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diff --git a/old/14055-8.txt b/old/14055-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..343d1be --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14055-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2754 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Food Guide for War Service at Home, by +Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker, et al + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Food Guide for War Service at Home + +Author: Katharine Blunt, Frances L. Swain, and Florence Powdermaker + +Release Date: November 15, 2004 [eBook #14055] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT +HOME*** + + +E-text prepared by Audrey Longhurst, William Flis, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 14055-h.htm or 14055-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h/14055-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055/14055-h.zip) + + + + + +FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME + +Prepared under the Direction of the United States Food Administration +in Co-Operation with the United States Department of Agriculture and +the Bureau of Education + +With a Preface by Herbert Hoover +United States Food Administrator + +1918 + + + + + + + +[Illustration: Reproduced by courtesy of National Geographic Society] + + + +ANNOUNCEMENT + +In the spring of 1918 the Collegiate Section of the United States Food +Administration was called upon to prepare a simple statement of the +food situation as affected by the war, suitable for elementary and +high school teachers, high-school pupils, and the general public. The +demand arose because of the wide adoption of the three courses on +this subject then being sent out weekly to universities, colleges, and +normal schools throughout the country. + +This little volume is the response to that request. It was written by +Katharine Blunt, of the University of Chicago, Frances L. Swain, of +the Chicago Normal School, and Florence Powdermaker, of the United +States Department of Agriculture. + +The records of the Food Administration have been open to the writers +and they have had the advice and criticism of its officials and +specialists. No effort has been spared to secure accuracy of statement +in the text. + +OLIN TEMPLIN, +Director of the Collegiate Section. +July 1, 1918. + + + + +PREFACE + + +The long war has brought hunger to Europe; some of her peoples stand +constantly face to face with starvation. + +All agriculture has been seriously interfered with. Food production +has been lessened to the point of danger. Millions of men who had +given all their time and energy to raising food have been killed; more +millions are still fighting; other millions have gone from the farms +into the great war-factories. Women, too, have been drafted from the +fields and home gardens into the factories and to replace the absent +men in a host of occupations. Great stretches of once fertile land +have been temporarily ruined by the scourge of war; some are still +under falling shot and shell. Belgium and France have lost millions of +acres of productive land to the enemy. The fertilizers necessary for +keeping up the production of the land still available are lacking. + +All this means that the Allies have to rely on the outside for the +maintenance of their food-supply. But because ships are fewer than +they were, and because many of them must carry troops and munitions +exclusively, these ships cannot be sent on voyages longer than +absolutely necessary to find and bring back the needed food. They +cannot afford to go the long time-consuming way to Australia and back; +but few of them can be let go to India and the Argentine. They must +carry food by the shortest routes. The shortest is from North America +to England and France. + +Therefore by far the greater part of the food provided for the Allies +from the outside must come from us. As a matter of fact more than 50 +per cent of this outside food for the Allies does now come from North +America. And that is a great deal. It is very much more than we ever +sent them before. Also we are sending more and more food overseas for +our own growing armies in France and our growing fleets in European +waters. + +To meet all this great food need in Europe--and meeting it is an +imperative military necessity--we must be very careful and economical +in our food use here at home. We must eat less; we must waste nothing; +we must equalize the distribution of what food we may retain for +ourselves; we must prevent extortion and profiteering which make +prices so high that the poor cannot buy the food they actually need; +and we must try to produce more food by planting more wheat and other +grain, raising more cattle and swine and sheep, and making gardens +everywhere. + +To help the people of America do all these things, and to coordinate +their efforts, the President and Congress created the United States +Food Administration. The Food Administration, therefore, asks all the +people to help feed the Allies that they may continue to fight, to +help feed the hungry in Belgium and other starving lands that they +may continue to live, and to help feed our own sailors and soldiers so +that they may want nothing. It asks help, also, in its great task of +preventing prices from going too high and of stabilizing them, and of +keeping the flow of distribution even, so that all our people, rich +and poor alike, may be able to obtain the food they need. + +For all this there is needed a "food education" of all our people. +Every home in our broad land must be reached. One of the most +effective ways of accomplishing this is by getting information to the +children of the nation about food and the possibilities and methods +of its most wise and economical use. To obtain this result we must get +this information into the hands of parents and teachers. + +For the purpose of diffusing this information this little book has +been prepared under the direction of the Food Administration. By +following the suggestions for food conservation herein contained every +one can render his country an important war service. I am sure that +all will be glad to do this. + +HERBERT HOOVER. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I. THE WHEAT SITUATION + + The world's supply of wheat--Wheat in the United + States--Meeting the wheat shortage + +CHAPTER II. THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS + + The significance of different kinds of food--The social + importance of cereals, especially wheat--Wheat flour in + war-time--The 50-50 rule. Another way to cut the consumption + of wheat--Substitutes for wheat flour + +CHAPTER III. WAR BREAD + + The bakers' regulations. Victory bread--The individual's + answer to the bread cry--Flour and bread in the Allied + countries--Why we in the United States do not have bread cards + +CHAPTER IV. THE MEAT SITUATION + + Where Europe's meat has been produced--The war and the + European meat-supply--The meat rations of Europe--The part of + the United States--Meat conservation--Meat and other protein + foods--The meat substitutes + +CHAPTER V. FATS + + The situation abroad--The situation in the United States + +CHAPTER VI. SUGAR + + Why is there a sugar shortage?--The effect of the shortage--In + place of sugar--The price of sugar--To cut down on sugar + +CHAPTER VII. MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH + + The valuable constituents of milk--Our milk problem--Our milk + abroad + +CHAPTER VIII. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS + + In the war diet--Canning and drying vegetables and fruits + +CONCLUSION + +A FEW REFERENCES + +INDEX + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE WHEAT SITUATION + + +Wheat is as much a war necessity as ammunition--wheat is a war weapon. +To produce it and distribute it where it is needed and in sufficient +quantities is the most serious food problem of the Allied world. The +continent of Europe, with her devastated fields, can raise but a small +fraction of the wheat she needs, and ships are so few that she cannot +import it from many of the usual sources. + +Not one of the warring European countries has escaped serious +suffering, and the neutral countries have suffered with them. + + +THE WORLD'S SUPPLY OF WHEAT + +France, always an agricultural nation, was the most nearly +self-sustaining of the western Allies. Now one-third of her +wheat-fields are barren. Thousands of her acres have been taken by the +enemy, or are in No Man's Land. Much of the land that has been fought +over these past four years is now hopeless for farming, and will +be for years to come. Even the territory still under cultivation +cannot be expected to yield large returns, for laborers, tools, and +fertilizers are lacking. + +The men who have left the fields to fight have been replaced chiefly +by women, children, and old men, while furloughed soldiers at times +help to bring in the crops. To get adequate return from the soil +which has been tilled for centuries, tons of fertilizer are necessary. +Fertilizers are an absolute necessity, and nitrates, one of the +most important of them, can no longer be imported from Chile. The +work-animals have been driven off by the enemy or slaughtered for want +of food, and mechanics are lacking to repair and replace the worn-out +farm-machinery. As a result of this, in 1917 France raised only enough +wheat to supply 40 per cent of her need, instead of 90 per cent, as in +pre-war years. + +In England the situation is not much better. Unlike France, England +has always imported far more wheat than she raised. But now through +vigorous effort she alone of all the European countries has increased +her cereal production so that it has actually been doubled. Being free +from the devastation of war at home, she has been able to convert +the great lawns of her parks and country estates into grain-fields. +English women of all classes, an army of half a million, are working +on the land. At the same time the consumption of wheat has been +reduced. Even yet, however, the home-grown supply in England is only +one-fourth of the wheat required. + +In Belgium the devastation is so complete that the women, children, +and old people left there would die of famine if food were not sent +to them. Two and a half million Belgians daily stand in line waiting +for food to be doled out to them. The United States must supply +three-fourths of the wheat contained in their meagre bread ration. +In Italy, too, the condition is serious, for she produces far less +than she needs, despite every effort of her Government to stimulate +production. + +[Illustration: WHEAT FIELDS OF THE WORLD] + +Germany and Austria-Hungary have not escaped universal suffering from +lack of wheat. Germany before the war was a wheat-importing country, +and Austria-Hungary was able to supply herself with wheat, but had +none to export. Their war crops have been below normal, and even +the wheat taken from conquered territory has not been sufficient +to prevent severe shortage, resulting in bread riots in industrial +centres. + +The imports of wheat into both the Allied and enemy European countries +to supplement the wheat of their own raising came in peace-times +from seven countries--Russia, Roumania, Australia, the United States, +Canada, Argentina, and India. Most of these have now failed as a +source of supply. + +Russia and Roumania were the great wheat-bins of Europe. They produced +as much wheat as the United States, and sometimes more, and they were +always able to make up or nearly make up the deficiencies of western +Europe. Russia and Roumania are now themselves on the verge of famine. +Even before their own situation became so desperate, they could get +little wheat to the western Allies, because the enemy territory and +the battle-lines made a great wall of separation. + +Australia and India both continue to grow large crops of wheat, and +have a surplus in storage, but it cannot be sent to Europe because of +lack of ships. Australia has wheat stored from her last three crops. +The Argentine had very poor crops in 1916 and 1917, and although +the 1918 crop is good, it is scarcely more available to Europe than +Australia's wheat. + +SO THE WHEAT SCARCITY IS NOT A QUESTION ONLY OF THE AMOUNT OF WHEAT +IN THE WORLD. IT IS A PROBLEM OF GETTING IT WHERE IT IS NEEDED--WHEAT +PLUS SHIPS. Not a single ship must go farther than is absolutely +necessary. A glance at the map shows why wheat for Europe should come +from North America rather than from Australia or India, or even the +Argentine. The trip from Australia is three times as long as from +North America, so it takes only one-third as many ships to carry food +to Europe from the United States as from Australia. The Argentine is +twice as far from Europe as the United States, and therefore twice +as many ships are needed to carry an equal amount of Argentine food +to Europe. If this continent could produce and save enough next year +to provide the whole of the Allied food necessities, we could save +1,500,000 tons of world shipping to be used for other purposes. EVERY +SHIP SAVED IS A SHIP BUILT TO CARRY MORE MEN AND MORE AMMUNITION TO +FRANCE. + + +WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES + +The United States has never had a large wheat surplus to export, and +the last few years it has had an unusually low supply to meet the +extraordinary demand. The 1916 crop was small. The 1917 crop was +only four-fifths of normal, little more than we ordinarily consume +ourselves. We entered the last harvest with our stocks of wheat and +other cereals practically exhausted. Hence to feed the Allies until +the 1918 harvest, we had to send wheat which we should ordinarily have +eaten. All that we could send under normal conditions from July, 1917, +to July, 1918, has usually been estimated at about 20,000,000 bushels, +but in the first eleven months of this time we actually did send +120,000,000 bushels, six times as much as we could have shipped +without conservation. One-half of the total output of our flour-mills +in the month of May, 1918, went abroad. + +This achievement in feeding the Allies has been made possible and +will continue to be possible, through the measures of economy and +substitution established by the Food