. The weekly ration of butter and margarine is one-fourth
+of a pound per person, and at times even that amount has not been
+available. In April an American newspaper man in London reported that
+he had forgotten what butter tasted like. It could only be obtained
+on the farms, and even those who made it were strictly limited in the
+amount that they could keep themselves. Not even margarine could be
+served at luncheon or dinner. There were long queues in front of the
+shops before the distribution was better systematized. At present the
+total amount of fat in the diet is increased somewhat by the allowance
+of bacon and ham.
+
+In Germany the fat shortage, has been so severe that, combined with
+the bread shortage, it has been the greatest cause of food riots.
+Before the war the Germans imported about half their supply, most of
+which is now cut off. Of course, the vegetable oils from the United
+States and the tropics are not available. The neutrals have had to
+lessen their exports because of their own shortage, and the embargo
+which the United States laid on its exports of fats to neutrals.
+Germany's inability to feed her animals has greatly curtailed her
+supply of animal fats.
+
+As a result the rations have been decreasing steadily in spite of
+every effort. Bones are collected and the fat extracted. Seeds, such
+as those of the sunflower, and the kernels of fruit have the oil
+pressed from them. During 1915-16 the rations varied from 31/4 ounces
+to 10 ounces of table fat a week. By December, 1917, it had been
+decreased, so that the average total fat ration was a little under 3
+ounces a week, some communities receiving a little more, and others
+none at all. The local newspapers give interesting side-lights showing
+the results of this shortage. An owner of a boot-shop was prosecuted
+by the police for having 70 pairs of good shoes which he would sell
+only in exchange for butter or bacon. (_Brunswick Volksfreund_,
+January 16, 1918.)
+
+
+THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+The United States has great resources of vegetable oils, cottonseed,
+peanut, corn, and olive oil. It is this apparent plenty that makes
+it so difficult for many to visualize the shortage abroad. We are
+shipping about one-third of the lard which we produce, and large
+quantities of oleo oil for oleomargarine. Although the exports of
+butter in 1917 have almost been doubled since the preceding fiscal
+year, it is relatively unimportant, representing only about 1 per
+cent of the production. We are shipping cottonseed oil also, but this
+requires tank-steamers, which are scarce. In general, as the oils are
+much more difficult to handle and impossible for the armies to use, we
+must ship the solid animal fats.
+
+_The Individual's Part in Fat Conservation_. Although at present
+there is butter and lard on the market, the need for conserving
+it is important, just as in the case of meat. WASTE OF ANY KIND
+SHOULD BE ABHORRENT TO ALL OF US AT THIS TIME. There probably
+has been a greater waste of fat than of any other commodity, but
+it is encouraging to note that this waste has been decreased by
+conservation. The amount of fat in city garbage has gone down all over
+the country. In Columbus, Ohio, the fat in the garbage was almost 50
+per cent less in 1917 than in 1916. In fourteen large cities with a
+total population of over 5,000,000 nearly 40 per cent less fat was
+recovered in March, 1918, than in March, 1917.
+
+Not only can fat be saved by carefully avoiding every bit of waste,
+but less can actually be used. FRY FOOD LESS, AND BAKE, BROIL,
+OR BOIL THEM MORE. USE VEGETABLE OILS. In a long view of the food
+situation, it is the animal fats that cause gravest concern, because
+of the years necessary to build up a herd. WE MUST SEND AS MUCH FAT
+ABROAD AS POSSIBLE, AND CREATE RESERVES FOR PERIODS OF SHORTAGE WITH A
+MINIMUM DEPLETION OF OUR HERDS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SUGAR
+
+
+OF ALL THE FOODS WHICH IT IS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE, SUGAR IS THE
+EASIEST TO DO WITHOUT. If the war and what it means has become part
+of a person's consciousness, he wishes only the bare essentials. Sugar
+is a luxury of former times which has become a commonplace to-day.
+The average use in the United States was 83 pounds per person last
+year--1-2/3 pounds a week--less than one hundred years ago the yearly
+consumption was 9 pounds. Sugar was a rare luxury. It will do no harm
+to regard it so again.
+
+
+WHY IS THERE A SUGAR SHORTAGE?
+
+Sugar is scarce for two reasons--much less beet-sugar is actually
+being grown, and some of the cane-sugar is too far away to be
+available. The sugar-beet, grown in temperate climates, and the
+sugar-cane, native in tropical and semitropical regions, are the only
+two sources of sugar large enough to be of more than local importance.
+
+Before the war, 93 per cent of the entire world crop of beet-sugar
+was grown in Europe. The industry was started by Napoleon in the early
+nineteenth century when he was at war with most of Europe, and France
+was shut off from her supply of cane-sugar from the West Indies. The
+industry spread over the great plain of Central Europe, from the north
+of France over Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary to Central Russia. In
+1914 all of these countries were producing enough sugar for their own
+needs. England produced none at all, but the continent, especially
+Germany and Austria, supplied her with about 54 per cent of what she
+needed.
+
+[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR
+FACTORIES--ALSO BATTLE LINES AT CLOSE OF 1916
+
+ESTIMATED THAT ONE-THIRD OF WORLD'S PROOUCTION BEFORE THE WAR WAS
+PRODUCED WITHIN BATTLE LINES]
+
+The beet-sugar industry in the United States started in 1863 and
+has grown rapidly since 1897. In 1917 it supplied 22 per cent of the
+consumption.
