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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:43:33 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:43:33 -0700 |
| commit | 86fd294b1edb648efdf636d8f24d095d499d8599 (patch) | |
| tree | 3db1ce57ffcadd032f60b53fce462e247711640d /14037-h | |
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diff --git a/14037-h/14037-h.htm b/14037-h/14037-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d8cc8cb --- /dev/null +++ b/14037-h/14037-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11393 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + P { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + } + HR { width: 33%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + BODY{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} /* footnote */ + .blkquot {margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;} /* block indent */ + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} /* page numbers */ + .sidenote {width: 20%; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; padding-left: 1em; font-size: smaller; float: right; clear: right;} + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + hr.full { width: 100%; + height: 5px; } + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + pre {font-size: 8pt;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + <style type="text/css"> + div.c14 {font-style: italic; text-align: center} + span.c13 {margin-left: 7em;} + span.c12 {margin-left: 3em;} + span.c11 {margin-left: 6em;} + span.c10 {margin-left: 1em;} + span.c9 {margin-left: 8em;} + p.c8 {font-style: italic} + hr.c7 {width: 65%;} + p.c6 {text-align: left} + div.c5 {text-align: right} + span.c4 {font-size: 150%} + div.c3 {text-align: center} + hr.c2 {width: 45%;} + h3.c1 {font-style: italic} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 ***</div> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler</h1> + <hr class="full" noshade> + <br> + <br> + <h3> + THE + </h3> + <h3> + LIFE + </h3> + <h3> + OF + </h3> + <h1> + HUGO GROTIUS: + </h1> + <h3> + WITH + </h3> + <h3 class="c1"> + BRIEF MINUTES + </h3> + <h3> + OF THE + </h3> + <h3> + CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND LITERARY + </h3> + <h3> + HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. + </h3> + <hr class='c2'> + <h3> + BY CHARLES BUTLER, ESQ. + </h3> + <h4> + OF LINCOLN'S-INN. + </h4> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <h4> + LONDON: + </h4> + <h4> + JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET. + </h4> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <h4> + M.DCCC.XXVI. + </h4> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <div class="c3"> + Luke Hansard & Sons,<br> + near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London. + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <div class="c3"> + TO<br> + <br> + HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS<br> + <br> + <span class="c4">THE DUKE OF SUSSEX,</span><br> + <br> + THIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT<br> + <br> + OF<br> + <br> + ONE OF THE MOST AMIABLE AND<br> + RESPECTABLE DEFENDERS OF THE NOBLE<br> + CAUSE OF CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY,<br> + <br> + OF WHICH<br> + <br> + HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS HAS UNIFORMLY<br> + BEEN A CONSTANT AND POWERFUL<br> + ADVOCATE,<br> + <br> + IS<br> + <br> + (WITH HIS PERMISSION),<br> + <br> + MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,<br> + <br> + BY<br> + </div> + <br> + + <div class="c5"> + THE AUTHOR, + </div> + <p class="c6"> + <i>Great Ormond Street</i>,<br> + 29 <i>Sept</i>. 1826. + </p> + <hr class='c7'> + <h2> + CONTENTS + </h2> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <p> + In the following pages we shall attempt to present our + Readers, with a Life of HUGO GROTIUS; and MINUTES OF THE + CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE + NETHERLANDS. + </p> + <p> + In writing these pages, we principally consulted his life, + written in the French language, by <i>M. de Burigni</i>, + Member of the French Royal Academy of Inscriptions and + Belles Lettres; an English translation of it, was published + in 1754, in one Volume, 8vo.; + </p> + <p> + <i>Hugonis Grotii Manes, ab iniquis obtrectationibus + vindicati</i>; 2 vols. 8vo. 1727: the author of this work + is said to be M. Lehman; + </p> + <p> + The article <i>Grotius</i>, in <i>Bayle's and Chalmers's + Dictionaries</i>; + </p> + <p> + And many of the letters in <i>Hugonis Grotii + Epistolæ</i>, published at Amsterdam in 1687, in one + volume, folio; and many in the <i>Præstantium et + Eruditorum Virorum Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ</i>, + published at Amsterdam in 1684, in one volume, 4to. + </p> + <p> + For what we have said on GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS, we + principally consulted, + </p> + <p> + <i>Schmidt's Histoire des Allemands</i>; + </p> + <p> + <i>Pfeffell's Histoire Abregé de l'Allemagne</i>, 2 + vols. 8vo.; + </p> + <p> + <i>Mr. Durnford's excellent Translation, of Professor + Pütter's Historical Developement, of the Political + History of the German Empire</i>; 3 vols. 8vo.; + </p> + <p> + And <i>Hugonis Grotii Annales, et Historiæ de Rebus + Belgicis</i>, one vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1658. + </p> + <p> + In our account of the troubles on <i>Arminianism</i>, and + the Synod of Dort; we principally consulted, the French + Abridgment, in 3 vols. 8vo. of <i>Brand's History of the + Netherlands</i>, and <i>Grotius's</i> excellent + <i>Apology</i>: + </p> + <p> + In every part of the work, we have consulted other + publications;-three only of these we shall mention; + </p> + <p> + The three <i>Bibliothècques</i> of Le Clerc; + </p> + <p> + <i>The Life of Arminius</i>, and + </p> + <p> + <i>Calvinism and Arminianism Compared</i>, by Mr. James + Nichols. + </p> + <p> + From these materials the following pages have been + composed: they may be found to contain,- + </p> + <p> + + </p> + <table width="700" summary="TOC" border="0" align="center"> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c_intro'></a><a href= + '#INTRODUCTION'><b>INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 800-911. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <b>I.</b> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <a name='c_1.1'></a><a href='#intro_I_1'><b>1.</b></a> + <i>Boundaries, and Devolution of the Empire of + Germany, during the Carlovingian dynasty</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <a name='c_1.2'></a><a href='#intro_I_2'><b>2.</b></a> + <i>State of Literature, in the time of + Charlemagne</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <b><a name='c_1.3'></a><a href='#intro_I_3'>3.</a></b> + <i>Decline of Literature, under the Descendants of + Charlemagne</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 911-1024. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <b>II.</b> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <a name='c_2.1'></a><a href='#intro_II_1'><b>1.</b></a> + <i>Boundaries, and Devolution of the empire of + Germany, during the Saxon dynasty</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <b><a name='c_2.2'></a><a href='#intro_II_2'>2.</a></b> + <i>State of Literature, during the Saxon dynasty</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1024-1138. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <b>III.</b> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <a name='c_3.1'></a><a href= + '#intro_III_1'><b>1.</b></a> <i>Boundaries, and State + of Germany, during the Franconian dynasty</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <b><a name='c_3.2'></a><a href= + '#intro_III_2'>2.</a></b> <i>State of German + Literature, during the Franconian dynasty</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1138-1519 </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="40"> + <b>IV.</b> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40"> + <b><a name='c_iv.1'></a><a href= + '#intro_IV_1'>1.</a></b> <i>State of Germany, from the + beginning of the Suabian dynasty, until the accession + of the Emperor Charles V.</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <b><a name='c_iv.2'></a><a href= + '#intro_IV_2'>2.</a></b> <i>State of German + Literature, during this period</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1138-1519 </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <b>V. </b> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <b><a name='c_v.1'></a><a href='#intro_V_1'>1.</a></b> + <i>Antient, and modern Geography of the + Netherlands</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <a name='c_v.2'></a><a href='#intro_V_2'><b>2.</b></a> + <i>The formation, of the different provinces of the + Netherlands, into one State</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="40"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40"> + <a name='c_v.3'></a><a href='#intro_V_3'><b>3.</b></a> + <i>Brief view, of the History of the Netherlands, + until the acknowledgment of the Seven United Provinces, + by the Spanish monarch</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + <b><a name='c_v.4'></a><a href='#intro_V_4'>4.</a></b> + <i>Their constitution, and principal officers</i> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c01'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_I'><b>CHAPTER + I.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1582-1597.</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + BIRTH, AND EDUCATION OF GROTIUS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c02'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_II'><b>CHAPTER + II </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1597-1610.</b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + GROTIUS, EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c03'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_III'><b>CHAPTER + III. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS, OF GROTIUS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c04'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_IV'><b>CHAPTER + IV. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40"> + HISTORICAL MINUTES, OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR + DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN + CONTROVERSY + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c05'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_V'><b>CHAPTER + V. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1610-1617. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40"> + THE FEUDS, IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, BETWEEN THE + DISCIPLES OF CALVIN, AND THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, + UNTIL THE SYNOD OF DORT + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c06'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VI'><b>CHAPTER + VI.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1618. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + THE SYNOD OF DORT + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c07'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VII'><b>CHAPTER + VII. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1618-1621. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS; HIS ESCAPE FROM + PRISON + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c08'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VIII'><b>CHAPTER + VIII.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1622 </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + JAMES I. + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + VORSTIUS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c09'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_IX'><b>CHAPTER + IX.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1621-1634. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40"> + GROTIUS, AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, UNTIL HIS + APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR, FROM SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF + FRANCE + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c10'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_X'><b>CHAPTER + X. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS, OF GROTIUS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <a name='c10.1'></a><a href='#X_1'><b>1.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + New edition of Stobæus + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <a name='c10.2'></a><a href='#X_2'><b>2.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + His treatise + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + de Jure Belli et Pacis + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="27"> + <a name='c10.3'></a><a href='#X_3'><b>3.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" align="center" height="27"> + ---- + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="27"> + de Veritate Religionis Christianæ + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="47"> + <a name='c10.4'></a><a href='#X_4'><b>4.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" align="center" height="47"> + ---- + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="47"> + de Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra.--And + Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, + quæ de Antichristo agunt, aut agere videntur + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <b><a name='c10.5'></a><a href='#X_5'>5.</a> </b> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + His Commentaries on the Scriptures + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <b><a name='c10.6'></a><a href='#X_6'>6.</a> </b> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + His other works + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c11'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XI'><b>CHAPTER + XI. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1634-1645. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40"> + GROTIUS, AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN, TO + THE COURT OF FRANCE + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c12'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XII'><b>CHAPTER + XII. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS; SOME OTHER OF HIS + WORKS, + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <a name='c12.1'></a><a href='#XII_1'><b>1.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + Subsequent History of Arminianism + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <a name='c12.2'></a><a href='#XII_2'><b>2.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + Grotius's religious sentiments + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <a name='c12_3'></a><a href='#XII_3'><b>3.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + Projects of religious Pacification + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c13'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XIII'><b>CHAPTER + XIII.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + THE DEATH OF GROTIUS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='c14'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XIV'><b>CHAPTER + XIV. </b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <b>A.D. 1680-1815. </b> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="59"> + HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT + OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF + WILLIAM II. TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF + THE NETHERLANDS. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <a name='c14.1'></a><a href='#XIV_1'><b>1.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + William III. + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="40"> + <a name='c14.2'></a><a href='#XIV_2'><b>2.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40"> + John William Count of Nassau Dietz, 1702-1711;<br + clear="all"> + William IV. 1711-1751 + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + <a name='c14.3'></a><a href='#XIV_3'><b>3.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21"> + From the death of William IV. till the erection of the + Kingdom of the Netherlands + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='cAp.1'></a><a href='#APPENDIX_I'><b>APPENDIX + I.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40"> + Some Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, + or Symbolic Books, of the Roman-Catholic, Greek, and + principal Protestant Churches + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='cAp.2'></a><a href='#APPENDIX_II'><b>APPENDIX + II.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + On the Reunion of Christians + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='ci'></a><a href='#I'><b>I.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='cii'></a><a href='#II'><b>II.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='cii.1'></a><a href='#II_1'><b>II. 1.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='cii.2'></a><a href='#II_2'><b>II. 2.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='cii.3'></a><a href='#II_3'><b>II. 3.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='cii.4'></a><a href='#II_4'><b>II. 4.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='ciii'></a><a href='#III'><b>III.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='ciii.1'></a><a href='#c_III_1'><b>III. + 1.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='ciii.2'></a><a href='#c_III_2'><b>III. + 2.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='ciii.3'></a><a href='#c_III_3'><b>III. + 3.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='ciii.4'></a><a href='#III_4'><b>III. + 4.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='civ'></a><a href='#IV'><b>IV.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2"> + <a name='cv'></a><a href='#V'><b>V.</b></a> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="718" valign="top" colspan="3" height="74"> + <hr width="45%"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21"> + <a name='FOOTNOTES_1'></a><a href= + '#FOOTNOTES'><b>FOOTNOTES.</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td width="13" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="109" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + <td width="568" valign="top" height="21"> + + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <hr class='c2'> + <h3> + THE + </h3> + <h3> + LIFE + </h3> + <h3> + OF + </h3> + <h3> + HUGO GROTIUS, + </h3> + <h3> + WITH MINUTES OF THE CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL,<br> + AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. + </h3> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='INTRODUCTION'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_intro'>INTRODUCTION.</a> + </h2> + <p> + SUCCINCT NOTICE OF THE GEOGRAPHY, PRINCIPAL POLITICAL + EVENTS, AND LITERATURE, OF THE NETHERLANDS, BEFORE THE + BIRTH OF GROTIUS. + </p> + <p> + 800-1581. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <p> + We propose to present to our readers, in this chapter, a + succinct account, of the Geography, Devolution, and + Literature of the Netherlands,-considering them, until they + became subject to the princes of the House of Burgundy, as + a portion of the German Empire, and included in its + history:-and from that time, as forming a separate + territory. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 800-1581. + </div> + <p> + Contemplating the Netherlands in the first of these + views,-we shall briefly mention the Boundaries and + Government, of the German Empire, and the state of learning + in its territories, during the Carlovingian, Saxon, + Franconian and Suabian Dynasties, and the period, which + intervened, between the last Suabian emperor and the + election of the Emperor Charles the fifth. + </p> + <p> + From this time, we shall confine ourselves to the History + of the Netherlands. We shall then, therefore, endeavour to + give a short view of the geography of these countries, and + of the manner in which they were acquired by the Princes of + Burgundy; then, shortly mention the successful revolt of + the Seven United Provinces. + </p> + <p> + In one of them, GROTIUS, the subject of these pages, was + born; the part which he took in the public events of his + times, forms the most important portion of his biography. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_I_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_1.1'>I. 1.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>Boundaries and Devolution of the Empire of Germany + during the Carlovingian Dynasty</i>. + </p> + <p> + 800-911. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The Ocean on the north, the Danube on the south, the Rhine + on the west, and the Sarmatian Provinces on the east, are + the boundaries assigned by Tacitus to Antient Germany. It + formed the most extensive portion of the territories of + Charlemagne; descended, at his decease, to his son, Lewis + the Debonnaire; and, on the partition between his three + sons, was allotted to Lewis, his second son. + </p> + <p> + All the territories of Charlemagne were united in Charles + the Fat; he was deposed by his subjects, and his empire + divided. Germany was assigned to his third son, Charles the + Brave. On his decease, it was possessed by Arnold, a + natural son of Carloman, the elder brother of Charles: from + him it descended to Hedwiges, the wife of Otho, Duke of + Saxony, and she transmitted it to their son Henry the + Fowler, the first emperor of that house. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 800-911. + </div> + <p> + From the skirts of Germany and France two new kingdoms + arose: the kingdom of Lorraine, which comprised the + countries between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheld; or + the modern Lorraine, the province of Alsace, the + Palatinate, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liêge and the + Netherlands;-and the kingdom of Burgundy: This was divided + into the Cis-juranan, or the part of it on the east, and + the Trans-juranan, or the part of it on the west of Mount + Jura. The former comprised Provençe, + Dauphiné, the Lyonese, Franche-comté, Bresse, + Bugey, and a part of Savoy; the latter comprised the + countries between Mount Jura and the Pennine Alps, or the + part of Switzerland between the Reus, the Valais, and the + rest of Savoy. + </p> + <p> + Such was the geographical state of Germany at the close of + the Carlovingian Dynasty. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_I_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_1.2'>I. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + So far as Literature depends upon the favour of the + monarch, no æra in history promised more than the + reign of Charlemagne. His education had been neglected; but + he had real taste for learning and the arts, was sensible + of their beneficial influence both upon the public and the + private welfare of a people; and possessed the amplest + means of encouraging and diffusing them; his wisdom would + suggest to him the properest means of doing it, and the + energy of his mind would excite him to constant exertions. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne. + </div> + <p> + Nothing that could be effected by a prince thus gifted and + disposed, was left untried by Charlemagne. He drew to him + the celebrated Alcuin, Peter of Pisa, Paul Warnefrid, and + many other distinguished literary characters: he heaped + favours upon them; and a marked distinction was always + shewn them at his court. He formed them into a literary + society, which had frequent meetings. Their conversation + was literary, he often bore a part in it; and, what was at + least equally gratifying, he always listened with a polite + and flattering attention while others spoke. To establish + perfect equality among them, the monarch, and, after his + example, the other members of this society, dropt their own + and adopted other names. Angelbert was called Homer, from + his partiality to that poet; Riculphus, archbishop of + Mentz, chose the name of Damétas, from an eclogue of + Virgil: another member took that of Candidus; Eginhard, the + Emperor's biographer, was called Calliopus, from the Muse + Calliope; Alcuin received, from his country, the name of + Albinus; the archbishop Theodulfe was called Pindar; the + abbot Adelard was called Augustine; Charlemagne, as the man + of God's own heart, was called David. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 800-911 + </div> + <p> + The Emperor corresponded with men of learning, on subjects + of literature; they generally related to religion. In one + of his letters, he requires of Alcuin an explanation of the + words Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, which + denote the Sundays which immediately precede, and the word + Quadragesima, which denotes the first Sunday which occurs + in Lent. The denominations of those Sundays give rise to + two difficulties; one, that they seem to imply that each + week consists of ten, not of seven days; the other, that + the words sound as if Septuagesima were the seventieth, + when it is only the sixty-third day before Easter Sunday; + Sexagesima, as if it were the sixtieth, when it is only the + fifty-sixth; Quinquagesima, as if it were the fiftieth, + when it is the forty-ninth; Quadragesima, as if it were the + fortieth, when it is the forty-second. Alcuin's answer is + more subtle than satisfactory. + </p> + <p> + At the meals of Charlemagne some person always read to him. + His example was followed by many of his successors, + particularly by Francis I. of France, who, in an happier + era for learning, imitated with happier effects, the + example of the Emperor. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne. + </div> + <p> + Alcuin was general director of all the literary schemes of + Charlemagne. He was an Englishman by birth; skilled both in + the Greek and Latin language, and in many branches of + philosophy. Having taught, with great reputation and + success, in his own country, he travelled to Rome. In 780, + Charlemagne attracted him to his court. + </p> + <p> + There, Alcuin gave lectures, and published several + treatises. In these, he began with Orthography; then + proceeded to Grammar; afterwards to Rhetoric, and + Dialectic. He composed his treatises in the form of + dialogues; and, as Charlemagne frequently attended them, + Alcuin made him one of his interlocutors. Few scholars of + Alcuin were more attentive than his imperial pupil; he had + learned grammar from Peter of Pisa; he was instructed in + rhetoric, dialectic, and astronomy by Alcuin. He also + engaged in the study of divinity; and had the good sense to + stop short of those subtleties, in which Justinian, + Heraclius, and other princes, unfortunately both for + themselves and their subjects, bewildered themselves. + Letters from Giséla and Richtrudis, the daughters of + Charlemagne, to Alcuin, shew that they partook of their + father's literary zeal: his favourite study was astronomy. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 800-911. + </div> + <p> + The number of persons in his court, who addicted themselves + to pursuits of literature, was so great, and their + application so regular, that their meetings acquired the + appellation of "The School of Charlemagne." Their library + was at Aix-la-Chapelle, the favourite residence of the + monarch: but they accompanied him in many of his journies. + Antiquarians have tracked them at Paris, Thionville, + Wormes, Ratisbon, Wurtzburgh, Mentz, and Frankfort. + </p> + <p> + Charlemagne established schools in every part of his + dominions. In 787, he addressed a circular letter to all + the metropolitan prelates of his dominions, to be + communicated by them to their suffragan bishops, and to the + abbots within their provinces. He exhorted them to erect + schools in every cathedral and monastery. Schools were + accordingly established throughout his vast dominions: they + were divided into two classes; arithmetic, grammar, and + music were taught in the lower, the liberal arts and + theology in the higher. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 1. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne. + </div> + <p> + In France, the abbeys of Corbie, Fontenelles, Ferrieres, + St. Denis, St Germain of Paris, St. Germain of Auxerre, and + St. Benedict on the Loire;-in Germany, the abbeys of Proom, + Fulda, and of St Gall;-in Italy, the abbey of Mount Casino, + were celebrated for the excellence of their schools. One, + for the express purpose of teaching the Greek language, was + founded by Charlemagne at Osnabruck. All were equally open + to the children of the nobility and the children of + peasants; all received the same treatment. It happened + that, on a public examination of the children, the peasant + boys were found to have made greater progress than the + noble. The Emperor remarked it to the latter, and declared + with an oath, that "the bishopricks and abbeys should be + given to the diligent poor." "You rely," he said to the + patrician youths, "on the merit of your ancestors; these + have already been rewarded. The state owes them nothing; + those only are entitled to favour, who qualify themselves + for serving and illustrating their country by their talents + and their merits." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 800-911. + </div> + <p> + The civil law then consisted of the Theodosian code, the + Salic, Ripuarian, Allemannic, Bavarian, Burgundian, and + other <i>codes</i>; and of the <i>formularies</i> of + Angesise and Marculfus. To these Charlemagne added his own + <i>capitularies</i>. The whole collection, in opposition to + the canon or ecclesiastical law, received the appellation + of <i>Lex Mundana</i>, or <i>worldly law</i>. The canon law + consisted of the code of canons which Charlemagne brought + with him from Rome in 784; a code of the canons of the + church of France; the canons inserted in the collection of + Angelram, bishop of Metz; the apostolic canons, published + by St. Martin, bishop of Braga; the capitularies of + Theodulfus, of Orleans; and the penitential canons, + published in the Spicilegium of d'Acheri.<a name= + 'FNanchor_001_1'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_001_1'><sup>[001]</sup></a> To the study, both + of the canon and civil law, schools were appropriated by + Charlemagne: few, except persons intended for the + ecclesiastical state, frequented them. Rabanus Maurus,<a + name='FNanchor_002_2'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_002_2'><sup>[002]</sup></a> abbot of Fulda, and + afterwards archbishop of Mentz, has left an interesting + account of the studies of this period; it shews that all + were referred to theology, and only considered to be useful + so far as they could be made serviceable to sacred + learning. Such a plan of study could conduce but little to + the advancement of general literature or science. Still, it + was productive of good, and led to improvement. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + I.2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne. + </div> + <p> + It is observable that both antient and modern civilizers of + nations, have called music to their aid; among these we may + mention Charlemagne. In his residence at Rome, he was + delighted with the Gregorian chant. After his return to + Germany, he endeavoured to introduce it, both into his + French and German dominions. The former had a chant of + their own; they called it an improvement, but other nations + considered it a corruption of the Gregorian. Greatly + against the wish of Charlemagne, his Gallic subjects + persisted in their attachment to their national music; the + merit of it was gravely debated before the Emperor; they + vehemently urged the superiority of their own strains. + "Tell me," said the Emperor, "which is purer, the fountain + or the rivulet?" They answered, "the former." "Return ye, + then," (said the Emperor) "to St. Gregory: he is the + fountain, the rivulets are evidently corrupted." The + Emperor was obeyed, and the Gregorian chant was taught, + both in France and Germany, by Italian choristers. The + Italian writers of the times describe the difficulties + which they experienced in forming the rough and almost + untuneable voices of their French and German pupils to the + softness of the Gregorian song. They appear to have + succeeded better with the Germans than the French. By + these, their lessons were so soon and so completely + forgotten, after the decease of Charlemagne, that Lewis the + Debonnaire, his son, was obliged to request Pope Gregory + IV. to send him from Rome, a new supply of singers to + instruct the people. + </p> + <p> + But music continued to prosper in Germany; it abounded in + songs. Some were amatory, (<i>münnelier</i>); some + were satirical, (<i>cantica in malitiam</i>); some heroic, + (<i>cantica in honorem,</i>); some diabolical, (<i>cantica + diabolica</i>.) These consisted of incantations, and of + narratives of the feats of evil spirits. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 800-911. + </div> + <p> + Vernacular poetry, and vernacular composition, of every + kind, were almost wholly left to the vulgar; all, who aimed + at literary eminence, wrote in the Latin language. Some + discerning spirits became sensible that the German language + was susceptible of great improvement, and excited their + countrymen to its cultivation. Among these was Otfroid; he + translated the Gospel into German verse. He describes, in + strong terms, the difficulties which he had to encounter: + "The barbarousness of the German language is," he says, "so + great, and its sounds are so incoherent and strange, that + it is very difficult to subject them to the rules of + grammar, to represent them by syllables, or to find in the + alphabet letters which correspond to them." It is however + remarkable, that, although he complains of the dissonance + of the German language, he never accuses it of poverty. + </p> + <p> + While France and Germany continued subject to the same + monarch, German was the language of the court, and + generally used in every class of society. When the treaty + of Verdun divided the territories of Charlemagne, the + <i>Romande</i>, or <i>Romançe</i> language, a + corruption of the Latin, superseded the German in every + part of France: it was insensibly refined into the modern + French, but the German continued to be the only language + spoken in Germany. + </p> + <p> + Great progress was made in architecture: the churches and + palaces constructed by the direction of Charlemagne at + Aix-la-Chapelle, the Basilisc at Germani, the church of St. + Recquier at Ponthieu, and many other monuments of great + architectural skill and expense, belong to the age of + Charlemagne, and bear ample testimony to the well-directed + exertions of the monarch, and of some of his descendants, + and to their wise and splendid magnificence. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_I_3'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_1.3'>I. 3.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Decline of Literature under the Descendants of Charlemagne. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 800-911 + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + I. 3. Decline of Literature under the Descendants of + Charlemagne. + </div> + <br> + + <p> + That literature began to decline immediately after the + decease of Charlemagne, in every part of his extensive + dominions, and that its decline was principally owing to + the wars among his descendants, which devastated every + portion of his empire, seems to be universally + acknowledged; yet there are strong grounds for contending + that it was not so great as generally represented. + <i>Abbé le Beuf</i>,<a name='FNanchor_003_3'></a><a + href='#Footnote_003_3'><sup>[003]</sup></a> in an excellent + dissertation on the state of the sciences in the Gauls + during the period which elapsed between the death of + Charlemagne and the reign of Robert, king of France, + attempts to prove the contrary; and the preliminary + discourses of the authors of "l'Histoire Literaire de la + France," on the state of learning during the ninth and + tenth centuries, strongly confirm the abbé's + representations. It is surprising how many works were + written during these dark, and, as they are too harshly + called, ignorant ages. It is more to be wondered, that + while so much was written, so little was written well. The + classical works of antiquity were not unknown in those + times; the Latin Vulgate translation of the Old and New + Testament was daily read by the clergy, and heard by the + people. Now, although the language of the Vulgate be not + classical, it is not destitute of elegance, and it + possesses throughout the exquisite charms of clearness and + simplicity. It is surprising that these circumstances did + not lead the writers to a better style. They had no such + effect; the general style of the time was hard, inflated + and obscure. It should, however, be observed, that Simonde + de Sismondi, as he is translated by Mr. Roscoe, justly + observes, that "during the reign of Charlemagne, and during + the four centuries which immediately preceded it, there + appeared, both in France and Italy, some judicious + historians, whose style possesses considerable vivacity, + and who gave animated pictures of their times; some subtle + philosophers, who astonished their contemporaries, rather + by the fineness of their speculations than by the justness + of their reasoning; some learned theologians, and some + poets. The names of Paul Warnefrid, of Alcuin, of + Luitprand, and Eginhard, are even yet universally + respected. They all, however, wrote in Latin. They had all + of them, by the strength of their intellect, and the happy + circumstances in which they were placed, learned to + appreciate the beauty of the models which antiquity had + left them. They breathed the spirit of a former age, as + they had adopted its language: we do not find them + representatives of their contemporaries: it is impossible + to recognize in their style the times in which they lived; + it only betrays the relative industry and felicity with + which they imitated the language and thoughts of a former + age. They were the last monuments of civilized antiquity, + the last of a noble race, which, after a long period of + degeneracy, became extinct in them." + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_II_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_2.1'>II. 1.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Boundaries and Devolution of the German Empire during the + Saxon Dynasty. + </p> + <p> + 911-1024. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + We have mentioned that, on the death of Lewis, the son of + Arnhold, the empire descended to Henry I. in the right of + his mother. From him, it devolved through Otho, surnamed + the Great, Otho II., and Otho III., to Henry II. the last + emperor of the Saxon line. + </p> + <p> + In this period of the German history, the attention of the + reader is particularly directed to two circumstances,-the + principal states, of which Germany was composed, the + cradles, as they may be called, of the present electorates, + and the erection of the principal cities and monasteries in + Germany. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty. + </div> + <p> + A curious altercation between Nicephorus Phocas, the Greek + emperor, and Luitprand bishop of Cremona, ambassador from + Otho I. to the Greek sovereign, shews the state of Germany + during this period. "Your nation," said the empire to the + ambassador, "does not know how to sit on horseback; or how + to fight on foot: your large shields, massive armour, long + swords, and heavy helmets, disable you for + battle."-Luitprand told the emperor that "he would, the + first time they should meet in the field, feel the + contrary." Luitprand observed, that "Germany was so little + advanced in ecclesiastical worth; that no council had been + held within its precincts:" the ambassador remarked, that + "all heresies had originated in Greece." The emperor + asserted, that "the Germans were gluttons and drunkards:" + Luitprand replied, that "the Greeks were effeminate." All + writers agree, that, in what each party to this + conversation asserted, there was too much truth. + </p> + <p> + We have noticed the advance towards civilization which + Henry I, made by the construction of towns; he effected + another, by the introduction of tournaments and field + sports, on a large, orderly and showy plan. Speaking + generally, society in Germany during the Saxon line of its + princes, was always improving. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_II_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_2.2'>II. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty</i>. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 911-1024. + </div> + <br> + + <p> + "In the school of Paderborn," says the biographer of + Meinwert, as he is cited by Schmidt, "there are famous + musicians, dialecticians, orators, grammarians, + mathematicians, astronomers and geometricians. Horace, the + great Virgil, Sallust, and Statius, are highly esteemed. + The monks amuse themselves with poetry, books and music. + Several are incessantly employed in transcribing and + painting." + </p> + <p> + A German translation of the Psalms, by Notker, a monk of + the abbey of St. Gall, shews that some attention was paid + to the language of the country. The Greek was cultivated; + the writers of the times mention several persons skilled in + it. Notker, in a letter to one of his correspondents, + informs him, that "his Greek brothers salute him." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty. + </div> + <p> + Poetry was a favourite study: the celebrated + <i>Gerbert</i>, afterwards Pope Silvester II, and + <i>Waldram</i>, bishop of Strasburgh, were the best poets + of their times. Hroswith,<a name='FNanchor_004_4'></a><a + href='#Footnote_004_4'><sup>[004]</sup></a> a nun in the + monastery of Gardersheim, published comedies: "Many + Catholics," she says, in her preface to them, "are guilty + of a fault, from which I myself am not altogether free; + they prefer profane works, on account of their style, to + the holy Scriptures. Others have the Scriptures always in + their hands, and despise profane authors; yet they often + read Terence, and their attention to the beauties of his + style does not prevent the objectionable passages in his + writings from making an impression on them." + </p> + <p> + To this age, the origin of Romances is usually assigned: + but these belong to the French; no specimen of them has + been discovered in Germany. Music was much cultivated. + Hroswith introduced it into her comedies. + </p> + <p> + It has been mentioned, that Sallust was read in the school + at Paderborn. It is supposed that Tacitus was known to + Wittikind or Dittmar: both relate visions, and several + puerile circumstances; but they write with precision, and + shew, on many occasions, great good sense. + </p> + <p> + The same cannot be said of the Legend-writers; the account + which the authors of "The Literary History of France" give + of them is very just. "The ancient legends," they say, + "were lost, in consequence either of the plunder or the + burning of the churches; it was considered necessary to + replace them, as it was thought impossible to honour the + memory, or to preserve the veneration of the saints, + without some knowledge of their lives. It is to be + remarked, that the saints, whose memories were thus sought + to be honoured, had been long dead, or had lived in foreign + countries, so that little was known of them except by oral + tradition. From this it may be easily guessed, that those + who employed themselves upon the legends, were deprived of + necessary information, and upon that account could not + produce exact and true histories. Thus, to the general + defects of the age in which they lived, they added + uncertainty, confusion, and some falsehood. Their pages + abound with visions. In the place of the simple and + natural, they substituted the wonderful and extraordinary. + It even happened too frequently that they took leave to + tell untruths. Heriger, the abbot of St Lupus, says, in + direct terms, that they piously lied." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 911-1024. + </div> + <p> + Dialectic was in great favour: it was called philosophy; no + work was more read than "the Book of Categories," + erroneously ascribed to St. Augustine; and a work, upon the + same subject, imputed to Porphyry. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty. + </div> + <p> + The schools of the cathedrals and principal monasteries + contributed essentially to the increase and diffusion of + literature. Among the monasteries, those of Fulda, St. + Gall, Corbie and Kershaw, were particularly renowned. + Bishops and abbots exerted themselves to procure books, and + to have copies of them made and circulated: they were often + splendidly illuminated. Henry I. caused a painting to be + made, of a battle which he had gained over the Hungarians. + Bernard, bishop of Hildersheim, in imitation of what he had + seen in Italy, ornamented the churches of his diocese with + mosaic paintings; he also introduced, among his countrymen, + the art of fusing and working metals; he caused precious + and highly ornamented vases to be made in imitation of the + antients. Large and small bells were cast; chalices, + patines, incensories, images, and even altars of gold and + silver, or ornamented with them, were fabricated. Aventin + relates, that at Mauverkirchen, in Bavaria, figures in + plaster, hardened by fire, had, in 948, been made of a duke + of Bavaria and his general. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 911-1024. + </div> + <p> + The establishment of schools, and the protection given to + the arts and sciences, invited the whole body of the nation + to the acquisition of useful and ornamental knowledge; but + the invitation was not even generally accepted. There was + much superstition in every order of the laity. An opinion + prevailed among them, that the world was to end, and the + day of judgment arrive, in the year 1000. An universal + panic spread itself over Europe. Strange to relate, the + people sought to avoid the catastrophe, by hiding + themselves in caverns and tombs. + </p> + <p> + The existence of this ignorance cannot be denied: but, to + the ecclesiastics, who strove against it, who erected and + fostered so many schools to dispel it, and who exerted + themselves in the manner we have mentioned, to establish + another and a better order of things, a great share of + praise and gratitude should never be denied. + </p> + <p> + The mines of Hartz were discovered in the time of Otho I. + and diffused so much wealth over Saxony, and afterwards + over all Germany, as gave the reign of that emperor the + appellation of "the age of gold." Before this time, + Nicephorus Phocas had called Saxony, from the dress, or + rather the coverings of its inhabitants, "the land of + skins." But all the wealth of the country still continued + to be concentrated among the great landowners. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_III_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_3.1'>III. 1.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Boundaries and State of Germany during the Franconian + Dynasty. + </p> + <p> + 1024-1138. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Under Henry III. the second prince of this line, the German + empire had its greatest extent. It comprised Germany, + Italy, Burgundy and Lorraine. Poland, and other parts of + the Sclavonian territories, were subject to it. Denmark and + Hungary acknowledged themselves its vassals. + </p> + <p> + The emperors affected to consider all kingdoms as forming a + royal republic, of which the emperor was chief. For their + right to this splendid prerogative, they always found + advocates in their own dominions: they reckon, among these, + the illustrious Leibniz. Out of Germany, nothing of the + claim, beyond precedence in rank, has ever been allowed. + This, no sovereign in Europe has contested with the + emperors: it is observable, that, as the French monarchs + insisted on the Carlovingian extraction of Hugh Capet, they + affected to consider Henry the Fowler the first prince of + the Saxon dynasty, and all his successors in the empire as + usurpers. Lewis XIV. expresses himself in this manner in + some memoirs recently attributed to him. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_III_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_3.2'>III. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + State of German Literature during the Franconian Dynasty. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 1024-1138. + </div> + <br> + + <p> + Throughout this period, commerce was always upon the + increase; and literature, science and art, increased with + it. The monuments of the antient grandeur of the eternal + city, began about this time to engage the attention of the + inhabitants of Germany, and to attract to Rome many + literary pilgrims. They returned home impressed with + admiration of what they had seen, and related the wonders + to their countrymen. "The gods themselves (they told their + hearers) behold their images in Rome with admiration, and + wish to resemble them. Nature herself does not raise forms + as beautiful as those, which the artist creates. One is + tempted to say that they breathe; and to adore the skill of + the artist rather than the inhabitant of Olympus + represented by his art." Thus the uncultivated Germans + began to perceive the beauty of these relics of antiquity, + and to feel the wish of imitation. This first appeared on + the seals of the emperors and bishops; several of + distinguished beauty have reached our times. The German + artists soon began to engrave on precious stones, and to + work in marble and bronze. Four statues of emperors of the + house of Saxony, of the workmanship of these times, are + still to be seen at Spires; they are rudely fashioned, but + are animated, and have distinct and expressive + countenances. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + III. 2. State of German Literature during the Franconian + Dynasty. + </div> + <p> + When the emperors or nobility travelled, they were + frequently accompanied by artists. These sometimes made + drawings of foreign churches and edifices, and on their + return home, raised others in imitation of them. Thus the + cathedral at Bremen was built on the model of that of + Benevento. The cathedral of Strasburgh, and many other + churches, were built about this time. + </p> + <p> + Music was considerably improved; the system of Guido + Aretinus was no where understood better, or cultivated with + greater ardour, than in Germany. Some improvement was made + in poetry, but it chiefly appeared in the songs of the + common people. A monk of Togernsee, in Bavaria, composed a + collection of poems under the title of Bucolics; they + resemble those of Virgil only in their title. Lambert, of + Aschaffenburgh, published a history of his own times, + inferior to none which have reached us from the middle + ages. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 1024-1138 + </div> + <p> + Dialectic, however, still continued the favourite study; + and the art of disputation was never carried so far: the + interest which the public took in these disputes was + surprising. When it was announced that two celebrated + dialecticians were to hold a public dispute, persons + flocked from all parts to witness the conflict; they + listened with avidity, and with all the feelings of + partisans. This appears ridiculous; but, in the present + times, is there no <i>fancy</i> which deserves equal + ridicule? + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_IV_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_iv.1'>IV. 1</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + The State of Germany, from the beginning of the Suabian + Dynasty, till the Accession of the Emperor Charles V. + </p> + <p> + 1138-1519. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The principal events in the reigns of the latter princes of + the Franconian, and of all the princes of the Suabian line, + were produced or influenced by the contests between the + popes and emperors, respecting investitures, or the right + of nominating to vacant bishoprics;-by the pretensions of + the popes to hold their antient territories independent of + the emperors;-or by the new acquisitions of the popes in + Italy. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + 1264-1272. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + These contests reduced the empire to a state of anarchy, + which produced what is generally called, by the German + writers, the Great Interregnum. While it continued, six + princes successively claimed to be emperors of Germany. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + 1272-1438. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph, + count of Hapsburgh. From him, till the ultimate accession + of the house of Austria, in the person of Albert the + Second, the empire was held by several princes of different + noble families. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + 1438-1519. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Albert was succeeded by Frederick III.; Frederick, by + Maximilian I.; and Maximilian, by Charles V. + </p> + <p> + To the period between the extinction of the Suabian dynasty + and the accession of the emperor Albert, may be assigned + the rise of the Italian republics, particularly Venice, + Genoa and Florence; the elevations of the princes of Savoy + and Milan, and the revolutions of Naples, and the Two + Sicilies. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + IV. 1. The State of Germany, from the beginning of the + Suabian Dynasty till the Accession of the Emperor Charles + V. + </div> + <p> + The boundaries of Germany, during this period, were the + Eider and the sea, on the north; the Scheld, the Meuse, the + Saone and the Rhone, on the west; the Alps and the Rhine, + on the south; and the Lech and Vistula, on the east. They + contained,-1. The duchy of Burgundy; 2. The duchy of + Lorraine; 3. The principalities into which Allemmania and + Franconia were divided; 4. The Bavarian territories, which + the Franks had acquired in Rhoetia, Noricum, and Pannonia; + 5. Saxony; 6. The Sclavic territories between the Oder and + the Vistula: these were possessed by the margraves of + Brandenburgh, and the dukes of Poland and Bohemia, and the + princes dependent upon them in Moravia, Silesia and + Lusatia;-7. by the provinces of Pomerania and Prussia, on + the east of Saxony; 8. and the Marchia Orientalis, + Oostrich, or Austria, on the east of Bavaria. + </p> + <p> + At first, the emperor was chosen by the people at large; + the right of election was afterwards confined to the + nobility and the principal officers of state: insensibly, + it was engrossed by the five great officers,-the + chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the + great butler, and the great master of the palace. But their + exclusive pretensions were much questioned. At length, + their right of election was settled; first, by the + Electoral Union, in 1337; and finally, in the reign of the + emperor Charles IV. by the celebrated constitution, called, + from the seal of gold appended to it, <i>the Golden + Bull</i>. By this, the right of election was vested in + three spiritual and four temporal electors: two temporal + electors have since been added to their numbers. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_IV_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_iv.2'>IV. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>State of German literature during this period</i>. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 1438-1519 + </div> + <br> + + <p> + While the empire was possessed by the princes of the house + of Saxony, a copy of the Pandects of Justinian was + discovered at Amalfi. "The discovery of them," says Sir + William Blackstone, in his Introductory discourse to his + Commentaries, "soon brought the civil law into vogue all + over the west of Europe, where before it was quite laid + aside, and in a manner wholly forgotten; though some traces + of its authority remained in Italy, and the eastern + provinces of the empire.-The study of it was introduced + into many universities abroad, particularly that of + Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and + degrees conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of + science; and many nations of the continent, just then + beginning to recover from the convulsions consequent to the + overthrow of the Roman empire, and settling by degrees into + peaceable forms of government, adopted the civil law (being + the best written system then extant,) as the basis of their + several constitutions; blending or interweaving in it their + own feudal customs, in some places, with a more extensive, + in others, a more confined authority." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty + to Charles V. + </div> + <p> + This was a great step toward the civilization of Germany, + and of the other countries in which the institutions of the + civil law were thus introduced. They certainly tended to + animate the nations, by whom they were received, to the + study of the history and literature of the people from the + works of whose writers they had been compiled. They + produced this effect in several countries of Europe; but + their influence in Germany was very limited: the + disposition to subtilize, which was at that time universal + throughout the German empire, led those who cultivated + literature rather to refine upon what was before them, than + to new inquiries. The language of the Pandects is of the + silver age; it might therefore be expected, that it would + have improved the general style of the times; but this + improvement is seldom discernible. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + 1438-1519 + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty + to Charles V. + </div> + <p> + Good or evil is seldom unmixed: civil contests and + dissensions, generally produce both public and private + misery; sometimes, however, they generate mental + excitement. This is favourable to Literature and Science. + Its good effects appeared in the contests between the Popes + and the Emperors. Great were the public and the private + calamities which they caused, both in church and state; but + they promoted inquiry and intellectual exertions. These + were often attended with happy results. Irnerius, by birth + a German, had studied Justinian's law at Constantinople. + Towards the year 1130, he was appointed professor of civil + law at Bologna: the contests between the popes and the + emperors produced a warfare of words among the disciples of + Irnerius. It has been mentioned that the German emperors + pretended to succeed to the empire of the Cæsars. The + language and spirit of the Justinianean code, being highly + favourable to this claim, the emperors encouraged the + civilians, and in return for it, had their pens at command. + The decree of Gratian was favourable to the pretensions of + the popes; and on this account was encouraged by the + canonists. Hence, generally speaking, the civilians were + partisans of the emperors, the canonists of the popes. From + their adherence to the law of Justinian, the former were + called Legistæ; from their adherence to the decree of + Gratian, the latter were called Decretistæ. The + controversy was carried on with great ardour and + perseverance; the schools both of Italy and Germany + resounded with the disputes, and in both, numerous tracts + in support of the opposite claims, were circulated. The + question necessarily carried the disputants to many + incidental topics: these equally increased the powers and + curiosity of the disputants, and stimulated them to better + and more interesting studies. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_V_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_v.1'>V. 1.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + We have thus brought down our historical deduction of the + German Empire to the accession of the Emperor Charles the + Fifth. + </p> + <p> + About 160 years before this event, that portion of the + empire, to which its situation has given the appellation of + THE NETHERLANDS, began to have a separate history, and both + a separate and important influence on the events of the + times. To them we shall now direct our attention. + </p> + <p> + These spacious territories are bounded on the north, by the + German Ocean; on the west, by the British Sea and part of + Picardy; on the south, by Champagne or Lorraine; on the + east, by the archbishoprics of Triers and Trêves, the + dutchies of Juliers and Cléves, the bishopric of + Munster, and the county of Embden or East Friesland. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + V. 1. Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands. + </div> + <p> + When the Romans invaded Gaul, it was divided among three + principal clans: the Rhine then formed its western + boundary. The left banks of this river were occupied by the + Belgians: this tract of land now comprises the catholic + Netherlands, and the territory of the United States; the + right bank of the Rhine was then filled by the Frisians, + and now comprises the modern Gröningen, east and west + Friesland, a part of Holland, Gueldres, Utrecht, and + Overyssell: the Batavians inhabited the island which + derives its name from them; it now comprises the upper part + of Holland, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, the modern + Cléves between the Lech and the Waal. + </p> + <p> + In antient geography, the Netherlands were separated into + the Cisrhenahan and Transrhenahan divisions: the + Cisrhenahan lay on the western side of the Rhine, and + included the Belgic Gaul; it was bounded by the Rhenus, the + Rhodanus, the Sequana, the Matrona, and the Oceanus + Britannicus: the Transrhenahan lay on the eastern side of + the Rhine; it was a part of Lower Germany, and bounded on + the north by the eastern Frisia, Westphalia, the + Ager-Colonensis, the Juliacensis-Ducatus, and the Treveri. + The classical reader will have no difficulty in assigning + to these denominations, their actual names in the language + of modern geography. + </p> + <p> + The whole of these territories is called the Netherlands by + the English; and Flanders by the Italians, Spaniards, and + French. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_V_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_v.2'>V. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>The formation of the different Provinces of the + Netherlands into one State</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + In 1363, John the Good, the king of France, gave to Philip + the Bold, his third son, the dutchy of Burgundy: it then + comprised the county of Burgundy, Dauphiné, and a + portion of Switzerland. The monarch at the same time + created his son duke of Burgundy. Thus Philip, became the + patriarch of the second line of that illustrious house. + </p> + <p> + History does not produce an instance of a family, which has + so greatly aggrandized itself by marriage, as the house of + Austria. The largest part by far of the Netherlands was + derived to it, 1st, from Margaret of Franche Comtè; + 2dly, from Margaret of Flanders; 3dly, from Jane of + Brabant; 4thly, from Mary of Burgundy; 5thly, from + Jacqueline of Holland; and 6thly, from Elizabeth of + Luxemburgh. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Formation of the Provinces of the Netherlands into one + State. + </div> + <p> + The possessions of the three first of these splendid + heiresses, descended to Margaret of Flanders. She married + Phillip the Bold, who, as we have just mentioned, was the + first of the modern Dukes of Burgundy. By this marriage, he + acquired, in right of his wife, the provinces of Flanders, + Artois, Mechlin, and Rhetel; and transmitted them and his + own dukedom of Burgundy to his son Charles the Intrepid. + From Charles, they descended to his son Philip the Good. He + purchased Namur; and by a transaction with Jacqueline of + Holland, acquired that province, Zealand, Hainault, and + Friesland. By other means, he obtained Brabant, Antwerp, + Luxemburgh, Limburgh, Gueldres, and Zutphen. On the failure + of issue male of Philip the Good, all these fourteen + provinces descended to Mary his only daughter. She married + the Emperor Maximilian. He had two sons by her, the Emperor + Charles V. and Ferdinand. The former acquired, by purchase + or force, Utrecht, Overyssell and Gröningen. + </p> + <p> + These territories formed what are generally called the + SEVENTEEN PROVINCES OF THE NETHERLANDS. + </p> + <p> + In the language of the middle ages, they consisted of the + Dutchies of Brabant, Limburgh, Luxemburgh, and Gueldres; + the Earldoms of Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, + Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, Antwerp, (sometimes called the + Marquisate of the Holy Empire) and the Lordships of + Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssell, and + Gröningen. Cambrai, the Cambresis, and the County of + Burgundy, though a separate territory, were considered to + be appendages, but not part of them. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_V_3'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_v.3'>V. 3.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Brief View of the History of the Netherlands, till the + acknowledgement of the Independence of the Seven United + Provinces by the Spanish Monarch. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The laws, the customs, and the government of all these + provinces were nearly alike: each had its representative + assembly of the three orders, of the clergy, nobility, and + burghers: each had its courts of justice; and an appeal + from the superior tribunal of each lay to the supreme court + at Mechlin. + </p> + <p> + Public and fiscal concerns of moment fell under the + cognizance of the sovereign. The people enjoyed numerous + and considerable privileges: the most important of them was + the <i>Droit de Joyeuse entrée</i>, the right of not + being taxed without the consent of the three estates. + Commerce, agriculture, and the arts, particularly music and + painting, flourished among them. The people were honest, + frugal, regular and just in their general habits; more + steady than active; not easily roused; but, when once + roused, not easily appeased. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Brief View of the History of the Netherlands. + </div> + <p> + Charles V. made over his hereditary territories in Germany + to his brother Ferdinand; but retained the Netherlands, and + annexed them to the crown of Spain. + </p> + <p> + With that crown, they descended to Philip the Second, the + only son of Charles. + </p> + <p> + Unwise and unjust measures of that monarch drove the + inhabitants into rebellion. + </p> + <p> + On the 5th of April 1566, a deputation of 400 gentlemen, + with Lewis of Nassau, a brother of the prince of Orange, at + their head, presented a petition to Margaret of Austria, + the Governor of the Netherlands. From the coarseness of + their dress, they acquired the name of <i>gueux</i> or + <i>beggars</i>, and retained it throughout the whole of the + troubles which followed. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Brief View of the History of the Netherlands. + </div> + <p> + Calvinism had, before this time, made great progress in + these countries, and gained over to it numbers of the + discontented party. Philip proceeded to the most violent + measures, and sent the Duke of Alva, with an army of 20,000 + men, into the Netherlands. William, Prince of Orange, + placed himself at the head of the malcontents, and raised + an army. At an assembly of the States of Holland and + Zealand in 1559, he was declared Stadtholder, or Governor + of Holland, Friesland, and Utrecht: Calvinism was declared + to be the religion of the States. In 1579, the three + provinces were joined by those of Gueldres, Zutphen, + Overyssell, and Gröningen. All signed, by their + deputies, the TREATY OF UNION; it became the basis of their + constitution: still, however, they acknowledged Philip for + their sovereign. But in 1581, the deputies of the United + States assembled at Amsterdam, subscribed a solemn act, by + which they formally renounced allegiance to Philip and his + successors, and asserted their independence. They declared + in their manifesto, that "the prince is made for the + people, not the people for the prince;" that "the prince, + who treats his subjects as slaves, is a tyrant, whom his + subjects have a right to dethrone, when they have no other + means of preserving their liberty;" that "this right + particularly belongs to the Netherlands; their sovereign, + being bound by his coronation oath to observe the laws, + under pain of forfeiting his sovereignty." + </p> + <p> + In 1584, the Prince of Orange was assassinated by Balthazar + Gerard, a Catholic fanatic: the war was continued till + 1609, when it was suspended by a truce of twelve years. At + the expiration of it, the war burst forth with fresh fury: + it was finally terminated by the peace of Munster, or + Westphalia, in 1648, when the King of Spain acknowledged, + in the fullest manner, the INDEPENDENCE OF THE SEVEN UNITED + PROVINCES, and of all their possessions in Asia, Africa, + and America. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='intro_V_4'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c_v.4'>V. 4.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Their Constitution and principal Officers. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Constitution of the Netherlands. + </div> + <br> + + <p> + Thus the United Provinces became a confederacy of seven + independent principalities, called in the aggregate the + States General. Several years elapsed before their + constitution was finally settled. Then, the supreme + sovereignty of the whole was considered to be vested in the + people of every province represented by the States. These + consisted of deputies appointed to them from the different + provinces. Each province might send to the assembly more + than one deputy; but, whatever was the number of deputies + sent by them, they had one vote only in the proceedings of + the assembly. The government of each province was vested in + its states: these were composed of two orders, the deputies + from the towns, and those from the equestrian order. + </p> + <p> + Each province contained several independent republics. + </p> + <p> + The States General could not make war or peace, or enter + into alliances, or raise money, without the consent of all + the seven provinces; nor did the decrees of any one of the + States bind the constituent parts of it, without their + consent. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Constitution of the Netherlands. + </div> + <p> + The Stadtholder was appointed by the States General, and + held his office at their will. The offices of + captain-general and admiral were united in him: thus he had + the appointment of all military commands, both by sea and + land; and had considerable influence and power in the + nomination to civil offices. Three officers,-the + <i>treasurer, the conservator of the peace, and the grand + pensionary,</i> were appointed by the States General, and + were immediately subject to their controul; they were + wholly independent of the Stadtholder. The grand pensionary + was always supposed to be profoundly versed in civil, + ecclesiastical, and consuetudinary law; and in foreign + diplomacy. All transactions between subjects or foreigners + with the States General, passed through his hands. He + attended the deliberations of the States; he was not + entitled to vote, but was expected to sum up the arguments + on each side, and to deliver his opinion upon them. Each + province had its advocate, syndic or pensionary; a public + officer who superintended their public concerns; and + represented them, but only with a deliberative voice, in + the assembly of the States. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Brief View of the History of the Netherlands. + </div> + <p> + We now reach the æra, at which our intended biography + commences. A Literary History of the Netherlands, from the + time of their becoming subjects to the Dukes of Burgundy, + till this æra, is much wanted. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_I'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c01'>CHAPTER I.</a> + </h2> + <p> + THE BIRTH AND EDUCATION OF HUGO GROTIUS. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + 1582-1597. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The Life of Erasmus, which we have offered to the public, + presents to its readers, the interesting spectacle of a + person, born under every, disadvantage for the acquisition + of literature, surmounting them all by his genius and + perseverance, and reaching, at an early age, the highest + summit of literary eminence: the Life of GROTIUS, which we + now attempt, exhibits the successful literary career of a + person, born with every advantage, undeviatingly availing + himself of them, and attaining equal eminence; with the + addition of high reputation for great political wisdom and + public integrity. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His Birth and Education. + </div> + <p> + He was born at Delft, on the 10th April 1582. His parents + were John de Groote, and Alida Averschie. John was the + second son of Hugo de Groote by Elselinda Heemskirke. Hugo + was the son of Cornelius Cornet by Ermingarde, the daughter + and sole heiress of Diederic de Groote. Upon their + marriage, Diederic stipulated that Cornet should adopt the + surname of Groote: it signifies <i>Great</i>, and is said + to have been given to Diederic for some signal service, + which he had rendered to his sovereign. All the males and + females mentioned in the genealogy of Grotius were of noble + extraction. + </p> + <p> + Learning appears to have been hereditary in the family: + John, the father of Hugo, the subject of our biography, was + both a lawyer in great practice, and a general scholar. + </p> + <p> + The 10th of April, on which GROTIUS was born, was Easter + Sunday in that year: he always observed his birthday with + religious solemnity. + </p> + <p> + All the biographers of Grotius assert, and their assertion + will be easily believed, that he discovered, in his + earliest years, great aptitude for the acquisition of + learning, great taste, judgment and application, and a + wonderful memory. He found, in his father, an excellent + tutor: by him, Grotius was instructed in the rudiments of + the Christian doctrine, and his infant mind impressed with + sound principles of morality and honour; in this, he was + aided by the mother of Grotius. The youth corresponded with + their cares. He has celebrated, in elegant verses, their + pious attention to his early education. The mention of + these verses will bring to the recollection of every + English reader, the magnificent strains, in which, Milton + addressed <i>his</i> father. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. I. 1582-1597. + </div> + <p> + As soon as Grotius had passed his childhood, he was placed + with Utengobard, an Arminian clergyman: we shall see that + this circumstance had a decisive influence upon his future + life. He retained a lasting regard for Utengobard, and a + grateful recollection of his obligations to him. At the age + of twelve years, Grotius was sent to the university of + Leyden, and committed to the care of Francis Junius. Here, + he distinguished himself so much by his diligence, his + talents, and his modesty, as to obtain the notice and + regard of several of the most famous scholars of the times. + Even Joseph Scaliger, equally distinguished by his learning + and caustic arrogance, noticed him, and condescended to + direct his studies. He was scarcely eleven years of age + when Douza, one of the princes of the republic of letters + in those times, celebrated his praises in verse: He + declared that "he could scarcely believe that Erasmus + promised so much as Grotius at his age:" he announced that + "Grotius would soon excel all his contemporaries, and bear + a comparison with the most leaned of the antients." + </p> + <p> + Grotius also gained the esteem of Barneveldt, the grand + pensionary, in whose fate he was afterward involved. In + 1587, the Dutch sent Count Justin of Nassau and Barneveldt, + at the head of an embassy, to Henry IV. of France. + Barneveldt permitted Grotius to accompany him. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His Birth and Education. + </div> + <p> + Grotius had been preceded by his reputation. He was known + to M. de Busenval, the monarch's ambassador in Holland. + Busenval described him favourably to the monarch. Henry + gave Grotius a gracious reception, and was so pleased with + his conversation and demeanour, that he presented him with + his picture and a golden chain. Grotius gives an account of + this embassy, in the seventh book of his Annals: he + abstains, with a praiseworthy modesty, from any mention of + himself: but, in one of his poems, he dwells with + complacency on his having seen the monarch, "who owed his + kingdom only to his valour"- + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>" ... <i>Le Heros, qui regna sur la + Françe,</i></span><br> + <span><i>Et par droit de conquête et par droit de + naissançe</i>."</span> + </div> + <div class='poem'> + <span class='c9'>VOLTAIRE, <i>Henriade</i>.</span><br> + </div> + <p> + Grotius was so much pleased with his reception, and the + present which he received from Henry, that he caused a + print of himself, adorned with the chain presented to him + by Henry, to be engraved. He was introduced to many of the + most distinguished persons at Paris: there was one, whom he + particularly esteemed, but whom, from some unexplained + circumstance, he missed seeing. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Chap. 1. 1582-1597 + </div> + <p> + This was <i>the President de Thou</i>, a name never to be + mentioned without veneration. He had been employed by his + sovereign on many delicate and important commissions, and + had acquitted himself in all, with ability and honour. He + had filled the office of <i>Maitre des Requétes</i>, + and been advanced to that of <i>President a + Mortiér</i>. He was employed, at this time, upon his + immortal History. In the account which it gives of the + events, that took place in France, it is entitled to almost + unqualified praise: in regard to what happened to other + countries, he necessarily depended on the information which + he received from them, and cannot therefore be equally + relied upon. The prolixity, with which he is now + reproached, was not felt at the time in which he wrote; + every event, however small, was then thought to be + important, and multitudes were personally interested in it. + But the charm of his work is, that every page of it shews a + true lover of his country, an impartial judgment, and an + honourable mind. The memoirs, which he has left us of his + own life, recently translated into English by Mr. + Collinson, are interesting and entertaining. He collected a + very large library, both of printed books and manuscripts, + and had them splendidly bound. The whole was sold by + auction in the reign of Louis XIV, and scarcely produced + half the sum which the binding of its volumes had cost: The + same has been said of the Harleian collection, sold in our + times. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His Birth and Education. + </div> + <p> + Having remained a twelvemonth at Paris, Grotius returned to + Holland. Immediately after his arrival, he addressed a + letter to the president de Thou, in which he expressed + great mortification at not having seen him, and requested + his acceptance of a book accompanying his letter, which he + had dedicated to the Prince of Condé. The president + de Thou was highly pleased with this letter: a + correspondence took place between them. Grotius furnished + the president with materials for that portion of his + history which related to the troubles in the Low Countries. + </p> + <p> + In the last letter of the President de Thou, in this + correspondence, he earnestly dissuades Grotius from + engaging in the religious disputes of the times. In reply + to it, Grotius respectfully intimates to the president, + that "he found himself obliged to enter into them by his + love of his country; his wish to serve his church, and the + request of those to whom he owed obedience:" promising, at + the same time, "to abstain from all disputes that were not + necessary." After the death of the President, Grotius + celebrated his memory in a poem, which was considered by + the bard's admirers to be one of his best performances. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_II'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c02'>CHAPTER II.</a> + </h2> + <p> + GROTIUS EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW. HIS FIRST + PROMOTIONS. + </p> + <p> + 1597-1610. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + In the ruin of the Roman Empire, her laws were lost in the + general wreck. During the 200 years, which followed the + reign of Constantine the Great, Europe was a scene of every + calamity, which the inroads of barbarians could inflict, + either on the countries through which they passed, or those + in which they settled. About the sixth century, Europe + obtained some degree of tranquillity, in consequence of the + introduction of feudalism; the most singular event in the + annals of history. At first, it produced a general anarchy; + but the system of subordination upon which it was grounded, + contained in it the germ of regular government, and even, + of jurisprudence. Its effects were first visible in the + <i>various codes of law</i> which the barbarous nations + promulgated. Such are the Salic, the Ripuarian, the + Alemannic, the Burgundian, the Visigothic, and the Lombard + laws. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Feudal Jurisprudence. + </div> + <p> + A complicated or refined system of jurisprudence is not to + be looked for in them; but, if they are considered with due + regard to the state of society for which they were + calculated, they will be found to contain much that + deserves praise. The <i>capitularies</i>, or short + legislative provisions, propounded by the sovereign, and + adopted by the public assemblies of the nation, were a + further advance in legislation. By degrees, so much + regularity prevailed in the judicial proceedings and legal + transactions, that they were regulated by established + <i>formularies</i>; and, in addition to those provisions, + every nation contained a collection of unwritten usages or + <i>customs</i>, which had the force of law. The natural + tendency of these institutions to introduce order and + peaceful habits into society was great; but it was so much + counteracted by the turbulent spirit of every class of men, + that it was not till the beginning of the thirteenth + century that this effect of them became discernible. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. II. 1597-1610 + </div> + <p> + From this time, the governments of Europe sensibly + improved. A better spirit of legislation shewed itself; the + administration of justice became more regular; trade and + husbandry were protected, several arts were encouraged; and + a general wish for a better order of things prevailed in + every part of Europe. While the public mind was in this + state of improvement, an event fortunately happened, which + gave it a very salutary direction. This was, (what we have + already noticed), the discovery of a complete copy of the + <i>Pandects of Justinian</i> at Amalfi, a town in Italy, + near Salerno. From Amalfi, it found its way to Pisa; and in + 1406, was carried to Florence, where it has since remained. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Civil Law + </div> + <p> + Few events in history can be mentioned which have conduced + more to the welfare of Europe than this discovery. The + codes, the capitularies, the formularies, and the customs, + by which, till that time, the feudal nations had been + governed, fell very short of affording them the legal + provisions, which society, in the improved state of + civilization, to which it was then advancing, evidently + required. Unexpectedly, a system of law presented itself, + which seemed to contain every thing that the most + enlightened men of those times could have desired. The + wisdom and justice of the system of law expressed in the + Pandects seem to have been universally felt. The study of + it was immediately pursued with ardour. It was introduced + into several universities; exercises were performed, + lectures read, and degrees conferred in that, as in other + branches of science; and most of the nations of the + continent adopted it, if not as the basis, at least as an + important portion of their civil jurisprudence. A regular + <i>succession of civil</i> lawyers followed. At first, they + rather incumbered the text with their subtleties, than + illustrated it by learning and discrimination. <i>Andrew + Alciat</i> was the first who united the study of polite + learning with the study of the civil law: he was founder of + a school called the <i>Cujacian</i>, from <i>Cujas</i>, the + glory of civilians. Of him, it may be truly said, that he + found the civil law in wood and left it in marble. + </p> + <p> + This school has subsisted until our time: it has never been + without writers of the greatest taste, judgment and + erudition; the names of Cujacius, Augustinus, the + Gothofredi, Heineccius, Voetius, Vinnius, Gravina and + Pothier, are as dear to the scholar as they are to the + lawyer; an Englishman however must reflect with pleasure, + that the Commentaries of his countryman, Sir William + Blackstone, will not suffer in a comparison with any + foreign work of jurisprudence. So far as the researches of + the present writer extend, the only one that can be put + into competition with them, is the <i>Jus Canonicum of + Van-Espen</i>. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. II. 1597-1610 + </div> + <p> + The judicial process of the nations on the continent + differed considerably from that of England. Trial by jury, + and separate courts of equity, were unknown to them. Some + causes were heard and decided by all the magistrates of the + courts; others were referred to one or more of their + number. The king's advocate, or the advocate of the state, + as he was termed in a republic, held a situation between + the judges and the suitors: his province was to sum the + facts and arguments of the cause, and to suggest his + opinions upon them to the judges.-We trust our readers will + excuse this summary view of foreign jurisprudence. + </p> + <p> + Grotius, by the advice of his father, addicted himself to + the profession of the law. He was only in his seventeenth + year, when he pleaded his first cause. He acquired by it, + great reputation; and this was constantly upon the + increase, through the whole of his professional career. He + observed in his pleadings a rule, which he afterwards + recommended to his son: "That you may not," he told him, + "be embarrassed by the little order observed by the + adversary counsel, attend to one thing, which I have found + eminently useful: Distribute all that can be said on both + sides, under certain heads; imprint these strongly in your + memory; and, whatever your adversary says, refer it not to + his division, but to your own." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Grotius embraces the profession of the Law. + </div> + <p> + The brilliant success of Grotius at the bar soon procured + him very considerable promotions. The place of + Advocate-General of the Fisc of the provinces of Holland + and Zealand becoming vacant, it was unanimously conferred + on him. This situation was attended with great distinction + and authority; the person invested with it, being charged + with the preservation of the public peace, and the + prosecution of public offenders. In 1613, Grotius was + advanced to the situation of Pensionary of Rotterdam; and + his high character authorized him to stipulate before he + accepted it, that he should hold it during his life, and + not, at will, its usual tenure. It immediately gave him a + seat in the assembly of the States of Holland; and, at a + future time, a seat in the assembly of the States General. + </p> + <p> + Between the time of his appointment to the advocacy of the + Fisc of Holland and Zealand, and his being appointed + Pensionary of Rotterdam, he married Mary Reygersburgh, of + an illustrious family in Zealand. It proved a marriage of + happiness. The most perfect harmony subsisted between + Grotius and his consort: we shall find that she was an + ornament to him in prosperity, his comfort and aid in + adverse fortune. The marriage was solemnized in July 1608, + and celebrated by many a Belgic bard. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP II. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + A dispute arising about this time between England and the + States General, upon the exclusive right claimed by the + former to fish in the Northern seas, the States, with a + view to an amicable adjustment of it, sent Grotius to + England. Several meetings took place between him and + commissioners appointed by James, the British sovereign. If + we credit the account, given by Grotius, of the point in + dispute, and the negociation to which it gave rise, justice + was decidedly on the side of the States General; and + England only carried the point by the lion's right,-the + <i>droit du plus fort</i>. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Grotius embraces the profession of the Law. + </div> + <p> + Grotius had every reason to be pleased with his reception + by the English monarch and his court. Between Grotius and + Casaubon, who, at this time, resided in England, an + intimacy had long subsisted. It was cemented by mutual + esteem, similarity of studies, and the earnest wish of each + for an amicable termination of religious differences: each + respected the antient doctrines and discipline of the + church; each thought that many of the points in controversy + were disputes of words; that much might be gained by mutual + concessions; and that the articles, upon which there was + any substantial difference, were few. "I esteem Grotius + highly,"-Casaubon writes in a letter to the president de + Thou, "on account of his other great qualities; but + particularly because he judges of the modern subjects of + religious controversy like a learned and good man. In his + veneration for antiquity, he agrees with the wisest men." + ... "I heartily pray God," says Casaubon in a letter to + Grotius, "to; preserve you: as long as I shall live, I + shall hold you in the highest esteem: so much am I taken + with your piety, your probity, and your admirable + learning."<a name='FNanchor_005_5'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_005_5'><sup>[005]</sup></a> + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_III'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c03'>CHAPTER III.</a> + </h2> + <p> + THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF GROTIUS. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + There is not, perhaps, an instance of a person's acquiring + at an age equally early, the reputation, which attended the + first publication of Grotius. It was an edition, with + notes, of the work of "<i>Martianus Mineus Felix + Capella</i>, on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, in + two books; and of the same writer's Seven Treatises on the + Liberal Arts." They had been often printed; but all the + editions were faulty: a manuscript of them having been put + into the hands of Grotius by his father, he communicated it + to Scaliger, and by his advice undertook a new edition of + them. + </p> + <p> + The time, in which Capella lived, and the place of his + birth, are uncertain; the better opinion seems to be, that + he flourished towards the third century, resided at Rome, + and attained the consular dignity. His works are written in + prose, intermixed with poetry. His diction has some + resemblance to that of Tertullian, but is much more crabbed + and obscure: none, but the ablest Latin scholars, can + understand him. The Marriage of Mercury and Philology,-or + of Speech with Learning, is not uninteresting. His other + treatises contain nothing remarkable: that upon music, is + hardly intelligible; it is printed separately in the + collection of <i>Meibomius</i>. With all his harshness and + obscurity, Capella seems to have been much studied in the + middle ages,-some proof that there was more learning in + them, than is generally supposed,-he is so often quoted by + the writers of those times, that some persons have supposed + that his work was then a text book in the schools. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The early publications of Grotius. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. III. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + When Grotius undertook his edition of Capella, he was only + twelve years of age: he published it in his fourteenth + year, and dedicated it to the Prince of Condé. The + learning and critical discernment displayed by him in this + publication excited astonishment, and obtained for him the + applause of all the literary world. Grotius himself gives + the following account of his work: "We have collated + Capella with the several authors, who have investigated the + same subjects. In the two first books, we have consulted + those whose writings contain the sentiments of the antient + philosophers, as Apuleius, Albericus and others, too + tedious to name; on grammar, we have compared, Capella with + the antient grammarians; in what he has said on rhetoric, + with Cicero and Aquila; on logic, with Porphyry, Aristotle, + Cassiodorus and Apuleius; on geography, with Strabo, Mela, + Solinus, and Ptolemy, but chiefly Pliny; on arithmetic, + with Euclid; on astronomy, with Hyginus, and others, who + have treated on that subject; on music, with Cleonides, + Vitruvius and Boethius." In Grotius's Annotations all these + writers are mentioned in a manner, which shews that he was + thoroughly conversant with their works. Grotius's edition + is become, from its extreme scarcity, a typographical + curiosity: all the other editions are scarce. The writer of + these pages found, with great difficulty, a copy of it in + the London market.