Administration, and the constant +and continued personal sacrifice of each one of us. + +Even the 1918 wheat crop, successful as it promises to be, will +not mean freedom from saving. Throughout the war there can be no +relaxation. We must build up a great national reserve in years of good +harvest for the greater and greater demands of Europe. NEVER AGAIN +MUST WE LET OURSELVES AND THE WORLD FACE THE DANGER THAT WAS BEFORE US +IN THE SPRING OF 1918. + + +MEETING THE WHEAT SHORTAGE + +To keep wheat constantly going over to our Allies and sufficient +stores in the United States at the same time, is one of the big +problems of the Food Administration. Production has had to be +increased and consumption decreased. The price has had to be kept +down, for in a time of shortage prices always tend to go up. It is +true that high prices furnish one method of decreasing the consumption +of food, but it is a method that means enforced conservation by the +poor and no conservation by the rich. The burden thus falls on those +least able to bear it. + +To meet this situation the Food Administration has gone into the +wheat business itself. PRACTICALLY ENTIRE CONTROL OF THE BUYING AND +SELLING OF WHEAT IS IN THE HANDS OF THE GREAT UNITED STATES FOOD +ADMINISTRATION GRAIN CORPORATION. Through this organization all +wheat sales are made to the Army and Navy, to our allies, and to +the neutrals. The price which it pays for these huge quantities +sets the price for the entire country. The Food Administration also +makes the movement of wheat from the farmer to the miller and to the +wholesaler as simple and direct as possible. It prevents hoarding +and speculation. "I am convinced," said Mr. Hoover, in April, 1918, +"that at no time in the last three years has there been as little +speculation in the nation's food as there is to-day." + +[Illustration: COST OF A POUND LOAF OF BREAD] + +As a result of this business management of wheat, the consumer pays +less for flour, although the farmer gets more for his wheat. In May, +1917, the difference between the price of the farmer's wheat and of +the flour made from it was $5.86 per barrel of 196 pounds. Fifteen +months later the difference was 64 cents. In February, 1917, before +the United States went into the war, flour sold at wholesale for $8.75 +a barrel. In May, 1917, the war, with no food control, had driven the +price up to $17. But in February, 1918, after six months of the Food +Administration, it had gone down to $10.50 wholesale, and this in +spite of unprecedented demand for our very short supply. Without +control, flour would undoubtedly be selling for $50 a barrel. During +the Civil War, with no world wheat shortage, but without food control, +the price of wheat increased 130 per cent over the price in 1861. + +The milling and sale of flour, the baking of bread, and the purchases +of the individual are all regulated to a greater extent than would +have scarcely been thought possible before the war. + +Every effort has been made to produce a great 1918 wheat-crop. +Congress, at the time the Food Control Bill was passed, fixed the +price of the 1918 wheat at a minimum of $2 per bushel, and the +President later fixed the price at $2.20. This has been high enough to +encourage the farmer to increase his crop and not too high to be fair +to the consumer. The Department of Agriculture, during the winter of +1917-18, had for its slogan, "a billion-bushel crop for 1918." It has +worked intensively to help the farmer in selecting and testing seed +and in fighting destructive insects and plant-diseases, and in every +way to help him grow more wheat. + +Constant reliance has been placed on the individual's intelligence +and patriotism in wheat-saving. One of the unusual aspects of the Food +Administration is its confidence in the co-operation of the country +and the response which this confidence has met. Wheatless meals are +now a commonplace occurrence. Wheatless days are being observed +in many hotels and homes. People all over the country have pledged +themselves to do entirely without wheat until the 1918 harvest is +available. About 100,000 barrels of flour were returned by individuals +and companies during the spring of 1918, to be shipped to the Allies +and the Army and Navy. The individual all over the country, consumer, +dealer, miller, or farmer, has risen to the occasion to do his share +toward the fulfilment of the Government's promise to Europe. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE WAR-TIME IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND OTHER CEREALS + + +When the United States was called on to supply the Allies with much of +its wheat and flour, we fortunately found at hand a plentiful supply +of a great variety of other cereals. The use of corn was, of course, +not an experiment--generations of Southerners have flourished on it. +But we also had oats, rice, barley, rye, buckwheat, and such local +products as the grain sorghums, which are grown in the South and West. +All of them are cereals and all can be used interchangeably with wheat +in our diet. + +To understand clearly the value of cereals in the diet to-day, it is +well to review the part played by food in general. Europe to-day is +eating to live. She therefore thinks of food not in terms of menus +but as a means of keeping up bodily functions, as sources of protein, +carbohydrate and fat--terms seldom heard outside of the university a +few years ago. + + +THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD + +We need food first of all to burn as fuel for all the activities of +the body, just as any other machine needs fuel. The fuel value of +food, or its energy, is measured in _calories_. A calorie measures the +amount of heat or energy given off when anything burns, whether it is +coal in a stove or food in the body. + +Practically all foods give this fuel or energy, but some give much +more than others. Fats give more fuel than an equal weight of any +other food. Sugar and foods rich in starch like flour and corn meal +are fuel foods. This is one of the reasons why they are chosen to be +shipped abroad. The cereals always supply an important part of the +fuel of the diet. Watery foods, like many vegetables and fruits, +normally give less fuel. A person could not live on lettuce any better +than a house could be heated with tissue paper. + +If the food does not supply enough energy, a person will burn up +part of his own body for fuel and will grow emaciated. Far too often +we find children of the very poor who are undernourished because of +lack of food fuel. Sometimes even well-to-do young people half starve +themselves because they get "notions" about food. One of the terrible +tragedies abroad is the hundreds and thousands of men and women and +children who are worn and thin and sick for lack of food. + +We need food, too, to keep the organs of the body running smoothly. +Abroad, people are suffering not only because they have not enough +food, but because they have not the right kinds of food. Milk and +vegetables and fruits are especially useful. They are the chief +sources of the much-needed _mineral salts_ and the two _vitamines_. +The vitamines are substances of great importance about which has +centred much discussion lately and which scientists do not yet fully +understand, though they realize that they are essential for the growth +of children and for health in adults. + +The _protein_ of food is used to build the body if we are young, and +to restore the daily wear and tear if we are older. The mineral salts +are also necessary for this purpose. Protein will be discussed further +in the chapter on meat and meat substitutes, but it should be realized +here that the protein we eat comes not only from these foods, but also +from the cereals. Cereals supply a full half of the protein of many +diets. + +Cereals are therefore important for their fuel since they are rich in +starch, and for their protein, and, if we eat the entire kernel, for +their mineral matter and vitamines. They also have the pleasant flavor +and texture which we have grown to like. + +Wheat is no better than any of the other cereals. It possesses +absolutely no nutritional advantage for man or beast over oats, corn, +and rye. It has no more protein, and no better protein. It has no more +fat and no better fat. It has no better mineral salts and in no larger +amounts. It has no more fuel or better fuel. It is just _one_ of the +cereals, and there is not the slightest evidence that it is the best +one. It has merely become one of our habits. + +Corn and wheat and the other cereals are just as well digested if +equally well prepared. A soggy piece of wheat bread may, of course, +be less readily digestible than a well-made piece of corn-bread, but +that is a question of skill in cooking, not of difference in cereals. +Complaints have been heard in England about the war bread. It is true +that it may be hard on those of frail digestive powers to change their +food habits in any way, but Hutchison, an eminent London physician, in +tracing down complaints, found that frequently people laid to the new +bread ailments from which they had suffered before the war. "When in +doubt, blame the war bread," seemed to be the motto. + + +THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CEREALS, ESPECIALLY WHEAT + +The world eats more cereals than any other kind of food. They are +so widely available, so cheap and nutritious, that they are a main +reliance of the human race. A shortage is always extremely serious. + +Not only is an abundance important, but an abundance of the accustomed +kind. In parts of India, the inhabitants use rice as almost the only +cereal. When the rice-crop failed some years ago, thousands of people +died of starvation with a supply of wheat available. They did not know +the use of wheat as food. + +Countries like France, which use their cereals chiefly for bread, are +the most dependent on wheat, since wheat is the most easily made into +bread. + +In the United States cereals make up almost one-third of our food. +Although wheat in most parts of the country has been the main +dependence, we have used a much greater variety of cereals than most +people, so that it is comparatively simple for the majority to make +increased use of them. + +The very poor must depend largely upon cereals because they can get +more for their money from them than from other foods. Cereals, to most +of them, mean bread. It is such a large part of their diet that doing +without it means a far more fundamental and difficult change in their +food habits than for the well-to-do with greater freedom of choice. +Besides, the already overburdened working woman must get her bread in +the easiest possible way--a ready-made loaf from the baker. The burden +of scarcity or high prices falls on those least able to bear it. + +Europeans eat even larger amounts of wheat than we. Over half the +food of the French is bread, so if the wheat shortage were near the +danger-line, it might lead to a serious weakening of the marvellous +courage of the French people. + + +WHEAT FLOUR IN WAR-TIME + +To use this country's share of the short supply of wheat to the +greatest advantage the Food Administration has changed the making +of flour to include more of the wheat-kernel. The difference between +peace and war time flour is easily understood if the structure of +grains is considered. Wheat and other cereals have kernels much alike; +all have three principal parts: + +The outer covering, called _bran_, is made up of several layers. This +is rich in important mineral salts, and the rest is largely cellulose, +or woody fibre. + +The _germ_ is the small part from which the new plant will develop. +Here the small amount of fat in the kernel is stored. + +The largest part of the kernel, called the _endosperm_, contains the +nourishment to be used by the plant as it begins to develop. This is +mostly starch, with some protein. It is the part of the wheat, for +instance, which is chiefly used to make our white flour. + +The kind of flour made depends on how much and what parts of the +kernel are used. Graham flour is manufactured by grinding practically +all of the wheat-kernel--a 100-per-cent use of the grain, called +100-per-cent extraction. Some people still fail to realize that Graham +flour and Graham bread are wheat, perhaps because of the different +name and brown color. The so-called "whole-wheat" flour is often 95 +per cent of the kernel only, but may be as little as 85 per cent, +depending on the amount of the bran and germ removed in the making. + +Ordinary white flour contains the endosperm alone, with practically +none of the bran and germ. Some brands before the war used up as +little as 56 per cent of the wheat, leaving the rest of it to be +turned into lower-grade flours and cattle-feed. White flour thus uses +less of the wheat for human food than Graham or whole-wheat flour. + +Yet to convert all the country's wheat into Graham flour would not be +a wheat-saving measure, because it is not so well suited to our trade +conditions. Graham flour, for one thing, does not keep so well as +flour of lower extractions, as the fat in the germ may become rancid +in a comparatively short time. Flour in this country is often thirty +days or longer in transit and may be months in warehouses, stores, and +homes. A flour to be satisfactory under extreme conditions here or +for shipment abroad must keep at least six months--too long to be sure +that Graham flour will keep. In small countries like England, where +flour is used up more promptly, a high extraction is more practicable +than in the United States. + +Moreover, while Graham and whole-wheat flours with their larger +quantities of mineral salts are a more desirable food for some people +than white flour, they are occasionally irritating to people with weak +digestions, so that it would be unfortunate to have only these flours +on the market. + +The Food Administration, therefore, has considered that the most +effective use of our wheat could be obtained by forbidding the +manufacture of fancy flours of low extraction and making all flour +contain at least 74 per cent of the wheat. This still gives a fine +white flour that keeps well and is difficult to distinguish from that +on the market before the war. + +To help