+
+Sugar-cane is grown in tropical and semitropical countries all over
+the globe. Cuba leads in the amount produced, and consumes only
+a small fraction of her production herself. Java, too, is a large
+exporter. India raises millions of tons but has to import some to
+fill all her needs. In the United States, Louisiana, Texas, and some
+parts of Florida produce about 6 per cent of what we use, but our
+dependencies, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines all
+export to us, and together with Cuba, make up the deficiency.
+
+The war has changed entirely the peace-time distribution. The map
+shows what the battle-lines have done to the beetfields of Europe.
+Belgium and the northern part of France, in which practically all
+the beets were grown, are in German hands. In 1914 the battle-line
+eliminated 203 of the 213 French sugar-factories. In 1916-17 the
+falling back of the Germans had returned 65 factories to the French,
+but now again some of these have fallen into the enemy's hands. The
+French crop in 1915-16 was only one-fifth of the crop before the war
+and the following year it was only a fourth. Italy's crop was 25 per
+cent less in 1916-17 than before the war and the estimated yield for
+this year is 50 per cent less. England, of course, can no longer get
+sugar from the continent.
+
+So the allied world must import cane-sugar or have almost no sugar
+at all. The cane-sugar supply is largely dependent on shipping. Ships
+cannot be spared to go to the East. Therefore the sugar of Cuba and
+the rest of the West Indies, our main source of supply, must be shared
+with the Allies. It is to the credit of all involved that every effort
+is being made to see that the division is a fair one. A commission
+representing the Allies, the United States, and Cuba apportioned the
+1917-18 Cuban crop and fixed its price. Competitive bidding by the
+many purchasers, with the danger of forcing up the price of the
+limited supply, was in this way prevented.
+
+
+THE EFFECT OF THE SHORTAGE
+
+The rations of Europe are the most convincing evidence of the extent
+of the sugar shortage. In England 1/2 pound a week is allowed for each
+person, half the average amount used in their households before the
+war. France had sugar cards long before she had any other ration.
+Seven ounces a week were allowed, and later in the year only
+one-quarter of a pound. Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1918 had an
+average household ration of 6 ounces a week.
+
+The United States in accordance with its usual method is asking
+the individual for voluntary conservation of sugar. Each household
+is asked to observe a voluntary weekly ration of not more than
+three-quarters of a pound per person. Extra amounts of sugar for home
+canning may be secured by making a certified declaration to the dealer
+that it is to be used only for canning and preserving.
+
+Food manufacturers using sugar are dealt with more strictly than
+private individuals. Every business using sugar may purchase it only
+on certificates obtained from the Federal Food Administrators. At
+present manufacturers of essential products such as canned vegetables
+and fruits may get the amount needed to fill their necessary
+requirements. Manufacturers of less essential products get a
+percentage of what they used before--at present soft-drink and candy
+manufacturers get 50 per cent and ice-cream makers 75 per cent.
+
+The decreased use of sugar has resulted in the release of the ships
+which had been used to bring Cuban sugar to this country--50,000 tons
+freed to carry men and munitions and food to the Western front in the
+spring of 1918.
+
+
+IN PLACE OF SUGAR
+
+The United States is much more fortunate than Europe in having sweets
+other than sugar at its disposal. As our corn-crop is immense,
+the supply of corn-syrup is limited only by the ability of the
+manufacturers to turn it out. It is a wholesome, palatable syrup and
+can often take the place of sugar both in cooking and on the table.
+Although it is not as sweet as ordinary sugar, it serves the body
+for fuel in the same way. We have cane-syrup, and also molasses and
+refiner's syrup, by-products of sugar-making, and in some parts of
+the country, local products such as honey, maple sugar and syrup,
+and sorghum syrup. Sweet fruits, both fresh and dried, contain
+considerable amounts of sugar, some of the dried fruits being over
+two-thirds sugar, and when added to cereals, for example, take the
+place of part or all of the sugar.
+
+
+THE PRICE OF SUGAR
+
+In spite of the short supply, the Food Administration has kept down
+the price of sugar by an agreement with the sugar-refineries that the
+wholesale price must not be more than the cost of the raw sugar plus
+a fixed amount to cover costs of refining. Even during December,
+1917, when there was a severe shortage in the East, the price
+remained stable. Refiners say that without regulation by the Food
+Administration the price would have gone to 25 cents a pound or
+higher.
+
+At times the Food Administration has had to use compulsion to keep the
+price level and has not hesitated to do so where necessary. Licenses
+have been withdrawn for failure to comply with regulations, and
+businesses closed for longer or shorter times. One dealer who was
+charging 14 cents a pound for sugar had his store closed for 2 weeks;
+another paid $200 to the Red Cross for overcharging; another, for
+selling sugar and flour without regard to regulations, was closed
+indefinitely.
+
+
+TO CUT DOWN ON SUGAR
+
+USE FEWER SWEETS OF ANY KIND AND USE SUGAR SUBSTITUTES. Sugar
+does serve a desirable purpose in making certain of our foods more
+palatable, but the quantity necessary for this is small, and for much
+of it other sweets can be used instead. The household consumption uses
+by far the largest percentage of the sugar-supply. Its economical use
+also helps to provide a reserve for preserving surplus fruits. SUCH
+"EXTRAS" AS CANDY AND CAKES CAN BE ENTIRELY DISPENSED WITH.