<a name='FNanchor_006_6'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_006_6'><sup>[006]</sup></a> That of Bonhomme, + published at Lyons in 1539, he procured by loan. The + celebrated Leibniz began to prepare an edition of Capella + <i>in usum Delphini</i>; but his collections being + purloined from him, he desisted from his project: it must + be owned that the general learning of Leibniz qualified him + admirably for such a task.<a name='FNanchor_009_9'></a><a + href='#Footnote_009_9'><sup>[009]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The early Publications of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + While yet in his fourteenth year, Grotius published a + translation of a work, published by Simon Steven in 1586, + upon Navigation, and shewed by it a profound knowledge of + mathematics:<a name='FNanchor_010_10'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_010_10'><sup>[010]</sup></a> he dedicated it to + the republic of Venice. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. III. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + In the following year, Grotius published <i>the Phenomena + of Aratus</i>, a poetical treatise of that author upon + astronomy, with Cicero's translation of it, so far as it + has reached us. Grotius supplied the vacancies. It is + universally admitted that the parts supplied by him, are + not inferior to those of Cicero. The abbé d'Olivet, + the editor of Cicero's works, and an enthusiastic admirer + of his style, declares that "the Muse of Cicero<a name= + 'FNanchor_011_11'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_011_11'><sup>[011]</sup></a> did not throw the + Muse of Grotius into the shade:" he therefore inserted the + supplementary verses of Grotius in his edition. Grotius + dedicated his work to the States of Holland and West + Friseland; and promised them in his dedication something + more considerable. He was complimented upon it by several + of the greatest men of the age. + </p> + <p> + The following simile, taken from Cicero's translation of + Aratus, and Voltaire's version of it, are greatly admired: + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>Sic Jovis altisoni subito pennata + satelles,</span><br> + <span>Arboris è trunco, serpentis saucia + morsu;</span><br> + <span>Ipsa feris subigit transfigens unguibus + anguem</span><br> + <span>Semianimum, et variâ graviter cervice + micantem;</span><br> + <span>Quem se intorquentem laniens rostroque + craentans,</span><br> + <span>Abjicit efflantem, et laceratum effundit in + undas,</span><br> + <span>Seque obitu a solis nitidos convertit ad + ortus.</span><br> + <br> + <span class='c9'><i>CICERO.</i></span> + </div> + <p> + + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le + tonnere,</span><br> + <span>Blessé par un serpent élancé de + la terre;</span><br> + <span>Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour + azuré</span><br> + <span>L'ennemi tortueux dont il est + entouré.</span><br> + <span>Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il + devore</span><br> + <span>Le reptile acharné, qui le combat + encore;</span><br> + <span>Il le perçe, il le tient sous ses ongles + vainqeurs,</span><br> + <span>Par cent coups rédoublés il venge ses + douleurs;</span><br> + <span>Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se + replie;</span><br> + <span>Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie;</span><br> + <span>Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et + victorieux,</span><br> + <span>Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des + cieux.</span><br> + <br> + <span class='c9'><i>VOLTAIRE.</i></span> + </div> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + The early Publications of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work + <i>Mare Liberum</i>, to assert in it against the English, + the general freedom of the sea. The controversy arose upon + the claim of Great Britain to enjoy the dominion of the + British seas, in the most extensive sense of those words, + both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of + fishing within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted + to shew that the sea was, from its nature, insusceptible of + exclusive right; and that, if it were susceptible of it, + England did not prove her title to it. Selden, in + opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his + treatise <i>Mare Clausam</i>,-a noble exertion of a + vigorous mind, fraught with profound and extensive + erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats Grotius + with the respect due to his learning and character. + Selden's treatise was thought of so much importance to his + cause, that a copy of it was directed to be deposited in + the British Admiralty. Grotius was highly pleased with the + respect, which was shewn to him by Selden. + </p> + <p> + On Selden's <i>Mare Clausum</i> he composed the following + epigram:- + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat + Ennegisæum,</span><br> + <span class='c10'><i>Est Grecâ Xerxes multus in + historia:</i></span><br> + <span>Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum;</span><br> + <span class='c10'><i>Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus + erit.</i></span><br> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. III. 1597-1610 + </div> + <p> + The States General were gratified by his work; but at that + time it was so much their interest to preserve the + strictest amity with England, that they discountenanced any + further advocation of their claim.<a name= + 'FNanchor_012_12'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_012_12'><sup>[012]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the + Freedom of the Sea," Grotius printed his work on the + "<i>Antiquity of the Batavian Republic</i>." He gives in it + an account of the antient <i>Batavians;</i> he professes to + shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the + Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which + little is known of their history, they became subjects of + the Counts of Holland; that these were not vassals of the + empire, but independent princes; and, strictly speaking, + elected by the people, although, in the election of them, + great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that + they were bound to conform to the laws of the state; and + always required, before their election, to swear to the + observance of the constitution; that the taxes were always + imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had + occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the + public and private right of the people of the United + Provinces. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The early Publications of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work; + they voted thanks to its author, and accompanied them with + a present. It is considered that his partiality to his + country led him to advance some positions favourable to its + antient independence, which his proofs did not justify. + </p> + <p> + For the use of <i>Du Maurier</i>, the French ambassador to + the States General, Grotius published, about this time, his + "Directions for a Course of general Study," <i>De omni + genere studiorum recte instituendo</i>. It was favourably + received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was + composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the + great extension of literature, since the time of Grotius, + it is now little read. Mentioning the Roman history, he + shews that a knowledge of it is better acquired by reading + its Greek than by reading its Latin historians; because + foreigners give more attention to the public manners and + customs of a country than natives. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. III. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + All the works, which we have mentioned, were most + favourably received in every part of the United Provinces. + It was now become evident that the exertions for their + independence were on the eve of being crowned with complete + success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so + that she was left to her own single and unaided strength, + to maintain the contest against the insurgent provinces. + The glory, which they acquired by their successful + resistance to her, determined them to make choice of an + historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal + exploits of their memorable struggle. With this view, they + appointed Grotius their historiographer. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Poems of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + It remains to mention the "<i>Poems of Grotius:</i>" + throughout his life, he sacrificed to the Muses. The + <i>Prosopopoeia,</i> in which he introduces the City of + Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her + siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against + her, was greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had + been taken by the Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it + to the confederates, but the precinct within the walls of + the city; and even much of this had been wrested from the + besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the operations of + Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of language, + that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the + world, in the following lines:- + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>"Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit + orbis;</span><br> + <span>Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae</span><br> + <span>Nunc quoque fata timent,-alieno in litore + resto.</span><br> + <span>Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus + hostem:</span><br> + <span>Sævit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus + æstas;</span><br> + <span>Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,-crudelior + armis</span><br> + <span>In nos orta lues,-nullum est sine funere + funus.</span><br> + <span>Nec perimit mors una semel:-Fortuna quid + haeres?</span><br> + <span>Quâ mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine + manes?</span><br> + <span>Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste + perempto?</span><br> + <span>Queritur,-et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna + est."</span> + </div> + <br> + <br> + <div class='poem'> + <span>"A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world + contemplates;</span><br> + <span>alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the</span><br> + <span>Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;-remain on a + foreign shore.</span><br> + <br> + <span>"The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe + been changed:</span><br> + <br> + <span>"The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its + furious heats.</span><br> + <br> + <span>"The Spaniard has been my least enemy;-more + cruel</span><br> + <span>than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no + funeral is</span><br> + <span>without another; the dying never perish by a single + death.</span><br> + <br> + <span>"Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what + reward</span><br> + <span>do'st thou detain the manes mingled in + blood?</span><br> + <br> + <span>"Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the + enemy,</span><br> + <span>occupy these tombs?-This is enquired.-</span><br> + <span>The contest is only for sterile dust."</span><br> + </div> + <p> + With the following poetical translation of these verses, + the writer has been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant + translator of "Oberon." + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth + renown'd,</span><br> + <span>Opprest, I loftier tow'r;-and, now, while + Fate</span><br> + <span>Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I + stand.</span><br> + <span>Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the + Foe.</span><br> + <span>Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer + burns</span><br> + <span>With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian + sword.</span><br> + <span>Dire Pestilence spreads;-on funerals funerals + swell:</span><br> + <span>Nor does one death at once extirpate all.</span><br> + <span>Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain</span><br> + <span>With blood immingled? Who, the Foe + extinct,</span><br> + <span>Who, dying, shall these sepulchres + possess,</span><br> + <span>And in this sterile dust the conflict + close?</span><br> + <br> + <span class='c9'><i>W.S.</i></span><br> + <span class='c11'><i>March 28,1826.</i></span><br> + </div> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. III. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + These verses produced a great sensation in the literary + world: they were ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best + Latin poet of the age; the only person considered to be + capable of writing them. The celebrated Peyresck hinted + this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he was + too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon," + and announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They + were translated into French by Du Vair, afterwards the + keeper of the seals; by Rapin, grand-provost of the + Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by + Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.<a name= + 'FNanchor_013_13'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_013_13'><sup>[013]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Poems of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the + siege of Ostend; nine commanders had successively been + entrusted with its defence: the siege had cost the + besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the historians of + the times agree, that few important consequences were + derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The + Archduke and Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city, + after it was taken. They found in it nothing but heaps of + ruins: little that shewed the former state of the town; its + ditches were filled, its fortifications overthrown, its + buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were + levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in + which the most remarkable events had taken place; and, + finally to that, in which the forces of the besieged had + made their last stand; had, for want of space, found + themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that + account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke + and the Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy + sight; and declared that such a victory was not worth its + cost. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. III. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with + glory: his reply to a person, who asked him,-who, in his + opinion was the greatest general of the age,-is generally + known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is the second."<a name= + 'FNanchor_014_14'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_014_14'><sup>[014]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the + collection we have mentioned, are-<i>three tragedies</i>, + "Adam in Banishment," "Christ Suffering," and + "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of Egypt, + "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of + Joseph. Sandys translated it into English verse, and + dedicated his translation to Charles I. From the second of + these tragedies, Lauder transcribed many of the verses, + upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism against + Milton. + </p> + <p> + An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been + assigned to Grotius: his diction is always classical, his + sentiments just. But those who are accustomed to the + <i>wood notes</i> of the Bard of Avon, will not admire the + scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the + Batavian Bard. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_IV'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c04'>CHAPTER IV.</a> + </h2> + <p> + HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR + DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The present chapter will lead our readers to the public + life of Grotius: in a former page we succinctly mentioned + the principal events in the history of the United + Provinces, from their first insurrection against Philip II. + till their declaration of independence. On that event, they + continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate: + he was entitled to it by his civil and military talents. + Application, activity, liberality, eloquence, intrepidity, + enterprise and discretion, were united in him in an + extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself to all + persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as + best served the interests of his cause, or his own designs. + In the rare talent of governing popular assemblies, and + procuring the co-operation of persons of opposite views, he + has had few equals. He wanted no quality, which a chief of + a party should possess, either to insure the success of the + public object, or to further his private aims. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. IV. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally + observed, that he affected the exercise of sovereign + authority; that he endeavoured to attach the military to + his own person; that he always sought to have the acts of + the States issued in his own name; that, on many occasions, + he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing which + could be considered an explicit recognition of their + supremacy; and that in several instances, in which the + constitution required the co-operation of the States, he + acted independently of them. This gave rise to a party, + which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions + thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private + ambition. From their attachment to the constitution, they + were termed the republican party: Barneveldt, the + Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their leader. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Assassination of William Prince of Orange. + </div> + <p> + Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to + be great probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he + had gained so for, that the States of Holland, Zealand and + Frizeland, had come to a resolution to confer upon him the + sovereignty of their states, under the title of Count. All + the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights of the + prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were + defined and recognised; a contravention of them by any of + the people was declared to be treason; the infringement of + them by the prince, was declared to be a forfeiture of his + sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the eve of + receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have + already mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, + a fanatic Spaniard. The last words of the prince were, + "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have pity on my poor + country!" + </p> + <p> + In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was, + chiefly by the influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed + Stadtholder by the States General. They were not less + jealous of his views, than they had been of his father's; + but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it + necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's + arms. The weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France, + now permitted the United Provinces to enjoy some repose. + They availed themselves of it, to settle the constitution: + the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed, + Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and + Franker; and the arts of peace began to be cultivated. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. IV. 1597-1610. + </div> + <p> + Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he + had greater military skill, and at least equal ambition. + The art of war seems to consist, at the present time, in + directing immense masses of men, by skilful evolutions and + positions, to the destruction of the force opposed. In the + wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by + surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults, + advantageous encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy + by skilful marches. The camp of Maurice became a school, in + which the nobility and gentry of the empire, France, and + England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of war. + His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to + the highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of + the United Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war, + became offensive, and their arms were attended with almost + uninterrupted success: they equally triumphed on Sea. + </p> + <p> + In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated. + Philip II. soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip + III. a weak monarch. Then, began the naval glory of the + United Provinces; their attacks on the West Indian and East + Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600, prince Maurice + gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was + followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral + Heemskirk obtained a complete victory over the Spanish + fleet, though protected by the batteries of Cadiz, and + seized their ships and treasures. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces. + </div> + <p> + The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now + continued forty years: the resources of Spain were so + exhausted, that she herself was forced to solicit an + armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the + continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of + his own ambitious views. On this account, the truce was + promoted by Barneveldt and the republican party. They + justly thought that the aggrandizement of the house of + Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their + country, so that the result of the war would only be, that + the United Provinces would change their masters. After a + long negotiation, an armistice of twelve years was agreed + upon in 1609, and England and France guaranteed the + execution of the treaty. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_V'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c05'>CHAPTER V.</a> + </h2> + <p> + THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF + CALVIN AND THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT + DORT. + </p> + <p> + 1610-1617. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + It has generally happened, when a people have risen against + their sovereign, that their first successes have been + followed by divisions among themselves; and that these have + endangered, and sometimes even ruined, their cause. Such a + division took place, in a remarkable manner, in the + conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner + did the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise + ultimate success, than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst + forth. At first, it was merely a religious dispute; but it + soon mixed itself in the national politics; split the + people into two very hostile parties, and produced + contentions between them, which more than once brought + their cause to the brink of destruction. Grotius was + unfortunately involved in them. This part of the history + now claims our attention. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Calvinism. + </div> + <p> + The reformed church, in the largest import of the word, + comprises all the religious communities, which have + separated themselves from the church of Rome. In this + sense, the words are often used by English writers; but, + having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe + <i>their</i> church, these words are most commonly used, on + the continent, as a general appellation of all the churches + who profess the doctrines of Calvin. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the + magistrates of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He + immediately conceived one of the boldest projects, that + ever entered into the mind of an obscure individual. He + undertook to new model the religious creed of the reformed + church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render + the church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all + Protestant churches. His learning, eloquence, and talents + for business, soon attracted general notice; and, while the + fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his manners, and the + devotional cast of his writings, attracted the multitude, + the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating + style, equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By + degrees, his fame reached every part of Europe. Having + prevailed upon the senate of Geneva to found an academy, + and place it under his superintendence, and having filled + it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning + and talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons, + who leaned to the new principles, and sought religious or + literary instruction. From Germany, France, Italy, England + and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new academy, and + returned from it to their native countries, saturated with + the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate + its creed. + </p> + <p> + Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will + soon attracted attention, and gave rise to <i>more than a + civil war</i><a name='FNanchor_015_15'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_015_15'><sup>[015]</sup></a> of controversy,<a + name='FNanchor_016_16'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_016_16'><sup>[016]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience + could not exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action, + conscience could not intimate to him either its approbation + or its disapprobation of his actions. + </p> + <p> + But-<i>how</i> are we free? <i>How</i> is free-will + reconcileable, either with the influence of motive upon + will? or with the order of the universe, prescribed by the + Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his + infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Disputes on the Free-will of Man. + </div> + <p> + This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek + Philosophers: some advocated the free-will of man; others + denied it, and ascribed his actions to Fate or Destiny; a + being or energy, which they were never able to define or + describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the former + opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a + like division took place between the followers of Omar, and + those of Ali. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful + speculations: their disputes chiefly turned upon the + effect, which motive, suggested by grace, or the divine + favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate? then, there is + no free-will,-no merit,-no demerit. Does it not + necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his + own power, and thus achieves a good of which God is not the + author. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + The dispute was brought to an issue by <i>Pelagius</i> and + his disciples. They held, that man acts independently of + divine grace, both in the choice and execution of good. + This independence was denied by <i>St. Augustin</i>, he + asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace + begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in + man, which can be justly called good. <i>St. Thomas of + Aquin</i> new-modelled the system of St. Augustin, and used + new terms in describing it: his subtile distinctions, in + the opinion of many, considerably improved it. + </p> + <p> + <i>Calvin</i> aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He + maintained,<a name='FNanchor_017_17'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_017_17'><sup>[017]</sup></a> that the + everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was + determined from all eternity, by the <i>unchangeable + order</i> of the Deity; and that this <i>absolute</i> + determination of his will was the only source of + <i>happiness or misery</i> to individuals. Thus Calvin + maintained, without any qualification, that God, from all + eternity has doomed one part of mankind to everlasting + happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and, was led to + make this distinction, without regard to the merit or + demerit of the object, and by no other reason or motive + than his own pleasure. + </p> + <p> + <i>Luther</i>,<a name='FNanchor_018_18'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_018_18'><sup>[018]</sup></a> in opposition to + Calvin, maintained, that the <i>divine decrees</i> + respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon + a previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters; + or, in other words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity + the faith and virtue of some, and the incredulity or + wickedness of others, has reserved eternal happiness for + the former, and eternal misery for the latter. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Disputes on the Free-will of Man. + </div> + <p> + These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the + Protestants into the adherents to the creed of Luther, and + the adherents to the creed of Calvin. The United Provinces + were among the latter: the creed of Calvin was, as we have + mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union. + </p> + <p> + The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity, + consigns one portion of mankind, without any fault on their + side, to everlasting torments, shocks our feelings, and is + totally repugnant to the notions entertained by us of the + goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not therefore + surprising that it should be called in question. From the + first, several objected to it; but it was not till the + successes of the United Provinces appeared to afford them a + near prospect of triumph, that the opposers of Calvin's + doctrine formed themselves into a party, and occasioned a + public sensation. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS<a name= + 'FNanchor_019_19'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_019_19'><sup>[019]</sup></a> was at their head. + He was born in 1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of + respectable parents. He lost his father in his infancy, and + was indebted, for the first rudiments of his education, to + a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed + religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some + time, at Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus + Snellius, a clergyman of eminence, took Arminius under his + protection, and, in 1575, placed him at Marpurgh. There, he + heard of the taking of Oudewater by the Spaniards, and + their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister, and + two brothers were among the victims. On the first + intelligence of the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in + hopes that the account of it might have been exaggerated. + Finding it true, he retired to Leyden: there, his severe + application to study, and the regularity of his morals, + gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to + Geneva, at the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to + perfect his studies under the care of Beza. Unfortunately, + by adopting the philosophical principles, of <i>Ramus</i>, + and unguardedly professing them, he displeased some leading + men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then + went to Bâsle. There, his reputation having preceded + him, he was received with great kindness: the faculty of + divinity offered him a doctor's degree; but a general wish + for his return being expressed at Geneva, he declined the + honour, and returned to that city. He then visited Italy, + and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a famous + philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius + was ordained minister at Amsterdam. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Arminius. + </div> + <p> + Some theologians of Delft having attacked the sentiments of + Calvin and Beza upon predestination, and given great + offence by it, they defended themselves by a book, + entitled; "An Answer to certain Arguments of Beza and + Calvin, in the treatise concerning Predestination; or upon + the ninth Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans." They + transmitted their defence to Martin Lydius, a partisan of + the divines whom it attacked; he sent it to Arminius, with + a request that he would answer it. Arminius undertook the + task, and attentively examined and weighed the arguments on + each side; the result was, that he embraced the opinions + which he had been called upon to confute, and even went + further than the ministers of Delft. Upon this account, the + friends of the rejected principles raised a great clamour + against him; but were quieted by the intervention of the + magistrates. The opinions, which Arminius adopted, he + endeavoured to propagate. They are contained in the + Remonstrance of his disciples, which we shall afterwards + transcribe. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + As the language of Arminius seemed to express notions, more + consonant than those of Calvin, to the sentiments + entertained by rational Christians, of the goodness and + justice of the Deity, it is not surprising that they found + many advocates among the learned and moderate; but some + ardent spirits were offended by them, and instilled their + dislike of them into the populace. This, Arminius was soon + made to feel. In 1603, he was appointed, on the death of + Francis Junius, to a professorship of theology in the + university of Leyden: great efforts were made, first to + prevent, and afterwards to procure a recision of his + appointment. He was accused of having said in a sermon, + that "God had not yet sent his letter of divorce to the + church of Rome;" but his friends produced a work of Francis + Junius, his predecessor in the theological chair, in which + that celebrated theologian had used the same expression. + Arminius was also accused by his adversaries, of elevating + the action of reason in the choice of good, at the expense + of grace. To this Arminius replied, by accusing his + adversaries of sacrificing reason entirely to grace. But + the greater number of the enemies of Arminius supported + their charges against him, by making it a question of + authority: "the States," they said, "had decided the + question, by adopting Calvin's doctrine at the union; so + that the gainsayers of it were guilty of treason." The + friends of Arminius replied, that he did not deny Calvin's + doctrine, but merely explained it. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Arminius. + </div> + <p> + Thus they disputed; + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>"And found no end, in wandering mazes + lost."</span><br> + <span class='c9'><i>Milton.</i></span> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + In fact, the subject,-as the writer has more than once + observed,-is above human reason: the day will come, "when + the Almighty will be judged, and will overcome;"-when the + secret of his councils will be unfolded, and their justice + and goodness made manifest to all.<a name= + 'FNanchor_020_20'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_020_20'><sup>[020]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + The friends of Arminius also observed, that he was by no + means singular in his doctrine; that it was favoured by + professors in Gueldres, Friesland, Utrecht, and other parts + of Holland; and, that in all the provinces, it was + patronized by the higher ranks of the laity. Was it + fitting, they asked, that the peace of the church, and the + tranquillity of the state, should be disturbed by such a + dispute? by a dispute which affected no essential article + of christianity; no civil, no moral, no religious + observation? + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + The principal adversary of Arminius was <i>Gomarus</i>, + also a professor of theology at Leyden. When the election + of Arminius was proposed, Gomarus announced suspicions of + his orthodoxy; he afterwards raised his tone, and accused + Arminius of Pelagianism, of secretly inclining to the + church of Rome, and holding principles which led to general + scepticism and infidelity. + </p> + <p> + Arminius died on the 19th October 1609. + </p> + <p> + Grotius made his eulogium in verse. He had hitherto applied + little to these matters; he acknowledges, in a letter + written in 1609, his general ignorance of them. Entering + afterwards into the dispute, he became convinced that the + idea, which we ought to have of the goodness and justice of + God, and even the language of the scriptures and the early + fathers of the church, favoured the system of Arminius, and + contradicted that of Gomarus. + </p> + <p> + The prejudices against the Arminians increasing, they drew + up a Remonstrance, dated the 14th January 1610, and + addressed it to the States of Holland. It begins by stating + what they do not believe: it afterwards propounds their own + sentiments in the five articles following:<a name= + 'FNanchor_021_21'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_021_21'><sup>[021]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <div class='sidenote'> + Remonstrance. + </div> + <br> + + <p> + 1. "That God, by an eternal and immutable decree in Jesus + Christ his son, before the world was created, resolved to + save in Jesus Christ, on account of Jesus Christ, and + through Jesus Christ, those, from among mankind fallen in + sin, who, by the grace of the Holy Spirit believe in his + same son Jesus; and through the same grace continue in + the faith and obedience to the end; and, on the contrary, + to leave under sin, and wrath, and to condemn the + obstinate and unbelieving, as having no part in Christ; + according to what is said <i>St. John</i> iii. 36. + </p> + <p> + 2. "That accordingly, Jesus Christ the Saviour of the + world, died for all and every man; and by his death on + the cross has merited for all, reconciliation with God, + and remission of sin; in such manner nevertheless, that + no one can partake of them but believers, according to + the words of Jesus, <i>St. John</i> iii. 16., 1 + <i>John</i> ii. 2. + </p> + <p> + 3. "That man hath not saving faith of himself, and by the + strength of his own free will; since, while in a state of + sin and apostasy, he cannot of himself think, desire, or + do, that which is truly good, which is what is chiefly + meant by saving faith; but it is necessary that God in + Jesus Christ, and by the Holy Spirit, regenerate and + renew him in his understanding and affections, or in his + will and all his powers; that he may know the true good, + meditate on it, desire, and do it. <i>St. John</i> xv. 5. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <br> + + <p> + 4. "That to this grace of God is owing the beginning, the + progression, and accomplishment of all good; in such + manner, that even the regenerate, without this + antecedent, or preventing, exciting, concomitant, and + cooperating grace, cannot think that, which is good, + desire or practise it; nor resist any temptation to evil; + so that all the good works or actions he can conceive, + spring from the grace of God; that as to what regards the + manner of operation of this grace, it is not + irresistible, since it is said of several, they resisted + the Holy Spirit. See <i>Acts</i> vii. and other places. + </p> + <p> + 5. "That those, who by a lively faith are engrafted into + Christ, and consequently made partakers of his quickening + spirit, are furnished with sufficient strength to be able + to combat, and even overcome Satan, sin, the world, and + their own lusts; and all this, as is carefully to be + observed, by the assistance of the grace and the Holy + Spirit; and that Jesus Christ succours them by his spirit + in all temptations, reaches to them his hand, (provided + they be willing to engage, ask his assistance, and are + not wanting to themselves,) supports and strengthens + them: so, that they cannot be led away by any wile or + violence of Satan, or snatched out of Christ's hands, as + he says himself, <i>St. John</i> x. <i>My sheep shall no + man pluck out of my hands</i>. For the rest, if it be + asked whether these may not through negligence let go the + confidence they had from the beginning, (Heb. iii. 6.) + cleave again to the present world, depart from the holy + doctrine, which was delivered, make shipwreck of a good + conscience? (2 Pet. i. 10., Jude iii., 1 Tim. i. 19., + Heb. xii. 15.) This must be previously examined with more + care, by the Scriptures, to be able to teach it with full + assurance to others." + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + Such is the Confession of Faith of the Arminians: they gave + it the name of <i>Remonstrance</i>; and were styled from it + REMONSTRANTS. It was drawn up by <i>Utengobard</i>, + minister at the Hague, with the help, it is supposed, of + Grotius: it was signed by forty-six ministers. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Contra-Remonstrance. + </div> + <p> + The Gomarists opposed to it a <i>Contra-Remonstrance</i>; + which gave them the name of the CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS. + </p> + <p> + It was about this time, that Grotius was elected Pensionary + of Rotterdam, and ordered to England: it has been + suggested, that he had secret instructions from the + Arminians, to induce king James to favour their principles. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + We are informed, by Mr. Nichols, (<i>Calvinism and + Arminianism compared</i>,)<a name='FNanchor_022_22'></a><a + href='#Footnote_022_22'><sup>[022]</sup></a> that the + Arminians sent to King James by Grotius, a true state of + their case; that Grotius found an adversary in + <i>Archbishop Abbott</i>, and friends in <i>Bishops + Andrews</i> and <i>Overal</i>; and that by their advice the + monarch addressed to the States General, a wise and + conciliatory letter. + </p> + <p> + The irritation of the public mind increasing, the States of + Holland, to restore tranquillity, published an edict of + Pacification, by which they strongly enjoined forbearance, + toleration, and silence. This was favourable to the + Arminians, but it increased the violence of the + <i>Contra-remonstrants</i>. Thus, it became a signal of + war. The States of Holland transmitted it to King James: + his Majesty, the archbishop of Canterbury, and the other + English prelates, allowed its doctrine to be orthodox. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Remonstrants-Contra-Remonstrants. + </div> + <p> + Still, the troubles in Holland augmented: riots took place + and greater riots were apprehended. In an evil hour, + Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary, proposed to the States of + Holland, that the magistrates of the cities of that + province should he empowered to raise troops for the + suppression of the rioters. Amsterdam, Dort, and other + towns, that favoured the Gomarists, protested against this + measure, styling it a declaration of war against the + Contra-remonstrants. Yet, on the 4th August 1617, + Barneveldt's proposition was agreed to, and promulgated. + </p> + <p> + We have mentioned the enmity of Prince Maurice to + Barneveldt, on account of his having promoted the armistice + of 1609, and his favouring the republican party. The Prince + professed to consider the edict of Pacification as + derogatory of his authority, and forbade the soldiers to + obey the States, if they should be ordered to act against + the rioters. He publicly declared, that he favoured the + Gomarists; he assisted, at the divine service, in their + churches only, and shewed them every other mark of public + favour. Exulting in this powerful support, the Gomarists + separated themselves, formally, from the Arminians. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + To bring over Amsterdam to their sentiments, the States of + Holland sent a deputation to the burgomasters of that city, + and placed Grotius at its head. On the day after their + arrival in Amsterdam, the burgomasters assembled to receive + the deputies. Grotius addressed them in an argumentative + and eloquent speech. He urged the necessity and advantage + of religious toleration, particularly upon theoretical + points of doctrine. He observed to the assembly, that + Bullinger and Melancthon had been tolerated by Deza and + Calvin; that James, the King of Great Britain, had + advanced, in his writings, that each of the two opposite + opinions on Predestination might be maintained without + danger of reprobation; that Gomarus himself had declared + that Arminius had not erred in any fundamental article of + Christian doctrine; that the contested articles were of a + very abstruse nature; that the affirmative or negative of + the doctrines expressed in them, had not been determined; + and that toleration would restore tranquillity and union, + and favour the assembling of a numerous and respectable + synod, which might labour with success in restoring peace + to the church. + </p> + <p> + Grotius delivered his speech in the Dutch language; it was + afterwards translated into Latin; all, who heard, admired + it; but it produced no effect on them. The deputies were + uncivilly dismissed; and the oration of Grotius, by an + order of the States General, was suppressed.<a name= + 'FNanchor_023_23'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_023_23'><sup>[023]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Feuds of the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. + </div> + <p> + He was much affected by the bad success of his mission: he + was seized with a fever, which nearly proved fatal to him. + Many of his friends sought to persuade him to retire from + the contest: he told them that he had taken his resolution + after deep deliberation; that he was aware of his danger, + and that he submitted the event to providence. + </p> + <p> + The next effort of the States of Holland to pacify the + troubles, was to prepare a <i>formula</i> of peace, which + the ministers of the two parties should be obliged to sign. + It contained nothing contrary to the doctrine of Calvin; it + referred the five articles to future examination, and + prescribed, in the mean time, silence upon the parts in + dispute. Grotius drew up the Formula; it was shewn to + Prince Maurice, and rejected by him. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + Matters now converged to a crisis:-we have more than once + mentioned the opposite politics of Prince Maurice and + Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary; the former wishing to + draw the whole sovereign power to himself; the latter + endeavouring to preserve and stabilitate the the + constitution of the Provinces, as it had been settled by + the Act of Union. We noticed that the Gomarists sided with + the Prince; the Arminians with the Grand-Pensionary. As the + Prince was aware that the States of Holland were favourable + to the Arminians, that the States General were opposed to + them, and that the clergy of each denomination partook of + the civil and ecclesiastical opinions of their flocks, he + convened a national synod of the clergy; and, that be might + the more overawe his opponents and strengthen his own + party, he appointed the synod to meet in Holland. Against + this synod the provinces of Holland, Utretcht, and + Overyssell protested. Barneveldt was so much affected by + the disturbances, and a view of the evils with which they + appeared to threaten his country, that he sought to resign + his place of Grand-Pensionary; but the States of the + province of Holland, which needed more than ever the + counsels of such an experienced minister, sent a deputation + to him, beseeching him not to abandon them in times of so + much difficulty. He thought it his duty to yield to their + entreaty, and continued to exercise the functions of his + office. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Imprisonment of Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz. + </div> + <p> + To frustrate the designs of Prince Maurice, several cities + favourable to the Arminians levied bodies of militia, and + gave them the name of <i>Attendant Soldiers</i>. The + States-General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice, + enjoined the cities to disband them. The cities generally + disobeyed these orders. In this they were justified by the + established constitution: the Prince, however, treated + their conduct as rebellious; and, in concert with the + States General, marched in person, at the head of his + troops, against the refractory cities. Wherever he came, he + disarmed and disbanded the new levies; deposed the Arminian + magistrates, and expelled the ministers of their party. + </p> + <p> + In the provinces of Gueldres and Overyssell, he met with no + resistance; and little at Arnheim: greater resistance was + expected at Utretcht: the States of Holland sent Grotius + and Hoogerbetz, the Pensionary of Leyden, to stimulate the + inhabitants to resistance; but the fortune of the Prince + prevailed. In an extraordinary assembly, which consisted of + eight persons only, yet assuming to act as the States + General, the Prince procured an ordonnance to be passed, + which directed Barneveldt, Grotius, and Hoogerbetz to be + taken into immediate custody. They were accordingly + arrested, and confined in the Castle at the Hague. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. V. 1610-1617. + </div> + <p> + Thus the Prince's party prevailed in every part of the + United Provinces. About this time, he succeeded, in + consequence of the death of his elder brother, to the + dignity of Prince of Orange. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_VI'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c06'>CHAPTER VI.</a> + </h2> + <p> + THE SYNOD OF DORT. + </p> + <p> + 1618. + </p> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VI. 1618. + </div> + <p> + The States General determined that the Synod<a name= + 'FNanchor_024_24'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_024_24'><sup>[024]</sup></a> should be composed + of twenty-six divines of the United Provinces, twenty-eight + foreign divines, five professors of divinity, and sixteen + laymen;-seventy-five members in the whole. The expence was + calculated at 100,000 florins. The English divines were, + Dr. George Carlton, Bishop of Llandaff; Dr. Joseph Hall, + Dean of Worcester; John Davenant, professor of divinity, + and Master of Queen's college, Cambridge; Samuel Ward, + Archdeacon of Taunton, and head of Sidney college, + Cambridge. To these were added, Walter Balcanqual, a + Scottish theologian, as representative of the Scottish + churches. The ever-memorable John Hales of Eaton, as that + learned and amiable person is justly termed by protestant + writers, was permitted to attend the debates of the Synod, + but was not allowed to speak, or take any part in its + proceedings. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Synod of Dort. + </div> + <p> + We have mentioned that Arminius was converted to the + opinions, which he defended afterwards so strenuously, by + the perusal of a work in support of the opposite doctrine, + which he had been desired to confute. In the same manner, + the proceedings of the Contra-Remonstrants, at the Synod of + Dort, made Mr. Hales a Remonstrant. We are informed by his + friend Mr. Faringdon, that, in his younger days, he was a + Calvinist; but that some explanations given by Episcopius + of the text in John iii. 16, induced him, as he himself + said, to "bid John Calvin, Good Night." His letters from + Dort to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador at the + Hague, contain an interesting account of the proceedings of + the assembly.<a name='FNanchor_025_25'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_025_25'><sup>[025]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VI. 1618. + </div> + <p> + Dr. Heylin says, in his "Quinquarticular History," that the + theologians sent by King James to Dort, were inclined to + condemn the Remonstrants; but he intimates that the monarch + acted from reasons of state; and that he was more hostile + to their persons than their doctrines: Brand makes the same + remark upon Prince Maurice. It seems to be admitted, that, + in the conference at Hampton Court, King James declared + against absolute predestination.<a name= + 'FNanchor_026_26'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_026_26'><sup>[026]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + The English divines arrived at the Hague on the 5th + November 1618: they were immediately presented to the + States General, and most honourably received. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Synod of Dort. + </div> + <p> + The King of France had permitted two Protestant theologians + of his kingdom to attend the Synod; but afterwards revoked + the permission. The French Protestant churches had deputed + to it, the celebrated Peter de Moulin and Andrew Rivet; but + the King prohibited their attending it, under severe + penalties. + </p> + <p> + After the election of the members was finally adjusted, the + Synod appeared to be composed of about seventy + Contra-Remonstrants and fourteen Arminians. + </p> + <p> + It was opened on the 13th of November 1618. Two + commissioners of the States placed themselves on the right + side of the chimney of the room; the English divines were + placed on the left; seats were kept vacant for the French; + the third place was assigned to the deputies from the + Palatinate; the fourth, to those from Hesse; the fifth, to + the Swiss; the sixth to the Genevans; the seventh to the + theologians from Bremen; and the eighth to those from + Embden. The professors of theology were placed immediately + after the commissioners; then, the ministers and elders of + the country. By an arrangement, favoured by the States, + thirty-six ministers and twenty elders were added to the + five professors. Of this the Remonstrants complained, on + the just ground, that it evidently gave their adversaries + an undue preponderance. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VI. 1618. + </div> + <p> + The commissioners nominated the celebrated Daniel Heinsius + secretary. The Remonstrants objected to him; they admitted + his extensive acquaintance with polite literature, and his + elegant taste; but asserted, that he possessed no + theological learning, and was prejudiced against them. + Episcopius was always considered to be at the head of the + Remonstrants: he has seldom been excelled in learning, + eloquence, or power of argumentation. + </p> + <p> + No further business than arranging the forms of sitting and + voting, was transacted at the <i>first session</i> of the + Synod. <i>At the second</i>, the Synod constituted John + Bogerman its president, and appointed two assessors and two + secretaries: all five were distinguished for their known + hostility to the Remonstrants. The appointment of Bogerman + particularly offended them, as he openly avowed it to be + his opinion that heretics should be punished by death; and + had translated into the Dutch language the celebrated + treatise of Beza, <i>de hæreticis a civili magistratu + puniendis</i>, in which this doctrine is explicitly + maintained in its fullest extent. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Synod of Dort. + </div> + <p> + <i>In the third session</i>,-the deputies from Geneva + produced their commission: it was expressed in terms + decidedly hostile to the Remonstrants. + </p> + <p> + <i>In the fourth session</i>,-the grand preliminary + question,-in what manner the Remonstrants were to be + summoned,-came under consideration. After much argument, it + was settled, by a great majority of voices, that + "Episcopius and some other Remonstrants should within a + fortnight, appear before the Synod, as the sovereign + ecclesiastical tribunal of the United States." + </p> + <p> + The Remonstrants and the advocates of their cause protested + against this proceeding: they called in question the + authority of the Synod to sit as judges upon them, or even + to decide any point of doctrine definitively: they averred + it contrary to the evangelical liberty professed and taught + by the first Reformers. Every friend to the true principles + of the reformation must admit the force of this objection. + </p> + <p> + The <i>5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th + Sessions</i> of the intermediate fortnight, were consumed + in debates upon a projected new translation of the + Scriptures; <i>the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, + 20th</i> and <i>21st Sessions</i> were employed in + discussions, upon a new catechism, and other ecclesiastical + arrangements. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VI. 1618. + </div> + <p> + The <i>22d Session</i> was held on the 6<i>th</i> of + December. The Remonstrants appeared before the Synod, and + requested further time for preparing their defence on the + articles with which they were charged. Their request was + denied: and Episcopius having said, that "They wished to + enter into a conference with the Synod," a resolution was + passed, by which the Synod declared, that "the Remonstrants + had not been cited to <i>confer</i> with the Synod; but to + propound their opinions, and submit to its judgment." + </p> + <p> + The Remonstrants then paid their visits to the foreign + theologians: these they found greatly prejudiced against + them; they therefore published two short writings, + explaining and justifying their sentiments. + </p> + <p> + In <i>the 23d Session</i>, Episcopius made a long + discourse. Mr. John Hales praised it highly, in a letter + addressed by him to the English ambassador An oath was + prescribed to the members, by which they promised, that, in + the examination of the five articles, "or any other points + of doctrine which should be discussed, they would confine + themselves to the Scriptures, and resort to no human + authority." But, what was the Synod itself more than human + authority? The oath was not tendered to the Remonstrants; + it was declined by the Swiss. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Synod of Dort. + </div> + <p> + The <i>24th Session</i> was consumed in debates: <i>on the + 25th</i>, Episcopius read a long document, and afterwards + presented it to the Synod. He protested in it against the + authority of the Synod, and asked the searching question, + whether the Calvinists would "submit to a Synod of + Lutherans?" To this question, no answer was given: an angry + discussion followed. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + It continued during <i>the 27th and 28th Sessions</i>. + </p> + <p> + On <i>the 29th</i>, the opinions of foreign divines were + produced in favour of the authority of the Synod: those of + the English divines, and the divines of Bremen, were + expressed with more moderation than the others. The divines + of Geneva stated, that, "if a person obstinately refused to + submit to the just decisions of the church, he might be + proceeded against in two ways; the <i>magistrate</i> might + coerce him, and the <i>church</i> might publicly + excommunicate him as a violator of the law of God." + </p> + <p> + The dispute was more violent in <i>the 30th Session</i>. + </p> + <p> + Finally, the Remonstrants agreed to propound their + sentiments in writing; but with an express salvo, of their + right to liberty of conscience, and to retain their + objections to the authority of the Synod. + </p> + <p> + In <i>the 31st Session</i>, the Remonstrants presented to + the Synod a writing, containing their sentiments upon + Predestination,-the first and most important of the five + articles. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VI. 1618. + </div> + <p> + In <i>the 34th Session</i>, they presented their sentiments + upon the four other articles; and in <i>the 39th + Session</i>, upon the Catechism of Heidelberg. The Synod + had enjoined them to confine themselves to explanations of + their own doctrine, and to abstain from controverting the + doctrines of the Calvinists. These debates carried the + Synod to its <i>46th Session</i>. + </p> + <p> + In that session, the resolution of the States General upon + the proceedings of the Synod was produced. They declared by + it, that "the Remonstrants were obliged to submit to the + decrees of the Synod,"-and that "if they persisted in their + disobedience to them, both the censures of the church, and + the penalties by which the States punished violators of + public authority, should be inflicted upon them." The + States ordered the Remonstrants to remain, in the meantime, + in the town. + </p> + <p> + The Remonstrants persisting in their refusal to acknowledge + the authority of the Synod, an assembly of it met on <i>the + 57th Session</i>, and formally expelled the Remonstrants + from the Synod. Episcopius exclaimed, "May God decide + between the Synod and us!" "I appeal," said Niellius, "from + the injustice of the Synod, to the throne of Jesus Christ." + All remained firm in their protestation. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Synod of Dort. + </div> + <p> + Mr. Hales and Mr. Balcanqual, in their letters to the + English ambassador, blame the proceedings of the Synod.<a + name='FNanchor_027_27'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_027_27'><sup>[027]</sup></a> The only question + between the Synod and the Remonstrants was, whether the + latter would submit to acknowledge the authority of the + former. This, the Remonstrants uniformly refused to do. In + almost every Synod there was a repetition of the same + demand, and of the same answer. By every English reader, + the demand of the Synod will be thought exorbitant. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP VI. 1618. + </div> + <p> + The Synod relaxed afterwards so far, as to permit the + Remonstrants to deliver their sentiments in writing: they + did it at great length. But they still persisted in + objecting to the authority of the Synod, and to be examined + by it. The Synod therefore proceeded against them in their + absence; and ultimately, on the 24th of April 1610, + pronounced them guilty of pestilential errors, and + corruptors of the true religion. The five articles were + formally condemned; Episcopius and the other ministers were + deposed. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Synod of Dort. + </div> + <p> + "There are conclusions," says Grotius,<a name= + 'FNanchor_028_28'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_028_28'><sup>[028]</sup></a> in a letter written + by him in the same year, "in the canons of the Synod of + Dort, of which, if good Melancthon were again to make his + appearance, he would express his disapprobation, and with + which Bullinger would be no less grieved; there are others, + which alienate all the Lutherans from the Calvinists; + although amity and concord are desirable between them and + us at this juncture. There are some points in them, which + forbid the Greek churches from uniting with us, though they + are very favourable to us; but there are others of the Dort + canons, which admit of no controversy.-It is possible that + they may recall to mind my labours for unity. Even those + writings, which I published since my calamity, have not + been diverted from the same peaceful object." If ever any + Protestant divines deserved the reproach cast by Mr. + Gibbon,<a name='FNanchor_029_29'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_029_29'><sup>[029]</sup></a> on the first + reformers in general, "of being ambitious to succeed the + tyrants whom they had dethroned," they were the members of + the Synod of Dort. + </p> + <p> + The Synod was closed on the 29th of May. + </p> + <p> + The sentence passed by it on the Remonstrants was approved + by the States General on the 3d July 1619. On the same day, + the Arminian ministers, who had been detained at Dort, + were, by a sentence of the States General, banished or + imprisoned, deprived of their employments, and the effects + of some were confiscated. Similar severities were exercised + on the Arminians in most of the territories subject to the + States General. To avoid the persecution, some fled to + Antwerp, some to France, the greater part to Holstein. + There, under the wise protection of the reigning duke, they + settled, and afterwards built a town, which from him they + called Friedericstadt. + </p> + <p> + They continued to assert the irregularity of the Synod: the + Bishop of Meaux shrewdly observed, that "they employed + against the authority of the Synod, the same arguments as + the Protestants use against the authority of the Council of + Trent." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP VI. 1618. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Synod of Dort. + </div> + <p> + For the publication of <i>Acts of the Council</i>, divines + were chosen out of various districts of the United + Provinces: their edition of the Acts was published at Dort + in the year 1620, in folio, in the types of the Elzevirs; + and was soon afterwards republished with greater + correctness, in the same year, at Hanover, in quarto, with + an addition of a copious index.-An Epistle of their High + Mightinesses the States General, addressed to the Monarchs, + Kings, Princes, Counts, Cities and Magistrates of the + Christian world, and vouching for the authority and + authenticity of the Acts,<a name='FNanchor_030_30'></a><a + href='#Footnote_030_30'><sup>[030]</sup></a> is prefixed to + this edition. The Remonstrants published an edition of the + Acts in 1620, in 4to.: it is said,<a name= + 'FNanchor_031_31'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_031_31'><sup>[031]</sup></a> that from a fear of + their adversaries, it was printed on ship-board. + </p> + <p> + Here, the history of the Arminians, so far as it is + connected with that part of the Life of Grotius to which + our subject has hitherto led us, seems to close. We shall + hereafter be called upon to resume it. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_VII'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c07'>CHAPTER VII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS. HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON. + </p> + <p> + 1618-1621. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + While the Synod of Dort continued its sittings, Prince + Maurice and his party were actively employed in increasing + the popular ferment against Barneveldt, Grotius and + Hoogerbetz; in collecting evidence of the designs and + practices of which they were accused, and in framing the + legal proceedings against them in such a manner as was most + likely both to procure their conviction, and to persuade + the public of their guilt. + </p> + <p> + We have mentioned that their confinement took place on the + 20th of August 1618, and that they were removed from the + Hague, the original place of their imprisonment, to the + Castle of Louvestein. On the 19th November, the States + General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice, nominated + twenty-six commissioners for their trial. All the prisoners + objected both to the jurisdiction of the commissioners, and + to that of the States General; and asserted that the States + of Holland were their only competent judges. They observed, + at the same time, that many of the judges were notoriously + prejudiced against the Arminians. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + The act of accusation contained many general charges, and + many averments of particular facts, supposed to + substantiate them. It was alleged against the prisoners, + that they had disturbed the established religion of the + United Provinces; that, in direct contradiction of the + articles of union, they had asserted the right of each + province to decide for itself in matters of religion; that + they had set up the authority and interests of the States + of Holland and West Friesland against those of the States + General; that they were the authors of the Insurrection at + Utrecht; had levied, in opposition to the orders of + government, the attendant soldiers; had raised jealousies + between the Prince and several of the Provincial States, + and between these and the States General; and that, by + their habitual conduct, they had become public disturbers + of the tranquillity of the republic, and councillors and + practisers of schemes hostile to its welfare. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VII. 1618-1621. + </div> + <p> + The Commissioners proceeded to the trial of Barneveldt. + Uniformly protesting against the competency of the + tribunal, Barneveldt defended himself with great firmness + and ability. He controverted every article of the + accusation, and concluded his defence, by a long and + pathetic enumeration of the services, which he had rendered + to the republic; and of the numerous actions, by which he + had shewn his attachment to Prince William and Prince + Maurice:-he proved that it had been principally owing to + him, that the Stadtholderate had been conferred on the + latter. He admitted that he had suspected the Prince of + designs hostile to the constitution of the United + Provinces, and had opposed the Prince in every measure, + which appeared to have such a tendency; but he asserted + that he never had resorted to means which the laws or + constitution of the Provinces did not warrant. His + arguments were unanswerable; but Prince Maurice was + determined on his ruin; and the Commissioners were wholly + subservient to the prince's views: they accordingly passed + unanimously a sentence of death upon Barneveldt. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + Many of the princes of Europe expressed their + dissatisfaction at these proceedings: none so much as the + French monarch. To him, the great merit of Barneveldt had + been long known. He considered that the conduct of Prince + Maurice was likely to involve the United Provinces in + troubles, of which Spain might take advantages. From + personal regard to Barneveldt, and with a view of + terminating the discord, the monarch sent an ambassador + extraordinary to the United States, and ordered him to join + Du Maurier, his ambassador in ordinary, in soliciting them + in favour of the accused, and in labouring to restore the + public tranquillity. The ambassadors executed their + commission with the greatest zeal. They made many + remonstrances, and had several audiences both with the + States and the Prince. The States, instigated by the + Prince, expressed great indignation at the proceedings of + the ambassadors. + </p> + <p> + All the accused were respectably allied, and had many + friends: numerous applications were made in their favour. + They undeviatingly demeaned themselves with the firmness + and modest dignity of conscious innocence. They persisted + in denying the guilt attributed to them, and in protesting + against the competency of the tribunal. They made no + degrading submission. At a subsequent time, a son of + Barneveldt having been condemned to death, his mother + applied to Prince Maurice, for his pardon. The Prince + observed to her, that she had made no such application in + behalf of her husband; "No," she replied, "I know my son is + guilty, I therefore solicit his pardon; I knew my husband + was innocent, I therefore solicited no pardon for him." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VII. 1618-1621. + </div> + <p> + On Monday morning, May 13, 1619, Barneveldt was informed + that he was to be executed upon that day. He received the + notification of it with great firmness; he inquired whether + Grotius and Hoogerbetz were to suffer: being answered in + the negative, he expressed much satisfaction, observing + that "they were of an age to be still able to serve the + republic." + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "The scaffold for his execution," says Burigni, "was + erected in the Court of the Castle at the Hague, facing + the Prince of Orange's apartments. He made a short speech + to the people, which is yet preserved in the <i>Mercure + Françoise</i>. 'Burghers!' he said, 'I have been + always your faithful countryman; believe not that I die + for treason: I die for maintaining the rights and + liberties of my country!' After this speech, the + executioner struck off his head at one blow. It is + affirmed that the Prince of Orange, to feast himself with + the cruel pleasure of seeing his enemy perish, beheld the + execution with a glass; the people looked on it with + other eyes: many came to gather the sand wet with his + blood, to keep it carefully in phials; and the crowd of + those, who had the same curiosity, continued next day, + notwithstanding all they could do to hinder them. + </p> + <p> + "Thus fell that great minister, who did the United + Provinces as much service in the cabinet, as the Prince + of Orange did in the field. It is highly probable that + the melancholy end of this illustrious and unfortunate + man was owing to his steadiness in opposing the design of + making Prince Maurice Dictator."<a name= + 'FNanchor_032_32'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_032_32'><sup>[032]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + The Prince pursued his triumph. Soon after the arrest of + Grotius, the States of Holland presented a petition to the + Prince, representing the arrest as a breach of their + constitutional rights; the Prince referred it to the States + General. To these, therefore, they presented a similar + petition; praying at the same time, that Grotius might be + tried by the laws and usages of the Provinces of Holland: + no regard was shewn to their petitions. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VII. 1618-1621. + </div> + <p> + Grotius had an invaluable friend:-he was no sooner + arrested, than his wife petitioned to share his confinement + throughout the whole of his imprisonment: it was denied. + Grotius fell ill: she renewed the application: it was + absolutely rejected: but neither his wife, nor any of the + friends of Grotius ever recommended to him an unworthy + submission. He always denied the competency of the tribunal + appointed to try him: his wife and brother uniformly + recommended him to persist in his plea. + </p> + <p> + Much disregard of form took place, and many arbitrary acts + were perpetrated, in the proceedings against Grotius. On + the 18th of May 1619, the Commissioners pronounced sentence + against him. After enumerating all the charges, of which he + was accused, and asserting that all were proved against + him, the judges condemned him to perpetual imprisonment, + and his estates to be confiscated. The same sentence was + passed on Hoogerbetz; but the house of the latter was + assigned to him for his imprisonment. + </p> + <p> + On the 6th of June, Grotius was taken to Louvestein. It + lies near Gorcum, in South Holland, at the point of the + island formed by the Vaal and the Meuse. Twenty-four sous a + day were allowed for his maintenance; but his wife + undertook to support him, during his confinement, from her + own estate. She was at length admitted into prison with + him, on condition that she should remain in it, while his + imprisonment lasted. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + At first, his confinement was very rigid: by degrees it was + relaxed: his wife was allowed to leave the prison for a few + hours, twice in every week. He was permitted to borrow + books, and to correspond, except on politics, with his + friends. + </p> + <p> + He beguiled the tedious hours of confinement by study, + relieving his mind by varying its objects. Antient and + modern literature equally engaged his attention: Sundays he + wholly dedicated to prayer and the study of theology. + </p> + <p> + Twenty months of imprisonment thus passed away. His wife + now began to devise projects for his liberty. She had + observed that he was not so strictly watched as at first; + that the guards, who examined the chest used for the + conveyance of his books and linen, being accustomed to see + nothing in it but books and linen, began to examine them + loosely: at length, they permitted the chest to pass + without any examination. Upon this, she formed her project + for her husband's release. + </p> + <p> + She began to carry it into execution by cultivating an + intimacy with the wife of the commandant of Gorcum. To her, + she lamented Grotius's immoderate application to study; she + informed her that it had made him seriously ill; and that, + in consequence of his illness, she had resolved to take all + his books from him, and restore them to their owners. She + circulated every where the account of his illness, and + finally declared that it had confined him to his bed. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VII. 1618-1621. + </div> + <p> + In the mean time, the chest was accommodated to her + purpose; and particularly, some holes were bored in it, to + let in air. Her maid and the valet of Grotius were + entrusted with the secret. The chest was conveyed to + Grotius's apartment. She then revealed her project to him, + and, after much entreaty, prevailed on him to get into the + chest, and leave her in the prison. + </p> + <p> + The books, which Grotius borrowed, were usually sent to + Gorcum; and the chest, which contained them, passed in a + boat, from the prison at Louvestein, to that town. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His Escape from Prison. + </div> + <p> + Big with the fate of Grotius, the chest, as soon as he was + enclosed in it, was moved into the boat. One of the + soldiers, observing that it was uncommonly heavy, insisted + on its being opened, and its contents examined; but, by the + address of the maid, his scruples were removed, and the + chest was lodged in the boat. The passage from Louvestein + to Gorcum took a considerable time. The length of the chest + did not exceed three feet and a half. At length, it reached + Gorcum: it was intended that it should be deposited at the + house of David Bazelaer, an Arminian friend of Grotius, who + resided at Gorcum. But, when the boat reached the shore, a + difficulty arose, how the chest was to be conveyed from the + spot, upon which it was to be landed, to Bazelaer's house. + This difficulty was removed by the maid's presence of mind; + she told the bystanders, that the chest contained glass, + and that it must be moved with particular care. Two + chairmen were soon found, and they carefully moved it on a + horse-chair to the appointed place. + </p> + <p> + Bazelaer sent away his servants on different errands, + opened the chest, and received his friend with open arms. + Grotius declared, that while he was in the chest, he had + felt much anxiety, but had suffered no other inconvenience. + Having dressed himself as a mason, with a rule and trowel, + he went, through the back door of Bazelaer's house, + accompanied by his maid, along the market-place, to a boat + engaged for the purpose. It conveyed them to Vervie in + Brabant: there, he was safe. His maid then left him, and, + returning to his wife, communicated to her the agreeable + information of the success of the enterprise. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Chap. VII. 1618-1621. + </div> + <p> + As soon as Grotius's wife ascertained that he was in + perfect safety, she informed the guards of his escape: + these communicated the intelligence to the governor. He put + her into close confinement; but in a few days, an order of + the States General set her at liberty, and permitted her to + carry with her every thing at Louvestein, which belonged to + her. It is impossible to think without pleasure of the + meeting of Grotius and his heroic wife. From Vervie he + proceeded to Antwerp; a few days after his arrival in that + city, he addressed a letter to the States General: he + assured them, that, in procuring his liberty, he had used + neither violence nor corruption. He solemnly protested that + his public conduct had been blameless, and that the + persecution he had suffered would never lessen his + attachment to his country. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His Escape from Prison. + </div> + <p> + It was on the 22d March 1621, that Grotius obtained his + liberty. In the same year, the truce, concluded for twelve + years between Spain and the United Provinces expired: it + was expected, that the war would be resumed with more fury + than ever. But this did not happen; the war of thirty + years, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention, + had mixed the contest between Spain and the United + Provinces with the general military plans and operations of + the parties engaged in it, and had carried much of the + conflict from the Low Countries into Germany. Prince + Maurice still appeared at the head of the army of the + United Provinces; but he had lost, by his persecution of + the Arminians, and his selfish intrigues, the confidence of + the people. Conspiracies against his life were formed: + fortune no longer favoured his arms. His attempts to compel + the Marquis Spinola to raise the siege of Bréda were + unsuccessful. This reverse of fortune preyed upon his mind. + He thought himself haunted by a spectre of Barneveldt: he + was frequently heard, during his last illness, to exclaim, + "Remove this head from me!" "This anecdote," says the + author of the <i>Resumé de l'histoire de la + Hollande</i>, "is related by all the republican historians + of the United Provinces; it is concealed by the flatterers + of the House of Orange.... To relate the remorse of princes + for their crimes, is one of the most useful duties of + historians." + </p> + <p> + Prince Maurice died in 1625. + </p> + <p> + M. Le Clerc, in the 2d volume of the <i>Bibliotheque + Choisée, art. 3</i>, shews, by unquestionable facts + and irresistible arguments, that both Prince William and + Prince Maurice sought to obtain the independent sovereignty + of the United Provinces. It was the aim of all their + successors: it has been effected in our times by means, + which certainly were foreseen by none. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_VIII'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c08'>CHAPTER VIII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + VORSTIUS,-JAMES I. + </p> + <p> + 1622. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + We must now carry back our readers to events which preceded + the Synod of Dort. We have mentioned the decease of + Arminius: soon after it, a circumstance took place, which, + to the exquisite delight of the monarch, who, at that time + filled the British throne, involved him in the theological + disputes of the Belgic theologians. + </p> + <p> + Not long after the commencement of the Reformation, several + bold inquirers began to deny the trinity of persons in the + Deity, the divine authority of the Old and New Testament, + and the existence of mystery in the Christian dispensation. + Both Catholics and Protestants united against them. To + avoid their hostilities, the maintainers of these opinions + fled to Poland, and, forming themselves into a distinct + congregation, published, in 1574, their First Catechism. + They established congregations at Cracow, Lubin, Pinczow, + Luck and Smila: but their most flourishing settlement was + at Racow. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Vorstius-James I. + </div> + <p> + They spread their doctrines over each bank of the Danube, + and at length penetrated Italy. There, they were adopted by + Loelius Socinus. After many peregrinations in different + parts of Europe, he finally settled at Zurich. Faustus + Socinus, his nephew, inherited his sentiments; and, on this + account, was obliged to quit Zurich. After many wanderings, + he fixed his residence at Racow. There, he was received + with open arms by the new communion, and completed their + system of theology. From him, they derived their + appellation of SOCINIANS. Their doctrine is expressed in + the Racovian catechism, published, in the Polish language, + in 1605. Other editions of it have appeared. An English + translation of the edition of 1605, was published at + Amsterdam in 1652: Dr. Toulmin, in his Life of Socinus, + ascribes it, seemingly by conjecture, to Mr. John Biddle. + In 1818, Mr. Rees published a new translation of it, + prefixing to it an interesting historical preface. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VIII. 1622. + </div> + <p> + Among the disciples of Arminius, was the celebrated CONRADE + VORSTIUS, born at Cologne in 1569, of parents in reduced + circumstances: he was soon remarked for his diligence and + irreproachable conduct; and was, in 1605, appointed to a + professor's chair at Steinfurth. In 1610, he quitted it, + and was named to succeed Arminius, in the chair of + Professor of Theology, at Leyden. "He was beloved and + honoured," says Mr. Chalmers, "at Steinfurth; there, he + enjoyed the utmost tranquillity, and was in the highest + reputation; he doubtless foresaw, that in the state in + which the controversies of Arminius and Gomarus were at + that time, he should meet with great opposition in Holland. + But he was tempted by the glory he should gain by + supporting a party, which was weakened by Arminius's + death." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Vorstius-James I. + </div> + <p> + He had previously published his Treatise "<i>de Deo</i>." + Some passages in it were thought to favour the doctrine of + Arminius; some, to lead to Socinianism; and some, to have + an ulterior tendency. That Arminius himself discovers these + views in his writings, has been frequently asserted. Doctor + Maclaine, the learned translator of Mosheim's + Ecclesiastical History,<a name='FNanchor_033_33'></a><a + href='#Footnote_033_33'><sup>[033]</sup></a> observes it to + be a common opinion, that "the disciples of Arminius, and + more especially Episcopius, had boldly transgressed the + bounds, that had been wisely prescribed by their master, + and had gone ever to the Pelagians, and even to the + Socinians." "Such," continues Dr. Maclaine, "is the opinion + commonly entertained upon this matter. But it appears on + the contrary evident to me, that Arminius himself had laid + the plan of the theological system, that was, in after + times embraced by his followers; that he had instilled the + principles of it into the minds of his disciples; and that + these latter did really no more than bring this plan to a + greater degree of perfection, and propagate with more + courage and perspicuity the doctrines it contains." To + prove this assertion, the Doctor cites a passage from the + Will of Arminius, in which he declares, that "his view in + all his theological and ministerial labours, was to unite + in one community, cemented by the bonds of fraternal + charity, all sects and denominations of Christians, the + papists excepted." "These words, on this account," + continues Dr. Maclaine, "coincide perfectly with the modern + system of Arminianism, which extends the limits of the + christian church, and relaxes the bonds of fraternal + communion in such a manner, that Christians of all sects + and all denominations, whatever their sects and opinions + may be, (Papists excepted) may be formed into one religious + body, and live together in brotherly love and concord." It + is not surprising that in the state of religious + effervescence, in which the minds of men were at the time + of which we are now speaking, a suspicion that Vorstius + entertained the sentiments we have mentioned, or sentiments + nearly approaching to them, should have rendered him a + subject of jealousy. So greatly was this the case, that the + Contra-remonstrants appealed against his doctrines to + several Protestant states, and represented to them the + doctrine of Vorstius in the most odious light. Our James I. + accepted the appeal: by a royal proclamation, he caused + Vorstius's Treatise <i>de Deo</i> to be burnt in London, + and each of the English Universities. He drew up a list, of + the several heresies, which he had discovered in it, + commanded his resident at the Hague to notify them to the + States; to express his horror of them, and his detestation + of those, who should tolerate them. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. VIII. 1622. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + Vorstius.-James I. + </div> + <p> + With some intimation of their independence, the States + replied, that "the case was of <i>their</i> cognizance;" + that "they would examine it;" and that, "if it should + appear that Vorstius maintained the doctrines imputed to + him, they would not suffer him to live among them." The + monarch's orthodoxy was not satisfied with this answer. He + repeated his suggestions, that the States should proceed + against Vorstius; and hinted, that if the doctrines should + be proved against him, and if he should persist in them, + burning might be a proper punishment for him. The monarch + added that, if the States did not use their utmost + endeavours to extirpate the rising heresy, he should + publicly protest against their conduct; that, in quality of + defender of the faith, he would exhort all Protestant + churches to join in one general resolution to extinguish + the abomination, and would, as sovereign of his own + dominions, prohibit his subjects to frequent so + pestilential a place as the University of Leyden. To his + menaces he added the terrors of his pen, and published a + "Confutation of Vorstius." + </p> + <p> + By the advice of the States, Vorstius replied to his royal + adversary in a most respectful manner; still, the royal + adversary was not satisfied. Finally, the States condemned + the obnoxious doctrines of Vorstius, divested him of all + his offices; and sentenced him to perpetual banishment. + Vorstius remained concealed during two years; then found an + asylum in the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, who, as we + have mentioned, took the remains of the Arminians into his + protection. + </p> + <p> + Vorstius died in 1622. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_IX'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c09'>CHAPTER IX.</a> + </h2> + <p> + GROTIUS AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, TILL HIS APPOINTMENT + OF AMBASSADOR FROM SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF FRANCE. + </p> + <p> + 1621-1634. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Soon after the escape of Grotius from prison, he repaired + to Paris: in this, he followed the advice of Du Maurier, + the French ambassador at the Hague. His works had made him + known in every part of Europe, in which learning was + cultivated: but persons properly qualified to appreciate + their merit, existed no where in such abundance as at + Paris: he was personally esteemed and regarded by the + monarch; and the principal officers of state were attached + to him. Paris was also recommended to him by its libraries, + the easy access to them, and the habitual intercourse of + the men of letters, who, during, at least, a great part of + the year, made that city their place of residence. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of + Ambassador. + </div> + <p> + Grotius arrived at Paris on the 13th of April 1621. He was + immediately noticed by a multitude of persons of + distinction and rank; but it was not till March 1622, that + he was presented to the king. His majesty received him + graciously, and settled upon him a pension of 3,000 livres. + The Prince of Condé, the Chancellor, and the Keeper + of the Seals, had exerted themselves to dispose the king in + his favour. His majesty professed kindness towards those, + who had been persecuted by the States; and issued an edict, + dated the 22d April 1622, by which he took them under his + protection, in the same manner as if they were his own + subjects; he even extended this benefit to their children. + The celebrated President Jeannin was one of the most active + and useful of Grotius's friends; but he died soon after + Grotius arrived at Paris. + </p> + <p> + Grotius, during his stay in that city, attended frequently + the courts of justice. He observed the wretched style of + oratory, which at that time, prevailed in them. It was, in + some measure, corrected by <i>Patru</i> and <i>Le + Maitre</i>; but it did not reach its best state, till the + end of the reign of Lewis XIV. The rhetorical march and + laboured amplifications allowed at the French bar, are + offensive to English ears. Has any nation produced a more + perfect style of forensic or judicial eloquence, than that + of <i>Sir William Grant</i>? The wisdom and justice of + <i>Lord Stowell's</i> decisions, and the admirable + arguments by which he explains or illustrates them, are + known and acknowledged by every Court. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. IX. 1621-1634 + </div> + <p> + Grotius's love of his native country continued unabated; + all his views, all his hopes, were directed thither. With + these feelings he wrote his <i>Apology</i>. He composed it + in the Dutch language, and translated it afterwards into + Latin: it was published in 1622. He dedicated it to the + people of Holland and West Friesland. It is divided into + twenty chapters; in the first, he argues the important + point, that each of the United Provinces is sovereign and + independent of the States General, and that the authority + of these is confined to the defence of the provinces + against their enemies. In the second chapter, he applies + the position to ecclesiastical concerns; these, he says, + are subject to the sovereign power of each State. In the + following chapters, he descends into the particular charges + against him; defending himself against all the crimes and + irregularities of which he was accused, and shewing the + informality of the judicial proceedings by which he and his + companions in misfortune were tried and condemned. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of + Ambassador. + </div> + <p> + His answer was universally read and approved: It greatly + incensed the States General: They proscribed it, and + forbade all persons to have it in their possession, under + pain of death; but no answer to it was published. The edict + made Grotius and his friends entertain apprehensions for + his personal safety. On this account, he obtained from the + French monarch letters of naturalization, dated the 26th + February 1623: By these, his majesty took him under his + special protection. + </p> + <p> + Grotius retained many friends in every part of the United + Provinces: Prince Frederick Henry, the brother of Maurice, + was among them. He had never entered into his brother's + persecuting projects. + </p> + <p> + "The Count d'Estrades has given us," says Burigni, "some + anecdotes on this subject, which we shall relate on his + authority. He assures us, that, being one day <i>tête + a tête</i> with Prince Henry Frederick in his coach, + he heard him say, that he had much to do to keep well with + his brother Maurice, who suspected him of secretly + favouring Barneveldt and the Arminians. He told me, (these + were the Count's own words), it was true that he kept a + correspondence with them, to prevent their opposing his + election, in case his brother should die; but that, as it + imported him to be on good terms with his brother, and to + efface the notion he had of his connection with the + Arminians, he made use of Vandenuse, one of his particular + friends, and Barneveldt's son-in-law, to let the cabal + know, that it was necessary for him to accommodate himself + to his brother, that he might be better able to serve + them,-which Barneveldt approved of." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. IX. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + In the meantime, the situation of Grotius at Paris, became + very uncomfortable. His resources, and those of his wife, + were small; and his pension was paid irregularly. Cardinal + de Richelieu wished to attach Grotius; but required from + him an absolute and unqualified devotion to him, which was + utterly irreconcileable with the slightest degree of + honourable independence. Grotius therefore declined the + offers of the Cardinal. From this time, the Cardinal + regarded him with an evil eye, and often made him feel the + effects of his displeasure. + </p> + <p> + This rendered Grotius desirous of quitting France. Trusting + to some protestations of friendship, which he had received + from Prince Frederick; to his numerous friends, to his + claims upon the gratitude of the States of Holland, to his + feelings of innocence, and to the effect produced, as he + flattered himself, by his <i>Apology</i>, he ventured into + Holland in 1631. But he met with no countenance: and in + that year was banished a second time. Upon this, he + formally bade a final adieu to Holland, and determined to + seek his fortune elsewhere: He then fixed his residence at + Hamburgh. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of + Ambassador. + </div> + <p> + He sought to preserve his friends in France; but announced + to them his intention to receive no more money from the + French government. + </p> + <p> + "I shall always," he said in a letter to the First + President of the Cour des Monnoies, "be grateful for the + King's liberality; but it is enough that I was chargeable + to you, while I resided in France. I have never done you + any service, though I made you an offer of myself. But it + would not be proper that I should now live, like an hornet, + on the goods of other men. I shall not, however, forget the + kindness of so great a king, and the good offices of so + many friends." + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. IX. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + It may appear surprising that Prince Frederick of Orange + should pertinaciously exclude Grotius from his native + country. But ambition listens to nothing that conflicts + with its own views. Prince Frederick inherited from his + father and brother the wish of becoming the sovereign of + the United Provinces. To this, he knew he should always + find a zealous and able opponent in Grotius: hence, + notwithstanding his great personal regard for Grotius, he + always kept him a banished man. Grotius wished to be + employed by the Government of England, and Archbishop Laud + was sounded upon this subject; but the application was + coldly received<a name='FNanchor_034_34'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_034_34'><sup>[034]</sup></a>. Prince Frederick + sustained, both in military and civil concerns, the + character of the former princes of his family. Under his + administration, the affairs of the republic prospered at + sea and land. Peter Haim captured the Spanish flotilla, + estimated at twelve millions of florins. The Prince took + Bois-le duc, Maestricht, and Breda, and reduced the Dutchy + of Limburgh. Under his auspices, the celebrated Van Tromp + commenced his career of naval glory, by obtaining a + complete victory over the Spanish fleet, consisting of + seventy men of war. Prince Frederick died in 1658. + </p> + <p> + From the close of his Stadtholderate, we may date the + origin of the jealousy entertained, by France and England, + of the rising power of the United Provinces. It is to be + observed that Prince Frederick was Stadtholder only of the + Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres and + Overyssell: Count Ernest Casimir of Nassau was Stadtholder + of the provinces of Gröningen, Frizeland, and the + county of the Drenta. In 1631, their eldest sons were + chosen, in the lifetime of their fathers, their successors + in their respective Stadtholderates. This was a great step + towards making the Stadtholderate hereditary in their + families,-one of the leading objects of their ambitious + views. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_X'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c10'>CHAPTER X.</a> + </h2> + <p> + SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS OF GROTIUS. + </p> + 1. <i>His Edition of Stobæus</i>.<br> + <br> + 2. <i>His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis</i>.<br> + <br> + 3. <i>His Treatise de Veritate Religionis + Christianæ</i>.<br> + <br> + 4. <i>His Treatise de Jure summarum potestatum circa</i><br> + <span class='c12'><i>sacra</i>.</span><br> + <br> + 5. <i>His Commentary on the Scriptures</i>.<br> + <br> + 6. <i>Some other Works of Grotius</i><br> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634 + </div> + <p> + That literature is an ornament in prosperity, and a comfort + in adverse fortune, has been often said by the best and + wisest men; but no one experienced the truth of this + assertion in a higher degree than Grotius, during his + imprisonment at Louvestein. In that wreck of his fortune + and overthrow of all his hopes, books came to his aid, + soothed his sorrows, and beguiled the wearisome hours of + his gloomy solitude. His studies often stole him from + himself, and from the sense of his misfortunes. In the + exercise of his mental energies, he was sensible of their + powers; and it was impossible that he should contemplate, + without pleasure, the extent, the worth, or the splendour + of his labours; the services, which he rendered by them to + learning and religion, and the admiration and gratitude of + the scholar, which he then enjoyed, and which would attend + his memory to the latest posterity. He himself acknowledged + that, in the ardour of his literary pursuits, he often + forgot his calamities, and that the hours passed unheeded, + if not in joy, at least without pain. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='X_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c10.1'>X. 1.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>His Edition of Stobæus</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Being ourselves unacquainted with this work, we cannot do + better than present our readers with the account given of + it by Burigni. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "The year after the publication of his <i>Apology</i>, + that is to say in 1623, Nicholas Huon printed at Paris, + <i>Grotius's improvements and additions to + Stobæus</i>. This author, as is well known, + extracted what he thought most important in the ancient + Greek writers, and ranged it under different heads, + comprehending the principal points of philosophy. His + work is the more valuable, as it has preserved several + fragments of the Ancients, found no where else. Grotius, + when very young, purposed to extract from this author all + the maxims of the poets; to translate them into Latin + verse, and to print the original with the translation. He + began this, when a boy; he was employed in it at the time + of his arrest; and continued it as an amusement, whilst + he had the use of books, in his prison at the Hague. He + tells us that, when he was deprived of pen and ink, he + was got to the forty-ninth title, which is an invective + against tyranny, that had a great relation to what passed + at that time in Holland. On his removal to Louvestein, he + resumed this work, and finished it at Paris. He made + several happy corrections in the text of Stobæus; + some, from his own conjectures or those of his friends; + others, on the authority of manuscripts in the King's + library, which were politely lent him by the learned + Nicholas Rigaut, librarian to his majesty. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His edition of Stobæus. + </div> + <br> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634 + </div> + <br> + <br> + + <p> + "Prefixed to this book, are <i>Prolegomena</i>, in which + the author shews that the works of the ancient Pagans are + filled with maxims agreeable to the truths taught in holy + writ. He intended to dedicate this book to the Chancellor + Silleri: he had even writ the dedication, but his + friends, to whom he shewed it, thought he expressed + himself with too much warmth, against the censurers of + his <i>Apology</i>. They advised him therefore to + suppress it; and he yielded to their opinion. It may be + observed in reading the royal privilege, that the present + title of the book is different from what it was to have + had. To these extracts from the Greek poets translated + into Latin verse, Grotius annexed two pieces, one of + Plutarch, the other of St. Basil, on the use of the + poets; giving the Greek text with a Latin translation." + </p> + </div> + <p> + The work was received with universal approbation. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='X_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c10.2'>X. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Grotius may be considered as the founder of the modern + school of <i>the Law of Nature and of Nations</i>. He was + struck with the ruthless manner, in which wars were + generally conducted; the slight pretences, upon which they + were generally begun; and the barbarity and injustice, with + which they were generally attended. He attributed these + evils to the want of settled principles respecting the + rights and duties of nations and individuals in a state of + war. These, he observed, must depend on the previous rights + and duties of mankind, in a state of peace: this led him to + the preliminary inquiry into their rights and duties in a + state of nature. + </p> + <p> + Thus, an ample field was opened to him. He brought to it, a + vigorous discerning mind, and stupendous erudition. From + antient and modern history, philosophy, oratory, and + poetry, he collected facts and sayings, which appeared to + him to establish a general agreement of all civilized + nations upon certain principles. From these, he formed his + system; applying them, as he proceeded in his work, to a + vast multitude of circumstances. These are so numerous, + that some persons have not scrupled to say, that no case or + international law, either in war or in peace, can be + stated, to which the work of Grotius does not contain an + applicable rule. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 2. <i>The Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.</i> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634 + </div> + <p> + Three important objections have been made to this + celebrated work,-one, that the author defers in it, too + little, to principle, too much, to authority;-another, that + the work is written in a very desultory manner, with small + attention to order, or classification;-a third, that his + authorities are often feeble, and sometimes whimsical. + "Grotius," says Condillac, "was able to think for himself; + but he constantly labours to support his conclusions by the + authority of others. Upon many occasions; even in support + of the most obvious and indisputable propositions, he + introduces a long string of quotations from the Mosaic law, + from the Gospels, from the fathers of the church, from the + casuists, and not unfrequently, even in the very same + paragraph, from Ovid, and Aristophanes." This strange + mixture is subject of many witticisms of Voltaire. But let + us hear what is urged in the defence of Grotius, by a + gentleman, of whose praise the ablest of writers may be + proud: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Few writers," says Sir James Mackintosh, in his + Discourse on the Study of the Law of Nature and Nations, + "were more celebrated than Grotius in his own days, and + in the age which succeeded. It has, however, been the + fashion of the last half century to depreciate his work, + as a shapeless compilation, in which reason lies buried + under a mass of authorities and quotations. This fashion + originated among French wits and declaimers, and it has + been, I know not for what reason, adopted, though with + far greater moderation and decency, by some respectable + writers among ourselves. As to those, who first used this + language, the most candid supposition that we can make + with respect to them is, that they never read the work; + for, if they had not been deterred from the perusal of it + by such a formidable display of Greek characters, they + must soon have discovered that Grotius never quotes, on + any subject, till he has first appealed to some + principles; and often, in my humble opinion, though, not + always, to the soundest and most rational principles. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis. + </div> + <br> + <br> + + <p> + "But another sort of answer is due to some of those, who + have criticised Grotius; and that answer might be given + in the words of Grotius himself. He was not of such a + stupid and servile cast of mind as to quote the opinions + of poets or orators, of historians and philosophers, as + those of judges, from whose decision there was no appeal. + He quotes them, as he tells us himself, as witnesses, + whose conspiring testimony, mightily strengthened and + confirmed by their discordance on almost every other + subject, is a conclusive proof of the unanimity of the + whole human race on the great rules of duty, and the + fundamental principles of morals. Of such matters, poets + and orators are the most unexceptionable of all + witnesses; for they address themselves to the general + feelings and sympathies of mankind; they are neither + warped by system, nor perverted by sophistry; they can + attain none of their objects; they can neither please nor + persuade, if they dwell on moral sentiments not in unison + with those of their readers. No system of moral + philosophy can surely disregard the general feelings of + human nature, and the according judgment of all ages and + nations. But, where are these feelings and that judgment + recorded and preserved? In those very writings which + Grotius is gravely blamed for having quoted. The usages + and law of nations, the events of history, the opinions + of philosophers, the sentiments of orators and poets, as + well as the observation of common life, are, in truth, + the materials out of which the science of morality is + formed; and those who neglect them, are justly chargeable + with a vain attempt to philosophise without regard to + fact and experience, the sole foundation of all true + philosophy. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Chap. X. 1621-1634 + </div> + <br> + <br> + + <p> + "If this were merely an objection of taste, I should be + willing to allow, that Grotius has indeed poured forth + his learning with a profusion, that sometimes rather + encumbers than adorns his work, and which is not always + necessary to the illustration of his subject. Yet, even + in making, that concession, I should rather yield to the + tastes of others, than speak from my own feelings. I own + that such richness and splendour of literature have a + powerful charm for me. They fill my mind with an endless + variety of delightful recollections and associations. + They relieve the understanding in its progress through a + vast science, by calling up the memory of great men and + of interesting events. By this means we see the truths of + morality clothed with all the eloquence (not that could + be produced by the powers of one man, but) that could be + bestowed on them by the collective genius of the world. + Even virtue and wisdom themselves acquire new majesty in + my eyes, when I thus see all the great masters of + thinking and writing called together, as it were, from + all times and countries, to do them homage and to appear + in their train. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 2. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis + </div> + <br> + <br> + + <p> + "But this is no piece for discussions of taste, and I am + very ready to own, that mine may be corrupted. The work + of Grotius is liable to a more serious objection, though + I do not recollect that it has ever been made. His method + is inconvenient and unscientific. He has inverted the + natural order. That natural order undoubtedly dictates, + that we should first search for the original principles + of the science, in human nature; then apply them to the + regulation of the conduct of individuals; and lastly + employ them for the decision of those difficult and + complicated questions that arise with respect to the + intercourse of nations. But Grotius has chosen the + reverse of this method. He begins with the consideration + of the states of peace and war, and he examines original + principles, only occasionally and incidentally, as they + grow out of the questions, which he is called upon to + decide. It is a necessary consequence of this disorderly + method, which exhibits the elements of the science in the + form of scattered digressions, that he seldom employs + sufficient discussion on those fundamental truths, and + never in the place where such a discussion would be most + instructive to the reader. This defect in the plan of + Grotius was perceived, and supplied by Puffendorf, who + restored natural law to that superiority which belonged + to it, and with great propriety, treated the law of + nations as only one main branch of the parent stock." + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP X. 1621-1634 + </div> + <p> + Whatever may be the merit of the work of which we are + speaking, it must be admitted, that few, on their first + appearance, and during a long subsequent period after + publication, have received greater or warmer applause. The + stores of erudition displayed in it, recommended it to the + classical scholar, while the happy application of the + author's reading to the affairs of human life, drew to it + the attention of common readers. Among those, whose + approbation of it, deserved to be recorded, Gustavus + Adolphus,-his prime minister the Chancellor Oxenstiern,-and + the Elector Palatine Charles Lewis, deserve particular + mention.<a name='FNanchor_035_35'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_035_35'><sup>[035]</sup></a> As the trophies of + Miltiades are supposed to have kept Themistocles awake, it + has been said that the trophies of Grotius drove sleep from + Selden, till be produced his celebrated treatise, "<i>De + Jure naturali et gentium secundum leges + Ebræorim</i>." This important work equals that of + Grotius in learning; but, from the partial and recondite + nature of its subject, never equalled it in popularity. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 9. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis + </div> + <p> + The supposed want of general elementary principles in the + work of Grotius gave occasion to Puffendorf's treatise + <i>de Jure Naturae et Gentium</i>; afterwards abridged by + him into the small octavo volume <i>De Officio hominis et + civis</i>: an edition of it in octavo was published by + Professor Garschen Carmichael, of Glasgow, in 1724. + </p> + <p> + The best edition of Grotius's treatise <i>de Jure Belli et + Pacis</i> was published at Amsterdam in 1730, by John + Barbeyrac. + </p> + <p> + Foreigners observe, that the study of the law of nature and + nations is less cultivated in England than upon the + continent. Is it not, because Englishmen are blessed with a + free constitution; are admitted into a general + participation of all its blessings; are thus personally + interested in the national concerns; and have therefore a + jurisprudence, which comes nearer to their bosoms? Is it + not also, because the law of nature and nations, with all + its merit, is so loose, that its principles seldom admit of + that practical application, which renders them really + useful; and which an English mind always requires? + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='X_3'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c10.3'>X. 3.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + De Veritate Religionis Christianæ. + </p> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had + written, in the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of + the Christian Religion." He afterwards enlarged it, and + translated it, so enlarged, into Latin. It was universally + read and admired. French, German, English, modern Greek, + Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it + was equally approved by Catholics and Protestants. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + De Veritate Religionis Christianæ. + </div> + <p> + It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to + prove, or even mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel + mysteries: he replied, satisfactorily in our opinion, that + a discussion of any particular tenet of the Christian + religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In this + respect, he was afterwards imitated by <i>Abadie</i> and + <i>Houteville</i>, two of the most eminent apologists of + Christianity. The latter expresses himself of the work of + Grotius in the following terms: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the + characteristics of just reasoning, accuracy, and + strength: he is extremely concise; but even this brevity + will please us, when we find his work comprehends so many + things, without confounding them or lessening their + evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should + be translated into so many languages." + </p> + </div> + <p> + The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,<a + name='FNanchor_036_36'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_036_36'><sup>[036]</sup></a> in 1709 at + Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a + curious <i>dissertation</i> on <i>religious + indifference</i>. He presumes that the supposed + indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New + Testament:-He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,- + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow + their belief of it: + </p> + <p> + 2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of + Christians: + </p> + <p> + 3. And which profess the Christian religion in most + purity and with least extraneous alloy: + </p> + <p> + 4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the + fundamental articles of faith: + </p> + <p> + 5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the + New Testament: + </p> + <p> + 6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith, + unless the New Testament contains it. + </p> + <p> + 7. That the providence of God is admirable in the + preservation of these tenets, amidst the confused + multitude of religious opinions, which have prevailed in + the world: + </p> + <p> + 8. That this confusion was foreseen by God: + </p> + <p> + 9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of + free-will to man: + </p> + <p> + 10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that + religious communion, which receives the New Testament as + its only rule of faith, and does not persecute others: + </p> + <p> + 11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient + form of ecclesiastical government, and most to be + desired; but that it is not essential to a Christian + church: + </p> + <p> + 12. That these were the opinions of Grotius: + </p> + <p> + 13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a + belief of no dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New + Testament, should be required. + </p> + </div> + <p> + Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.-Does + any religious communion really profess it?-Many Protestant + churches declare, that the Bible, and the Bible only, + contains their creed: but, do they not all mean by this-the + Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the Formulary, + or the Confession received by their church? + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='X_4'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c10.4'>X. 4.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa + sacra</i>.-And, <i>Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi + Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt, aut agere + putantur</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable + or respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to + put Catholics and Protestants into good humour with each + other, and to put both into good humour among themselves. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &c. + </div> + <p> + We have mentioned the <i>pacific decree of the States of + Holland</i>, which ordered the contending communions to + tolerate each other. Grotius is supposed to have framed + this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants attacked it: + Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and + authorities. + </p> + <p> + It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question, + respecting the authority of the temporal power to interfere + in the ecclesiastical concerns of the state. Grotius + adopted, upon this point, the sentiments of what is termed + in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed them to + their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published + his treatise <i>de Imperio summarum potestatum circa + sacra</i>. It was disliked by King James and his bishops: + Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much authority, in + sacred things, to the secular power. + </p> + <p> + On the work of Grotius, respecting <i>Anti-christ</i>, we + prefer transcribing Burigni's sentiments to delivering our + own. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to + examine a question, which made much noise at that time. + Some Protestant synods had ventured to decide that <i>the + Pope was Antichrist</i>; and this extravagance, gravely + delivered by the ministers, was regarded by the zealous + schismatics, as a fundamental truth. Grotius undertook to + overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred up an + irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and + the Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great + obstacle to their re-union, which was the sole object of + his desires. He entered therefore upon the consideration + of the passages of Scripture relating to Antichrist, and + employed his Sundays in it. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + "It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see + by the letters he wrote to his brother, that his best + friends were afraid lest they should be suspected of + having some hand in the publication of the books, in + which he treated of Antichrist. 'If you are afraid of + incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his brother), you + may easily find people that are far from a factious + spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has + incensed princes against those, who separated from the + church of Rome, more than the injurious names, with which + the Protestants load their adversaries; and nothing is a + greater hindrance to that re-union, which we are all + obliged to labour after, in consequence of Christ's + precept and the profession we make of our faith in the + creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force + us to it. In order to arrive at it, we must first remove + whatever obstructs a mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall + find assistance in this pious design. I shall not cease + to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die employed in so + good a work.' + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &c. + </div> + <p> + "Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted + to Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this + book, because they did not doubt but it would increase + the number of his enemies. Grotius informs his brother, + of the uneasiness which Vossius gave him on this subject. + 'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,' says he, 'I + am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could he + have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it + would injure the fortune of his children, if he approved + of such books; and that, on the contrary, he would find + favour by hurting me. We must therefore have recourse to + Corcellius or Corvinus.' He elsewhere complains of the + too great timidity of this old friend, who at bottom + approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own them + publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + "The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the + declared enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius + wrote to Ruarus, that he had only glanced over Grotius's + book on Antichrist; but as far as he could judge by the + first reading, that learned man, who was possessed of + such an excellent genius, and such singular erudition, + had no other intention than to engage the learned in a + further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine + them to attack with greater strength, the Romish + Antichrist; or, if he wrote seriously, he wanted to cut + out a path for going over, without dishonour, to the + Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec. 16, 1642, from + Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius as a + very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am + persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I + don't deny but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity + perhaps seduced him: no Remonstrant, that I know of, has + as yet answered him; but he has been confuted by some + learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets, minister of + Bois le duc, who has written against him with much + bitterness.' + </p> + <p> + "Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title: + <i>Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, + quæ de Antichristo agunt aut agere + putantur:-Expedenda eruditis."</i><a name= + 'FNanchor_037_37'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_037_37'><sup>[037]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='X_5'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c10.5'>X. 5.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + His Commentary on the Scriptures. + </p> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures. + </div> + <p> + The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four + volumes folio: the three first contain his Commentary, and + Notes upon the Scriptures. On their merit, both Catholics + and Protestants considerably differ. All allow that an + abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in + them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings + of the Rabbis, and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred + writings, has happily elucidated a multitude of passages in + the text. He uniformly adopts the literal and obvious + signification of the language used by the holy penmen. In + explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains + that they referred to events anterior to the coming of + Christ, and were accomplished in these; so that the natural + and obvious sense of the words and phrases, in which they + were delivered, does not terminate in Christ; yet, that in + some of the predictions, those particularly, which the + writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is, + <i>besides</i> the literal and obvious signification, a + hidden and mysterious sense, which lies concealed under the + external mark of certain <i>persons</i>, certain + <i>events</i>, and certain <i>actions</i>, which are + representative of the person, the ministry, the sufferings, + and the merits of the Son of God. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + It has been objected, that this system leads to + Socinianism, and even beyond it. All Catholic, and several + episcopalian Protestant divines object to it; they + generally contend, that the sacred writings ought always to + be understood in that sense <i>only</i>, which has been + attributed to them, by the early fathers.-Against this + system, Dr. Whitby published his celebrated work + "Concerning the Interpretation of Scripture after the + manner of the Fathers."<a name='FNanchor_038_38'></a><a + href='#Footnote_038_38'><sup>[038]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures. + </div> + <p> + The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by + <i>Father Simôn</i>, the oratorian, the father of the + modern biblical school. Against both Simôn and + Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,-in his + "Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Simôn," + and his "Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he + says that, during thirty years, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last + was so near it, that it is wonderful that he did not take + the last step, to which God called him. Shocked at + Calvin's harsh doctrines, he embraced Arminianism; then, + abandoned it. More a lawyer than a theologian, more a + polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the doctrine + of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He + endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most + powerful proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and + strives to darken the prophecies, which announce the + arrival of the Messiah." + </p> + </div> + <p> + Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal + errors of Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's + criticism, by his <i>Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de + la Hollande</i>.-Grotius had also an able advocate in + Father Simôn. His defence of Grotius against the + charge of <i>semi-Pelagianism</i>, in the <i>Bibliotheque + de Sainjore</i>,<a name='FNanchor_039_39'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_039_39'><sup>[039]</sup></a> appears to be + satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of + the Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which + he says expressly that he does not exclude preventive + grace: this the semi-Pelagians denied altogether. But in + his defence of Grotius against the charge of + <i>Socinianism</i>, he is not equally successful. Bossuet + sent his <i>Pastoral Instruction</i>, and <i>Dissertations + upon Grotius</i>, to the bishop of Fréjus, afterward + Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter, which + closes with these remarkable words: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world + every day: you have often heard me make this remark. It + is now worse than ever, as the Gospel itself is used for + the corruption of religion. I thank God that at my age he + blesses me with sufficient strength to resist the + torrent." + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + Dom. Calmet<a name='FNanchor_040_40'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_040_40'><sup>[040]</sup></a> calls Grotius, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers: + one who spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion + of profane literature, which causes his works to be + sought for and read by those, who have taste for that + kind of literature. His high reputation, great erudition, + and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet, "render it easy for + him to insinuate his particular sentiments respecting the + divinity of Christ, against which, his readers should be + guarded." + </p> + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='X_6'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c10.6'>X. 6.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>Some other Works of Grotius</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + 1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the + <i>Goths, Vandals, and Lombards</i>, written in the Latin + language, and accompanied by learned dissertations. He + composed it, as a testimony of his gratitude to the Swedes, + by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The preface has + always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism. + But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating + the Swedes at their expense. + </p> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 6. Other Works of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + 2. A more important work consists of his <i>Annals, and + History of the United Provinces</i>. The Annals begin with + the year 1588, when Prince Maurice had the greatest + influence in the affairs of the United Provinces; and + concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between + them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works + are written, has been praised by every writer. + </p> + <p> + It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate, + both in his Annals and History, the style of Tacitus. + Expressed by his own pen, the style of Tacitus is + energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is impossible + to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally + speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a + larger share, than the original, of its distinctive defect. + It should however be added, that Grotius's own style is + short, sententious and broken; and possesses nothing of the + meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists; or of our + Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we + have mentioned in this Article, were published till after + his decease. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + 3. It remains to notice the <i>Letters of Grotius</i>, + published at Amsterdam in one volume folio, in 1687.-A + multitude of his unpublished letters is said to exist in + different public and private libraries. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. X. 1621-1634. + </div> + <p> + His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they + abound with wise maxims of sound policy, and curious + discussions on points arising on Roman or Belgic + jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane learning, + and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in + them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect + understanding of them, the letters of the correspondents of + Grotius should be perused: they are principally to be + found, in the <i>Præstantium et Eruditorum Virorum + Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ et Theologicæ</i>, + published at Amsterdam in 1684. A critical account of the + Letters of Grotius, executed with great taste and judgment, + is inserted in the first volume of the <i>Bibliotheque + Universelle et Historique</i>.<a name= + 'FNanchor_041_41'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_041_41'><sup>[041]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + X. 6. Other Works of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written + in the finest latinity, and contain much valuable + information; but the point, the sprightliness, the genius, + the vivid descriptions of men and things, which are so + profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus, are seldom + discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would + have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound + conversations of Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat + must it have been, to have assisted with one, two, or three + good listeners, at the conversations between Erasmus and + Sir Thomas More! + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_XI'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c11'>CHAPTER XI.</a> + </h2> + <p> + GROTIUS.-AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE + COURT OF FRANCE. + </p> + <p> + 1634-1645. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important + period in the history of the War of Thirty years. + </p> + <p> + This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious + disputes of the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's + first attack on the See of Rome, the Reformation was + established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia, and Hesse-cassell; + in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in + several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, + Anhalt; Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its + progress in Germany is particularly connected with the + subject of these pages. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France. + </div> + <p> + At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes + of Germany delivered to the emperor their Confession of + Faith; they afterwards, at Smalcald, entered into an + offensive and defensive league against the emperor. Being + sensible that they were unable to resist him, they engaged + the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor + was victorious; but a new league was formed. France then + took a more active part in favour of the confederates, and + the contest ended in the peace of Passau, in 1552, there + the two parties, for the first time, treated as equals, and + the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed. + Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the + First and Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the + disputes, which arose on the succession to the dutchies of + Cleves and Juliers, the religious differences broke out + with fresh animosity:-the Protestant princes formed a + confederacy called the <i>Evangelical Union</i>, and + placed, at its head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics + formed a confederacy called the <i>Catholic League</i>, and + placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In the year 1618, + they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even + the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in + it. France was the soul of the Protestant cause; she + assisted it with her armies, and her subsidies:-it may be + truly said, that, if there be a Protestant state from the + Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the + Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the + Bourbon monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has + been called the WAR OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its + <i>Palatine, Danish, Swedish,</i> and <i>French</i> + periods. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XI. 1634-1645. + </div> + <p> + 1. Frederick, the fifth <i>Elector Palatine</i> of that + name, being elected King of Bohemia, by the states of that + kingdom, made war on the emperor Ferdinand the Second. + Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague, and + abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and + deprived of his other states. + </p> + <p> + 2. Christian the Fourth of <i>Denmark</i>, then placed + himself at the head of the confederacy against the emperor; + but, having in 1626, lost the battle of Lutter, in which + Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he signed, three years + after that event, a separate peace with the emperor. + </p> + <p> + In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, + was placed at the head of the confederacy. Their cause + appeared desperate: Walstein, the Austrian general, had + been uniformly successful, and almost the whole of Germany + had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon + experienced a severe reverse of fortune. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France. + </div> + <p> + 3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France; + his councils were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the + ablest statesmen that has appeared upon the theatre of the + world. Vast, but provident in his designs; daring, but + considerate in his operations; capable of the largest views + and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense + projects, and succeeded in all. + </p> + <p> + "When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his + celebrated <i>Testament Politique</i>, "resolved at the + same time to admit me into your councils, and to give me a + great portion of your confidence, I can say with truth that + the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great, + conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects, + and the governors of the provinces, as if they were the + sovereigns of them; and that France was contemned by her + foreign allies." + </p> + <p> + To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate + France to be the preponderating power in Europe, were the + three objects, which the Cardinal proposed to himself. In + each, he had difficulties to encounter, which extraordinary + talents only could surmount. By a strict administration of + justice, and severely punishing, without respect to rank or + connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices, + he completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility; + by victorious armies and a vigorous dispensation of the + laws, he reduced the Hugonots; and, by calling forth all + the energies of his country, and arraying half the + Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an + almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XI 1634-1645. + </div> + <p> + To the last only of these three designs our present subject + leads us. + </p> + <p> + <i>Sweden</i> had long been engaged in a war against + Denmark, and highly dissatisfied with Austria. By the + persuasion of Richelieu, she made peace with the Danes, and + entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with + France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed + at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of + Swedes entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the + command of the confederate forces, and his brilliant + campaigns turned the tide of success in their favour. At + Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but lost his life. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France. + </div> + <p> + After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the + Mareschal of the Diet proposed, that the celebrated + Christina, the only child of Gustavus, then an infant of + very tender years, should be crowned: the Mareschal carried + her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On + observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her + father. "Yes!" they cried, "it is she herself! she has the + eyes, the nose and the forehead of Gustavus! We will have + her for our queen!" She was immediately seated on the + throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of the kingdom, + during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the + Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential + minister and friend of Gustavus, and shewed through life + that he deserved that confidence, by his wisdom, eminent + talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch and his + minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and + virtue of Grotius: His treatise <i>De Jure Belli et + Pacis</i> was found, after the death of Gustavus, in the + royal tent. + </p> + <p> + 4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at + Lutzen, the Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at + Nordlingen, in one of the most obstinate and bloody battles + recorded in history: the confederates were completely + defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were + deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the + weight of the war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes + and <i>the French</i>. Till this time, they had acted and + negociated on an equality: the loss of this battle made the + Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of + Richelieu made them severely feel it. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XI. 1634-1645. + </div> + <p> + The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with + France: a skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was + necessary. Oxenstiern fixed his eye upon Grotius: the + penetrating minister had several conversations with him. + The embassy to France was certainly the most important + commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be + charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it, + demonstrated the minister's high opinion of him. Some time + in July 1634, he declared Grotius councillor to the Queen + of Sweden, and her ambassador to the court of France. + Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the 2d + of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or + compliment was omitted in his regard, by the court of + France. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius, + two envoys from some of the Protestant states in Germany + had previously signed a treaty with France, which was + generally considered by the confederates to be injurious to + their interests. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France. + </div> + <p> + The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place + on the 28th March. During their conference, a dispatch + arrived from Oxenstiern to Grotius: it was immediately put + into his bands, by the Cardinal's desire. It announced a + resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to Paris, + and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu + was displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor + the most honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st + of April, Grotius met Oxenstiern at Soissons: they + proceeded together to Paris. Conferences between the + Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The + matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged: + France undertook to declare war against the emperor, to + subsidize Sweden, and to send an army to co-operate with + her forces in Germany. It has always been considered highly + creditable to the firmness and talents of Oxenstiern, that, + in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could obtain for + them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty + was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay, + he shewed a marked attention to Grotius, and expressed + unqualified approbation of his conduct and views. + </p> + <p> + The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General + Bannier obtained important advantages over the + imperialists; in Alsace, the arms of the Duke of + Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following year, + the two victorious generals carried their arms into the + heart of the Austrian territories, and, were almost + uniformly successful. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XI. 1634-1645. + </div> + <p> + But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the + military achievements or political intrigues of the times + of which we are speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal + of the events of this war. Through the whole of its long + period, Germany was a scene of devastation. In its northern + and central parts, the ravages of advancing and retreating + armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost horrors: + many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages + depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the + women, the children, and the aged, naked, pale, and + disfigured, were seen wandering over the fields, supporting + themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild roots, and even + grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an affecting + account of the calamities, which it produced in that + beautiful province, was published by Father Caussin, who + accompanied Lewis XIII into it, as his confessor. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France. + </div> + <p> + Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an + humble missionary priest, who, at that time, resided at + Paris, requested an audience of Cardinal de Richelieu. + Being admitted, he represented to his eminence, with + respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the + sins, and all the other enormities, which are the usual + consequences of war: he then fell upon his knees, and in a + voice, equally animated by grief and charity, "Sir!" he + said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have compassion + upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive + genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He + raised Vincent from the ground. He told him, with much + apparent benignity, that "the general pacification of + Europe was his great object, but that unfortunately it did + not depend on him alone; there being, both within and + without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and + prevented peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability, + or produced greater public or private misery, than + Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be doubted, whether, + at the day of general retribution, when every child of Adam + will have to account for his works, even one will appear + with more numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than + St. Vincent of Paul.<a name='FNanchor_042_42'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_042_42'><sup>[042]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XI. 1634-1645. + </div> + <p> + The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius, + prospered in his hands. In his conduct, there was an + uniform assemblage of prudence, activity, moderation, and + firmness. To the French monarch, he was always + acceptable-not always so to the cardinal minister. It was + the constant object of the latter, to delay the payments of + the subsidies promised to Sweden, or to make deductions + from them; and to lessen the number of soldiers, which + France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by + blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his + agents endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these + irregularities: but Grotius was always true to the + interests of the country which he represented: it does not + appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point against + him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in + renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms + which were considered to do great honour to his diplomatic + talents. + </p> + <p> + In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain + other unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid: + this often subjected him to great inconveniences. He had + disputes respecting rank and ceremonial, both with the + French ministry and the ambassadors of other states. It + must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius + questioned the right of the English ambassador to + precedence over him: the French court often played one + ambassador, against the other. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France. + </div> + <p> + In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the + serenity of his mind; and his attachment to sacred and + profane literature. He cultivated the acquaintance of the + learned and the good, of every communion; and possessed + their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was + always approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he + lived, and after his decease, by his son and successor in + his office. The Queen of Sweden was equally favourable to + Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer into her + confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to + Paris. This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now + thickened upon him. He applied to the Queen for his recall. + She granted it in the most flattering terms, and desired + him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to receive, from + her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the + Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself + in a manner highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged + her obligations to him and protested that she never would + forget them. This was towards the month of March 1645. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XI. 1634-1645. + </div> + <p> + About three years after this event, the war of thirty years + was concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the + Protestant princes of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes + were indemnified for their charges of the war, by + Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the house of + Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and + Camin; Alsace was conquered, and retained by France; + Lusatia, was ceded to Saxony. The history of the treaty of + Westphalia has been ably written by <i>Father Bougeant</i>, + a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the best + historical work in the French language. Till the late + revolution of France, it was the breviary of all French + aspirants to political distinction. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_XII'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c12'>CHAPTER XII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS:-SOME OTHER OF HIS + WORKS. + </p> + <p> + 1. <i>Subsequent History of Arminianism</i>. 2. + <i>Grotius's Religious Sentiments</i>. 3. <i>His Projects + of Religious Pacification</i>. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='XII_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c12.1'>XII. 1.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Subsequent History of Arminianism. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + We left the Arminians under the iron arm of Prince + Maurice:-He died in 1625:-We have mentioned, that Prince + Frederick-Henry his brother, and successor in the + Stadtholderate, adopted more moderate councils in their + regard; that he recalled the Remonstrants, with some + exceptions, from banishment; that many settled at Amsterdam + and Rotterdam; and that the Arminians founded a college in + the former city:-<i>Episcopius</i> was its first professor + of theology:-it has never been without teachers, of + eminence for learning, as Courcelles, Pollemberg, Limborch, + Le Clerc, Cottemburgh, and Wetstein. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + It should be added, that the authority of the Synod of Dort + insensibly declined:-its authority was never formally + acknowledged by the provinces of <i>Friesland</i>, + <i>Zealand</i>, <i>Utrecht</i>, <i>Gueldreland</i> and + <i>Gröningen</i>: In 1651, they were induced to + intimate that they would see with pleasure, the reformed + religion maintained upon the footing, upon which it had + been maintained and confirmed by the Synod of Dort; but + this intimation was never considered to have the force of a + legislative enactment.<a name='FNanchor_043_43'></a><a + href='#Footnote_043_43'><sup>[043]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII.1. History of Arminianism. + </div> + <p> + The theological system of the Arminians, after their return + to Holland, underwent, if we credit Dr. Mosheim,<a name= + 'FNanchor_044_44'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_044_44'><sup>[044]</sup></a> a remarkable + change. They appear, by his account, to have almost + coincided with those, who exclude the necessity of divine + grace in the work of conversion and sanctification; and + think that Christ demands from men, rather virtue than + faith; and has confined that belief, which is essential for + salvation, to very few articles. Thus the modern Arminians, + according to Dr. Mosheim, admit into their communion,-1st. + All, with an exception of Catholics, who receive the holy + scriptures; and more especially the New Testament; allowing + at the same time to every individual, his own + interpretation of the sacred books:-2dly. All whose lives + are regulated by the law of God:-3dly. And all, who neither + persecute nor bear ill will towards those who differ from + them in their religious sentiments. Their <i>Confession of + Faith</i> was drawn up by Episcopius in 1622: four divines + of the established church of Holland published a + <i>Refutation</i> of it: the authors of the + <i>Confession</i> replied to it in the following year, by + their <i>Apology</i>. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + James I. of England directed his theological + representatives in the Synod of Dort, to join the members + in the condemnation of the doctrines of Arminius:-but, when + the English divines returned from that assembly, and gave a + full account of its proceedings, the King and the greatest + part of the English clergy expressed their dissatisfaction + with them, and declared that the sentiments of Arminius on + the divine decrees, was preferable to those of Calvin and + Gomarus. By the exertions of Archbishop Laud, and + afterwards, in consequence of the general tendency of the + public mind to doctrines of mildness and comprehension, an + Arminian construction of the English articles on + predestination and free-will was adopted:-it has since + prevailed,-and the Arminian creed, by the number of its + secret or open adherents, has insensibly found admittance + into every Protestant church. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + History of Arminianism. + </div> + <p> + If we believe the celebrated Jurieu<a name= + 'FNanchor_045_45'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_045_45'><sup>[045]</sup></a>, Arminianism even + in its Socinian form, abounded, in less than a century, + after the death of Arminius, in the United Provinces, and + among the Hugonots of the adjacent part of France. By his + account, the dispersion of the French Hugonots, in + consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, + revealed to the terrified reformers of the original school, + the alarming secret of the preponderance of Socinianism in + the reformed church. Its members, according to Jurieu, + being no longer under the controul of the civil power, + spread their Socinian principles every where, with the + utmost activity and success: even in England, Jurieu + professed to discover the effect of their exertions. He + mentions that in 1698, thirty-four French refugee ministers + residing in London addressed a letter to the synod, then + sitting at Amsterdam, in which they declared, that + Socinianism had spread so rapidly, that, if the + ecclesiastical assemblies supplied no means for checking + their growth, or used palliatives only, the mischief would + be incurable. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + This charge, however, the Arminians have indignantly + rejected. A writer in the <i>Bibliotheque Germanique</i><a + name='FNanchor_046_46'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_046_46'><sup>[046]</sup></a> relates, that + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "the celebrated Anthony Collins called on M. Le Clerc of + Amsterdam: He was accompanied by some Frenchmen, of the + fraternity of those, who think freely. They expected to + find the religious opinions of Le Clerc in unison with + their own, but, they were surprised to find the strong + stand which he made in favour of revelation. He proved to + them, with great strength of argument, the truth of the + Christian religion. Jesus Christ, he told them, was born + among the Jews; still, it was not the Jewish religion + which he taught; neither was it the religion of the Pagan + neighbourhood; but, a religion infinitely superior to + both. One sees in it the most striking marks of divinity. + The Christians, who followed, were incapable of imagining + any thing so beautiful. Add to this, that the Christian + religion is so excellently calculated for the good of + society, that, if we did not derive so great a present + from heaven, the good and safety of men would absolutely + demand from them an equivalent." + </p> + </div> + <p> + Throughout the conversation, M. Le Clerc reproached the + Deists strongly, for the hatred, which they shewed to + Christianity. He proved, that, by banishing it from the + world, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "they would overturn whatever was most holy and + respectable among men; break asunder the surest bonds of + humanity; teach men to shake off the yoke of law; deprive + them of their strongest incitement to virtue, and bereave + them of their best comfort. What," (he asked them) "do + you substitute in its place? Can you flatter yourself, + that you will discover something better? You expect, no + doubt, that men will erect statues to you, for your + exertions to deprive them of their religion! Permit me to + tell you, that the part you act makes you odious and + despicable in the eyes of all honest men." + </p> + </div> + <p> + He finished the conversation by requesting Mr. Collins to + bring him no more such visitors. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 1. History of Arminians. + </div> + <p> + From the close of the 17th century, till the present time, + Arminianism has been continually on the increase. It is a + just observation of Mr. Gibbon, that "the disciples of + Arminius must not be computed by their separate + congregations." + </p> + <p> + Doctor Maclaine says, it is certain, that the most eminent + philosophers have been found among the Arminians. "If both + Arminians and Calvinists," says Mr. Evans, in the excellent + work we have cited, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "claim a <i>King</i> (<i>James</i> I.), it is certain + that the latter alone can boast of a <i>Newton</i>, a + <i>Locke</i>, a <i>Clarke</i>, or a <i>Boyle</i>. + Archbishop <i>Usher</i> is said to have lived a + <i>Calvinist</i>; and died an <i>Arminian</i>. The + members of the episcopal church in Scotland; the + Moravians, the general Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists, + the Quakers or Friends, are Arminians; and it is supposed + that a great proportion of the Kirk of Scotland teach the + doctrines of Arminius, though they have a Calvinistic + confession of faith. What a pity it is that the opinions + either of Calvinists or Arminians," + </p> + </div> + <p> + -(we beg leave to add: or any other Catholic or Protestant + opinions whatsoever)- + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "cannot in the eyes of some persons be held without a + diminution of Christian charity!" + </p> + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='XII_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c12.2'>XII. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>Grotius's Religious Sentiments</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + To the milder form of Arminianism, Grotius always inclined. + During his embassy in France, he adopted it without + reserve. He was soon disgusted with the French Calvinists. + The ministers of Charenton accepted the decisions of the + Synod of Dort, and, in conformity with them, refused, when + Grotius repaired to Paris, after his escape from + Louvestein, to admit him into their communion. On his + arrival at Paris, in quality of ambassador, they offered to + receive him: Grotius expressed pleasure at the proposal; + and, intimated to them, that if he should go into any + country, in which the Lutherans, knowing his sentiments on + the sacrament of our Lord's Supper, should be willing to + receive him into their communion, he would make no + difficulty in joining them. Thus every thing appeared to be + settled; but the ministers then objected to receive Grotius + as ambassador from Sweden, because that kingdom was + Lutheran. Grotius, upon this, resolved to have the divine + service performed in his house. Lutherans publicly attended + it. "We have celebrated," he writes to his brother, "the + Feast of the Nativity in my house: the Duke of Wirtemberg, + the Count de Saxenburgh, and several Swedish and German + lords, attended at it." His first chaplain was imprudent, + his second gave him great satisfaction. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 2. Grotius' Religious Sentiments. + </div> + <p> + Burigni has collected, in the last chapter of his Life of + Grotius, a multitude of passages, which shew his gradual + leaning to the Roman Catholic faith. He produces several + passages from his works, which prove,- + </p> + <p> + <i>That</i> he paid high regard to decisions of the + councils, and the discipline of the primitive church; and + thought the sentiments of the antient church should be + deferred to, in the explanation of the Scriptures: <a name= + 'FNanchor_047_47'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_047_47'><sup>[047]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + <i>That</i>, the early reformers were held by him in no + great esteem:<a name='FNanchor_048_48'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_048_48'><sup>[048]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + <i>That</i>, mentioning Casaubon's sentiments, Grotius said + that this learned man thought the Roman Catholics of France + better informed than those of other countries, and came + nearer to truth than the ministers of Charenton:- + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "It cannot," says Grotius, "be denied, that there are + several Roman Catholic pastors here, who teach true + religion, without any mixture of superstition; it were to + be wished that all did the same:"<a name= + 'FNanchor_049_49'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_049_49'><sup>[049]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <p> + <i>That</i> the Calvinists were schismatics, and had no + mission:<a name='FNanchor_050_50'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_050_50'><sup>[050]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + <i>That</i> the Jesuits were learned men and good subjects. + "I know many of them," he says, in one of his writings + against Rivetus, "who are very desirous to see abuses + abolished, and the church restored to its primitive + unity."-We shall hereafter see that Father Petâu, an + illustrious member of the society, possessed the confidence + of Grotius:<a name='FNanchor_051_51'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_051_51'><sup>[051]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + <i>That</i>, Grotius looked upon the abolition of + episcopacy and of a visible head of the church, as + something very monstrous:<a name='FNanchor_052_52'></a><a + href='#Footnote_052_52'><sup>[052]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + <i>That</i>, he acknowledged that some change was made in + the eucharistic bread; that, when Jesus Christ, being + sacramentally present, favours us with his substance,-as + the Council of Trent expresses its doctrine on the + Eucharist,-the appearances of bread and wine remain, and in + their place succeed the body and blood of Christ: <a name= + 'FNanchor_053_53'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_053_53'><sup>[053]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 2. Grotius's Religious Sentiments. + </div> + <p> + <i>That</i>, Grotius did not approve of the sentiments of + the Calvinists concerning the Eucharist, and reproached + them with their contradiction. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "You will hear them state in their confessions," says + Grotius, "that they really, substantially and essentially + partake of Christ's body and his blood; but, in their + disputes, they maintain that Christ is received only + spiritually, by faith. The antients go much further: they + admit a real incorporation of Jesus Christ with us, and + the reality of Christ's body, as Saint Hilarius speaks." + </p> + </div> + <p> + It must however be remarked that, although Grotius thought + that the term <i>Transubstantiation</i> adopted by the + council of Trent, was capable of a good interpretation, it + is not clear, what was his precise opinion respecting the + Eucharist. He proposed the following formulary: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "We believe that, in the use of the supper, we truly, + really, and substantially,-that is to say,-in its proper + substance,-receive the true body and the true blood of + Jesus Christ, in a spiritual and ineffable manner: <a + name='FNanchor_054_54'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_054_54'><sup>[054]</sup></a>" + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + <i>That</i>, Grotius justified the decision of the Council + of Trent, concerning the number of the sacraments:<a name= + 'FNanchor_055_55'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_055_55'><sup>[055]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + <i>That</i>, after the year 1640, he took no offence at the + use of images in churches, or at prayers for the dead:<a + name='FNanchor_056_56'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_056_56'><sup>[056]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + <i>That</i>, he thought the bishops of Rome may be in + error, but cannot long remain in it, if they adhere to the + universal church;-this seems to presuppose the church's + infallibility:<a name='FNanchor_057_57'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_057_57'><sup>[057]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + <i>That</i> in the opinion of Grotius; fasting was early + used in the church; the observance of Lent was a very early + practice: the sign of the cross had something respectable + in it; the fathers held virginity a more perfect state than + marriage; and the celibacy of the priests conformable to + the antient discipline of the church:<a name= + 'FNanchor_058_58'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_058_58'><sup>[058]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + And + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "that those, who shall read the decrees of the Council of + Trent, with a mind disposed to peace, will find that + every thing is wisely explained in them: and agreeable to + what is taught by the Scriptures and the antient + fathers."<a name='FNanchor_059_59'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_059_59'><sup>[059]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <p> + It is certain, that Grotius was intimate with Father + Petâu, a Jesuit, inferior to none of his society, in + genius and learning; that the good father used all his + endeavours to convert Grotius to the Roman Catholic + religion; and was, at length, so much persuaded of his + friend's catholicity, that, when he heard of his death, he + said prayers for the repose of his soul.<a name= + 'FNanchor_060_60'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_060_60'><sup>[060]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification. + </div> + <p> + As the religion of Grotius was a problem to many, + Menâge wrote the following Epigram upon it: the sense + of it is, that- + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "As many sects claimed the religion of Grotius, as the + towns, which contended for the birth of Homer." + </p> + </div> + <div class='poem'> + <span><i>Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, + Athenæ,</i></span><br> + <span class='c10'><i>Siderei certant vatis de patriâ + Homeri</i>:</span><br> + <span><i>Grotiadæ certant de religione, + Socinus</i>,</span><br> + <span class='c10'><i>Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Roma, + Lutherus</i>.</span> + </div> + <br> + + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='XII_3'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c12_3'>XII. 3.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Grotius's Project of Religious Pacification. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + A wish for religious peace among Christians grew with the + growth and strengthened with the strength of Grotius. It + was known, before his imprisonment at Louvestein, that he + entertained these sentiments: he avows them in the + dedication to Lewis XIII. of his treatise <i>de Jure Belli + et Pacis</i>. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "I shall never cease," he says in a letter to his + brother,<a name='FNanchor_061_61'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_061_61'><sup>[061]</sup></a> "to use my utmost + endeavours for establishing peace among Christians; And, + if I should not succeed, it will be honourable to die in + such an enterprise." "I am not the only one, who has + conceived such projects," he writes in another letter to + his brother:<a name='FNanchor_062_62'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_062_62'><sup>[062]</sup></a> "Erasmus, + Cassander; Wicelius and Casaubon had the same design. La + Meletiere is employed at present in it. Cardinal de + Richelieu declares that he will protect the coalition; + and he is such a fortunate man, that he never undertakes + any thing, in which he does not succeed. If there were no + hopes of success at present, ought we not to sow the + seed, which may he useful to posterity?<a name= + 'FNanchor_063_63'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_063_63'><sup>[063]</sup></a> Even if we should + only diminish the mutual hatred among Christians, and + render them more sociable, would not this be worth + purchasing at the price of some labour and reproaches?"<a + name='FNanchor_064_64'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_064_64'><sup>[064]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <p> + Grotius expressed himself in similar terms to Baron + Oxenstiern: Surely it is the true language of the Gospel. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + In the first <a name='ap_1'></a><a href= + '#APPENDIX_I'>appendix</a> to this work,-we shall insert, + an account + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic + Books, of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal + Protestant churches:"- + </p> + </div> + <p> + In the second <a name='ap_2'></a><a href= + '#APPENDIX_II'>appendix</a>,-we shall insert an account of + the principal attempts made, since the Reformation, for the + re-union of Christians.-The former is abridged from the + "Historical and Literary Account of the Confessions of + Faith," which was formerly published by the present + writer;-the second is an essay appended to that work:-both + have been before referred to in the present publication. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification. + </div> + <p> + Grotius<a name='FNanchor_065_65'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_065_65'><sup>[065]</sup></a> thought that the + most compendious way to produce universal religious peace + among Christians, would be to frame, with the concurrence + of all the orthodox Eastern and Western churches, a + formulary which should express, briefly and explicitly, all + the articles of faith, the belief of which they agree in + thinking essential to salvation. In a letter addressed from + Paris in 1625,<a name='FNanchor_066_66'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_066_66'><sup>[066]</sup></a> he mentions that + Gustavus Adolphus had entertained projects of religious + pacification, and had taken measures to effect it; that he + had procured a meeting of divines of the Lutheran and + Reformed churches and that they had separated amicably: + Grotius says that the differences between them were as + slight as those between the Greek and Coptic churches. + </p> + <p> + For some time, Grotius flattered himself that he should + succeed in his project of pacification. In one of his + letters to his brother, he mentions distinguished + Protestants, who approved and encouraged them + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "I perceive," he says, "that by conversing with men of + the most learning among the reformed, and explaining my + sentiments to them, they are of my opinion; and that + their number will increase, if my treatises are + dispersed. I can truly affirm, that I have said nothing + in them from party spirit, but followed truth as closely + as I could."<a name='FNanchor_067_67'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_067_67'><sup>[067]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + He imagined that some Catholics entered into his views. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "The ablest men among the Catholics," he thus writes to + his brother, "think that what I have published is written + with great freedom and moderation, and approve of it."<a + name='FNanchor_068_68'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_068_68'><sup>[068]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <p> + These pacific projects of Grotius cemented the union + between him and Father Petâu. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "I had," says that most learned Jesuit, in his 12th + Letter, "a great desire to see and converse with Grotius. + We have been long together, and very intimate. He is, as + far as I can judge, a good man, and possesses great + candour. I do not think him far from becoming a Catholic, + after the example of Holstenius as you hoped. I shall + neglect nothing in my power to reconcile him to Christ, + and put him in the way of salvation."<a name= + 'FNanchor_069_69'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_069_69'><sup>[069]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + His Project of Religious Pacification. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + As Grotius lays so much stress on the pacific labours of + Erasmus, Wicelius, Cassander and Casaubon, we shall briefly + mention, in the present chapter, the labours of the three + first: Casaubon's we shall notice, in the second appendix + to this work. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + It appears that <i>Erasmus</i> had it in contemplation to + compose three dialogues, upon the important subject of + religious pacification: the speakers were to have been + Luther, under the name of Thrasimacus, and a Catholic divine, + under that of Eubolus. In the first dialogue, they were to + have discussed the proper methods of terminating the + religious controversies of the times; in the second, to have + investigated what were the points in controversy, the belief + of which was essential to a member of the church of Christ; + in the third, they were to have inquired what were the best + means to procure a good understanding between the contending + parties, and to effect their union. It is to be lamented that + Erasmus did not execute his design. His general sentiments + appear in his <i>Paraphrase upon the 83d Psalm</i>; they are + expressed with great wisdom and moderation.<a name= + 'FNanchor_071_71'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_071_71'><sup>[071]</sup></a><br> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification. + </div> + <p> + <i>Wicelius</i>,-who is next mentioned by Grotius, had been + professed in a religious order: had quitted it, and + embraced Lutheranism: he afterwards forsook that communion, + and returned to the Catholic: upon this, he was appointed + to a curacy; and, in the discharge of his functions, + obtained general esteem: he was much regarded by the + Emperors Ferdinand and Maximilian. In 1537, he published at + Leipsic a Latin work, "On the method of procuring Religious + Concord,-<i>Methodus Concordiæ + Ecclesiasticæ</i>." He addressed it to the pope, to + all sovereigns, bishops, doctors, and generally to all + christians, exhorting them to peace, and to desist from + contention. He assumed in it, that the true religion had + been preserved in the Catholic church; but he allows that + modern doctors had involved it in numerous scholastic + subtleties, unknown to antiquity. He complains that on one + hand the reformers left nothing untouched; that, on the + other, the scholastics would retain every abuse, and every + superfluity: Wisdom, he thought, lay between them; the + reformers should have respected what antiquity consecrated; + the Catholics should have abandoned modern doctrines and + modern practices to the discretion of individuals. + </p> + <p> + The "Royal Road," or <i>Via Regia</i> of Wicelius, a still + more important work, was published by him at Helmstadt in + 1537. Both works were approved, and the perusal of them + warmly recommended, by the emperors: they have been often + reprinted; they are inserted, with a life of their author, + in the second volume of <i>Brown's Fasciculus</i>. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "If all the divines of those times," says Father + Simôn the oratorian,<a name= + 'FNanchor_073_73'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_073_73'><sup>[073]</sup></a> "had possessed + the same spirit as Wicelius, the affairs of religion + might have taken a different turn." + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII.3. His Project of Religious Pacification + </div> + <p> + <i>Cassander</i>, another peacemaker, mentioned with praise + by Grotius, is the subject of a long and interesting + article in <i>Dupin's Ecclesiastical History</i>:<a name= + 'FNanchor_074_74'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_074_74'><sup>[074]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "He was," says Dupin, "solidly learned; and thoroughly + versed in ecclesiastical antiquity and the controversies + of his own times. The flaming zeal, which he had for the + re-union and peace of the church, made him yield much to + the Protestants, and led him to advance some propositions + that were too bold. But he always kept in the communion + of the Catholic church. He declared that he submitted to + its judgments, and openly condemned the authors of the + schism and their principal errors. He was a gentle, + humble and moderate man; patient under afflictions, and + entirely disinterested. In his disputes, he never + returned injury for injury; and neither in his manners + nor in his writings were presumption or arrogance ever + discoverable. He avoided glory, honor, or wealth; and + lived private and retired, having no other thought or + wish, but to promote the peace of the church; no + employment, but study; no business, but to compose books, + which might be profitable to the public; and no passion, + but knowing and teaching the truth." + </p> + </div> + <p> + His character procured him universal respect. The emperor + and several Catholic princes in Germany fixed upon him as a + mediator in the religious disputes, by which the empire + was, at that time, agitated. In conformity with their views + he published his celebrated, "<i>Consultatio de Articulis + Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes + Controversis</i>." + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "In this work," says Mr. Chalmers, "he discusses the + several articles of the Augsburgh Confession, stating + their difference from the doctrines of the Catholic + church, and the concessions that might safely be made in + respect to them. This work was written with great + liberality, was much applauded by those, who were + desirous of a coalition: they were too soon convinced + that every attempt of this kind was nugatory. Cassander + presented it to the Emperors Ferdinand I. and Maximilian + II. They received it favourably; the former invited + Cassander to Vienna, but his infirmities prevented his + accepting the offer." + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XII. + </div> + <p> + In 1542, Grotius published his "<i>Road to Religious + Peace,-Via ad Pacem Ecclesiasticam</i>:" he inserted in it + Cassander's "<i>Consultation</i>," and accompanied it with + notes. + </p> + <p> + All pacific persons reverenced Grotius, and still reverence + his memory, for his attempts to restore the religious peace + of Christendom: all the violent condemned him, and opposed + his projects. The contradictions, which he met with, + chagrined him; so that he sometimes lost that tranquillity + of mind, which he had possessed in his deepest adversity. + But, to use his own words, he looked to the blessed + Peacemaker for his reward, and trusted that posterity would + do justice to its intentions.- + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Perhaps, by writing to reconcile such as entertain very + opposite sentiments, I shall," says Grotius, "offend both + parties: but, if that should so happen, I shall comfort + myself with the example of him, who said, If I please + men, I am not the servant of Christ." + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification. + </div> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Grotius," says Burigni, "content with gratifying his + pacific desires, expected his reward from posterity. This + he clearly intimates in the following verses, written by + him on the subject: + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span><i>"Accipe, sed placidé, quæ, si non + optimo,certé</i></span><br> + <span><i>Espressit nobis non mala pacis + amor</i>.</span><br> + <span><i>Et tibi dic, nostro labor hic si displicet + avo</i>,</span><br> + <span><i>A gratia pretium posteritate feret</i>."</span> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + The projects of religious pacification did not cease with + Grotius: several divines of distinction adopted it; and + attempted, some with more prudence and ability than + others, to carry it into effect. The principal of these + are noticed in the second appendix to the present work. + None succeeded: One description of persons, who engaged + in this design, was denominated <i>Syncretists</i>, or + <i>Calixtines</i>, from <i>George Calixtus</i> their + leader: the other, from their calling men from + controversy to holiness of life, received the appellation + of <i>Pietists</i>: A third party,-perhaps we may style + them, the <i>Ultra-orthodox</i>,-more hostile to the + former than to the latter-arose in opposition to both, + and accused them of sacrificing the doctrines of faith to + a mistaken zeal for union and sanctity.<a name= + 'FNanchor_075_75'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_075_75'><sup>[075]</sup></a> + </p> + <p> + It is certain<a name='FNanchor_076_76'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_076_76'><sup>[076]</sup></a> that the friends + of union too often erred in this,-that they aimed rather + at an uniformity of <i>terms</i> than of + <i>sentiments</i>; and thus seemed satisfied, when they + engaged the contending parties to use the same <i>words + and phrases</i>, though their <i>real difference</i> in + opinion remained the same. This could not be justified: + it tended evidently to extinguish truth and honour, and + to introduce equivocation. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_XIII'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c13'>CHAPTER XIII.</a> + </h2> + <p> + THE DEATH OF GROTIUS. + </p> + <p> + 1645 + </p> + <br> + + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XIII. 1645. + </div> + <p> + Every thing respecting the recall of Grotius being + settled, he embarked at Dieppe for Holland. He was + extremely well received at Amsterdam and Rotterdam: the + constituted authorities, of the former city fitted a + vessel, which was to take him to Hamburgh: there, after + along and harassing journey, he arrived on the 16th of + May. From Hamburgh he proceeded to Lübec: the + magistrates of that city gave him an honourable + reception. He proceeded to Wismar; where Count Wismar, + the admiral of the Swedish fleet, gave him a splendid + entertainment, and afterwards sent him in a man-of-war to + Colmar: thence, he went by land to Stockholm. When he + arrived there, Queen Christina was at Upsal; but, hearing + that Grotius was at Stockholm, she returned to that city + to meet him. On the day after her arrival, she favoured + him with a long audience: she expressed to him great + satisfaction at his conduct, and made him large promises. + These audiences were often repeated; and once she + permitted him to have the honour of dining with her. She + assured him, that if he would continue in her service, as + Councillor of State, and bring his family into Sweden, he + should have no reason to complain of her. But Grotius was + anxious to leave Sweden; and his passport being delayed, + he resolved to quit it without one, and actually + proceeded to a seaport about seven leagues distant from + Stockholm. The Queen, being informed of his departure, + sent a gentleman to inform him, that she wished to see + him once more. On this invitation he returned to + Stockholm, and was immediately admitted into the Queen's + presence; he then explained to her his reasons for + wishing to quit Sweden. The Queen appeared to be + satisfied with them: she made him a present in money of + twelve or thirteen thousand Swedish imperials, of the + value of about ten thousand French crowns; she added to + the present, some plate, the finishing of which had, she + told him, been the only cause of the delay of his + passport. She then put it into his hands, and a vessel + was appointed to carry him to Lübec. On the 12th + August he embarked for that city. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Death of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + What were his real motives for refusing Christina's + offers, or in what place he ultimately intended to fix + himself, is not known. + </p> + <p> + The vessel in which he embarked had scarcely sailed from + Lübec, when it was overtaken by a violent storm, and + obliged, on the 17th August, to take shelter in a port + fourteen miles distant from Dantzic. Grotius went from it + in an open wagon to Lübec, and arrived very ill at + Rostock<a name='FNanchor_077_77'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_077_77'><sup>[077]</sup></a> on the 26th + August. No one, there, knew him: his great weakness + determined him to call in the aid of a physician: one + accordingly attended him: his name was Stochman. On + feeling Grotius's pulse, he said his indisposition + proceeded from weakness and fatigue, and that, with rest + and some restoratives, he might recover; but, on the + following day he changed his opinion. Perceiving that the + weakness of Grotius increased, and that it was + accompanied with a cold sweat and other symptoms + indicating an exhaustion of nature, the physician + announced that the end of his patient was near. Grotius + then asked for a clergyman. <i>John Quistorpius</i> was + brought to him. Quistorpius, in a letter to Calovius, + gives the following particulars of Grotius's last + moments: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "You are desirous of hearing from me, how that Phoenix + of Literature, Hugo Grotius, behaved in his last + moments, and I am going to tell you. He embarked at + Stockholm for Lübec, and after having been tossed + for the three days, by a violent tempest, he was + shipwrecked, and got to shore on the coast of + Pomerania, from whence he came to our town of Rostock, + distant above sixty miles, in an open wagon through + wind and rain. He lodged with Balleman; and sent for M. + Stochman, the physician, who observing that he was + extremely weakened by years, by what he suffered at + sea, and by the inconveniences attending the journey, + judged that he could not live long. The second day + after Grotius's arrival in this town, that is, on the + 18th of August, O.S. he sent for me, about nine at + night, I went, and found him almost at the point of + death: I said, 'There was nothing I desired more, than + to have seen him in health, that I might have the + pleasure of his conversation.' He answered, 'God had + ordered it otherwise.' I desired him: to prepare + himself for a happier life, to acknowledge that he was + a sinner, and to repent of his faults: and, happening + to mention the publican, who acknowledged that he was a + sinner, and asked God's mercy; he answered, '<i>I am + that publican</i>.' I went on, and told him that he + must have recourse to Jesus Christ, without whom there + is no salvation.' + </p> + <p> + "He replied, '<i>I place all my hope in Jesus + Christ</i>.' + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Death of Grotius. + </div> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "I began to repeat aloud in German, the prayer which + begins <i>Herr Jesu:</i><a name= + 'FNanchor_078_78'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_078_78'><sup>[078]</sup></a> he followed me + in a very low voice; with his hands clasped. When I had + done, I asked him, 'if he understood me.' He answered, + '<i>I understand you very well</i>.' I continued to + repeat to him those passages of the word of God, which + are commonly offered to the remembrance of dying + persons; and asking him, 'if he understood me,' he + answered, '<i>I heard your voice, but I did not + understand what you said.</i>' + </p> + <p> + "These were his last words; soon afterwards he expired; + just at midnight. His body was delivered to the + physicians, who took out his bowels. I easily obtained + leave to bury them in our principal church, which is + dedicated to the Virgin." + </p> + </div> + <p> + His corpse, was afterwards carried to Delft, and + deposited in the tomb of his ancestors. He wrote this + modest epitaph for himself, + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>"GROTIUS HIC HUGO EST, BATAVUM</span><br> + <span class='c10'>CAPTIVUS ET EXSUL,</span><br> + <span>LEGATUS REGNI, SUECIA MAGNA, TUI."</span><br> + </div> + <p> + Burigni informs us that Grotius had a very agreeable + person, a good complexion, an aquiline nose, sparkling + eyes, a serene and smiling countenance; that he was not + tall, but very strong, and well built. The engraving of + him prefixed to the <i>Hugonis Grotii Manes</i> answers + this description. + </p> + <p> + It is needless to give an account of his descendants, or + their prosperous or adverse fortunes: they are noticed at + length by Burigni. In <i>Mr. Boswell's Life of + Johnson</i>, mention is made of one who was then in a + state of want. Dr. Johnson, in a letter to Dr. Vyse, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "requests him to recommend, an old friend, to his grace + the Archbishop of Canterbury. His name," says the + Doctor, "is De Groot. He has all the common claims to + charity; he is poor and infirm in a great degree. He + has likewise another claim, to which no scholar can + refuse attention: he is, by several descents, the + nephew of Hugo Grotius; of him, of whom every man of + learning has perhaps learned something. Let it not be + said, that, in any lettered country, the nephew of + Grotius, ever asked a charity, and was refused." + </p> + </div> + <p> + The reader must be pleased, to be informed, that the + application,-it was for some situation, in the + charter-house,-was successful. Dr. Vyse informed Dr. + Johnson of it, by letter. In his answer, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Dr. Johnson," by Dr. Vyse's account, "rejoiced much, + and was lavish of the praise he bestowed upon his + favourite Hugo Grotius."<a name= + 'FNanchor_079_79'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_079_79'><sup>[079]</sup></a> + </p> + </div> + <div class='sidenote'> + The Death of Grotius. + </div> + <p> + Three points were united in Grotius, each of which would + strongly recommend him to Dr. Johnson: he was learned, + pious, and opposed to the doctrines of Calvin. It is + still more unnecessary to mention the various encomiums, + which the learned of all nations have made of Grotius, in + prose and verse. That he was one of the most universal + scholars, whom the world has produced, and that he + possessed sense, taste, and genius in a high degree, is + universally confessed. It is equally true, that both his + public and his private character, are entitled to a high + degree of praise. + </p> + <p> + When Queen Christina, heard of his death, she wrote to + his widow, a letter of condolence, and requested, that + the manuscripts which he had left, might be sent to her: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "My ambassador," the Queen says in this letter, "has + made you acquainted, with my high esteem, for his + learning, and the good services he did me; but he could + not express, how dear I hold his memory, and the + effects of his great labours. If gold, or silver, could + do any thing towards redeeming such a valuable life, I + would gladly employ all, I am mistress of, for that + purpose." + </p> + </div> + <p> + She concludes by asking his widow, for all the + manuscripts "of that learned man, whose works had given + her such pleasure." The Queen assures her, that "they + could not fall into better hands," and that, "the author, + having been useful to her in his lifetime, it was not + just that she should be deprived, after his death, of the + fruits of his labours." + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + It remains to mention, that, after the death of Grotius, + his wife communicated with the Church of England: this, it + is said, she did in conformity to the dying injunctions of + her husband: it is certain, that Grotius respected the + Church of England. His wife died at the Hague, in the + communion of the Remonstrants. Through life, she was + uniformly respected; and, whenever the services of Grotius, + to sacred and profane literature, are recorded, her + services to him, should be mentioned with praise. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='CHAPTER_XIV'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c14'>CHAPTER XIV.</a> + </h2> + <p> + HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF + THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. + TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. + </p> + <p> + 1680-1815. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + In some of the preceding pages, the principal events in the + history of the Seven United Provinces, till the death of + William II, in 1680, have been briefly mentioned: in the + present chapter, we shall insert a summary account of the + revolutions of their government, till the present time. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='XIV_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c14.1'>XIV. 1.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + William III. + </p> + <p> + 1650-1702. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + William III. was born after the death of William II. his + father. Immediately after that event, his mother claimed + for him the stadtholderate, and all the other dignities, + pre-eminences, and rights, which his father and grandfather + had enjoyed; but, so great, at that time, was the public + jealousy of the ambitious views of the house of Orange, + that the States General would not even take her claims into + deliberation. A general assembly of the States was held in + 1661. They confirmed the Treaty of Union, of 1579; + attributed to themselves, the appointment of all civil and + military offices; placed the army under the authority of + the provinces and municipalities, and invested the council + of state with the general direction of the military + concerns of the nation. A war with England, which was then + governed by Cromwell, soon followed; it was the + commencement of the naval glory of the United States. But + the government was distracted by the contests and + dissensions between the republican and the Orange factions. + The former were headed by John de Witt. He possessed + transcendent abilities, was a true lover of his country, + and, on every occasion, advised the wisest measures. Some + of the military operations of the States proving + unsuccessful, the Orange faction endeavoured to persuade + the people, that this reverse of fortune was owing to the + want of a Stadtholder; and exhorted them to confer this + dignity on the young prince, to be exercised, during his + minority, by one of the family. This proposition was + successfully resisted by De Witt. Peace between England and + the United Provinces being concluded, Cromwell endeavoured + to unite them to England by a federative alliance; but they + rejected the proposition. At the suggestion of De Witt, the + States of Holland passed an Act, by which they bound + themselves never to appoint the Prince of Orange, or any of + his descendants, to the office of Stadtholder, or Captain + General; and to prevent, to their utmost power, the other + States from making such an appointment. This measure + displeased the other States. In 1665, the office of + Commander in Chief becoming vacant, the opposite party + endeavoured to procure it for one of the Orange family; + this attempt also proved abortive. In 1661 a war broke out + between England,-which was then governed by Charles II., + and the United States; these displayed in it, chiefly under + the command of De Ruyter, prodigies of valour and naval + skill; the year 1667 was famous in their annals, by their + fleet's sailing up the river Thames, and burning the + English fleet at Chatham. The peace of Breda immediately + followed. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XIV. 1. William III. + </div> + <p> + Still, the civil discord continued. The States of Holland + renewed the <i>Edict of Exclusion</i>, with the addition of + a clause, that, whenever a person should be invested, with + the office of Captain, or Admiral General, he should swear + never to aspire to the office of Stadtholder, and to refuse + it, if it should be offered to him. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XIV 1650-1702. + </div> + <p> + The year 1671 is remarkable for the league entered into by + Louis XIV. and Charles II. against the United States, and + by their vigourous resistance to it. The circumstances into + which it drove the United States, compelled them to appoint + the Prince of Orange Captain General and Admiral: he took + the oath prescribed by the Perpetual Edict, not to aspire + to the stadtholderate, and to reject it, if offered. He was + at this time in his twenty-second year: he owed his + elevation to the critical situation in which the United + States were then placed; but it was also owing to the great + prudence with which he had conducted himself when fortune + was opposed to him; and to the talents and application to + business which he then discovered. + </p> + <p> + At sea, the navy of the United States was generally + successful. At land, the arms of Lewis XIV. triumphed; he + conquered Gueldres, Overyssell, and the city and province + of Utretcht. This maddened the populace. They massacred + John De Witt, and Cornelius De Witt, his brother, after + having subjected them to the cruellest tortures and the + most brutal indignities. To the indelible reproach of + William III. he did not interfere to prevent or stop these + horrors. His measures for obtaining the stadtholderate + succeeded. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XIV. 1. William III. + </div> + <p> + On the 4th of July 1672, it was re-established in the + person of William III.; and all the dignities and rights + enjoyed by his predecessors were conferred upon him. These, + in 1674, were made hereditary in his family. His subsequent + conduct is entitled, on many accounts, to the warmest + praise. The success of the United States at sea compelled + Charles II. to make peace with them, so that Lewis XIV. was + their only enemy. The war with him was terminated by the + peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Ten years after it, the + Stadtholder, on the abdication of James II. became King of + England. In 1690, England, Spain, Austria, and the United + Provinces, entered into the Grand Alliance against France. + The Duke of Savoy and several Princes of Germany afterwards + joined it. In general, the proceedings of the confederacy + were unsuccessful; the war was terminated in 1697 by the + peace of Ryswick. In 1700, the disputes on the succession + to the Spanish monarchy, in consequence of the death of + Charles II. of Spain, without issue, called the world again + to arms. William III. died in 1702. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='XIV_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c14.2'>XIV. 2.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>John William Count of Nassau Dietz</i>, 1702-1711; + <i>William IV</i>. 1711-1751. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The government of William III. was generally displeasing to + the United States: they accused him of sacrificing them to + the interests of his English monarchy, and to the hatred + which he always bore to the French. He was also suspected, + and not without reason, of a design to acquire the + independent sovereignty of the provinces. At first, his + influence within them was so great, that he was said to be + King in the United States, and Stadtholder in England; but + it declined gradually; and an attempt by him to obtain the + succession to the stadtholderate for John Friso, Prince of + Nassau and Hereditary Stadtholder of Frizeland, absolutely + failed. He made, by his will, that prince his testamentary + heir. + </p> + <p> + Upon the decease of William III. a general wish to + discontinue the stadtholderate was expressed in most of the + provinces; those of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres, + and Overyssell, came to a formal resolution to this effect + They recognised the supreme power of the States General, + and conferred the direction of their political concerns on + Heinsius, the actual Grand Pensionary, a person of great + learning, uncommon talents for business, and acknowledged + integrity. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XIV. 2. John William Count of Nassau Diets, 1702-1711; + William IV. 1711-1749. + </div> + <p> + As testamentary heir of William III., John-William assumed + the title of Prince of Orange: he died in 1711, without + having exercised the power of the stadtholderate, except in + the province of Frizeland. + </p> + <p> + The war of the succession terminated in 1713, by the peace + of Utretcht: it was succeeded in 1715 by the Barrier + Treaty, and in 1719 by the Quadruple Alliance, ever + memorable for the triumphant campaigns of Marlborough, by + which it was followed. The pensionary Heinsius died in + 1720. In his life-time, several weak attempts had been + made, in different provinces, to restore in them the + stadtholderate. They succeeded only at Gueldres; and even + there, it was restored with great limitations. + </p> + <p> + Upon the decease of Prince William-John, his rights and + pretensions descended to Prince William, his son. In 1733, + he married Mary, the daughter of George II. of England. + This strengthened his cause; but the general spirit of the + United Provinces was so averse to the Stadtholderate, that + it was not till the invasion of Holland, by the French, in + 1747, that the prince's party judged it advisable to bring + forward his claim. At first they met with resistance, but + finally prevailed, and Prince William of Orange became the + sole Stadtholder of every province: until his time each of + the provinces of Frizeland and Groningen had its particular + Stadtholder. The dignities of Captain General and Admiral + were also conferred on him; and, in addition to these, some + rights and privileges which no former Stadtholder had + enjoyed. + </p> + <p> + The reverses of the United Provinces continued, and the + aggrandisement of the Stadtholderate increased + proportionally. As yet William IV. had no male issue. In + 1748, the Orange faction proposed that the Stadtholderate + should be declared hereditary; and that, in default of + males, females should be admitted into the succession. + After some opposition the measure was carried in all the + provinces, except Frizeland and Groningen. From this time + the United Provinces ceased to be a republic, and became a + monarchy, limited by the antient usages and institutions. + William IV. died in 1749. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='XIV_3'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#c14.3'>XIV. 3.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <i>From the Death of William IV. till the Erection of the + Kingdom of the Netherlands</i>. + </p> + <p> + 1749-1815. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + At the death of William IV. William, his son, and + afterwards his successor in the Stadtholderate, was an + infant, in very tender years. His mother was named by the + states Governess of the United Provinces. She appointed the + Duke of Brunswick to the command of their armies; thus, + after all their exertions and sacrifices for liberty, the + United Provinces became subject to the government of an + English princess and a German prince; and an English party + became predominant in their politics; William V. married a + princess of Prussia, and thus the Orange party was + strengthened by Prussian influence. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XIV. 3. From the death of William IV. till the erection of + the Kingdom of the Netherlands. + </div> + <p> + These opposite, and conflicting interests, filled every + province, with dissension; and, on some occasions, armed + one body of citizens against another. The English party, + sided with the Orange faction; the French, with the + republicans. At first the latter prevailed; they led the + states into measures, which forced England to declare war + against them. In 1782, they acknowledged the independence + of the United States of America. Still, the dissensions + continued. After a long conflict, the republican party + acquired the ascendant; they suspended the Prince of Orange + from his functions, and filled all the principal places of + trust with their own adherents. But the Orange party soon + rallied; the Duke of Brunswick entered Holland at the head + of a victorious army, and, in 1787, re-established the + Stadtholderate. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + CHAP. XIV. 1749-1816. + </div> + <p> + His victorious career, was soon terminated. In 1799, the + revolutionary army of France made themselves masters of the + whole territory of the United States; and established + <i>The Batavian Republic</i>. It was successively governed, + but always under the overpowering controul of France, by a + Convention, a Directory, and a Consul, with the appellation + of Grand Pensionary. In 1806, even these forms of her + antient government were abolished; Napoleon sending Louis, + one of his brothers, to reign over the United Provinces, + with the title and powers of royalty; but with an + intimation, that France was entitled to his first + attentions and a priority of duty. The demands of Napoleon + for attentions and duties were so exorbitant, that rather + than be instrumental in the infliction of the miseries + which a compliance with them must occasion, Louis resigned + his throne. Napoleon then incorporated the United Provinces + into his empire, "as an alluvion," for such he termed them, + "to the Rivers of France." Scenes of the most grinding + oppression followed: the Batavians were relieved from it by + the fall and abdication of Napoleon. + </p> + <div class='sidenote'> + XIV. 3. Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. + </div> + <p> + Before this event, William V. died, leaving a son, called + from his pretensions to the stadtholderate, William VI. We + have seen that, on the death of the Emperor Charles V. all + the seventeen provinces, composing the Netherlands, + devolved to Philip II. his son; the successful defection of + the Seven United Provinces has been mentioned; the ten + remaining provinces were afterwards transferred to the + House of Austria, and were inherited by the Emperor Joseph + II. The French made an easy conquest of them in an early + stage of the Revolution. + </p> + <p> + We now reach the ultimate fate of both the divisions of the + Netherlands. The congress of Vienna, by an act of the 9th + June 1815, created and conferred upon this prince, THE + KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, consisting of the seventeen + provinces, and a portion of Luxemburgh. It is confessedly + the first among the kingdoms of the second order. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <p> + It was our wish to present our readers with a sketch of the + literary history of the Netherlands, during the period + treated of in this chapter; but after most diligent and + extensive searches, both in the British and foreign + markets, we have not been able to discover materials for + it; persons of acknowledged learning, both in Germany and + the Netherlands, have assured us that no such history + exists. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='APPENDIX_I'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cAp.1'>APPENDIX I.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <a href='#ap_1'>REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.</a> + </p> + <p> + SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMULARIES, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, OR + SYMBOLIC BOOKS, OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC, GREEK, AND PRINCIPAL + PROTESTANT CHURCHES. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The constitutions of the Roman Catholic, and Protestant + Churches, differ in nothing more, than in the following + important points: The Catholic Church, acknowledges the + authority of the Scriptures, and, in addition to them, a + body of traditionary law. She receives both under the + authority, and with the interpretation of the Church, and + believes that the authority of the Church in receiving and + interpreting them is infallible. The Protestant Churches + generally profess to acknowledge no law but the Scriptures, + no interpreter of the Scriptures, but the understanding and + conscience of the individual who peruses them. + </p> + <p> + That the Roman Catholic Church should propound a formulary + of her faith, enlarge this formulary from time to time, as + further interpretation is wanted, and enforce acquiscence + in it by spiritual censures, is consistent with <i>her</i> + principles. Whether such a pretension can be avowed, + without inconsistency, by any Protestant Church, has been a + subject of much discussion. In point of fact, however, no + Protestant Church is without her formulary, or abstains + from enforcing it by temporal provisions and spiritual + censures. To enforce their formularies by civil penalties, + is inconsistent with the principles, of every christian + church. All churches howsoever have so enforced, and have + blamed the others, for so enforcing them. + </p> + <p> + Such formularies, from the circumstance of their collecting + into one instrument, several articles, of religious belief, + are generally known on the Continent, by the appellation of + SYMBOLIC BOOKS. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + I. The symbolic books, received by ALL TRINITARIAN + CHRISTIAN CHURCHES,-are, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. <i>The Symbol of the Apostles</i>; and + </p> + <p> + 2. <i>The Nicene Symbol</i>. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + II. The symbolic books, received by the ROMAN CATHOLIC + Church,-are, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. The General Councils; + </p> + <p> + 2. Among these,-<i>the Council of Trent</i>,-as + immediately applying to the controversies between the + Catholic and Protestant Churches, is particularly + regarded; + </p> + <p> + 3. <i>The Symbol of Pope Pius IV</i>.; + </p> + <p> + 4. <i>The Catechism of the Council of Trent</i>. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + III. The symbolic books of the GREEK CHURCH,-are, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. <i>The Confession, of her true and sincere faith</i>, + which, on the taking of Constantinople, by Mahomet II, in + 1453, Gennadius, its patriarch, presented to the + conqueror; + </p> + <p> + 2. <i>The Orthodox Confession, of the Catholic and + Apostolic Greek Church</i>, published in 1642, by + Mogilow, the Metropolitan of Kiow. + </p> + </div> + <p> + IV. The symbolic books of the LUTHERAN CHURCHES, are + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. <i>The Confession of Augsburgh</i>; + </p> + <p> + 2. <i>The Apology of the Confession of Augsburgh</i>; + </p> + <p> + 3. <i>The Articles of Smalcald</i>; + </p> + <p> + 4. <i>And</i>, (in the opinion of some Lutheran + Churches),-<i>The Form of Concord</i>; + </p> + <p> + 5. <i>The Saxon, Wirtenburgian, Suabian, Pomeranian, + Mansfeldian, Antwerpensian, and Copenhagen + Confessions</i>, possess, in particular places, the + authority of Symbolic books:-the two first are + particularly respected. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + V. The symbolic books of the REFORMED CHURCHES. The + reformed Church, in the largest extent of that expression, + comprises all the religious communities, which have + separated from the Church of Rome. In this sense, it is + often used by English writers: but, having, soon after the + Reformation, been used by the French Protestants to + describe their church, which was Calvinistic, it became, + insensibly, the appellation of all Calvinistic churches on + the Continent. The principal symbolic books of these + churches,-are, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. <i>The Confession of the Helvetian Churches</i>; + </p> + <p> + 2. <i>The Tetrapolitan Confession</i>,-signed by the four + cities of Strasburgh, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau; + </p> + <p> + 3. <i>The Catechism of Heidelbergh</i>; + </p> + <p> + 4. <i>The Gallic Confession of Faith</i>; + </p> + <p> + 5. <i>The Belgic Confession of Faith</i>; + </p> + <p> + 6. <i>The Canons of the Council of Dort</i>. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + VI. The symbolic books of the WALDENSES,-are, + </p> + <p> + <i>Their original and reformed Creeds</i>. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + VII. The symbolic books of the <i>Bohemians</i>,-are, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. <i>The Confession of faith of the Calixtines and + Taborites</i>, signed at the Synod of Cuttenburgh in + 1541; + </p> + <p> + 2. <i>The Confession of the faith of the + Bohemians</i>,-inserted in the "Harmony of Confessions," + published at Cambridge in 1680. + </p> + <p> + 3. <i>The Consent of faith at Sendomer</i>. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + VIII. The symbolic book of the ARMINIANS,-is + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + <i>The Declaration of the Remonstrants</i>, drawn up by + Episcopius, and signed in 1622. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + IX. The symbolic book of the SOCINIANS is <i>The Catechism + of Racow</i>;-the best edition of it was published in 1609, + reprinted at Frankfort, in 1739. An English translation of + it has been published by Mr. Rees. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + X. The UNITARIANS have no symbolic book. To Doctor + Lardner's <i>Letter on the Logos</i> they shew universal + respect. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + XI. The symbolic books of THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,-are, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. <i>The Theological Oaths</i>,-containing a Declaration + of the belief of the Monarch's spiritual supremacy;-and + Declarations against Transubstantiation,-the invocation + of Saints,-and the sacrifice of the Mass; + </p> + <p> + 2. <i>The Thirty-nine Articles</i>. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + XII. The symbolic book of the ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH + PRESBYTERIANS,-is + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "<i>The Articles of Religion</i> approved and passed by + both Houses of Parliament after advice had with an + assembly of divines, called together for that purpose." + These were sent into Scotland, and immediately sanctioned + by the General Assembly, and Parliament of that kingdom; + and thus became a law of the Church and State. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + XIII. The symbolic books of the Anabaptists may be said to + be,- + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + THEIR SEVERAL CONFESSIONS OF FAITH:-Five were published + at Amsterdam, in 1675, in one volume 8vo. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + XIV. The symbolic books of the Quakers,-are, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1. <i>Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith</i>, + published in 1675; + </p> + <p> + 2. His <i>Theses Theologicæ</i>; + </p> + <p> + 3. His <i>Apology</i>,-a logical demonstration of the + propositions in the Theses. It was translated into almost + every language and presented to all the ministers + assembled at Nimeguen; + </p> + <p> + 4. But some persons assert that the real doctrines of the + Quakers are more easily discoverable from <i>The + Christian Quaker and his divine testimony, vindicated by + Scripture reason and authorities against the injurious + attempts that have been lately made by several + adversaries</i>.-This work appeared in 1674; the first + part of it was written by Penn, the second by Whithead, + one of his most distinguished disciples. + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + XV. It may be added, that the symbolic book of the Jews,-is + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + <i>The Schelosch aikara ikkarim,-the Thirteen Articles of + Faith</i> framed by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon in the 12th + century: it is frequently inserted in the Jewish prayer + books. Sebastian Munster published it with a Latin + translation and an abridgment of the History of Josephus, + in one vol. 8vo. at Worms in 1529. + </p> + </div> + <p> + Many Christian Catechisms have been translated into Hebrew + for the benefit of the Jews. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <p> + An historical and literary account of all these Confessions + of Faith, and of several works and circumstances connected + with them, is attempted to be given, by the Author of these + pages, in his "<i>Historical and Literary Account of the + Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic Books, of + the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant + Churches.</i>" + </p> + <p> + THE SYLLOGE CONFESSIONUM printed at the Clarendon Press in + 1804, contains the <i>Professio Fidei Tridentinæ, + Confessio Helvetica, Augustana, Saxonica, Belgica."</i> + </p> + <p> + "The Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the + Christian and Reformed Churches" published at Cambridge in + 1586, 8<i>vo</i>. attempts to reconcile the Confession of + Augsburgh, the Confession of the Four Cities, the + Confession of Bâsle, the first Confession of + Helvetia; the Confession of Saxony, the Confession of + Wirtemburgh, the French Confession, the English Confession, + the latter Confession of Helvetia, the Belgic Confession, + and that of Bohemia. + </p> + <p> + On the general subject, <i>Walchius's Bibliotheca + Theologica Selecta</i>, may be usefully consulted. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='APPENDIX_II'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cAp.2'>APPENDIX II.</a> + </h2> + <p> + <a href='#ap_2'>REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.</a> + </p> + <p> + ON THE REUNION OF CHRISTIANS. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The attempts, made at different times for the re-union of + Christians, are the subject of a learned and interesting + work, published at Paris, with the title of "<i>Histoire + critique des projéts formés depuis trois + cents ans pour la Reunion des communions Chretiennes, par + M. Tabaraud, ancien Prétre de L'Oratoire, Paris</i>, + 1824." An excellent sketch of these attempts had been + previously given by <i>Doctor Mosheim, in his + Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVI. Ch. III. sect. 3. part + 2. c. 1. and Cent. XVII. Cha. I. sect. 2. p</i>. 1. To + these publications the reader is referred:-the present + Essay may be found to contain, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + I. A general view of the attempts made after the + Reformation, to unite the Lutheran and Calvinist + churches: + </p> + <p> + II. Some account of the Attempts made at different times + by the sovereigns of France for the conversion of their + protestant subjects: + </p> + <p> + III. The correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the + auspices of Lewis the Fourteenth, for the reunion of the + Lutheran Churches to the Church of Rome: + </p> + <p> + IV. Some account of an attempt made in the reign of + George the First, to reunite the Church of England to the + Church of Rome: + </p> + <p> + V. And some general remarks on the Reunion of Christians. + </p> + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='I'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#ci'>I.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Attempts made to unite the Lutheran, and Calvinist + Churches. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + The great division of Protestant Churches is, into the + Lutheran, and Calvinist communions. The Abbé + Tabaraud relates in the work, which we have just cited, not + fewer than fifteen different attempts to effect a reunion + of their churches. In reading his account and that given by + Mosheim of these attempts, the writer thinks that, on each + side, there was something to commend and something to + blame. It seems to him, that the Lutherans deserve credit + for the open and explicit manner, in which, on these + occasions, they propounded the tenets of their creed to the + Calvinists; that the conduct of the Calvinists was more + liberal and conciliating; but that, on the other hand, the + conduct of the Lutherans towards the Calvinists, was + generally repulsive, and sometimes deserving a much harsher + name; while the conduct of the Calvinists, was sometimes + chargeable, with ambiguity. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "It was deplorable," says Mosheim, (Cent. xvii. sect. 2. + part 2. art. 3.) "to see two churches, which had + discovered, an equal degree of pious zeal, and fortitude, + in throwing off the despotic yoke of Rome, divided among + themselves, and living in discords, that were highly + detrimental, to the interests of religion, and the + well-being of society. Hence, several eminent divines, + and leading men, both among the Lutherans, and + Calvinists, sought anxiously, after some method, of + uniting the two churches, though divided in their + opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity, and + ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge, of human + nature, and human passions, was sufficient, to persuade + these wise, and pacific mediators, that a perfect + uniformity in religious opinions, was not practicable, + and that it would be entirely extravagant, to imagine + that any of these communities, could ever be brought, to + embrace universally, and without limitation, the + doctrines of the other. They made it, therefore, their + principal business, to persuade those, whose spirits were + inflamed with the heat of controversy, that the points in + debate between the two churches, were not essential, to + true religion;-that the fundamental doctrines, of + Christianity, were received, and professed, in both + communions; and that the difference of opinion, between + the contending parties, turned, either upon points of an + abstruse, and incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of + indifference, which neither tended, to make mankind + wiser, or better, and in which the interests of genuine + piety, were in no wise concerned. Those, who viewed + things in this point of light, were obliged to + acknowledge, that the diversity of opinions, between the + two churches, was by no means, a sufficient reason, for + their separation; and that of consequence, they were + called, by the dictates of that gospel, which they both + professed, to live, not only in the mutual exercise, of + Christian charity, but also to enter, into the fraternal + bonds, of church communion. The greatest part, of the + reformed doctors, seemed disposed, to acknowledge, that + the errors of the Lutherans, were not, of a momentous + nature, nor of a pernicious tendency; and that the + fundamental doctrines of Christianity, had not undergone, + any remarkable alteration, in that communion; and thus, + on their side, an important step, was made, towards + peace, and union, between the two churches. But the + greatest part of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they + could not form, a like judgment, with respect, to the + doctrine, of the Reformed churches; they maintained + tenaciously, the importance of the points, which divided + the two communions, and affirmed, that a considerable + part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental + principles, of all religion, and virtue. It is not at all + surprising, that this steadiness and constancy of the + Lutherans, was branded by the opposite party, with the + epithets, of morose obstinacy, supercilious arrogance, + and such like odious denominations. The Lutherans, were + not behind hand with their adversaries, in acrimony, of + style; they recriminated with vehemence, and charged + their accusers with instances of misconduct, different in + kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them with + having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under + ambiguous expressions, the real doctrine of the Reformed + churches; they observed further, that their adversaries, + notwithstanding their consummate prudence and + circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many occasions, + that their propensity to a reconciliation, between the + two churches, arose from views of private interest, + rather than from a zeal for the public good." + </p> + </div> + <p> + It is observable that Mosheim applies these observations to + a late stage of the reformation, when much of its first + violence had subsided. + </p> + <p> + The nearest approach<a name='FNanchor_080_80'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_080_80'><sup>[080]</sup></a> to a reunion, + between any Protestant churches, seems to be that, which + took place at Sendomer, in the year 1570. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='II'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cii'>II.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Attempts for a Reunion of the Calvinist Churches to the See + of Rome. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Having thus summarily noticed, the unsuccessful attempts, + to effect an union, between the Lutheran, and Calvinist + churches, we proceed to a similar summary mention of the + attempts, equally unsuccessful, to effect the reunion of + the Calvinists, to the church of Rome, which were made, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1st, during the reign of Henry the Fourth: + </p> + <p> + 2dly, during the reign of Lewis the Thirteenth: and + </p> + <p> + 3dly, during the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth: + </p> + <p> + 4thly, we shall afterwards notice, the Revocation of the + edict of Nantes, and the complete restoration of the + protestants of France, to their civil rights, in the + reign of Lewis the Eighteenth. + </p> + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='II_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cii.1'>II. 1.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + An attempt to reunite the Calvinists to the church of Rome + was made at the celebrated Conference held at Poissi in + 1561. In the work which we have cited, the Abbé + Tabaraud gives a short and clear account of this + conference. It failed of success, and a long civil war of + religion ensued. It was closed by the conversion of + <i>Henry the Fourth</i> to the Roman Catholic religion. He + was no sooner quietly seated on the throne, than he + conceived the arduous, but certainly noble project of + pacifying the religious contests of the world. It appears + that he was induced to entertain hopes of the success of + this measure, by the assurances given him by the Calvinist + ministers, when his change of religion, was in agitation, + that salvation might be obtained in the church of Rome; and + from his expectation of finding a spirit of conciliation, + and concession, in the see of Rome. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "I have heard, from persons of distinction," says + Grotius<a name='FNanchor_081_81'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_081_81'><sup>[081]</sup></a>, "that Henry the + Fourth declared that he had great hopes of procuring for + the King of England, and the other protestant princes, + who were his allies, conditions, which they could not + honorably refuse, if they had any real wish of returning + to the unity of the church; and that he had once an + intention of employing bishops of his own kingdom on this + project; but that this project failed by his death." + </p> + </div> + <p> + It is said, that with these views he had sent for <i>Isaac + Casaubon</i>, a protestant divine of equal learning and + moderation, and appointed him his librarian; and that he + intended confidentially employing him in preparing means + for the success of the measure, and smoothing the obstacles + which might impede its progress. Grotius<a name= + 'FNanchor_082_82'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_082_82'><sup>[082]</sup></a> mentions, as a + saying of Casaubon, that "the catholics of France had a + juster way of thinking than the ministers of Charenton:" + these were the most rigid of the French Hugonot ministers. + It is observable that the French government always + considered the Hugonots of a much more refractory + disposition than the Lutherans. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='II_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cii.2'>II. 2.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + The pacific views of Henry the Fourth, were terminated by + his decease. The capture of la Rochelle by the arms of + <i>Lewis the XIIIth</i>, was a fatal blow to the political + consequence of the Protestant party in France. Cardinal + Richelieu immediately set on foot a project, for the + general conversion, of the body: two persons, of very + different characters, were employed by him, in this + measure; Father Joseph, a capuchin friar, the confident, of + all the cardinal's political and private schemes, and + Father P. Dulaurens, an oratorian, who lived in retirement, + wholly absorbed in the exercises of religion. They began + the work of reunion by holding frequent conferences, on an + amicable footing, with several of the protestant ministers; + and it was resolved, that, with the permission of the pope, + and the authority of the king, an assembly, should be + convened, of ecclesiastics of each communion. Father + Dulaurens, recommended that the intended communications + with the ministers, should not take place, till they + reached, the capital; but, the cardinal, thought it more + advisable, that the ministers, should be separately + informed, of the project, before they left the provinces. + It was accordingly communicated to them, and favourably + received, by the ministers, of Languedoc, and Normandy, but + met with an unfavourable reception, from the ministers of + Sedan. It was resolved, that the assembly, should meet, and + begin their deliberations, with the differences in the + opinions, of the two churches, respecting the Sacraments. + Father Dulaurens recommended, that for some time, at least, + the Bible, even in the Calvinist version, of + Olivétan, should be the only book appealed to, on + either side, as authority: but the Cardinal insisted, on a + resort to tradition. Grotius mentions that in several + articles, (as communion under both kinds, and the + invocation of saints), the Cardinal was willing, that + concessions, should be made to the Protestants; and + suggested, that, as a medium, to reconcile them to the + Pope, a patriarchate should be established, in France, and + he himself, be the first patriarch<a name= + 'FNanchor_083_83'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_083_83'><sup>[083]</sup></a>. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the general loftiness, and overbearing + nature, of his manners, it appears, particularly from M. de + Rullhiêres<a name='FNanchor_084_84'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_084_84'><sup>[084]</sup></a> (6.) that the + Cardinal, acted on this occasion, with great moderation, + and recommended to his royal master, a similar line of + moderation, in all his conduct, towards his Protestant + subjects. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='II_3'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cii.3'>II. 3.