in the enforcement of its flour rulings, the Food +Administration has licensed all mills and elevators which handle over +100 barrels of flour a day. If the rulings of the Food Administration +are not obeyed the license may be taken away, and the business +closed. The hoarding of flour has been stopped by prohibiting mills, +elevators, and bakers from having more than 30 days' supply on hand. + + +THE 50-50 RULE. ANOTHER WAY TO CUT THE CONSUMPTION OF WHEAT + +NOT ONLY MUST THE MILLER MANUFACTURE FLOUR IN ACCORDANCE WITH +NEW REGULATIONS, BUT THE INDIVIDUAL CONSUMER MUST BUY IT UNDER +RESTRICTIONS. To many people the first realization that war and food +difficulties are necessarily associated, came with the announcement +in the spring of 1918 of the now familiar rules for the purchase of +flour. With every pound of white wheat flour, the purchaser must +buy a pound of some other cereal; with every pound of Graham flour, +three-fifths of a pound of other cereal. + +The purpose of this regulation is, of course, to lessen the use of +wheat by increasing the use of the substitutes. The housekeeper who +through lack of initiative or ingenuity fails to feed the family the +substitutes and lets them accumulate on her shelf has just so far +failed to co-operate with the Food Administration. Many a housewife +has learned the value of these cereals and will continue to use +them long after the war and the Food Administration have passed into +history. + +A little thought will show the absence of any real burden in the 50-50 +rule. A housekeeper for her family of four buys five pounds of wheat +flour and five pounds of other cereals. She may use 1¼ pounds of the +substitutes with the 5 pounds of wheat flour to make about 8 pounds of +Victory bread--sufficient to give each member of her family 2 pounds +of bread during the week. She may serve an ounce of oatmeal as the +breakfast cereal and an ounce of rice, hominy, or other cereal for +each person daily and will then have used all the substitutes. These +cereals can be made into an endless variety of quick breads, cakes, +and pastry, or combined with other foods as the main dish of the meal. + + +SUBSTITUTES FOR WHEAT FLOUR + +The cereals on the market are varied enough to suit any taste. +REMEMBER THAT AS FAR AS NUTRITIONAL VALUE IS CONCERNED, IT MAKES +PRACTICALLY NO DIFFERENCE WHETHER WE EAT WHEAT OR OATS, RYE OR +BARLEY. The quantities of starch, protein, mineral matter, and fat +are so nearly the same that any one of them can take the place of +another. Oatmeal has a slight advantage over wheat both in protein +and fat, and since oats is an abundant crop in our country it is an +excellent substitute. Rice has a very little more starch and less +protein than the others. + +There is just one advantage that wheat flour has over the other +cereals--it can be made into lighter and more durable bread. The +reason for this is given in the next chapter. + +_Corn, the most abundant substitute._ Indian corn is native to the +United States. Since it carried the Pilgrims through their year +of famine, it has always been considered our national grain. Other +countries have adopted it to some extent, but more than three +quarters of the world's corn is grown here. In 1917 our corn crop was +3,000,000,000 bushels, four times as large as our wheat crop. Most +of the crop has always been used as a feed-grain, with only a small +percentage for human food. The South has always used much more corn +than the North, actually eating more corn than wheat. + +The foods from corn and the ways of using them are more numerous than +is often appreciated. Corn meal and corn flour are the most important. +We are making almost as much corn meal as wheat flour. The yellow and +white corn meals, milled from different kinds of corn, are practically +the same in composition, though slightly different in flavor. The +method of milling corn meal makes more difference in the composition +than the kind of corn used. The old "water-ground" meal was simply +crushed between millstones and only the coarsest particles of bran +bolted out. This ranks with Graham as a product of 100 per cent +extraction and like Graham, it may not keep well, because the germ +is left in. The new process, more like modern flour-milling, removes +some of the bran and germ. The product is a granulated corn meal which +keeps better than the other, and has practically the same composition, +though to some people a less desirable flavor. + +If corn meal is further ground and bolted, we have corn flour. Some +of this has been put on the market lately and is proving a good +substitute for wheat flour; but the amount available is only a small +fraction of the amount of corn meal. Other important corn products +are hominy of different kinds, hulled corn, and popcorn. The latter, +usually eaten as an "extra," is really a valuable part of the diet. + +Corn is the same satisfactory food whether it is eaten as mush in +New England, _polenta_ in Italy, or _tamales_ in Mexico. Many of +the people of Mexico and Central America live on corn and beans to +a surprising extent. In portions of Italy the rural population have +adopted the grain as their main food. Our corn-meal mush is their +_polenta_, which is served sometimes with cheese, sometimes with +tomato sauce or meat gravy. + +_Oats_. An Englishman once taunted a Scotchman with the fact that +while England used oats only for her horses, Scotland fed it to her +men. "Ah!" said Sandy; "but where will you find such horses as you +raise in England and such men as in Scotland!" + +The United States, more like England than Scotland, has used oats +mostly for feed. The crop is second only to the corn-crop. Oats are +eaten in the form of oatmeal, which is a finely granulated meal, and +as the common rolled oats which have been steamed and put through +rollers. There is little oat flour on the market at present. A +successful and palatable home-made flour may be prepared by putting +rolled oats through a food-chopper. Any of the forms of oats can be +used in breads of all kinds, but the more finely ground flour can +be substituted in larger proportion. The demand for oat products has +grown so rapidly the last year that mills are running to their limit. +Special machinery is required for its manufacture, so that a great +increase in the supply is not feasible in a short time. + +_Barley and Rye_. In using barley and rye for bread we are only going +back to the methods of our forefathers. Barley is supposed to be +one of the first cereals used by man. Good barley flour is a very +acceptable substitute for wheat, but if too large a proportion of the +kernel is included, it may be bitter in flavor. + +_Rye_, of all the cereals, makes bread nearest like wheat, though the +rye bread formerly made usually contained from 20 per cent to 80 per +cent wheat flour. The supply is far below what we could well use. For +this reason it is not included among the cereals which the housekeeper +is allowed to buy on the 50-50 plan, and since March 31, 1918, bakers +have not been allowed to use it as a substitute in baking on the same +basis as the other substitutes. + +_Rice_. Rice forms the chief food of hundreds of millions of people, +and in many oriental countries is the staple cereal, like wheat with +us. As a wheat substitute we may use it cooked whole or ground into +a flour. The rice flour may be mixed with other cereals in making +bread and cakes. The rice polish, which is a by-product secured by +rubbing off with brushes the outside coating of the brown rice, is +much cheaper. It has been sold chiefly for stock-feed, but it has +possibilities as a flour substitute. + +The rice-growers of the South are doing their best to supply the +country with rice in quantity and to make known the possibilities +of this cereal. The rice flour supply, though not large now, will +doubtless be much increased by next year. One Louisiana mill, for +example, is increasing its output from 150 to 1,200 barrels a day. + +_Other Cereal Substitutes_. Besides the substitutes which are common +all over the country, there are products produced in too small amounts +to make them universal substitutes, such as buckwheat, cottonseed +meal, and peanut flour, any of which can be used with other flours for +baking. The Southwest produces both flour and meal from milo, kaffir, +and feterita. + +Flours are made from the Irish and sweet potato, from tapioca, from +soy beans, and bananas, but they are manufactured in such small +amounts that they do not take the place of wheat to any great extent. +Potato flour comes nearest to doing this. It has always been used +to some extent in Europe and it is being widely used in Germany now. +Potato itself can be used instead of wheat. An extra potato at a meal +will take the place of a large slice of bread. + +Many of the substitute cereals do not keep so well as wheat, +especially if they contain more than a minimum of moisture and fat. +The housekeeper and the baker should therefore buy them in small +enough quantities to use them up promptly and should keep them in a +cool, well-ventilated place. May and June and the summer months are +the time when most care is needed. + +It is the free use of these many wholesome substitutes that is making +possible the necessary saving of wheat. We who appreciate their +wholesomeness and their value can well break away from our wheat habit +and gladly make the little effort sometimes necessary to begin using +newer foods. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +WAR BREAD + + +Bread is the staff of life for all nations. But "bread" does not +necessarily mean the wheat loaf. At one time and place it has been +barley cake, at another oaten cake, and at another corn pone. Bread +has always been whatever cereal happened to be convenient. Even such +unbreadlike food as rice is to some races what bread is to us. + +Why, then, have we developed our wheat-bread habit? Partly because +wheat bread has been easy to get and we have grown to like the taste, +but chiefly because wheat flour gives the lightest loaf. To understand +why, make a dough with a little white flour and water and then gently +knead it in cold water. The consistency changes, the starch is washed +out and a rubbery, sticky ball is left--the _gluten_, which is the +protein of the wheat. It is this gluten in the flour that stretches +when bread rises and then stiffens when it is baked, making a light, +porous loaf. Wheat is the only one of the cereals that has much +gluten; rye has a little and the others practically none. + +Gluten seems to be essential to the making of a light, yeast-raised +loaf. Products raised with baking-powder, for which our standard of +lightness is different--"quick breads" like biscuits and muffins +and cakes--do not require the gluten and can easily be made from +substitute cereals. But for our ordinary loaf of bread, at least some +wheat seems to be almost essential, though with skill in the making, +rye can be made to serve in its place. Patriotic bakers and housewives +all over the country have been trying to produce a wheatless +loaf which is light, palatable, and sufficiently durable to stand +transportation. The durability is a very important consideration; +crumbly corn bread cannot be distributed by bakers nor served to +armies. Corn bread and the other quick breads are chiefly home-made +products. + +OUR PRESENT PROBLEM, THEREFORE, IS TO MAKE THE MOST EFFECTIVE +POSSIBLE USE OF OUR WHEAT GLUTEN, TO MAKE IT GO AS FAR AS POSSIBLE IN +OUR BREADS. BOTH BAKERS AND PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS HAVE THEIR SHARE IN +SOLVING THE PROBLEM. + + +THE BAKERS' REGULATIONS. VICTORY BREAD + +The bakers have co-operated loyally. Probably no other food industry +has been more vitally affected by the war. ALL BAKERS USING THREE +OR MORE BARRELS OF FLOUR A MONTH HAVE BEEN LICENSED AND SO ARE UNDER +THE CONTROL OF THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION. This means practically all +the commercial bakers of the country, and many hotels, clubs, and +institutions. About two-fifths of the bread in the United States is +made in bakeries and three-fifths in the home. The bakeries have used +35,000,000 barrels of flour each year, so the importance of this field +for conservation is plain. + +The amount of wheat flour they are now permitted to have has been +reduced: at present 80 per cent of their last year's quantity, or, +if they are pastry and cracker bakers, 70 per cent. They must make no +bread wholly of wheat flour. Some substitute must be mixed with the +wheat. When the regulation went into effect in February, 1918, 20 per +cent was required and later, 25 per cent. In pies and cakes there must +be at least one-third substitute. The amounts of sugar and fat used +are limited. Even the sizes of the loaves are fixed, so that the +extravagance of making and handling all sorts of fancy shapes and +sizes may be avoided. Bread must not be sold to the retailer at +unreasonable prices. + +Victory bread is bread made in accordance with these regulations. +The name "Victory" was chosen as representing the idea underlying +the conservation of wheat. The name is really a present to the Food +Administration, having been used by two large firms who gave up all +rights to their trade-mark. + +Hotels and restaurants are required to make or serve bread containing +at least as much of the wheat substitutes as Victory bread. They may +not serve more than two ounces of bread and other wheat products to a +guest at a meal. Many of them have recently promised to use no wheat +at all till the next harvest. That means, of course, that only through +intelligent effort can they serve yeast bread. + + +THE INDIVIDUAL'S ANSWER TO THE BREAD CRY + +UNTIL THE WHEAT-SUPPLY INCREASES AND THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION LESSENS +RESTRICTIONS, USE NO WHEAT AT ALL IF YOU CAN POSSIBLY DO WITHOUT. +Remember that you can make delicious muffins and other quick breads +from the substitute flours. And you need no bread at all at some +meals. An extra potato or a serving of rice can be eaten instead of +the usual two slices of bread and the body will be supplied with the +same amount of energy. Do not be the slave of old food habits. WHEN +ALL EUROPE IS EATING TO KEEP ALIVE, FASTIDIOUSNESS AND