+
+Of course, sugar is a food, as it is burned in the body for fuel.
+But there are two good physiological reasons for avoiding excessive
+amounts. If we eat a large quantity in candy after already sufficient
+meals, we are overeating and may suffer from digestive disturbances
+in consequence. Eating sweets instead of other food is also bad and a
+cause of undernourishment. Sugar is pure carbohydrate, and although
+we may eat enough to satisfy the feeling of hunger the body will lack
+minerals, protein, and other substances absolutely necessary for
+its well-being. The person may feel satisfied, but he will be
+undernourished nevertheless.
+
+The conservation of sugar will not only permit a fair distribution to
+our associates in the war, but insure a sufficient amount for our own
+men. It is especially valuable for them because it burns so rapidly in
+the body that it gives energy more quickly than other foods.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH
+
+
+In war-time there is constant danger of letting down the health
+standard. Food is high in price, demands on incomes are many and
+insistent, worst of all, life is being expended so freely abroad that
+we become careless about it at home. But while we are fighting to make
+the world a decent place to live in, we must keep up our health and
+vigor at home.
+
+MILK IS VITAL TO NATIONAL HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY. We can conserve
+wheat and meat, sugar and fats, and be none the worse for it, but WE
+MUST USE MILK. The children of to-day must have it for the sake of a
+vigorous, hardy manhood to-morrow. A quart for every child, a pint for
+every adult is not too high an ideal.
+
+There is no lack of evidence that children suffer if they do not have
+enough. In New York in this past winter, two things were observed
+which are undoubtedly closely connected--increased undernutrition
+among school children, and decreased use of milk. The Mayor's Milk
+Committee in the fall of 1917 reported that the city as a whole
+had cut down its milk consumption 25 per cent, and certain tenement
+districts 50 per cent. The majority of the families who had reduced
+the milk to little or none were giving their children tea and coffee
+instead--substituting drinks actually harmful to children for the most
+valuable food they could have.
+
+About the same time as the milk investigation, a count was made of
+the number of New York children who were seriously undernourished--
+half-starved. Twelve were found in every 100 children, twice as many
+as the year before.
+
+The warring nations in Europe fully realize the value of milk. In the
+face of a serious shortage they are making every effort to get to the
+children as much milk as can be produced or imported. Until children,
+mothers, and invalids are supplied, no one else may buy any. For adults,
+milk is an almost unknown luxury.
+
+All the countries have definite milk rations for their children. These
+rations would be adequate if they could be obtained, but many times
+they fall short. Every effort is made to treat all children, rich and
+poor, alike. The price of milk is regulated, but parents who cannot
+afford to buy it are given it free or at cost. Dried and condensed
+milk are used where they can be obtained and fresh milk cannot.
+Thousands of tons of condensed milk have been sent over from America.
+There has been scarcely a child born in the north of France and none
+in Belgium whose continued life during all that period has not been
+dependent upon American condensed milk. At one time the Ministry of
+Food in Great Britain, anticipating a milk shortage in the winter
+bought large quantities of dried milk for distribution by local health
+committees and infant welfare societies.
+
+In Belgium, in spite of the misery of the people, fewer young children
+are dying than before the war, because of the milk and bread and care
+that they get at the "soupes" and children's canteens. But in Poland,
+Roumania, and Serbia, thousands and tens of thousands of babies and
+young children have died since the war for lack of milk and other
+food.
+
+Grown people should use milk and appreciate that it is far more than
+a beverage. Comparing it with tea and coffee is not sensible. The idea
+that food is "something to chew" breaks down completely when milk is
+considered. "Milk is both meat and drink."
+
+
+THE VALUABLE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK
+
+What gives milk its unique value? It must contain especially valuable
+substances, since it is an adequate food for the young for several
+months after birth and is one of the most important constituents of a
+grown person's diet.
+
+It contains protein of a kind more valuable, especially for growing
+children, than that of most other foods. Milk protein separates out
+when milk sours and is the familiar cottage-cheese. Because of it,
+milk, whole or skim, is a valuable meat substitute. When we drink
+milk, therefore, we need less meat.
+
+It contains fat. A pint of milk has a little more than half an
+ounce--the same amount as an ordinary serving of butter. By drinking
+milk we can save fat as well as meat.
+
+Milk-sugar is also present, more or less like ordinary sugar, but
+not so sweet. The sugar, the fat, and part of the protein burn in
+the body, giving the energy needed for the body's activities. A pint
+gives as much fuel as 4 eggs, or half a pound of meat, or 3 or 4 large
+slices of bread. Although bread is cheaper fuel than milk, its economy
+compared with meat or eggs is obvious. The pint of milk costs usually
+about 7 cents, while the eggs and meat cost at least two or three
+times as much. The economy of substituting milk for at least part of
+the meat in the diet is plain. It is the advice of an expert to "let
+no family of 5 buy meat till it has bought 3 quarts of milk."
+
+But this is not the whole story of milk. Milk is extraordinarily rich
+in calcium, commonly called lime, necessary for the growth of the
+bones and teeth and also important in the diet of adults, even though
+they have stopped growing. No other food has nearly as much. A pint
+has almost enough calcium for one entire day's supply. It takes 21/4
+pounds of carrots to give the same amount, or 7 pounds of white bread
+or the impossible quantity of 21 pounds of beef! A diet without milk
+(or cheese) is in great danger of being too low in calcium, especially
+a meat-and-bread diet without vegetables.
+
+Among the most necessary constituents of milk are the two vitamines.
+One is present chiefly in the fat and the other in the watery part
+of the milk. Without milk fat, in whole milk or in butter, we run
+considerable risk of having too little of the fat-soluble vitamine.
+The other vitamine is more widely distributed in our foods, so that
+with our varied diet there is little danger of not getting enough.
+
+Milk, therefore, fills all the needs of the child, except, perhaps,
+for iron, and is one of the best foods in the diet of grown people.
+THERE IS NO OTHER FOOD THAT HAS ALL THE VIRTUES OF MILK; IT THEREFORE
+HAS NO SUBSTITUTE. "THE REGULAR USE OF MILK IS THE GREATEST SINGLE
+FACTOR OF SAFETY IN THE HUMAN DIET."
+
+
+OUR MILK PROBLEM
+
+We have not nearly enough milk in the United States to give every
+child the quart and every adult the pint which they should have.
+Although we actually produce about a quart per person, more than
+half of this is used for butter, cheese, and cream, and only about
+two-thirds of a pint is drunk directly as milk or used in cooking.
+This spring we have slightly more than this amount because of the
+dairymen's response to the patriotic appeal to maintain production,
+but our supply and consumption of milk are still far below what they
+should be.
+
+To increase the quantity in the country the price of milk must be low
+enough for people to afford it, but high enough to keep the producer
+and distributer in the business. The question of a fair price is a
+difficult one. The cost of feed has gone up, labor is scarce and dear,
+but further economies in both production and distribution are still
+possible. This past winter the Food Administration and the Dairy
+Division of the Department of Agriculture have assisted many local
+commissions in determining fair milk prices and pointing out economies
+all along the line of the milk business.
+
+It is most unfortunate that ignorance of the value of milk makes
+people particularly sensitive to a change in its price. When it goes
+up even a cent a quart, many cut down their consumption, while a
+considerably larger advance in the price of meat will make little
+difference in the amount bought.
+
+If diminished use of milk continues, dairymen may go out of business
+and permanent harm be done, both to us and to those dependent on
+us abroad. A factory may close down and when the need comes reopen
+immediately, but if a cow is killed it takes practically three years
+to replace her.
+
+The milk we have should be used as effectively as possible. The most
+economical way for a nation to use its milk so as to get the benefit
+of all the food in it, is, of course, as whole milk, or evaporated
+or dried whole milk. The next most economical way is in the form of
+whole-milk cheese, since all but the whey is used in it.
+
+Cream and butter are much less economical unless all the skim milk
+is used. As 41 per cent of our milk-supply goes to make butter, we
+have large quantities of skim milk containing as much protein, it is
+estimated, as all the beef we eat.
+
+At present we feed the largest part of this to animals or actually
+throw it away. Since the cottage-cheese drive of the Department
+of Agriculture, an increasing amount of it is being made into
+cottage-cheese--a palatable and useful meat substitute. It can, of
+course, be used as a beverage or in cooking. Whey also has many food
+uses. Buttermilk, too, is justly popular and healthful. Skim milk is
+not a substitute for whole milk for children.
+
+Cream, valuable food though it is, is also extravagant in its use of
+milk. It takes five quarts of milk to produce a quart of cream. Buying
+whole milk is, therefore, better policy than buying cream and no milk.
+The sale of cream is now forbidden in Great Britain for this reason.
+
+
+OUR MILK ABROAD
+
+It is our supply of milk that is helping to meet the milk shortage
+abroad. Before the war we exported very little. By 1917 our export of
+evaporated, condensed, and dried milk had gone up twentyfold. In the
+spring of 1918 we sent over the equivalent in whole milk of almost
+50,000,000 pounds a month, and should probably have sent much more
+were it not for the lack of ships. After the war, when ships are
+released, the demand for it will be enormous. It will take years to
+build up the dairy-herds of Europe again, so we shall continue to be
+their main source of supply.
+
+LEARN AND TEACH THE UNIQUE VALUE AND ECONOMY OF MILK. DO EVERYTHING
+TO PREVENT IN THIS COUNTRY THE TRAGIC RESULTS WHICH ARE FOLLOWING THE
+CUTTING DOWN OF MILK CONSUMPTION ABROAD.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+
+Vegetables and fruits represent a different and happier phase of
+the food situation than our short supplies of wheat and meat. The
+vegetables especially are a great potential reserve of food, for they
+can be produced in quantity in three or four months on unused land by
+labor that otherwise might not be used.
+
+Abroad every resource for vegetable-raising is being utilized to the
+utmost. France and Belgium have long made the most of all their land.
+Now England has made it compulsory to leave no ground uncultivated.
+Golf-courses are now potato-patches. Parks and every bit of back yard
+all grow their quota of vegetables. The boys in the old English public
+schools work with the hoe where before they played football.
+
+We in America have no more than touched our capacity for raising
+gardens. What we have done is merely a beginning. As the war goes
+on we shall realize more and more the necessity for seizing every
+opportunity for active service. The accomplishments of the summer of
+1917 showed the possibilities of the work, and placed it beyond the
+purely experimental stage. They have given experience and emphasized
+the value of expert advice and the economy of community efforts.