FOOD "NOTIONS" +MUST PLAY NO PART IN THE DIETARY. + +Some people find it is almost impossible to do without the baker's +loaf. Hundreds in crowded city quarters have no facilities of their +own for baking. Women doing their share in factories and workshops +cannot get up earlier to make corn bread for breakfast. Victory bread +must be saved for them. For households which must use wheat, the Food +Administration has fixed a voluntary ration of 1½ pounds of wheat +per week for each person. This includes wheat in the form of bread, +pastry, macaroni, crackers, noodles, and breakfast foods. + +All who can should do more than their share--they must do their utmost +to make up for those whose circumstances prevent them from doing it. +THE INTERESTS AND DESIRES OF EACH OF US IN THIS WAR CAN BE TRANSLATED +INTO SERVICE IN NO MORE EFFECTIVE WAY THAN BY CONFORMING OUR FOOD +HABITS TO THE NEEDS OF THE HOUR. + + +FLOUR AND BREAD IN THE ALLIED COUNTRIES + +All the Allied countries have been stretching their meagre +wheat-supply to the limit and are enforcing the most stringent +regulations. + +The flour is required to be of high extraction--ordinarily from 81 +per cent to 90 per cent, decidedly higher than our 74 per cent. Even +with this coarse, gray flour a large percentage of substitute must be +mixed, usually 25 per cent. In England there are local regulations on +the use of mashed potato in bread. Their bread must be twelve hours +old before it is sold, so that people will not be tempted to eat too +much. The result is seldom palatable. In France no flour at all may +be used to make the delectable pastries and cakes which have long been +the delight of the French people and their guests. In Italy, macaroni, +which in many regions is as much the "staff of life" as bread, +must contain 43 per cent substitute, and in some places may not be +manufactured at all. + +Both England and France have subsidized bread; the Government has set +a price below cost and itself makes up the difference to the baker. +England has appropriated $200,000,000 for the purpose. + +Bread rations are in force in both France and Italy. France has +recently put her whole people on a rigorous ration which limits them +to two-thirds of the amount of bread that they have been accustomed +to. Remember that bread is a far more important part of the French +diet than of ours. Even children under three have bread cards allowing +them 3½ ounces a day. Rations are not a guarantee that the amount +mentioned will be forthcoming; they only permit one to have it if it +can be obtained. One interesting result of the stringency, according +to an American officer writing from Paris, is that guests even at +formal dinners, may be asked to bring their own bread, finding this +postscript on their invitations: "Apportez un peu de pain si vous le +voulez."[1] In Italy the very limited bread rations are fixed locally. + +[Footnote 1: "Bring a little bread if you wish it."] + +England has compulsory rations for meat and butter or margarine and +sugar, but not for bread. Her bread system is voluntary like ours, +but much more detailed. The voluntary ration allows one-half pound of +bread a day for sedentary and unoccupied women and larger allowances +up to a little over a pound for men doing heavy labor. Waste of any +kind is very heavily punished--one woman was fined $500 for throwing +away stale bread. + +"Why not send corn abroad?" One hears the question over and over +again. The answers are many. In the first place, we _are_ sending corn +over--our exports of corn during March, 1918, increased 180 per cent +and of corn meal 383 per cent over the pre-war average. This they +are using as we are using it in our Victory bread. But they must have +enough wheat to make a durable loaf of bread at the bakeshops, where +for generations all the baking has been done. The French housewife +has no facilities for bread-making and the French woman does not know +how and has not the time to learn. She is doing a man's work and her +own woman's labor besides, and the extra unaccustomed labor of +bread-making cannot be added to her burdens. + + +WHY WE IN THE UNITED STATES DO NOT HAVE BREAD CARDS + +Some people, disturbed either selfishly or patriotically by the +failure of a neighbor to conserve wheat, have asked why the Food +Administration trusts to voluntary methods, why it does not ration +the country. + +Rationing may come yet, but any such system bristles with +difficulties. The cost to the Government has been variously estimated +all the way from $10,000,000 to $45,000,000 a year. Fifty per cent +of the population could not be restrained in their consumption by +rationing, for they are either producers or live in intimate contact +with the producer. A wheat ration which would be fair for the North +might actually increase the consumption in the South. Finally, the +burden of a bread card would fall largely not on the well-to-do, who +eat less wheat already and can easily cut down further, but on those +with little to spend, who might have to change their whole food +habits. + +The success that is meeting our method of voluntary reduction of +consumption "will be one of the remembered glories of the American +people in this titanic struggle." + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE MEAT SITUATION + + +Meat shortage is not a war problem only. We had begun to talk of +it long before the war, and we shall find it with us after peace +is declared. Great production of beef can take place only in sparse +settlements. As the tide of increasing population flows over a +country, the great cattle-ranges are crowded out, giving place to +cultivated fields. More people means less room for cattle--a relative +or even absolute decrease in the herds. + + +WHERE EUROPE'S MEAT HAS BEEN PRODUCED + +In spite of their crowded territory, the majority of European +countries have raised most of their meat themselves, though usually +they have had to import fodder to keep up their herds. They have been +less dependent on import for meat than for wheat. Great Britain is the +only country which has imported much meat--almost one-half her supply. +Her imports, and to a lesser extent those of other European countries, +have come chiefly from Denmark and Russia in Europe, and from six +countries outside--the United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, +Australia, and New Zealand. + + +THE WAR AND THE EUROPEAN MEAT-SUPPLY + +Imports of both animals and fodder are interrupted. With meat as with +wheat, the great shortage is due to lack of ships. Australia and New +Zealand, and to a lesser extent South America, are cut off. Fodder +such as cottonseed press-cake cannot be shipped in large amounts as +it takes three times as much shipping to transport feed as it does the +meat made by the animals from it. Denmark's supply of animals to Great +Britain has practically stopped, because of her own shortage, and +because much of what she has goes to Germany. + +The European herds have been cut down. Every one of the warring +countries has fewer meat animals now than before the war. There were +roughly 100,000,000 animals less in Europe at the end of 1917 than +in 1914. Many of those left are in very poor condition, so that the +shortage is even more serious than is indicated by the falling off in +numbers. + +Belgium, Serbia, and Roumania are in the worst condition. Practically +all the animals in those countries have been killed or confiscated by +the invading German and Austrian armies. This is one cause of their +terrible famine conditions. + +The United Kingdom, France, and Italy have also lost seriously. France +is the greatest loser of the three, with more than one-fifth of her +herds gone. The enemy has driven off large numbers of her cattle. She, +like the others, is in difficulty not only for meat, but for milk. +Her situation is complicated by the fact that she has no great +cold-storage plants like ours, and so must get meat-supplies at +frequent intervals. + +Before the war Germany was much better prepared than the Allies in +that she had many more animals in proportion to her population than +they. But she was more dependent upon imports of feed, and as her +commerce has been cut off, she has had to kill her animals faster. +Counting up all her animals in terms of cattle according to the amount +of meat they would yield, shows a loss of over one-third. For Austria, +there are no available figures, but her decrease has probably been +larger than Germany's. + +Meat shortage is not a problem by itself, but is closely connected +with the shortage of available grain. When cereals are short, they +must be fed to human beings rather than to animals. Feeding grain to +animals and then eating the animals is not nearly so economical as +eating grain directly. For example, when grain is fed to a cow, only +3½ per cent of the energy of the grain is turned into meat or fat, +and 96 per cent is burned up by the cow in its own daily living. When +a man eats the grain directly, he uses at least 85 per cent of its +energy. Thus 81½ per cent more of the grain is actually used for human +food. So Europe to-day has to sacrifice her herds, and uses grain for +bread instead of turning it into meat. + +Alongside this shortage has come an increased demand for meat for the +great armies. The soldier's ration always contains more meat than is +eaten by the civilian population. + + +THE MEAT RATIONS OF EUROPE + +The shortage has compelled vigorous control of consumption in order +to make the distribution as nearly fair as possible. Compulsory meat +rations are enforced in all the warring countries. They vary, of +course, from time to time as the amount of available meat changes, but +the following statements give a picture of how limited the allowances +are in periods of shortage. + +England did not suffer for lack of meat at the outset of the war. Her +voluntary ration (November, 1917) was generous, 2 pounds per week. +In the beginning of 1918 the supply was very low, and by the end of +February London was put on meat rations, and in April the rest of the +country. The rationing system has made distribution easier and more +fair and greatly lessened the distressing "queues" of people waiting +before butchers' shops for their allowance. The regulations allow each +person 4 coupons a week. Children under 10 are on half-rations. At +first, 3 of these coupons could buy 5 pence' worth of beef, pork, or +mutton, and one had to be used for a limited amount of bacon, ham, +poultry, or game. The total amounted to about 1¼ pounds of meat a +week. + +Because of the increased amount of bacon and ham which the United +States was able to send in the late spring, heavy workers were +permitted in May 2 extra coupons, for which they might buy a pound of +bacon. Boys between 13 and 18 years were allowed 1 extra coupon for +bacon, poultry, or game. But at the same time only 2 instead of 3 +coupons were to be used for fresh meat, so as to cut down further the +slaughtering of cattle. Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food or +profiteering. + +In the restaurants the meat portions are about a fifth of the size +of those served in an American hotel. An American staying in London +said recently that he could eat two meals in succession in a London +restaurant, and leave the table still minus that self-satisfied +feeling that a meal in America gives. + +At first France used meatless days instead of rations, and in the +spring of 1918 went back to meatless days. High prices also keep down +consumption. In July, 1917, there were 2 meatless days, and cattle +could not be slaughtered on the 2 preceding days. Though this order +was abolished in October, 1917, meat had gone up so high in price +that consumption went away down. The Paris letter of the London _Daily +News_ and _Leader_ on February 28, 1918, says that rump steak was +selling for 4 shillings 2 pence--$1 per pound. Since May 15, 3 days a +week must be meatless--Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. On these days +all butchers' shops are closed. Horse meat may be sold, but no poultry +or game. Fish is scarce and very expensive. + +Italy has meatless days, formerly 2, and since May, 1918, 3. The +ration and the number of cattle to be slaughtered are decided locally +and strictly regulated. + +The Central Powers probably have the lowest meat ration. The +quantities allowed vary in different parts of the country, but the +average in Germany has been about 9 ounces a week per person. It +was reported that this was reduced to 6 ounces in the middle of +May--barely two small servings each week. + + +THE PART OF THE UNITED STATES + +As with wheat, meat for Europe must come chiefly from the United +States and Canada, since ships are few and the Atlantic the +shortest route. The extra demand upon us is to offset the loss from +inaccessible markets and the depleted herds in Europe. The United +States is now exporting far larger quantities than it has ever +exported before. In March, 1918, we sent over 87,000,000 pounds of +beef. Ordinarily we export between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds a +month. Of pork we sent 308,000,000 pounds--six times more than usual. +It is roughly estimated that it is necessary to send 75,000,000 pounds +of meat and meat products of all kinds abroad weekly to the Allies and +our army. + +To buy and sell this huge and unusual quantity of meat, a careful +organization has been necessary. At first the Allied nations bought +meat in this country as best they could in competition with the +domestic market and each other, often feverishly to meet emergencies. +LAST DECEMBER A COMMISSION WAS FORMED TO BUY FOR ALL THE ALLIES. The +prices to be paid are settled by experts, after careful study, so that +packers, storage warehouses, and producers shall all have adequate, +but not excessive return for their labor. The buying is planned ahead +so that we can ship at times when we have plenty. + +The meat which we are shipping now is coming in part from an increased +slaughter of cattle and hogs, a condition which may have serious +consequences in reducing our reserve. The need for conservation is +constant, though at times the situation becomes easier in one kind +of meat or another. In the summer of 1917 we were short on hogs. In +the spring