+
+Not only is the "plant a garden" a civilian movement, but it has
+taken hold in the armies as well. The American Army Garden service
+is planning truck-gardens in France to supply our troops. The Woman's
+Auxiliary Army Corps of England plants gardens back of the British
+lines. Last summer the French fed 20,000 of their men from similar
+gardens.
+
+EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN IN THESE HOME AND COMMUNITY GARDENS
+RELIEVES THE RAILROAD CONGESTION AND GIVES MORE SPACE FOR TRANSPORTING
+MUNITIONS AND COAL. EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN RELEASES STAPLES FOR
+EUROPE. Extra production of food of any kind, anywhere, takes on a
+new significance in the presence of half a world hungry.
+
+IF YOU CANNOT GROW VEGETABLES, USE THEM IN ABUNDANCE ANYWAY. They
+are too perishable to ship abroad and too bulky, containing so much
+water that it would be an uneconomical use of shipping to export them.
+But the more America eats of almost any kind of vegetable or fruit,
+the less of the more durable, concentrated foods will she require. The
+products are so varied in kind and composition that they can be used
+to serve almost any purpose--beans and peas to save meat; potatoes
+and others to save wheat; sweet fruits to save sugar; jams, even,
+when spread on bread, to save fat. All will improve the health and
+therefore increase human energies for winning the war.
+
+
+IN THE WAR DIET
+
+_To Save Meat_. Beans and peas and peanuts are the only vegetables
+with much protein, so that they are the ones thought of primarily as
+meat substitutes. There are many kinds of them, fresh or dried, more
+than most of us realize. It is worth while to add to the diet not
+only the ordinary white or navy beans, but kidney, lima, black or soy
+beans, cow-peas, the many colored beans such as the pinto, frijoles,
+and the California pinks. It is these latter kinds that are used
+by the Mexicans as their chief standby. The Army and Navy use huge
+quantities of the white beans, and the Allied Governments are also
+buying tons of the pintos.
+
+The 1917 bean-crop, in response to the patriotic appeal, was 50 per
+cent higher than the normal. Nearly all this increase was in the
+colored beans, chiefly pintos. The Food Administration, fearing
+that some of this unusual surplus might be wasted and the farmer
+discouraged from producing a large output in 1918, bought up the extra
+crop and distributed it for sale at the different markets.
+
+Though soy beans and peanuts at least are exceptions, the protein
+in beans and peas is not so satisfactory as a bodybuilder as that in
+animal foods, so that a diet in which they are a large part should
+contain also some milk or eggs or a little meat. Two cups (half a
+pound) of shelled green peas or beans, or one cup with a cup of skim
+milk gives as much protein as a quarter of a pound of beef. Dried
+beans and peas are, of course, cheaper than the canned with their
+larger amount of water. At the usual market prices as much fuel can
+be bought for 5 cents spent for dried peas as for 25 cents for canned
+peas.
+
+Meat-savers do not all have to be high-protein foods, since the diet
+of most of us contains considerably more protein than is necessary.
+Any vegetable can be a "meat extender." The pleasant flavor of
+meat can be obtained in meat stews, such as the delicious French
+"pot-au-feu." Stews can easily be made with less meat and more
+vegetables than usual. The meat allowance is now so very small in
+France and the vegetables so scarce in the cities, that the ingenuity
+of even the French woman is taxed to get a meal.
+
+_To Save Wheat_. Potatoes to save wheat! The great potato drive to
+utilize the surplus of our huge 1917 potato-crop, 100,000,000 bushels
+above normal, has fixed in every one's mind the interchangeableness
+of these two foods. Potatoes are one-fifth starch--almost the same
+quantity as in cooked breakfast cereals. Because of this starch, they
+give as satisfactory a fuel as wheat or corn or any other cereal. One
+medium-sized potato supplies the same number of calories as a large
+slice of bread, and contains more mineral salts than white bread.
+Europe has learned to eat potatoes instead of wheat. When bread has
+been short potatoes have been the mainstay in every country. They are
+to-day the largest single element, in terms of energy, in the German
+war ration.
+
+Sweet potatoes are also first-class wheat-savers. So to a lesser
+extent are most vegetables and fruits. Very few except white and
+sweet potatoes contain much starch, but many of them have considerable
+sugar, which serves as fuel just as starch does--carrots, beets,
+onions, parsnips, and practically all fruits such as bananas, oranges,
+and grapes.
+
+_To Save Sugar_. We want sugar, of course, both for fuel and flavor.
+The vegetables and some fruits have their sugar so covered up by
+other tastes that it does not help to make the food sweet. It does, of
+course, serve for fuel. Bananas especially are fuel foods, containing
+much starch when green, which changes to sugar as the fruit ripens.
+The sweetest fruits are the dried ones--dates, figs, raisins, prunes.
+They have so much sugar that they can well be used in place of candy.
+
+_To Save Fat_, Although few common fruits and vegetables contain
+fat, jam is a real fat-saver. It is of high fuel value, and has the
+advantage of being a "spreading material" so that it can replace
+butter with bread and cereals. Jam is of great importance in Europe
+to-day and all the Governments have taken steps to keep up the supply.
+It is a regular part of the English army ration.