of 1918, thanks to the "keep-a-pig" movement and vigorous +conservation, as well as high prices, we temporarily had hogs in +plenty. Beef is short for the summer season. Policies must change +frequently with fluctuating supplies and varying demands from Europe. +However, the export demand for our forces and the Allies is limited +only by shipping capacity, and it may be that we shall have a still +larger demand at the war's end which will tax any reserve which we can +possibly accumulate. + + +MEAT CONSERVATION + +Meat does not play nearly so important a part in the world's dietary +as we are accustomed to think. There is no comparison, in the quantity +consumed, between meat and bread, or even meat and sugar or potatoes. +Half of the people of the earth eat little or none of it. Only in two +kinds of communities is meat used largely--new and thinly populated +countries with much grazing-land, or wealthy industrial countries. + +Australia and New Zealand are of the first type, consuming more meat +per person than any other country in the world--5 pounds a week in +Australia and 4 pounds in New Zealand. The United States, parts of +which may be considered in both classes, eats about 3¼ pounds per +person weekly. This is much less than some years ago, when there was +more grazing-land. + +Great Britain, because it could afford to import it, used about 2¼ +pounds a week before the war. Germany's consumption was slightly +lower. France, Denmark, Switzerland, with fewer animals or less +wealth, are small meat-eaters, the average amount being about 1½ +pounds a week--about half as much as our consumption. + + +MEAT AND OTHER PROTEIN FOODS + +Meat is eaten partly because of its pleasant flavor and partly because +it is a source of protein which is necessary to build or renew the +various parts of the body. Every cell in the body contains it and +needs a steady supply. + +Meat is a valuable protein food, but so are plenty of others--fish, +cheese, eggs, milk, dried beans, dried peas, nuts, cereals. +Cottage-cheese is the most nearly pure protein of anything that we +eat. We can get protein just as satisfactorily from cheese and the +other animal protein foods as from meat, and almost as satisfactorily +from the vegetable protein foods. THE OLD IDEA THAT MEAT IS +ESPECIALLY "STRENGTHENING" HAS NO FOUNDATION. Neither is one kind of +meat less thoroughly digested than another. + +There is little danger in this country that our diet will fall too low +in protein. Many of us eat considerably more than we need. Even those +who must spend a dangerously limited amount on their diet, are not apt +to be low in protein, for they often err on the side of spending an +unwise proportion of their money on meat. Most scientists now consider +three ounces of carefully chosen protein per day a safe allowance for +an average man. An average woman needs less. + +It is not at all difficult for an interested person to count up +roughly whether he is eating more or less than this quantity. A +small serving of lean meat or fish, about two inches square and +three-quarters of an inch thick, contains about one-half ounce +of protein. Two eggs, a pint of milk, a quarter of a cup of +cottage-cheese, an inch-and-a-quarter cube of American cheese, each +have about this same amount. So does a cup and a half of baked beans +or two and a half cups of cooked cereal or six half-inch slices of +bread (3 x 3½ inches). A person eating six of these portions daily +will of course have his three ounces of protein. A man moderate in +his eating and patriotic in his saving of meat will probably find his +consumption not far from this quantity. + + +THE MEAT SUBSTITUTES + +_Fish_. The possible supply of fish is practically unlimited, and +much of it is little appreciated by us. We eat on the average only 18 +pounds apiece per year, though our meat consumption is 170 pounds. The +British and Canadians use much more fish than we do--56 and 29 pounds +respectively. The United States Bureau of Fisheries and many State +colleges are constantly introducing new varieties, from shark down. +We should learn to value the many kinds which are available, fresh, +dried, and canned, not merely the few we happen to be used to. + +_Eggs_ form a very valuable food not only for protein, but for mineral +salts and vitamines as well. It is unfortunate that the price is +often high, but it should be realized that expenditure for eggs makes +expenditure for meat unnecessary. + +_Poultry_ is not now listed as a meat substitute by the Food +Administration because the supply has become very limited. + +_Cheese_ is one of the best substitutes for meat. It represents most +of the food value of a much greater bulk of milk, and its protein, +fat, and mineral salts make it an important food. We in America are +very slow to appreciate it. We are apt to use it in small quantity for +its flavor rather than as a real food. We could well eat more of it, +to the advantage both of the palatability and nutritive quality of our +diet. + +_Milk_, one of the most easily digested and simplest sources of +protein in our diet and the most valuable of our foods, is discussed +in Chapter VII. + +_Nuts_ are usually thought of as a luxury, but the amount of protein +and fat they contain makes them really an important food. Peanuts are +usually classed with the nuts and are considered the most valuable +nut-crop of the United States. They are growing so fast in importance +that the acreage was increased 60 per cent in 1917. They are used for +oil and for fodder as well as for human food. Peanut-butter or a bag +of peanuts is a good investment, but it should be counted as part of +the necessary food, not eaten as an extra. The occasional indigestion +following injudicious eating of cheese and nuts is probably often due +to forgetting that they are very substantial foods and eating them at +the end of an already sufficient meal. + +_Peas and Beans_ are taken up with the other vegetables in Chapter +VIII. + +Why do not the Allies use these substitutes? Mainly because they +haven't them. Dairy products are as scarce as meat. All the fish and +beans and peas that they can get are being used. But it is not enough. +THEIR SMALL MEAT RATION MUST BE MAINTAINED, AND THEIR ARMIES AS WELL +AS OURS MUST HAVE MEAT. KEEP IT GOING OVER! + + + + +CHAPTER V + +FATS + + +To a person who has been in Europe since the war began the question of +the importance of fats is no longer debatable. Having practically gone +without them, he knows they are important. In Germany it is the lack +of fat that is the cause, perhaps, of the most discomfort and makes +the German most dissatisfied with his rations. Even when the diet was +sufficient, it was not satisfactory if low in fat. + +This dependence on fat in the diet is due to several reasons, both +physiological and psychological. Some people, the Japanese for +example, habitually eat but little. But it is the habit of both +Europeans and Americans to use considerable fat both on the table and +in cooking. The taste of food is not so pleasing without it. Their +recipes almost all use fat in one form or another, so that when little +or none is available, a change must be made in most of the methods of +cooking. Practically all food must be boiled, and is lacking in the +flavor and texture to which we are accustomed. The food, no matter how +nutritious it may be, will not taste good. + +Fats are very concentrated food, a fact which gives them added value +in war-time, making them the most economical food to ship. A POUND OF +ANY FAT GIVES 2¼ TIMES AS MUCH ENERGY AS A POUND OF SUGAR--the reason +for the slogan "Fats Are Fuel for Fighters." Soldiers engaged in the +most strenuous physical activities need fuel for all the energy they +expend. Bacon, butter, all the forms of fat give them the most energy +in the smallest weight of food. + +Fats stave off the feeling of hunger longer than other foods because +they pass more slowly from the stomach and delay the passage of foods +eaten with them. A slice of bread and butter will "satisfy" one for a +much longer time than a slice of bread and jelly, even though there is +enough jelly to give exactly the same amount of fuel. In the countries +in which there is a fat shortage, the appetite does not stay satisfied +during the usual period between meals, even when the previous meal +contained the customary amount of calories. The feeling of hunger is +sometimes almost constant. + +Certain fats are valuable for an entirely different reason. Milk fat, +either in the milk or as butter, beef fat which is a constituent of +oleomargarine, the fat in the yolk of egg, all contain one of the +vitamines needed by children in order to grow properly, and by grown +people to keep in good health. Lard and the vegetable fats and oils, +like nut or vegetable margarine and cottonseed-oil, do not contain +this substance, but if there is sufficient milk in the diet, there +will be plenty of this "fat-soluble vitamine." In all other respects +the fats are alike from a nutritional standpoint. One fat can replace +another without harm. + +Until the war came there was little need of knowing or bothering as +to what kind of fats we ate, or of concerning ourselves with the fact +that many more varieties were available than most of us used. Now it +does make a decided difference. OUR ARMIES AND THOSE OF THE ALLIES +NEED FAT, A GREAT DEAL OF IT, AND WE MUST SHIP THEM THE KIND MOST +SUITED TO THEIR PURPOSES. WE CAN USE WHAT THE ALLIES AND THE ARMY DO +NOT NEED. + + +THE SITUATION ABROAD + +There is a shortage of the animal fats, lard, butter, and +oleomargarine for the same reasons, of course, that cause the meat +shortage. England, particularly recently, has had very little, less +even than the French and Italians, who are not accustomed to using +much. + +England was the largest butter importer in the world, getting her +supply mostly from northwestern Europe, Denmark, Russia, Sweden, and +Holland. Russia can no longer supply her. Neither can the neutrals, +who have been supplying Germany under pressure; they need Germany's +coal. Although the United States has increased her butter exports +to the United Kingdom, if our entire exports went to them, it would +supply only 6 per cent of the amount needed. + +To help the situation, England has greatly increased her manufacture +of oleomargarine. Oleo oil and vegetable oils are being imported +in large quantities and now England uses twice as much margarine as +butter. But even with the margarine to help out, there is but little +to go around. The weekly ration of butter and margarine is one-fourth +of a pound per person, and at times even that amount has not been +available. In April an American newspaper man in London reported that +he had forgotten what butter tasted like. It could only be obtained +on the farms, and even those who made it were strictly limited in the +amount that they could keep themselves. Not even margarine could be +served at luncheon or dinner. There were long queues in front of the +shops before the distribution was better systematized. At present the +total amount of fat in the diet is increased somewhat by the allowance +of bacon and ham. + +In Germany the fat shortage, has been so severe that, combined with +the bread shortage, it has been the greatest cause of food riots. +Before the war the Germans imported about half their supply, most of +which is now cut off. Of course, the vegetable oils from the United +States and the tropics are not available. The neutrals have had to +lessen their exports because of their own shortage, and the embargo +which the United States laid on its exports of fats to neutrals. +Germany's inability to feed her animals has greatly curtailed her +supply of animal fats. + +As a result the rations have been decreasing steadily in spite of +every effort. Bones are collected and the fat extracted. Seeds, such +as those of the sunflower, and the kernels of fruit have the oil +pressed from them. During 1915-16 the rations varied from 3¼ ounces +to 10 ounces of table fat a week. By December, 1917, it had been +decreased, so that the average total fat ration was a little under 3 +ounces a week, some communities receiving a little more, and others +none at all. The local newspapers give interesting side-lights showing +the results of this shortage. An owner of a boot-shop was prosecuted +by the police for having 70 pairs of good shoes which he would sell +only in exchange for butter or bacon. (_Brunswick Volksfreund_, +January 16, 1918.) + + +THE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES + +The United States has great resources of vegetable oils, cottonseed, +peanut, corn, and olive oil. It is this apparent plenty that makes +it so difficult for many to visualize the shortage abroad. We are +shipping about one-third of the lard which we produce, and large +quantities of oleo oil for oleomargarine. Although the exports of +butter in 1917 have almost been doubled since the preceding fiscal +year, it is relatively unimportant, representing only about 1 per +cent of the production. We are shipping cottonseed oil also, but this +requires tank-steamers, which are scarce. In general, as the oils are +much more difficult to handle and impossible for the armies to use, we +must ship the solid animal fats. + +_The Individual's Part in Fat Conservation_. Although at present +there is butter and lard on the market, the need for conserving +it is important, just as in the case of meat. WASTE OF ANY KIND +SHOULD BE ABHORRENT TO ALL OF US AT THIS TIME. There probably +has been a greater waste of fat than of any other commodity, but +it is encouraging to note that this waste has been decreased by +conservation. The amount of fat in city garbage has gone down all over +the country. In Columbus, Ohio, the fat in the garbage was almost 50 +per cent less in 1917 than in 1916. In fourteen large cities with a +total population of over 5,000,000 nearly 40 per cent less fat was +recovered in March, 1918, than in March, 1917. + +Not only can fat be saved by carefully avoiding every bit of waste, +but less can actually be used. FRY FOOD LESS, AND BAKE, BROIL, +OR BOIL THEM MORE. USE VEGETABLE OILS. In a long view of the food +situation, it is the animal fats that cause gravest concern, because +of the years necessary to build up a herd. WE MUST SEND AS MUCH FAT +ABROAD AS POSSIBLE, AND CREATE RESERVES FOR PERIODS OF SHORTAGE WITH A +MINIMUM DEPLETION OF OUR HERDS. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +SUGAR + + +OF ALL THE FOODS WHICH IT IS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE, SUGAR IS THE +EASIEST TO DO WITHOUT. If the war and what it means has become part +of a person's consciousness, he wishes only the bare essentials. Sugar +is a luxury of former times which has become a commonplace to-day. +The average use in the United States was 83 pounds per person last +year--1-2/3 pounds a week--less than one hundred years ago the yearly +consumption was 9 pounds. Sugar was a rare luxury. It will do no harm +to regard it so again. + + +WHY IS THERE A SUGAR SHORTAGE? + +Sugar is scarce for two reasons--much less beet-sugar is actually +being grown, and some of the cane-sugar is too far away to be +available. The sugar-beet, grown in temperate climates, and the +sugar-cane, native in tropical and semitropical regions, are the only +two sources of sugar large enough to be of more than local importance. + +Before the war, 93 per cent of the entire world crop of beet-sugar +was grown in Europe. The industry was started by Napoleon in the early +nineteenth century when he was at war with most of Europe, and France +was shut off from her supply of cane-sugar from the West Indies. The +industry spread over the great plain of Central Europe, from the north +of France over Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary to Central Russia. In +1914 all of these countries were producing enough sugar for their own +needs. England produced none at all, but the continent, especially +Germany and Austria, supplied her with about 54 per cent of what she +needed. + +[Illustration: MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF EUROPEAN BEET SUGAR +FACTORIES--ALSO BATTLE LINES AT CLOSE OF 1916 + +ESTIMATED THAT ONE-THIRD OF WORLD'S PROOUCTION BEFORE THE WAR WAS +PRODUCED WITHIN BATTLE LINES] + +The beet-sugar industry in the United States started in 1863 and +has grown rapidly since 1897. In 1917 it supplied 22 per cent of the +consumption. + +Sugar-cane is grown in tropical and semitropical countries all over +the globe. Cuba leads in the amount produced, and consumes only +a small fraction of her production herself. Java, too, is a large +exporter. India raises millions of tons but has to import some to +fill all her needs. In the United States, Louisiana, Texas, and some +parts of Florida produce about 6 per cent of what we use, but our +dependencies, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands and the Philippines all +export to us, and together with Cuba, make up the deficiency. + +The war has changed entirely the peace-time distribution. The map +shows what the battle-lines have done to the beetfields of Europe. +Belgium and the northern part of France, in which practically all +the beets were grown, are in German hands. In 1914 the battle-line +eliminated 203 of the 213 French sugar-factories. In 1916-17 the +falling back of the Germans had returned 65 factories to the French, +but now again some of these have fallen into the enemy's hands. The +French crop in 1915-16 was only one-fifth of the crop before the war +and the following year it was only a fourth. Italy's crop was 25 per +cent less in 1916-17 than before the war and the estimated yield for +this year is 50 per cent less. England, of course, can no longer get +sugar from the continent. + +So the allied world must import cane-sugar or have almost no sugar +at all. The cane-sugar supply is largely dependent on shipping. Ships +cannot be spared to go to the East. Therefore the sugar of Cuba and +the rest of the West Indies, our main source of supply, must be shared +with the Allies. It is to the credit of all involved that every effort +is being made to see that the division is a fair one. A commission +representing the Allies, the United States, and Cuba apportioned the +1917-18 Cuban crop and fixed its price. Competitive bidding by the +many purchasers, with the danger of forcing up the price of the +limited supply, was in this way prevented. + + +THE EFFECT OF THE SHORTAGE + +The rations of Europe are the most convincing evidence of the extent +of the sugar shortage. In England ½ pound a week is allowed for each +person, half the average amount used in their households before the +war. France had sugar cards long before she had any other ration. +Seven ounces a week were allowed, and later in the year only +one-quarter of a pound. Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1918 had an +average household ration of 6 ounces a week. + +The United States in accordance with its usual method is asking +the individual for voluntary conservation of sugar. Each household +is asked to observe a voluntary weekly ration of not more than +three-quarters of a pound per person. Extra amounts of sugar for home +canning may be secured by making a certified declaration to the dealer +that it is to be used only for canning and preserving. + +Food manufacturers using sugar are dealt with more strictly than +private individuals. Every business using sugar may purchase it only +on certificates obtained from the Federal Food Administrators. At +present manufacturers of essential products such as canned vegetables +and fruits may get the amount needed to fill their necessary +requirements. Manufacturers of less essential products get a +percentage of what they used before--at present soft-drink and candy +manufacturers get 50 per cent and ice-cream makers 75 per cent. + +The decreased use of sugar has resulted in the release of the ships +which had been used to bring Cuban sugar to this country--50,000 tons +freed to carry men and munitions and food to the Western front in the +spring of 1918. + + +IN PLACE OF SUGAR + +The United States is much more fortunate than Europe in having sweets +other than sugar at its disposal. As our corn-crop is immense, +the supply of corn-syrup is limited only by the ability of the +manufacturers to turn it out. It is a wholesome, palatable syrup and +can often take the place of sugar both in cooking and on the table. +Although it is not as sweet as ordinary sugar, it serves the body +for fuel in the same way. We have cane-syrup, and also molasses and +refiner's syrup, by-products of sugar-making, and in some parts of +the country, local products such as honey, maple sugar and syrup, +and sorghum syrup. Sweet fruits, both fresh and dried, contain +considerable amounts of sugar, some of the dried fruits being over +two-thirds sugar, and when added to cereals, for example, take the +place of part or all of the sugar. + + +THE PRICE OF SUGAR + +In spite of the short supply, the Food Administration has kept down +the price of sugar by an agreement with the sugar-refineries that the +wholesale price must not be more than the cost of the raw sugar plus +a fixed amount to cover costs of refining. Even during December, +1917, when there was a severe shortage in the East, the price +remained stable. Refiners say that without regulation by the Food +Administration the price would have gone to 25 cents a pound or +higher. + +At times the Food Administration has had to use compulsion to keep the +price level and has not hesitated to do so where necessary. Licenses +have been withdrawn for failure to comply with regulations, and +businesses closed for longer or shorter times. One dealer who was +charging 14 cents a pound for sugar had his store closed for 2 weeks; +another paid $200 to the Red Cross for overcharging; another, for +selling sugar and flour without regard to regulations, was closed +indefinitely. + + +TO CUT DOWN ON SUGAR + +USE FEWER SWEETS OF ANY KIND AND USE SUGAR SUBSTITUTES. Sugar +does serve a desirable purpose in making certain of our foods more +palatable, but the quantity necessary for this is small, and for much +of it other sweets can be used instead. The household consumption uses +by far the largest percentage of the sugar-supply. Its economical use +also helps to provide a reserve for preserving surplus fruits. SUCH +"EXTRAS" AS CANDY AND CAKES CAN BE ENTIRELY DISPENSED WITH. + +Of course, sugar is a food, as it is burned in the body for fuel. +But there are two good physiological reasons for avoiding excessive +amounts. If we eat a large quantity in candy after already sufficient +meals, we are overeating and may suffer from digestive disturbances +in consequence. Eating sweets instead of other food is also bad and a +cause of undernourishment. Sugar is pure carbohydrate, and although +we may eat enough to satisfy the feeling of hunger the body will lack +minerals, protein, and other substances absolutely necessary for +its well-being. The person may feel satisfied, but he will be +undernourished nevertheless. + +The conservation of sugar will not only permit a fair distribution to +our associates in the war, but insure a sufficient amount for our own +men. It is especially valuable for them because it burns so rapidly in +the body that it gives energy more quickly than other foods. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +MILK--FOR THE NATION'S HEALTH + + +In war-time there is constant danger of letting down the health +standard. Food is high in price, demands on incomes are many and +insistent, worst of all, life is being expended so freely abroad that +we become careless about it at home. But while we are fighting to make +the world a decent place to live in, we must keep up our health and +vigor at home. + +MILK IS VITAL TO NATIONAL HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY. We can conserve +wheat and meat, sugar and fats, and be none the worse for it, but WE +MUST USE MILK. The children of to-day must have it for the sake of a +vigorous, hardy manhood to-morrow. A quart for every child, a pint for +every adult is not too high an ideal. + +There is no lack of evidence that children suffer if they do not have +enough. In New York in this past winter, two things were observed +which are undoubtedly closely connected--increased undernutrition +among school children, and decreased use of milk. The Mayor's Milk +Committee in the fall of 1917 reported that the city as a whole +had cut down its milk consumption 25 per cent, and certain tenement +districts 50 per cent. The majority of the families who had reduced +the milk to little or none were giving their children tea and coffee +instead--substituting drinks actually harmful to children for the most +valuable food they could have. + +About the same time as the milk investigation, a count was made of +the number of New York children who were seriously undernourished-- +half-starved. Twelve were found in every 100 children, twice as many +as the year before. + +The warring nations in Europe fully realize the value of milk. In the +face of a serious shortage they are making every effort to get to the +children as much milk as can be produced or imported. Until children, +mothers, and invalids are supplied, no one else may buy any. For adults, +milk is an almost unknown luxury. + +All the countries have definite milk rations for their children. These +rations would be adequate if they could be obtained, but many times +they fall short. Every effort is made to treat all children, rich and +poor, alike. The price of milk is regulated, but parents who cannot +afford to buy it are given it free or at cost. Dried and condensed +milk are used where they can be obtained and fresh milk cannot. +Thousands of tons of condensed milk have been sent over from America. +There has been scarcely a child born in the north of France and none +in Belgium whose continued life during all that period has not been +dependent upon American condensed milk. At one time the Ministry of +Food in Great Britain, anticipating a milk shortage in the winter +bought large quantities of dried milk for distribution by local health +committees and infant welfare societies. + +In Belgium, in spite of the misery of the people, fewer young children +are dying than before the war, because of the milk and bread and care +that they get at the "soupes" and children's canteens. But in Poland, +Roumania, and Serbia, thousands and tens of thousands of babies and +young children have died since the war for lack of milk and other +food. + +Grown people should use milk and appreciate that it is far more than +a beverage. Comparing it with tea and coffee is not sensible. The idea +that food is "something to chew" breaks down completely when milk is +considered. "Milk is both meat and drink." + + +THE VALUABLE CONSTITUENTS OF MILK + +What gives milk its unique value? It must contain especially valuable +substances, since it is an adequate food for the young for several +months after birth and is one of the most important constituents of a +grown person's diet. + +It contains protein of a kind more valuable, especially for growing +children, than that of most other foods. Milk protein separates out +when milk sours and is the familiar cottage-cheese. Because of it, +milk, whole or skim, is a valuable meat substitute. When we drink +milk, therefore, we need less meat. + +It contains fat. A pint of milk has a little more than half an +ounce--the same amount as an ordinary serving of butter. By drinking +milk we can save fat as well as meat. + +Milk-sugar is also present, more or less like ordinary sugar, but +not so sweet. The sugar, the fat, and part of the protein burn in +the body, giving the energy needed for the body's activities. A pint +gives as much fuel as 4 eggs, or half a pound of meat, or 3 or 4 large +slices of bread. Although bread is cheaper fuel than milk, its economy +compared with meat or eggs is obvious. The pint of milk costs usually +about 7 cents, while the eggs and meat cost at least two or three +times as much. The economy of substituting milk for at least part of +the meat in the diet is plain. It is the advice of an expert to "let +no family of 5 buy meat till it has bought 3 quarts of milk." + +But this is not the whole story of milk. Milk is extraordinarily rich +in calcium, commonly called lime, necessary for the growth of the +bones and teeth and also important in the diet of adults, even though +they have stopped growing. No other food has nearly as much. A pint +has almost enough calcium for one entire day's supply. It takes 2¼ +pounds of carrots to give the same amount, or 7 pounds of white bread +or the impossible quantity of 21 pounds of beef! A diet without milk +(or cheese) is in great danger of being too low in calcium, especially +a meat-and-bread diet without vegetables. + +Among the most necessary constituents of milk are the two vitamines. +One is present chiefly in the fat and the other in the watery part +of the milk. Without milk fat, in whole milk or in butter, we run +considerable risk of having too little of the fat-soluble vitamine. +The other vitamine is more widely distributed in our foods, so that +with our varied diet there is little danger of not getting enough. + +Milk, therefore, fills all the needs of the child, except, perhaps, +for iron, and is one of the best foods in the diet of grown people. +THERE IS NO OTHER FOOD THAT HAS ALL THE VIRTUES OF MILK; IT THEREFORE +HAS NO SUBSTITUTE. "THE REGULAR USE OF MILK IS THE GREATEST SINGLE +FACTOR OF SAFETY IN THE HUMAN DIET." + + +OUR MILK PROBLEM + +We have not nearly enough milk in the United States to give every +child the quart and every adult the pint which they should have. +Although we actually produce about a quart per person, more than +half of this is used for butter, cheese, and cream, and only about +two-thirds of a pint is drunk directly as milk or used in cooking. +This spring we have slightly more than this amount because of the +dairymen's response to the patriotic appeal to maintain production, +but our supply and consumption of milk are still far below what they +should be. + +To increase the quantity in the country the price of milk must be low +enough for people to afford it, but high enough to keep the producer +and distributer in the business. The question of a fair price is a +difficult one. The cost of feed has gone up, labor is scarce and dear, +but further economies in both production and distribution are still +possible. This past winter the Food Administration and the Dairy +Division of the Department of Agriculture have assisted many local +commissions in determining fair milk prices and pointing out economies +all along the line of the milk business. + +It is most unfortunate that ignorance of the value of milk makes +people particularly sensitive to a change in its price. When it goes +up even a cent a quart, many cut down their consumption, while a +considerably larger advance in the price of meat will make little +difference in the amount bought. + +If diminished use of milk continues, dairymen may go out of business +and permanent harm be done, both to us and to those dependent on +us abroad. A factory may close down and when the need comes reopen +immediately, but if a cow is killed it takes practically three years +to replace her. + +The milk we have should be used as effectively as possible. The most +economical way for a nation to use its milk so as to get the benefit +of all the food in it, is, of course, as whole milk, or evaporated +or dried whole milk. The next most economical way is in the form of +whole-milk cheese, since all but the whey is used in it. + +Cream and butter are much less economical unless all the skim milk +is used. As 41 per cent of our milk-supply goes to make butter, we +have large quantities of skim milk containing as much protein, it is +estimated, as all the beef we eat. + +At present we feed the largest part of this to animals or actually +throw it away. Since the cottage-cheese drive of the Department +of Agriculture, an increasing amount of it is being made into +cottage-cheese--a palatable and useful meat substitute. It can, of +course, be used as a beverage or in cooking. Whey also has many food +uses. Buttermilk, too, is justly popular and healthful. Skim milk is +not a substitute for whole milk for children. + +Cream, valuable food though it is, is also extravagant in its use of +milk. It takes five quarts of milk to produce a quart of cream. Buying +whole milk is, therefore, better policy than buying cream and no milk. +The sale of cream is now forbidden in Great Britain for this reason. + + +OUR MILK ABROAD + +It is our supply of milk that is helping to meet the milk shortage +abroad. Before the war we exported very little. By 1917 our export of +evaporated, condensed, and dried milk had gone up twentyfold. In the +spring of 1918 we sent over the equivalent in whole milk of almost +50,000,000 pounds a month, and should probably have sent much more +were it not for the lack of ships. After the war, when ships are +released, the demand for it will be enormous. It will take years to +build up the dairy-herds of Europe again, so we shall continue to be +their main source of supply. + +LEARN AND TEACH THE UNIQUE VALUE AND ECONOMY OF MILK. DO EVERYTHING +TO PREVENT IN THIS COUNTRY THE TRAGIC RESULTS WHICH ARE FOLLOWING THE +CUTTING DOWN OF MILK CONSUMPTION ABROAD. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +VEGETABLES AND FRUITS + + +Vegetables and fruits represent a different and happier phase of +the food situation than our short supplies of wheat and meat. The +vegetables especially are a great potential reserve of food, for they +can be produced in quantity in three or four months on unused land by +labor that otherwise might not be used. + +Abroad every resource for vegetable-raising is being utilized to the +utmost. France and Belgium have long made the most of all their land. +Now England has made it compulsory to leave no ground uncultivated. +Golf-courses are now potato-patches. Parks and every bit of back yard +all grow their quota of vegetables. The boys in the old English public +schools work with the hoe where before they played football. + +We in America have no more than touched our capacity for raising +gardens. What we have done is merely a beginning. As the war goes +on we shall realize more and more the necessity for seizing every +opportunity for active service. The accomplishments of the summer of +1917 showed the possibilities of the work, and placed it beyond the +purely experimental stage. They have given experience and emphasized +the value of expert advice and the economy of community efforts. + +Not only is the "plant a garden" a civilian movement, but it has +taken hold in the armies as well. The American Army Garden service +is planning truck-gardens in France to supply our troops. The Woman's +Auxiliary Army Corps of England plants gardens back of the British +lines. Last summer the French fed 20,000 of their men from similar +gardens. + +EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN IN THESE HOME AND COMMUNITY GARDENS +RELIEVES THE RAILROAD CONGESTION AND GIVES MORE SPACE FOR TRANSPORTING +MUNITIONS AND COAL. EVERY POUND OF FOOD GROWN RELEASES STAPLES FOR +EUROPE. Extra production of food of any kind, anywhere, takes on a +new significance in the presence of half a world hungry. + +IF YOU CANNOT GROW VEGETABLES, USE THEM IN ABUNDANCE ANYWAY. They +are too perishable to ship abroad and too bulky, containing so much +water that it would be an uneconomical use of shipping to export them. +But the more America eats of almost any kind of vegetable or fruit, +the less of the more durable, concentrated foods will she require. The +products are so varied in kind and composition that they can be used +to serve almost any purpose--beans and peas to save meat; potatoes +and others to save wheat; sweet fruits to save sugar; jams, even, +when spread on bread, to save fat. All will improve the health and +therefore increase human energies for winning the war. + + +IN THE WAR DIET + +_To Save Meat_. Beans and peas and peanuts are the only vegetables +with much protein, so that they are the ones thought of primarily as +meat substitutes. There are many kinds of them, fresh or dried, more +than most of us realize. It is worth while to add to the diet not +only the ordinary white or navy beans, but kidney, lima, black or soy +beans, cow-peas, the many colored beans such as the pinto, frijoles, +and the California pinks. It is these latter kinds that are used +by the Mexicans as their chief standby. The Army and Navy use huge +quantities of the white beans, and the Allied Governments are also +buying tons of the pintos. + +The 1917 bean-crop, in response to the patriotic appeal, was 50 per +cent higher than the normal. Nearly all this increase was in the +colored beans, chiefly pintos. The Food Administration, fearing +that some of this unusual surplus might be wasted and the farmer +discouraged from producing a large output in 1918, bought up the extra +crop and distributed it for sale at the different markets. + +Though soy beans and peanuts at least are exceptions, the protein +in beans and peas is not so satisfactory as a bodybuilder as that in +animal foods, so that a diet in which they are a large part should +contain also some milk or eggs or a little meat. Two cups (half a +pound) of shelled green peas or beans, or one cup with a cup of skim +milk gives as much protein as a quarter of a pound of beef. Dried +beans and peas are, of course, cheaper than the canned with their +larger amount of water. At the usual market prices as much fuel can +be bought for 5 cents spent for dried peas as for 25 cents for canned +peas. + +Meat-savers do not all have to be high-protein foods, since the diet +of most of us contains considerably more protein than is necessary. +Any vegetable can be a "meat extender." The pleasant flavor of +meat can be obtained in meat stews, such as the delicious French +"pot-au-feu." Stews can easily be made with less meat and more +vegetables than usual. The meat allowance is now so very small in +France and the vegetables so scarce in the cities, that the ingenuity +of even the French woman is taxed to get a meal. + +_To Save Wheat_. Potatoes to save wheat! The great potato drive to +utilize the surplus of our huge 1917 potato-crop, 100,000,000 bushels +above normal, has fixed in every one's mind the interchangeableness +of these two foods. Potatoes are one-fifth starch--almost the same +quantity as in cooked breakfast cereals. Because of this starch, they +give as satisfactory a fuel as wheat or corn or any other cereal. One +medium-sized potato supplies the same number of calories as a large +slice of bread, and contains more mineral salts than white bread. +Europe has learned to eat potatoes instead of wheat. When bread has +been short potatoes have been the mainstay in every country. They are +to-day the largest single element, in terms of energy, in the German +war ration. + +Sweet potatoes are also first-class wheat-savers. So to a lesser +extent are most vegetables and fruits. Very few except white and +sweet potatoes contain much starch, but many of them have considerable +sugar, which serves as fuel just as starch does--carrots, beets, +onions, parsnips, and practically all fruits such as bananas, oranges, +and grapes. + +_To Save Sugar_. We want sugar, of course, both for fuel and flavor. +The vegetables and some fruits have their sugar so covered up by +other tastes that it does not help to make the food sweet. It does, of +course, serve for fuel. Bananas especially are fuel foods, containing +much starch when green, which changes to sugar as the fruit ripens. +The sweetest fruits are the dried ones--dates, figs, raisins, prunes. +They have so much sugar that they can well be used in place of candy. + +_To Save Fat_, Although few common fruits and vegetables contain +fat, jam is a real fat-saver. It is of high fuel value, and has the +advantage of being a "spreading material" so that it can replace +butter with bread and cereals. Jam is of great importance in Europe +to-day and all the Governments have taken steps to keep up the supply. +It is a regular part of the English army ration. + +_To Keep the Nation Well_. An increase in the use of vegetables and +fruits is practically sure to mean an increase in health. Many of us, +especially city-dwellers, do not eat enough of them. Many a young +girl who "does not like vegetables" probably owes part of her languor +to inadequate diet. The old-fashioned "touch of scurvy" formerly +noticed at the end of the winter and even now not an unknown thing, +was probably due to lack of vegetables in the winter diet. The +constipation which is so disturbingly prevalent can usually be cured +or prevented by eating vegetables and fruits in sufficient quantities. +One of the most serious limitations in the diet of many of the +very poor is the lack of vegetables as well as milk and the unduly +large proportion of meat and bread. In a community in New York City +with high mortality rate, 75 mothers whose diet was observed, ate +vegetables on the average only twice a week, and fruit about the same +number of times. + +It is not difficult to understand why vegetables and fruits are so +important. Only a few are especially valuable as fuel or as a source +of protein, but almost all are high in mineral salts and can supply +the "roughage" desirable in the diet. Some also contain the vitamines, +the leafy vegetables being especially valuable because, like milk, +they contain the two kinds. The "greens," leafy vegetables like +spinach, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, and lettuce, are the +ones that help most in these last ways--"protective foods," they have +been called. They are rich in the iron, calcium, and other minerals +that some of the other foods lack. The use of plenty of these +vegetables should go far toward keeping up health. + + +CANNING AND DRYING VEGETABLES AND FRUITS + +The value of these foods both for the nation's health and for saving +staples applies just as much in winter as in summer. In war-time, +a winter supply, either stored, dried, or canned, takes on special +significance because of their substitute value if the supply of +staples runs critically low. + +The canning industry, because it makes vegetables obtainable at all +times and places, has been of great importance in the health and +development of the country. Smith, in his "Commercial Geography," says +that "canning, more than any other invention since the introduction +of steam, has made possible the building up of towns and communities +beyond the bounds of varied production." A century or two ago, sailors +after a voyage of a year or two, almost always came home with