+
+_To Keep the Nation Well_. An increase in the use of vegetables and
+fruits is practically sure to mean an increase in health. Many of us,
+especially city-dwellers, do not eat enough of them. Many a young
+girl who "does not like vegetables" probably owes part of her languor
+to inadequate diet. The old-fashioned "touch of scurvy" formerly
+noticed at the end of the winter and even now not an unknown thing,
+was probably due to lack of vegetables in the winter diet. The
+constipation which is so disturbingly prevalent can usually be cured
+or prevented by eating vegetables and fruits in sufficient quantities.
+One of the most serious limitations in the diet of many of the
+very poor is the lack of vegetables as well as milk and the unduly
+large proportion of meat and bread. In a community in New York City
+with high mortality rate, 75 mothers whose diet was observed, ate
+vegetables on the average only twice a week, and fruit about the same
+number of times.
+
+It is not difficult to understand why vegetables and fruits are so
+important. Only a few are especially valuable as fuel or as a source
+of protein, but almost all are high in mineral salts and can supply
+the "roughage" desirable in the diet. Some also contain the vitamines,
+the leafy vegetables being especially valuable because, like milk,
+they contain the two kinds. The "greens," leafy vegetables like
+spinach, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and lettuce, are the
+ones that help most in these last ways--"protective foods," they have
+been called. They are rich in the iron, calcium, and other minerals
+that some of the other foods lack. The use of plenty of these
+vegetables should go far toward keeping up health.
+
+
+CANNING AND DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
+
+The value of these foods both for the nation's health and for saving
+staples applies just as much in winter as in summer. In war-time,
+a winter supply, either stored, dried, or canned, takes on special
+significance because of their substitute value if the supply of
+staples runs critically low.
+
+The canning industry, because it makes vegetables obtainable at all
+times and places, has been of great importance in the health and
+development of the country. Smith, in his "Commercial Geography," says
+that "canning, more than any other invention since the introduction
+of steam, has made possible the building up of towns and communities
+beyond the bounds of varied production." A century or two ago, sailors
+after a voyage of a year or two, almost always came home with scurvy.
+Recently Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for years and
+remained in good health, because of their supply of canned vegetables,
+fruits, and meats.
+
+The Government has not been slow in appreciating the need of canned
+vegetables for the Army and Navy. It has commandeered about 25 per
+cent of the canned beans, 12 per cent of the corn, and 18 per cent of
+the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts will be needed this year
+also. Much of the 1918-19 supply for our troops in France is to be
+canned in France, by arrangement with the French Government, thus
+saving valuable shipping space.
+
+Drying, or dehydrating, has long been known for beans, peas, and corn,
+and for dates, prunes, figs, and raisins. But dried potatoes, beets,
+carrots, and "soup mixtures" are more or less new. The drying, of
+course, merely removes most of the water from the vegetable, and if
+the process is properly carried out, soaking the vegetable in water
+restores its original freshness.
+
+The war, with the need for every ounce of food and the increasing
+transportation difficulties, has brought the process into prominence.
+The dehydrated products, if properly stored, seem to keep a long time.
+Their saving in freight and shipping is plain, when it is remembered
+that the fresh vegetables and fruits often contain over 90 per cent
+water, and the dried from 8 per cent to 10 per cent. Ships are too
+precious to be used for carrying unnecessary water. Our Government has
+placed orders for several thousand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the
+Army and may use other dried products as they can be obtained.
+
+Canada has sent abroad within the past 3 years over 50 million
+pounds of dehydrated vegetables, about two-thirds of which was the
+vegetable-soup mixture and one-third dried sliced potatoes. When
+reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000 pounds of vegetables.
+Germany has been drying her vegetables and fruits far more than we. In
+1917 she had over 2,000 commercial plants, and an elaborate system of
+distributing all the available fresh material to the different plants
+to avoid waste.
+
+Individuals and communities with gardens or wherever fresh products
+can be obtained should not be dependent upon commercial agencies.
+AS FAR AS POSSIBLE EVERY FAMILY AND EVERY NEIGHBORHOOD SHOULD BE
+SELF-SUPPORTING. HOME AND COMMUNITY CANNING AND DRYING ARE IMPORTANT
+DUTIES. CAN AND DRY THE SURPLUS. STORE UP ENOUGH TO CARRY THROUGH THE
+NEXT WINTER. FOLLOW EXPERT ADVICE AS TO METHODS. USE THE GREATEST CARE
+TO PREVENT SPOILAGE. WHEREVER POSSIBLE UNITE WITH YOUR NEIGHBORS IN
+COMMUNITY CANNERIES AND DRYERS SO THAT EVERY ONE CAN HAVE THE BENEFIT
+OF THE BEST EQUIPMENT AND THE MOST SKILLED SUPERVISION.
+
+A GREAT DEAL WAS DONE IN 1917; MILLIONS OF CANS WERE PUT UP AND GREAT
+WASTE PREVENTED. BUT IN 1918 MORE MUST BE DONE. MORE VEGETABLES MUST
+BE RAISED AND MORE MUST BE CANNED. A GREAT RESERVE FOR THE WINTER IS
+MORE NECESSARY THAN EVER.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+Almost a year of food control in this country has passed and the great
+new experiment in democratic administration of the nation's food is
+succeeding. The method of well-directed voluntary co-operation, much
+more characteristic of our food control than of any other country's,
+can be judged by its results to date. We have sent abroad six times
+the wheat that we had believed was in the country for export. We have
+exported vastly increased shipments of the other cereals, of beef and
+pork, of fats and condensed milk. With Canada, we are supplying 50 per
+cent of the Allies' food, instead of barely 5 per cent, as before the
+war. Meanwhile our own population has been taken care of. No one has
+gone hungry because of the shipments of food out of the country. The
+price of the most important food, bread, has been kept stable--a new
+experience in time of war.
+
+These and others are great accomplishments, brought about through the
+co-operation of the nation, BUT THEY ARE SLIGHT IN COMPARISON WITH
+WHAT MUST STILL BE DONE. The huge resources for extra food production
+and conservation have hardly been touched. The imagination is just
+beginning to be stirred by the immensity of the whole undertaking and
+the sacrifice required to win the war. Men, ammunition and food, in a
+steadily increasing stream, must go across.
+
+"OUR DUTY, IF WE ARE TO DO THIS GREAT THING AND SHOW AMERICA TO
+BE WHAT WE BELIEVE HER TO BE--THE GREATEST HOPE AND ENERGY OF
+THE WORLD--IS TO STAND TOGETHER NIGHT AND DAY UNTIL THE JOB IS
+FINISHED."--PRESIDENT WILSON.
+
+
+
+
+A FEW REFERENCES
+
+American Academy of Political and Social Science. "World's Food."
+Philadelphia, 1917. (_Annals of the American Academy_, November,
+1917.)
+
+Carter, Howe and Mason. "Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics."
+Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1918.
+
+Holmes, A.D., and Lang, H.L. "Fats and Their Economical Use in the
+Home." Washington, 1916. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 469.)
+
+Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, Alonzo E. "Food Problems." New York,
+Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Langworthy, C.F. "Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Other Starchy Roots as
+Food." Washington, 1917. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 468.)
+
+Langworthy, C.F. "Eggs and Their Value as Food." Washington, 1917.
+(Department of Agriculture Bulletin 471.)
+
+Lusk, Graham. "Food in War Time." Philadelphia, Saunders, 1917.
+
+Lusk, Graham. "Fundamental Basis of Nutrition." New Haven, Yale
+University Press, 1915.
+
+Mendel, Lafayette B. "Changes in Food Supply and Their Relation to
+Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University Press, 1916.
+
+Mendenhall, Dorothy R. "Milk." Washington, 1918. (_Children's Bureau_,
+Publication 35.)
+
+Rose, Mary Swartz. "Everyday Foods in War Time." New York, Macmillan,
+1918.
+
+Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New York, Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition." New York,
+Macmillan, 1918.
+
+Sherman, Henry C. "Food Products." New York, Macmillan, 1917.
+
+Taylor, Alonzo E. "War Bread." New York, Macmillan, 1918.
+
+The publications of the United States Department of Agriculture and
+the United States Food Administration.
+
+The United States Food Leaflets.
+
+United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletin 487.
+"Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet." C.F. Langworthy and
+Caroline L. Hunt. 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 565. "Corn as a Food and Ways of Using It." C.F.
+Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 717. "Food for Young Children." Caroline L. Hunt,
+1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 808. "What the Body Needs." Caroline L. Hunt and
+Helen W. Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 817. "Cereal Foods." Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W.
+Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 824. "Foods Rich in Protein." Caroline L. Hunt and
+Helen W. Atwater, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 839. "Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack
+Method." O.H. Benson, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 841. "Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home."
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 853. "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables." M.E.
+Cresswell and Ola Powell, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 871. "Fresh Fruits and Vegetables as Conservers of
+Other Staple Foods." Caroline L. Hunt, 1917.
+
+Farmers' Bulletin 881. "Preservation of Vegetables by Fermentation and
+Salting." L.A. Round and H.L. Lang, 1917.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Agriculture, Department of.--Aids wheat production, 8; campaign for
+increased use of milk, 53.
+
+Austria.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 20-30; sugar-supply, 45.
+
+
+Banana flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Barley as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+Beans.--Varieties, 56; as meat substitute, 57.
+
+Belgium.--Wheat-supply, 2; meat-supply, 29; sugar-supply, 44; milk
+supplied to children, 50.
+
+Bread.--Advantages of wheat loaf, 22-23; bakers' bread regulated, 23;
+conservation of, by housewives, 24-25; restrictions on use in Europe,
+25-26; rationing not necessary in United States, 27.
+
+Buckwheat as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Butter.--Consumption in England, 39; uneconomical way to use milk, 53.
+
+
+Calorie defined, 10.
+
+Candy.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46.
+
+Canning.--Sugar allowed for, 45-46; importance of industry, 60; urged
+upon housewives for conservation, 61.
+
+Cereals.--Defined, 10; food value, 12, 17; wide consumption of, 12-13.
+
+Cheese.--Valuable protein food, 34; as meat substitute, 35-36; a use
+for skim milk, 54.
+
+Corn as wheat substitute, 17-18; why Allies can not use, 26-27.
+
+Corn-syrup as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Cottonseed meal as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Cream.--Extravagant use of milk, 54.
+
+
+Drying.--Process, 60; importance of, 61.
+
+
+Eggs as meat substitute, 35.
+
+England.--Wheat-supply, 2; restrictions concerning bread, 25-26;
+meat-supply, 29; meat restrictions, 30-31; fat shortage, 39;
+sugar-supply, 44; milk regulations, 50, 54; cultivation of soil,
+55-56.