scurvy. +Recently Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for years and +remained in good health, because of their supply of canned vegetables, +fruits, and meats. + +The Government has not been slow in appreciating the need of canned +vegetables for the Army and Navy. It has commandeered about 25 per +cent of the canned beans, 12 per cent of the corn, and 18 per cent of +the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts will be needed this year +also. Much of the 1918-19 supply for our troops in France is to be +canned in France, by arrangement with the French Government, thus +saving valuable shipping space. + +Drying, or dehydrating, has long been known for beans, peas, and corn, +and for dates, prunes, figs, and raisins. But dried potatoes, beets, +carrots, and "soup mixtures" are more or less new. The drying, of +course, merely removes most of the water from the vegetable, and if +the process is properly carried out, soaking the vegetable in water +restores its original freshness. + +The war, with the need for every ounce of food and the increasing +transportation difficulties, has brought the process into prominence. +The dehydrated products, if properly stored, seem to keep a long time. +Their saving in freight and shipping is plain, when it is remembered +that the fresh vegetables and fruits often contain over 90 per cent +water, and the dried from 8 per cent to 10 per cent. Ships are too +precious to be used for carrying unnecessary water. Our Government has +placed orders for several thousand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the +Army and may use other dried products as they can be obtained. + +Canada has sent abroad within the past 3 years over 50 million +pounds of dehydrated vegetables, about two-thirds of which was the +vegetable-soup mixture and one-third dried sliced potatoes. When +reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000 pounds of vegetables. +Germany has been drying her vegetables and fruits far more than we. In +1917 she had over 2,000 commercial plants, and an elaborate system of +distributing all the available fresh material to the different plants +to avoid waste. + +Individuals and communities with gardens or wherever fresh products +can be obtained should not be dependent upon commercial agencies. +AS FAR AS POSSIBLE EVERY FAMILY AND EVERY NEIGHBORHOOD SHOULD BE +SELF-SUPPORTING. HOME AND COMMUNITY CANNING AND DRYING ARE IMPORTANT +DUTIES. CAN AND DRY THE SURPLUS. STORE UP ENOUGH TO CARRY THROUGH THE +NEXT WINTER. FOLLOW EXPERT ADVICE AS TO METHODS. USE THE GREATEST CARE +TO PREVENT SPOILAGE. WHEREVER POSSIBLE UNITE WITH YOUR NEIGHBORS IN +COMMUNITY CANNERIES AND DRYERS SO THAT EVERY ONE CAN HAVE THE BENEFIT +OF THE BEST EQUIPMENT AND THE MOST SKILLED SUPERVISION. + +A GREAT DEAL WAS DONE IN 1917; MILLIONS OF CANS WERE PUT UP AND GREAT +WASTE PREVENTED. BUT IN 1918 MORE MUST BE DONE. MORE VEGETABLES MUST +BE RAISED AND MORE MUST BE CANNED. A GREAT RESERVE FOR THE WINTER IS +MORE NECESSARY THAN EVER. + + + + +CONCLUSION + + +Almost a year of food control in this country has passed and the great +new experiment in democratic administration of the nation's food is +succeeding. The method of well-directed voluntary co-operation, much +more characteristic of our food control than of any other country's, +can be judged by its results to date. We have sent abroad six times +the wheat that we had believed was in the country for export. We have +exported vastly increased shipments of the other cereals, of beef and +pork, of fats and condensed milk. With Canada, we are supplying 50 per +cent of the Allies' food, instead of barely 5 per cent, as before the +war. Meanwhile our own population has been taken care of. No one has +gone hungry because of the shipments of food out of the country. The +price of the most important food, bread, has been kept stable--a new +experience in time of war. + +These and others are great accomplishments, brought about through the +co-operation of the nation, BUT THEY ARE SLIGHT IN COMPARISON WITH +WHAT MUST STILL BE DONE. The huge resources for extra food production +and conservation have hardly been touched. The imagination is just +beginning to be stirred by the immensity of the whole undertaking and +the sacrifice required to win the war. Men, ammunition and food, in a +steadily increasing stream, must go across. + +"OUR DUTY, IF WE ARE TO DO THIS GREAT THING AND SHOW AMERICA TO +BE WHAT WE BELIEVE HER TO BE--THE GREATEST HOPE AND ENERGY OF +THE WORLD--IS TO STAND TOGETHER NIGHT AND DAY UNTIL THE JOB IS +FINISHED."--PRESIDENT WILSON. + + + + +A FEW REFERENCES + +American Academy of Political and Social Science. "World's Food." +Philadelphia, 1917. (_Annals of the American Academy_, November, +1917.) + +Carter, Howe and Mason. "Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics." +Philadelphia, Lea & Febiger, 1918. + +Holmes, A.D., and Lang, H.L. "Fats and Their Economical Use in the +Home." Washington, 1916. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 469.) + +Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, Alonzo E. "Food Problems." New York, +Macmillan, 1917. + +Langworthy, C.F. "Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Other Starchy Roots as +Food." Washington, 1917. (Department of Agriculture Bulletin 468.) + +Langworthy, C.F. "Eggs and Their Value as Food." Washington, 1917. +(Department of Agriculture Bulletin 471.) + +Lusk, Graham. "Food in War Time." Philadelphia, Saunders, 1917. + +Lusk, Graham. "Fundamental Basis of Nutrition." New Haven, Yale +University Press, 1915. + +Mendel, Lafayette B. "Changes in Food Supply and Their Relation to +Nutrition." New Haven, Yale University Press, 1916. + +Mendenhall, Dorothy R. "Milk." Washington, 1918. (_Children's Bureau_, +Publication 35.) + +Rose, Mary Swartz. "Everyday Foods in War Time." New York, Macmillan, +1918. + +Rose, Mary Swartz. "Feeding the Family." New York, Macmillan, 1917. + +Sherman, Henry C. "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition." New York, +Macmillan, 1918. + +Sherman, Henry C. "Food Products." New York, Macmillan, 1917. + +Taylor, Alonzo E. "War Bread." New York, Macmillan, 1918. + +The publications of the United States Department of Agriculture and +the United States Food Administration. + +The United States Food Leaflets. + +United States Department of Agriculture: Farmers' Bulletin 487. +"Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet." C.F. Langworthy and +Caroline L. Hunt. 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 565. "Corn as a Food and Ways of Using It." C.F. +Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt, 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 717. "Food for Young Children." Caroline L. Hunt, +1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 808. "What the Body Needs." Caroline L. Hunt and +Helen W. Atwater, 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 817. "Cereal Foods." Caroline L. Hunt and Helen W. +Atwater, 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 824. "Foods Rich in Protein." Caroline L. Hunt and +Helen W. Atwater, 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 839. "Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack +Method." O.H. Benson, 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 841. "Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home." + +Farmers' Bulletin 853. "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables." M.E. +Cresswell and Ola Powell, 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 871. "Fresh Fruits and Vegetables as Conservers of +Other Staple Foods." Caroline L. Hunt, 1917. + +Farmers' Bulletin 881. "Preservation of Vegetables by Fermentation and +Salting." L.A. Round and H.L. Lang, 1917. + + + + +INDEX + + +Agriculture, Department of.--Aids wheat production, 8; campaign for +increased use of milk, 53. + +Austria.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 20-30; sugar-supply, 45. + + +Banana flour as wheat substitute, 20. + +Barley as wheat substitute, 19. + +Beans.--Varieties, 56; as meat substitute, 57. + +Belgium.--Wheat-supply, 2; meat-supply, 29; sugar-supply, 44; milk +supplied to children, 50. + +Bread.--Advantages of wheat loaf, 22-23; bakers' bread regulated, 23; +conservation of, by housewives, 24-25; restrictions on use in Europe, +25-26; rationing not necessary in United States, 27. + +Buckwheat as wheat substitute, 20. + +Butter.--Consumption in England, 39; uneconomical way to use milk, 53. + + +Calorie defined, 10. + +Candy.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46. + +Canning.--Sugar allowed for, 45-46; importance of industry, 60; urged +upon housewives for conservation, 61. + +Cereals.--Defined, 10; food value, 12, 17; wide consumption of, 12-13. + +Cheese.--Valuable protein food, 34; as meat substitute, 35-36; a use +for skim milk, 54. + +Corn as wheat substitute, 17-18; why Allies can not use, 26-27. + +Corn-syrup as sugar substitute, 46. + +Cottonseed meal as wheat substitute, 20. + +Cream.--Extravagant use of milk, 54. + + +Drying.--Process, 60; importance of, 61. + + +Eggs as meat substitute, 35. + +England.--Wheat-supply, 2; restrictions concerning bread, 25-26; +meat-supply, 29; meat restrictions, 30-31; fat shortage, 39; +sugar-supply, 44; milk regulations, 50, 54; cultivation of soil, +55-56. + +Fats.--Food value, 37-38; shortage in Europe, 39; resources and +exports of United States, 40-41; necessity for conservation, 41. + +Feterita as wheat substitute, 20. + +Fifty-fifty rule, 16-17. + +Fish as meat substitute, 35. + +Flour.--Manufacture of, 14-15; 74 per cent extraction allowed, 15; +consumption cut by licensing millers, 15; by fifty-fifty rule, 16-17. + +Food Administration.--Takes control of wheat business, 6, 8; licenses +millers, 15; licenses bakers, 23-24; regulates sugar prices, 46-47; +aids increased use of milk, 53; achievements in year of existence, 62. + +Foods.--Importance of different kinds, 10-11. + +France.--Wheat-supply, 1-2; bread regulations, 26; meat-supply, 29; +meat regulations, 31-32; sugar-supply, 44; sugar restrictions, 45; +production of fruit and vegetables, 56. + +Fruit.--As sugar substitute, 46, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation +of, by canning and drying, 59-61. + + +Garbage conservation, 41. + +Gardens.--See Production. + +Germany.--Wheat-supply, 3-4; meat-supply, 20-30; meat restrictions, +32; fat shortage, 40; sugar restrictions, 45; conservation of food by +drying, 61. + +Gluten.--Importance in bread, 22-23. + +Graham flour.--Manufacture, 14; inferiority to wheat, 15. + +Grain corporation, controls wheat trade, 6, 8. + + +Honey as sugar substitute, 46. + +Hotels and restaurants.--Regulations in use of bread, 24. + + +Ice-cream.--Manufacturers restricted in use of sugar, 46. + +Italy.--Restrictions on macaroni, 25; bread rations, 26; meat-supply, +29; sugar-supply, 44. + + +Jam as substitute for butter, 58. + + +Kaffir as wheat substitute, 20. + + +Legumes.--See Beans, Peanuts, Peas. + + +Macaroni.--Restrictions in manufacture of in Italy, 25; not a wheat +substitute, 25. + +Maple-syrup as sugar substitute, 46. + +Margarine.--Use in England, 39. + +Meat.--Shortage in Europe, 28-32; exports from United States, 32-33; +consumption, 33-34; food value, 34-35. + +Meat extenders, vegetables as, 57. + +Meat substitutes, 35-36; vegetables as, 57. + +Milk.--As meat substitute, 36; necessity for children, 49-50; shortage +in Europe, 50; food value, 51-52; supply in United States, 52-53; +economical uses of, 53-54. + +Milk, condensed.--Use in Europe, 50; amount exported from United +States, 54. + +Milo as wheat substitute, 20. + +Molasses as sugar substitute, 46. + + +Nuts as meat substitutes, 36. + + +Oats as wheat substitute, 19. + +Oils, vegetable.--Use in Germany, 40; supply in United States, 40-41; +as substitute for animal fats, 41. + + +Peanut flour as wheat substitute, 20. + +Peanuts as meat substitute, 36. + +Peas as meat substitute, 56. + +Potato flour as wheat substitute, 20. + +Potatoes as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58. + +Poultry as meat substitute, 35. + +Production.--Decreased in France, 1-2; of cereals doubled in England, +2; of vegetables in England and America, 55. + +Protein.--Defined, 11; amount necessary in diet, 34-35. + + +Rationing: Austria.--Sugar, 45. + +Rationing: England.--Bread not rationed, 26; meat, 30-31; fats, 39; +sugar, 45. + +Rationing: France.--Bread, 26; meat, 31; sugar, 45. + +Rationing: Germany.--Meat, 32; fats, 40; sugar, 45. + +Rationing: Italy.--Bread, 26; meat, 32. + +Rationing: U.S.--Voluntary wheat ration, 25; reasons for not +introducing system, 27. + +Rice.--Chief diet in India, 13; as wheat substitute, 19-20. + +Roumania.--Wheat-supply, 4; meat-supply, 29. + +Russia.--Wheat-supply, 4. + +Rye, as wheat substitute, 19. + + +Shipping.--Necessity for saving, 5; released by decreased use of +sugar, 46. + +Soy bean flour as wheat substitute, 20. + +Substitutes.--See Meat, Sugar, Wheat substitutes. + +Sugar.--Consumption in United States, 42; shortage, 42, 44-45; +restrictions on, 45-46; price regulated, 46-47; conservation of, +47-48. + +Sugar substitutes, 46, 58. + + +Tapioca flour as wheat substitute, 20. + + +United States: Exports.--Wheat, 5-6; meat, 33; fat, 40-41; sugar, +44-45; milk, 54. + + +Vegetables.--Importance in conservation, 55; production of, 56; as +meat substitute, 36, 56-57; as wheat substitute, 20, 57-58; as sugar +substitute, 58; food value, 58-59; conservation of by canning and +drying, 50-61. + +Victory bread, 24. + +Vitamines.--Defined, 11; in fats, 38; in milk, 52; in fruit and +vegetables, 59. + + +War bread.--See Flour, Victory bread, Wheat substitutes. + +Wheat.--Necessity in war, 1; shortage in Europe, 1-4; distribution a +problem, 4-5; supply and exports of United States, 5-6; controlled by +United States Grain Corporation, 6, 8; conservation of by individuals, +8-9. + +Wheat substitutes.--Corn, 18-19; oats, 19; barley, 19; rye, 19; rice, +20; miscellaneous, 20; keeping quality, 20-21; vegetables, 57-58. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD GUIDE FOR WAR SERVICE AT HOME*** + + +******* This file should be named 14055-8.txt or 14055-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/5/14055 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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