+
+Fats.--Food value, 37-38; shortage in Europe, 39; resources and
+exports of United States, 40-41; necessity for conservation, 41.
+
+Feterita as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Fifty-fifty rule, 16-17.
+
+Fish as meat substitute, 35.
+
+Flour.--Manufacture of, 14-15; 74 per cent extraction allowed, 15;
+consumption cut by licensing millers, 15; by fifty-fifty rule, 16-17.
+
+Food Administration.--Takes control of wheat business, 6, 8; licenses
+millers, 15; licenses bakers, 23-24; regulates sugar prices, 46-47;
+aids increased use of milk, 53; achievements in year of existence, 62.
+
+Foods.--Importance of different kinds, 10-11.
+
+France.--Wheat-supply, 1-2; bread regulations, 26; meat-supply, 29;
+meat regulations, 31-32; sugar-supply, 44; sugar restrictions, 45;
+production of fruit and vegetables, 56.
+
+Fruit.--As sugar substitute, 46, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation
+of, by canning and drying, 59-61.
+
+
+Garbage conservation, 41.
+
+Gardens.--See Production.
+
+Germany.--Wheat-supply, 3-4; meat-supply, 20-30; meat restrictions,
+32; fat shortage, 40; sugar restrictions, 45; conservation of food by
+drying, 61.
+
+Gluten.--Importance in bread, 22-23.
+
+Graham flour.--Manufacture, 14; inferiority to wheat, 15.
+
+Grain corporation, controls wheat trade, 6, 8.
+
+
+Honey as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Hotels and restaurants.--Regulations in use of bread, 24.
+
+
+Ice-cream.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46.
+
+Italy.--Restrictions on macaroni, 25; bread rations, 26; meat-supply,
+29; sugar-supply, 44.
+
+
+Jam as substitute for butter, 58.
+
+
+Kaffir as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+
+Legumes.--See Beans, Peanuts, Peas.
+
+
+Macaroni.--Restrictions in manufacture of in Italy, 25; not a wheat
+substitute, 25.
+
+Maple-syrup as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+Margarine.--Use in England, 39.
+
+Meat.--Shortage in Europe, 28-32; exports from United States, 32-33;
+consumption, 33-34; food value, 34-35.
+
+Meat extenders, vegetables as, 57.
+
+Meat substitutes, 35-36; vegetables as, 57.
+
+Milk.--As meat substitute, 36; necessity for children, 49-50; shortage
+in Europe, 50; food value, 51-52; supply in United States, 52-53;
+economical uses of, 53-54.
+
+Milk, condensed.--Use in Europe, 50; amount exported from United
+States, 54.
+
+Milo as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Molasses as sugar substitute, 46.
+
+
+Nuts as meat substitutes, 36.
+
+
+Oats as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+Oils, vegetable.--Use in Germany, 40; supply in United States, 40-41;
+as substitute for animal fats, 41.
+
+
+Peanut flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Peanuts as meat substitute, 36.
+
+Peas as meat substitute, 56.
+
+Potato flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Potatoes as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58.
+
+Poultry as meat substitute, 35.
+
+Production.--Decreased in France, 1-2; of cereals doubled in England,
+2; of vegetables in England and America, 55.
+
+Protein.--Defined, 11; amount necessary in diet, 34-35.
+
+
+Rationing: Austria.--Sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: England.--Bread not rationed, 26; meat, 30-31; fats, 39;
+sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: France.--Bread, 26; meat, 31; sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: Germany.--Meat, 32; fats, 40; sugar, 45.
+
+Rationing: Italy.--Bread, 26; meat, 32.
+
+Rationing: U.S.--Voluntary wheat ration, 25; reasons for not
+introducing system, 27.
+
+Rice.--Chief diet in India, 13; as wheat substitute, 19-20.
+
+Roumania.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 29.
+
+Russia.--Wheat-supply, 4.
+
+Rye, as wheat substitute, 19.
+
+
+Shipping.--Necessity for saving, 5; released by decreased use of
+sugar, 46.
+
+Soy bean flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+Substitutes.--See Meat, Sugar, Wheat substitutes.
+
+Sugar.--Consumption in United States, 42; shortage, 42, 44-45;
+restrictions on, 45-46; price regulated, 46-47; conservation of,
+47-48.
+
+Sugar substitutes, 46, 58.
+
+
+Tapioca flour as wheat substitute, 20.
+
+
+United States: Exports.--Wheat, 5-6; meat, 33; fat, 40-41; sugar,
+44-45; milk, 54.
+
+
+Vegetables.--Importance in conservation, 55; production of, 56; as
+meat substitute, 36, 56-57; as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58; as sugar
+substitute, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation of by canning and
+drying, 50-61.
+
+Victory bread, 24.
+
+Vitamines.--Defined, 11; in fats, 38; in milk, 52; in fruit and
+vegetables, 59.
+
+
+War bread.--See Flour, Victory bread, Wheat substitutes.
+
+Wheat.--Necessity in war, 1; shortage in Europe, 1-4; distribution a
+problem, 4-5; supply and exports of United States, 5-6; controlled by
+United States Grain Corporation, 6, 8; conservation of by individuals,
+8-9.
+
+Wheat substitutes.--Corn, 18-19; oats, 19; barley, 19; rye, 19; rice,
+20; miscellaneous, 20; keeping quality, 20-21; vegetables, 57-58.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME***
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