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + The Cardinal's project, was suspended, by his decease; and + resumed, under <i>Lewis the Fourteenth</i>. In 1662, a + plan, drawn up by M. le Blanc de Beaulieu, a professor of + Divinity, at Sedan, singularly esteemed, both by the Roman + Catholics, and Protestants, by which the essential + articles, in dispute, were reduced to a small number, was + adopted, by the Court, to serve as the basis of discussion. + It was resolved, that different synods of Protestant + ministers, should be convened; that these, should be + composed, of ministers of known moderation, and pacific + views, and the articles, drawn up by M. le Blanc de + Beaulieu, presented to them. Three years were employed, in + negotiations for effecting this project: several ministers + in the lower Languedoc, and the Isle of France, expressed + themselves, in terms favourable, to the measure, but the + synod of Charenton, took the alarm, and the project, was + abandoned. + </p> + <p> + The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure equally + unwise, and unjust, too soon followed. It is more to be + attributed, to his ministers and advisers, than to Lewis + the Fourteenth himself. From the <i>Eclaircissemens + Historiques</i> of M. de Rullhiêres, and the life of + Bossuet, by M. Baussét<a name= + 'FNanchor_085_85'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_085_85'><sup>[085]</sup></a>, it seems evident, + that Lewis the Fourteenth, had been induced, to believe, + that the number of Protestants was much smaller; that the + conversions of them, would be much more rapid, general, and + sincere; and that the measures, for hastening their + conversion, would be much less violent than they really + were. It is also due, to the monarch, to add, that from the + authors, whom we have cited, it is evident, that when he + began to perceive the true state, of the transaction, + though from false principles of honour, and policy, he + would not revoke the edict, he wished it not to be put into + great activity, and checked the forwardness, of the + Intendants general in its execution. + </p> + <p> + It is whimsical, (if on so serious a subject such a word + may be used), that the dragonâde, or employment of + the dragoon troops, in forcing the conversion, of the + Hugonots, was owing to the wish of Louvois, the minister, + of Lewis the Fourteenth, to become himself, a missionary. + Observing how much the apparent success, of the + missionaries, recommended them, to Lewis the Fourteenth, he + began to consider them as dangerous rivals for the favour + of his royal master, and determined, therefore, to become + himself, a principal performer. With this view, he + instituted the dragoon missions, and thus brought a + material part, of the work of conversion, into the war + department. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='II_4'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cii.4'>II. 4.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + The death of Lewis, and the known disposition of the + Regent, appeared to the Protestant party, in France, to + afford a proper opportunity of recovering their rights. + Duclos, in his <i>Mémoires secréts sur les + regnes de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV</i>., says, that the + Regent himself wished to restore the Protestants, to their + civil rights, but was dissuaded by his council. Still, he + seldom permitted the edicts against them to be executed; + and speaking generally, the Protestants seem to have + suffered no active persecution in any part of the reign of + Lewis, the XVth. One intolerable grievance, however, they + unquestionably suffered in every part of it. Their + religious principles did not permit them to be married by a + Roman Catholic priest, in the manner prescribed by the law + of the state, and that law did not recognize the legal + validity of a marriage, celebrated in any other form. The + consequence was, that in the eye of the law, the marriage + of Protestants was a mere concubinage, and the offspring of + it illegitimate. To his immortal honour, <i>Lewis the + XVIth</i>, by his edict of the 17th of November, 1787, + accorded to all his Non-catholic subjects the full and + complete enjoyment of all the rights of his Roman-catholic + subjects. On a division in the Parliament, this edict was + registered by a majority of 96 votes against 16. + </p> + <p> + The persecution of the Hugonots in consequence of the + revocation of the Edict of Nantes, was condemned by the + greatest men in France. M. d'Aguesseau, the father of the + celebrated chancellor, resigned his office of Intendant of + Languedoc rather than remain a witness of it: his son + repeatedly mentions it with abhorrence. + Fénélon, Flechier, and Bossuet,<a name= + 'FNanchor_086_86'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_086_86'><sup>[086]</sup></a> confessedly the + ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented it. To the + utmost of their power, they prevented the execution of the + edict, and lessened its severities, when they could not + prevent them. Most sincerely lamenting and condemning the + outrages committed by the Roman Catholics against the + Protestants at Nismes, as violations of the law of God and + man, but doubting of the nature and extent, which some have + attributed to them, the writer of these pages begs leave to + refer to the sermon preached on them by the Reverend James + Archer, a Roman Catholic priest, and printed for Booker, in + Bond-street, by the desire of two Roman Catholic + congregations, as expressing the doctrine of the Roman + Catholic church, and of all real christians on heretics and + the persecution of heretics. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='III'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#ciii'>III.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p class="c8"> + The Correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the + auspices of Lewis the XIVth, for the Reunion of the + Lutheran Protestants to the Roman Catholic Church. + </p> + <p> + This correspondence forms one of the most interesting + events in the life of Bossuet; the letters, of which it + consists, and the other written documents, which relate to + it, are highly interesting. We shall attempt to present our + readers with a short account- + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1st. Of the circumstances which led to this + correspondence; + </p> + <p> + 2ndly. Of the Project of Reunion, delivered by Molanus, a + Lutheran Divine, and Bossuet's sentiments on that + Project; + </p> + <p> + 3dly. Of the intervention of Leibniz in the negotiation; + and + </p> + <p> + 4thly. Of the Project suggested by Bossuet, and the + principal reasons, by which he contended for its + reception. + </p> + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='c_III_1'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#ciii.1'>III. 1.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + It appears that, towards the 17th century, the Emperor + Leopold, and several sovereign princes in Germany, + conceived a project of re-uniting the Roman Catholic and + Lutheran churches. The Duke of Brunswick, who had recently + embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and published his + <i>Fifty Reasons for his conversion</i>, (once a popular + work of controversy), and the Duke of Hanover, the father + of the first prince of the illustrious house, which now + fills the throne of England, were the original promoters of + the attempt. It was generally approved; and the mention of + it at the Diet of the Empire was favourably received. Some + communications upon it took place between the Emperor and + the ducal Princes: and with all their knowledge, several + conferences were held upon the subject, between certain + distinguished Roman Catholic and Protestant Divines. In + these, the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus, the Abbot of + Lokkum, took the lead. The first had been consecrated + Bishop of Tina in Bosnia, then under the dominion of the + Turks, with Ordinary Jurisdiction over some parts of the + Turkish territories. His conduct had recommended him to + Innocent the XIth, and that pope had directed him to visit + the Protestant states in Germany, and inform him of their + actual dispositions in respect to the Church of Rome. In + consequence of this mission, he became known to the + Emperor, who appointed him to the See of Neustadt, in the + neighbourhood of Vienna. Molanus, was Director of the + Protestant Churches and Consistories of Hanover. Both were + admirably calculated for the office intended them, on this + occasion. Each possessed the confidence of his own party, + and was esteemed by the other; each was profoundly versed + in the matters in dispute; each possessed good sense, + moderation, and conciliating manners; and each had the + success of the business at heart, with a fixed purpose, + that nothing, but a real difference on some essential + article of doctrine, should frustrate the project. + </p> + <p> + The effect of the first conferences was so promising, that + the Emperor and the two Princes resolved, that they should + be conducted in a manner more regular, and more likely to + bring the object of them to a conclusion. With this view, + the business was formally entrusted by both the princes to + Molanus alone, and the Emperor published a rescript, dated + the 20th March, 1691, by which he gave the Bishop of + Neustadt full authority to treat, on all matters of + religion, with the states, communities, and individuals of + the empire, reserving to the ecclesiastical and imperial + powers, their right to confirm the acts of the Bishop, as + they should judge adviseable. Under these auspicious + circumstances, the conference between the Bishop of + Neustadt and Molanus began. + </p> + <p> + But, before the events which we have mentioned took place, + a correspondence on the subject of a general reunion + between Catholics and Protestants had been carried on for + some time, between Pelisson and Leibniz. The former held a + considerable rank among the French writers, who adorned the + reign of Lewis the Fourteenth; the latter was eminently + distinguished in the literary world. In the exact sciences, + he was inferior to Newton alone; in metaphysics, he had no + superior; in general learning, he had scarcely a rival. He + had recommended himself to the Brunswick family, by three + volumes, which he had recently published, on the + Antiquities of that illustrious House; and was then engaged + in the investigation of its Italian descent, and early + German shoots. The result of it, under the title of + <i>Origines Guelphicæ</i>, was published, after his + decease, by Scheidius, and is considered to be a perfect + model of genealogical history. He was also thoroughly + conversant in the theological disputes of the times; and in + all the questions of dogma, or history, which enter into + them. + </p> + <p> + His correspondence with Pelisson, came to the knowledge of + Louisa, Princess Palatine, and Abbess of Maubrusson. She + was a daughter of Frederick, the Elector, and Count + Palatine of the Rhine, and a sister, of the Duchess of + Hanover. In early life, she had been converted to the Roman + Catholic religion, and had the conversion of her sister, + very much at heart. With this view, she sent to her, the + correspondence between Leibniz and Pelisson, and received + from her an account of what was passing, between the Bishop + of Neustadt, and Molanus. Both the ladies were anxious, to + promote the measure, and that Bossuet should take in it, + the leading part, on the side of the Catholics. This was + mentioned to Lewis the Fourteenth, and had his approbation. + The Emperor and both the Princes, by all of whom Bossuet, + was personally esteemed, equally approved of it, and it was + finally settled that Bossuet and Leibniz, should be joined, + to the Bishops of Neustadt, and Molanus, and that the + correspondence with Bossuet, should pass through the hands + of Madame de Brinon, who acted, as secretary to the Abbess + of Maubrusson, and is celebrated, by the writers of the + times, for her wit and dexterity in business. Thus the + matter assumed, a still more regular form, and much was + expected from the acknowledged talents, learning, and + moderation of the actors in it, and their patrons. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='c_III_2'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#ciii.2'>III. 2.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + The conferences between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus + continued for seven months, and ended in their agreeing on + 12 articles, to serve for the basis of the discussion, on + the terms of the reunion. + </p> + <p> + The Bishop of Neustadt, communicated these articles to + Bossuet. He seems, to have approved of them generally, but + to have thought, that some alteration in them, was + adviseable. This being mentioned to Molanus, he published + his <i>Cogitationes Privatæ</i>, a profound and + conciliating dissertation. Without entering into any + discussion, on the points in dispute, between the churches, + he suggested in it a kind of truce, during which, there + should be ecclesiastical communion between them: the + Lutherans, were to acknowledge the Pope, as the first of + Bishops, in order, and dignity: the Church of Rome, was to + receive the Lutherans, as her children, without exacting + from them, any retractation of their alledged errors, or + any renunciation, of the articles in their creed, condemned + by the Council of Trent. The anathemas of that council, + were to be suspended, and a general council was to be + convened, in which the Protestants were to have a + deliberative voice: the sentence of that council, was to be + definitive, and, in the mean time, the members of each + party, were to treat the members of the other, as brethren, + whose errors, however great they might appear, were to be + tolerated, from motives of peace, and in consideration, of + their engagements to abandon them, if the council should + pronounce against them. To show the probability of a final + accommodation, Molanus notices, in his Dissertation, + several points, in which one party imputed to the other + errors, not justly chargeable on them; several, on which + they disputed, merely for want of rightly understanding + each other; and several, in which the dispute was of words + only. + </p> + <p> + It appears that the Bishop of Neustadt, communicated this + dissertation, to Bossuet, and that Bossuet was delighted, + with the good sense, candour, and true spirit of + conciliation, which it displayed. In his letters he + frequently mentions the author, and always in terms, Of the + highest praise. His own language was equally moderate and + conciliating. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "The Council of Trent," he says in one of his letters, + "is our stay; but we shall not use it to prejudice the + cause. This would be, to take for granted, what is in + dispute between us. We shall deal more fairly with our + opponents. We shall make the council serve, for a + statement, and explanation, of our doctrines. Thus, we + shall come to an explanation, on those points, in which + either of us imputes to the other, what he does not + believe, and in which we dispute, only because we + misconceive each other. This may lead us far; for <i>the + Abbot of Lokkum, has actually conciliated the points so + essential, of Justification, and the Eucharist: nothing + is wanting in him, on that side, but that he should be + avowed. Why should we not hope to conclude, in the same + manner, disputes, less difficult, and of less importance? + Cela se peut pousser si avant, que M. l'Abbé de + Lokkum, a concilié, actuellement les points si + essentiels, de la justification, et du sacrifice de + l'Eucharistie, et il ne lui manque de ce coté la, + que de se faire avouer. Pourquoi ne pas espérer de + finir, par les mêmes moyens, des disputes, moins + difficiles, et moins importantes?"</i> + </p> + </div> + <p> + With these rational and conciliatory dispositions, Bossuet, + and Molanus, proceeded. But, after this stage of the + business, Molanus disappears, and Leibniz comes on the + scene. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='c_III_3'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#ciii.3'>III. 3.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + A Letter, written by Bossuet to M^me de Brinon, having been + communicated by her to Leibniz, opened the correspondence + between him and Bossuet. In that letter, Bossuet declared + explicitly, that the Church of Rome, was ready, to make + concessions, on points of discipline, and to explain + doctrines, but would make no concession in respect to + defined articles of faith; and, in particular, would make + no such concession, in respect to any which had been + defined by the Council of Trent. Leibniz's Letter to M^me + de Brinon, in answer to this communication, is very + important. He expresses himself in these terms; + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "The Bishop of Meaux says, + </p> + <p> + "1st. That the Project delivered to the Bishop of + Neustadt, does not appear to him quite sufficient; + </p> + <p> + "2dly. That it is, nevertheless, very useful, as every + thing must have its beginning: + </p> + <p> + "3dly. That Rome will never relax from any point of + doctrine, defined by the church, and cannot capitulate, + in respect to any such article; + </p> + <p> + "4thly. That the doctrine, defined in the Council of + Trent, is received in and out of France by all Roman + Catholics; + </p> + <p> + "5thly, That satisfaction may be given to Protestants, in + respect to certain points of discipline, or in the way of + explanation, and that this had been already done in an + useful manner, in some points, mentioned in the Project + of the Bishop of Neustadt. + </p> + <p> + "These are the material propositions, in the letter of the + Bishop of Meaux, and I believe all these propositions + true. Neither the Bishop of Neustadt, nor those who + negotiated with them, make any opposition to them. There + is nothing in them, which is not conformable to the + sentiments of those persons. The third of them in + particular, which might be thought, an obstacle, to these + Projects of Accommodation, could not be unknown to them; + one may even say, that they built on it." + </p> + </div> + <p> + It seems difficult to deny, that, in this stage of the + business, much had been gained to the cause of reunion. The + parties were come to a complete understanding on the + important articles of Justification, and the Eucharist; and + it was admitted, both by Leibniz, and Molanus, that, in + their view of the concern, an accommodation might be + effected, between the Roman Catholic, and Lutheran + churches, though the former, retained all her defined + doctrines, and, in particular, all her doctrines, defined + by the Council of Trent. The question then was, what should + be done in respect to the remaining articles in difference + between the churches? It is to be wished, that it had been + left to Bossuet, and Molanus, to settle them, in the way of + amicable explanation, in which they had settled, the two + important articles, which we have mentioned. It is evident, + from the passages, which we have cited, from Bossuet, that + it was his wish, that the business should proceed on that + plan, and that he had hopes of its success. Unfortunately, + the business took, another direction: Leibniz proclaimed, + that after every possible explanation should be given, the + Lutheran church would, still retain, some articles, + contrary to the defined doctrines, of the Church of Rome, + and anathematized, by the Council of Trent. To remove the + final effect of this objection, Leibniz held out Molanus's + first project, that the Lutherans should express a general + acquiescence, in the authority of the church, and promise + obedience, to the decisions of a General Council, to be + called, for the purpose of pronouncing, on these points; + and that, in consequence of these advances, on their part, + the anathemas of the Council of Trent, should be suspended, + and the Lutherans received, provisionally, within the pale, + of the Catholic church. To bring over Bossuet to this plan, + he exerted great eloquence, and displayed, no common + learning. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='III_4'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#ciii.4'>III. 4.</a> + </h2> + <br> + + <p> + But the eloquence, and learning, of Leibniz, were without + effect. In language, equally temperate and firm, Bossuet, + adhered to his text, that in matters of discipline, or any + other matter, distinct from faith, the Church of Rome, + would show the utmost indulgence to the Lutherans; but + that, on articles of faith, and specifically, on those + propounded by the Council of Trent, there could be no + compromise. This, however, he confined to articles of faith + alone: and even on articles of faith, he wished to consult + the feelings of Protestants, as much as possible. He + offered them every fair explanation of the tenets of the + council; he required from them no retractation, of their + own tenets: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Molanus," he says, "will not allow retractation to be + mentioned. It may be dispensed with; it will be + sufficient, that the parties acknowledge, the truth, by + way of declaration or explanation. To this, the + Symbolical Books, give a clear opening, as appears by the + passages, which have been produced from them, and will + appear, by other passages, which may be produced from + them." + </p> + </div> + <p> + If Bossuet was thus considerate, in what regarded faith, it + will easily be supposed, how indulgent his sentiments were, + in respect to all, that merely regarded discipline. A + complete confession of faith, being once obtained from the + Lutherans, he was willing, to allow them, if they required + it, communion under both kinds; that their Bishops, should + retain their Sees; and that, where there was no Bishop, and + the whole body of the people, was Protestant, under the + care, of a superintendant, <i>that</i> superintendant, + should be consecrated their Bishop; that, where there was a + Catholic Bishop, and a considerable part of the diocese, + was Lutheran, the superintendant, should be consecrated + priest, and invested with rank, and office, that the + Lutheran ministers, should be consecrated priests; that + provision should be made for their support; that such of + their bishops, and ministers, as were married, might retain + their wives, and that the consciences of those, who held + possessions of the church, should be quieted, except in + respect, to hospitals, whose possessions he thought, could + not conscientiously be withheld, from the poor objects of + their foundations; and that every other arrangement should + be made, by the church and state, which would be agreeable, + to the feelings, and prejudices, of their new brethren. + </p> + <p> + Such were the advances made by Bossuet; and much discussion + on them, took place, between him, and Leibniz. It continued + ten years. They are very learned, and a scholar will read + them with delight; but, unfortunately, they rather + retarded, than promoted, their object. The real business + ended, when Molanus quitted the scene. We shall close this + article, with the following extract from the last letter + but one, written by Bossuet, on the subject. It is + addressed to Leibniz, and bears date the 12th August, 1701, + ten years, after his first letter, on it was written: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Among the divines of the Confession of Augsburg, I + always placed M. Molanus, in the first rank, as a man, + whose learning, candour and moderation made him one of + the persons, the most capable I have known, of advancing + the NOBLE PROJECT OF REUNION. In a letter, which I wrote + to him some years ago, by the Count Balati, I assured + him, that, if he could obtain, the general consent of his + party, to what he calls, his Private Thoughts, + <i>Cogitationes Privatæ</i>, I promised myself, + that, by joining to them, the remarks, which I sent to + him, on the Confession of Augsburg, and the other + Symbolic writings of the Protestants, the work of the + Reunion would be perfected, in all its most difficult and + most essential points; so that well disposed persons + might, in a short time, bring it to a conclusion." + </p> + </div> + <p> + The passage is so important, that it is proper to present + it to the reader in Bossuet's own words. + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Parmi les Théologiens de la Confession + d'Ausbourg, j'ai toujours mis, au premier rang, M. + l'Abbé de Lokkum, comme un homme, dont le + sçavoir, la candeur, et la modération le + rendolent un des plus capables, que je connusse, pour + avancer CE BEAU DESSEIN. Cela est si véritable, + que j'ai cru devoir assurer ce docte Abbé, dans la + réponse que je luis fis, il y a dejà, + plusieurs années, par M. le Comte Balati, que s'il + pouvoit faire passer ce qu'il appelle ses Pensées + Particulières <i>Cogitationes Privatæ</i>, + à un consentement suffisent, je me promettois + qu'en y joignant les remarques, que je lui envoyois, sur + la Confession d'Ausbourg, et les autres écrits + Symboliques des Protestans, l'ouvrage de la + Réunion seroit achevé dans ses parties les + plus difficiles et les plus essentielles; en sorte qu'il + ne faudroit à des personnes bien disposées, + que très peu de tems pour la conclure<a name= + 'FNanchor_087_87'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_087_87'><sup>[087]</sup></a>." + </p> + </div> + <p> + Dom. de Foris, the Benedictine Editor of the new edition of + the works of Bossuet and the Abbé Racine, + <i>Abrégé de l'Histoire + Ecclésiastique</i><a name='FNanchor_088_88'></a><a + href='#Footnote_088_88'><sup>[088]</sup></a> are very + severe in their censures of the conduct of Leibniz in the + negotiations for the Reunion, and attribute its failure to + his presumption and duplicity. To the writer of these + pages, it appears clear, that Leibniz was sincere in his + wishes for the reunion; and that, if he occasioned its + failure, it was unintentionally. While the business was in + the hands of Bossuet, and Molanus, it was a treaty, not for + the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and all + Protestant churches, but for the reunion of the Roman + Catholic church, and the Lutheran church; and to this, + Molanus's endeavours to reconcile differences, were + directed. Leibniz, whose principles in religion, were much + wider, than those of Molanus, seems to have wished, that + the negotiation should be placed, on a broader basis, and + extended to a reunion of the church of Rome, with every + denomination of Christians. This gave the negotiation a + different direction, and in a great measure, undid what had + been, so happily begun. We have seen, that, to the very + last, Bossuet, called out for Molanus, and entertained + great hopes, that, if the matter were left to Molanus, and + him, the noble Project of Reunion, would be crowned with + success. There is no part of Bossuet's literary or active + life, in which he appears to greater advantage, or in a + more amiable light, than on this occasion. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='IV'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#civ'>IV.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Attempt in the reign of Lewis the XV. to effect an union + between the Church of Rome and the Church of England. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + Of all Protestant churches, the national church of England + most nearly resembles the church of Rome. It has retained + much of the dogma, and much of the discipline of Roman + Catholics. Down to the sub-deacon it has retained the whole + of their hierarchy; and, like them, has its deans, rural + deans, chapters, prebends, archdeacons, rectors, and + vicars; a liturgy, taken in a great measure, from the Roman + Catholic liturgy; and composed like that, of Psalms, + Canticles, the three creeds, litanies, epistles, gospels, + prayers, and responses. Both churches have the sacraments + of baptism, and the eucharist, the absolution of the sick, + the burial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the + reservation of confirmation, and order to bishops, the + difference of episcopal, and sacerdotal dress, feasts, and + fasts. Without adopting all the general councils of the + church of Rome, the church of England has adopted the first + four of them; and, without acknowledging the authority of + the other councils, or the authority of the early fathers, + the English divines of the established church, allow them + to be entitled, to a high degree of respect.<a name= + 'FNanchor_089_89'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_089_89'><sup>[089]</sup></a> On the important + article of the eucharist, the language, of the Thirty-nine + Articles, sounds very like, the doctrine of the church of + Rome. + </p> + <p> + At the time, of which we are speaking, the doctrines of the + high church, which are generally considered to incline to + those of the Roman Catholics, more than the doctrines of + the low church, were in their zenith; and in France, where + the ultramontane principles on the power of the Pope had + always been discountenanced, the disputes of Jansenism were + supposed to reduce it very low. On each side, therefore, + the time was thought favourable to the project of Reunion. + </p> + <p> + It was also favourable to it, that, a few years before this + time, an event had taken place, which naturally tended to + put both sides into good humour. + </p> + <p> + On the occasion of the marriage of the Princess Christina + of Wolfenbuttell, a Lutheran, with the archduke of Austria, + her court consulted the faculty of theology of the + University of Helmstadt, on the question, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "Whether a Protestant Princess, destined to marry a + catholic prince, could, without wounding her conscience, + embrace the Roman Catholic religion?" The faculty + replied, that, "it could not answer the proposed + question, in a solid manner, without having previously + decided, whether the catholics were, or were not engaged + in errors, that were fundamental, and opposed to + salvation; or, (which was the same thing), whether the + state of the catholic church was such, that persons might + practise in it, the true worship of God, and arrive at + salvation." This question the divines of Helmstadt, + discussed at length; and concluded in these terms: "After + having shown, that the foundation of religion, subsists + in the Roman Catholic religion, so that a person may be + orthodox in it, live well in it, die well in it, and + obtain salvation in it, the discussion of the proposed + question, is easy. We are, therefore, of opinion, that + the most Serene Princess of Wolfenbuttell, may, in favour + of her marriage, embrace the catholic religion." + </p> + </div> + <p> + This opinion is dated the 28th of April 1707, and was + printed in the same year at Cologne. The Journalists of + Trevoux inserted both the original and a French translation + of it in their journal of May, 1708. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, the correspondence in question + took place. It began, in 1718, through Doctor Beauvoir, + chaplain to Lord Stair, his Britannic majesty's ambassador + at Paris. Some conversation, on the reunion of the two + churches, having taken place, between Doctor Dupin, and + him, he acquainted the archbishop of Canterbury, with the + subject of them. This communication, produced some + compliments from the archbishop, to Dr. Dupin, and these, + led the latter, to address, to his grace, a letter, in + which he mentioned generally, that, on some points in + dispute, the supposed difference between the two communions + was reconcileable. The correspondence getting wind, Doctor + Piers, pronounced a discourse in the Sorbonne, in which he + earnestly exhorted his colleagues, to promote the reunion, + by revising those articles, of doctrine, and discipline, + which protestants branded with the name of papal tyranny; + and contended, that, by proscribing the ultramontane + doctrines, the first step to the reunion would be made. The + discourse, was communicated to Dr. Wake: in his answer, he + pressed Dr. Dupin, for a more explicit declaration, on the + leading points, in controversy. + </p> + <p> + In compliance with this requisition, Doctor Dupin drew up + his <i>Commonitorium</i>, and communicated it, to several + persons of distinction, both in the state, and church of + France. He discussed in it, the Thirty-nine Articles, as + they regarded doctrine, morality, and discipline. He + insisted on the necessity of tradition, to interpret the + scriptures, and to establish the canonicity of the books, + of the Old and New Testament. He insisted on the + infallibility, of the church, in faith, and morals; he + contended, that the sacrifice of the mass, was not a simple + sacrament, but a continuation of the sacrifice of the + cross. + </p> + <p> + The word Transubstantiation, he seemed willing to give up, + if the Roman Catholic doctrine, intended to be expressed by + it, were retained. He proposed, that communion under both + kinds, or under bread alone, should be left, to the + discretion of the different churches, and consented, that + persons in holy orders should retain their state, with such + provisions, as would place the validity of their + ordination, beyond exception. The marriage of priests, in + the countries, in which such marriages were allowed, and + the recitation of the divine service in the vulgar tongue, + he allowed; and intimated that no difficulty would be found + in the ultimate settlement of the doctrine, respecting + purgatory, indulgences, the veneration of saints, relics, + or images. He seems to have thought, that the Pope can + exercise, no immediate jurisdiction, within the dioceses of + bishops, and that his primacy invested him, with no more + than a general conservation, of the deposit of the faith, a + right to enforce, the observance of the sacred canons, and + the general maintenance of discipline. He allowed, in + general terms, that there was little substantially wrong, + in the discipline of the Church of England; he deprecated + all discussion, on the original merit of reformation, and + he professed to see no use in the Pope's intervention, till + the basis of the negotiation, should be settled. + </p> + <p> + The answer of the archbishop, was not very explicit. It is + evident from it, that he thought, the quarrels on + Jansenism, had alienated the Jansenists and their + adherents, from the Pope, much more, than they had done, in + reality. He was willing to concede, to the Pope, a primacy + of rank and honour, but would by no means allow him, a + primacy of jurisdiction, or any primacy, by divine right. + On the other points, he seemed to have thought, that they + might come to an agreement, on what they should declare, to + be the fundamental doctrine of the churches, and adopt, on + every other point of doctrine, a general system, of + christian toleration. + </p> + <p> + The correspondence, which is very interesting, may be seen, + in the last volume of the English translation, of Doctor + Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History. To facilitate, the + accomplishment of the object of it, Doctor Courayer, + published his celebrated treatise, on <i>the Validity of + English Ordinations</i>. + </p> + <p> + Both Dr. Wake, and Dr. Dupin. were censured, by the members + of their respective communions, for the parts, which they + had taken, in this business. Several rigid members of the + English Church, and even some foreign protestants, blamed + Dr. Wake, for what they termed, his too great concessions. + In France, the worst of motives, were imputed to Dr. Dupin, + and his associates; they were accused, of making + unjustifiable sacrifices, in order to form an union, + between the Jansenists, and the members of the English + Church. Even the regent, took the alarm: he ordered Dr. + Dupin, to discontinue the correspondence, and to leave all + the papers, respecting it, with the minister. This was + done, but the most important of them, have been printed, in + the interesting and extensively circulated publication, + which has been mentioned. + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='V'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#cv'>V.</a> + </h2> + <p class="c8"> + Miscellaneous Remarks on the Reunion of Christians. + </p> + <br> + + <p> + It does not appear, that subsequently to the + communications, between Archbishop Wake, and Dr. Dupin, any + attempts for a general, or partial reunion of christians, + were made in the last century: but, early in the present, + <i>Napoleon</i>, conceived the project, of effecting, such + a reunion. He is said, to have particularly had in view, + the catholicizing, as it was termed, the northern part, of + Germany. To forward his design, many works were published: + one of them, the <i>Essai sur l'Unité des + Cultes</i>, of M. Bonald, is written, with great ingenuity. + That Essay, and several others by the same author, were + inserted in the <i>Ambigu</i> of Peltier, and deserve the + attention, of every reader. Though they contain some + things, to which a Roman Catholic writer, would object, + they are evidently written, by a Roman Catholic pen. + </p> + <p> + The first point to be considered, by those, who meditate + the project of reunion, is, its practicability-those, who + are disposed, to contend for the affirmative, will observe, + the number of important articles, of Christian Faith, in + which, all Christians, are agreed, and the proportionally + small number of those, in which, any Christians disagree. + </p> + <p> + All Christians believe, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + 1st. That there is one God; + </p> + <p> + 2d. That he is a Being, of infinite perfection; + </p> + <p> + 3d. That he directs all things, by his providence; + </p> + <p> + 4th. That it is our duty to love him, with all our + hearts, and our neighbour, as ourselves; + </p> + <p> + 5th. That it is our duty, to repent, of the sins we + commit; + </p> + <p> + 6th. That God, pardons the truly penitent; + </p> + <p> + 7th. That there is a future state, of rewards, and + punishments, when all mankind shall be judged, according + to their works; + </p> + <p> + 8th. That God, sent his Son, into the world, to be its + saviour, the author of eternal salvation, to all, that + obey him; + </p> + <p> + 9th. That he is the true Messiah; + </p> + <p> + 10th. That he taught, worked miracles, suffered, died, + and rose again, as is related in the four gospels; + </p> + <p> + 11th. That he will hereafter, make a second appearance on + the earth, raise all mankind from the dead, judge the + world in righteousness, bestow eternal life on the + virtuous, and punish the workers of iniquity. + </p> + </div> + <p> + In the belief of these articles, all Christians, the Roman + Catholic, all the Oriental churches, all the members of the + Church of England, all Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians, + and Unitarians, are agreed. In addition to these, each + division, and subdivision of Christians, has its own + tenets. Now, let each settle among its own members, what + are the articles of belief, peculiar to them, which, in + their cool deliberate judgment, they consider as + <i>absolutely necessary</i> that a person should believe, + to be a member of the church of Christ; let these articles + be divested of all foreign matter, and expressed in + perspicuous, exact, and unequivocal terms; and, above all, + let each distinction of Christians, earnestly wish, to find + an agreement, between themselves and their fellow + Christians:-the result of a discussion conducted on this + plan, would most assuredly be, to convince all Christians, + that the essential articles of religious credence, in which + there is, a real difference among Christians, are not so + numerous, as the verbal disputes, and extraneous matter, in + which controversy is too often involved, make them + generally thought. + </p> + <p> + Still,-some articles will remain, the belief of which, one + denomination of Christians, will consider to be the + obligation of every Christian, and which other Christian + denominations, will condemn. On some of those, a + <i>speedy</i> reunion of Christians is not to be expected: + but, to use the language of Mr. <i>Vansittart</i>, in His + excellent letter to the reverend Dr. Marsh and John Coker, + Esq., + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "There is an inferior degree of Reunion, more within our + prospect, and yet perhaps as perfect as human infirmity + allows us to hope for; wherein, though all differences of + opinion, should not be extinguished, yet they may be + refined, from all party prejudices, and interested views, + so softened by the spirit of charity, and mutual + concession, and so controuled by agreement, on the + leading principles, and zeal, for the general interests + of christianity, that no sect, or persuasion, should be + tempted to make religion, subservient to secular views, + or to employ political power, to the prejudice of + others.-The existence of Dissent, will, perhaps, be + inseparable from religious freedom, so long, as the mind + of man, is liable to error: but it is not unreasonable to + hope, that hostility, may cease, though perfect + agreement, cannot be established.<br> + IF WE CANNOT RECONCILE ALL OPINIONS, LET US RECONCILE ALL + HEARTS." + </p> + </div> + <br> + + <p> + These pages, cannot be closed better, than by these golden + words!!! + </p> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <h4> + FINIS. + </h4> + <hr class='c2'> + <hr class='c7'> + <a name='FOOTNOTES'></a> + <h2> + <a href='#FOOTNOTES_1'>FOOTNOTES.</a> + </h2> + <a name='Footnote_001_1'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_001_1'>[001]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Tom. xi. p. 1. 200. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_002_2'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_002_2'>[002]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + De Institutiones Clericorum, L. iii. c. xviii. &c. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_003_3'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_003_3'>[003]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + In his "Recueil des Ecrits pour servir d'eclaircissement + de l'histoire de France, 2 vol. Paris 1798." + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_004_4'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_004_4'>[004]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + "Roswede, or Aroswethe, a nun in the monastery of + Gardersheim, lived in the reigns of Otho II. and III. + towards the end of the tenth century. She composed many + works in prose and verse. In 1501, some of her poems, on + the Martyrdom of St. Denys, the Blessed Virgin, St. Ann, + &c. were printed at Nuremburgh. Her verses in praise + of Otto II. would be tolerable, if they were not + Leonines: there are in them some errors of prosody." Bib. + Univers. et Histor. Vol. ii. p. 46. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_005_5'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_005_5'>[005]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + For a fuller account of Feudal and Civil Jurisprudence, + the writer of these pages begs leave to refer to his + work, entitled, "HORÆ JURIDICÆ + SUBSECIVÆ, being a connected series of Notes + respecting the Geography, Chronology, and Literary + History of the principal Codes and original Documents of + the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law." 1 vol. 8vo. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_006_6'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_006_6'>[006]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + It is entitled, "<i>Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ + Carthaginiensis, Viri Procunsularis, Satyricon, in quo de + Nuptiis Philologiæ et Mecurii libri duo, & de + septem artibus liberalibus libri singulares. Omnes, et + emendati et Notis sive Februis Hug. Grotii illustrati. Ex + Officina Plantiniana, Apud Christophorum Raphelingium + Academiæ Lugduno-Bat. Typographum</i> M. D. C." + [Transcriber's note: Apostrophic date 1600] The + Dedication to the Prince of Condé follows: then, + Encomiastic Verses by Scaliger, and Tiliabrogus. The two + works are then inserted, with an address to the reader, + Errata, and Various Readings. Afterwards, <i>Hugeiani + Grotii Februa<a name='FNanchor_007_7'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_007_7'><sup>[007]</sup></a> in Satyricon + Martiani Capellæ:</i> this contains his notes. They + are preceded by an Engraving of Grotius. Round it, is + written, "<i>Anno</i> M. D. C." [Transcriber's note: + Apostrophic date 1600] Hora Ruit.<a name= + 'FNanchor_008_8'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_008_8'><sup>[008]</sup></a> Æt.xv. Under + the engraving the following verses are printed, + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span>"<i>Quem sibi quindenis</i> ASTRÆA <i>sacravit + ab annis</i>,</span><br> + <span><i>Talis,</i> HUGEIANI GROTII <i>ora + fero</i>."</span> + </div> + <br> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_007_7'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_007_7'>[007]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + "Corrections"-or more literarily, "Purifications". + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_008_8'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_008_8'>[008]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + These words were used by Grotius for his motto. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_009_9'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_009_9'>[009]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, Lib iii. c. 15. In 1794, + John Adam Goez published the "Treatise on the Marriage of + Philology and Mercury" separately, in a duodecimo volume: + he mentions, in the preface, an edition of it by + Walthard. It is on the authority of Goez that we have + assigned the age of Capella to the third century: others + place him in a much later period. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_010_10'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_010_10'>[010]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Montucla. Histoire des Mathematiques, Vol.ii. p.657. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_011_11'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_011_11'>[011]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Vol. 9. p. 147. ii. 1. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_012_12'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_012_12'>[012]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + A similar exclusive claim in respect to the Indian seas, + under the grant of Pope Alexander VI., was set up by the + Portuguese; similar claims to the Ligustic and Adriatic + seas, have been and still continue to be made by the + Genoese and Venetians. Those, who seek for information on + the subject, should consult the <i>Dissertation of + Bynkershook de Dominio Maris</i>, and note 61 to the + recent edition of Sir Edward Coke's Commentary upon + Littleton. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_013_13'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_013_13'>[013]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + "Mais, dites vous, dans ce tems même, le jeune + Pison pouvolt avoir dix ans: Grotius faisoit bien des + vers a cet âge. Je le sçais, mais les + Grotius sont ils bien commune! combien d'enfans trouveres + vous de dix ans, qui ayent nonseulement assez du feu pour + faire des vers, mais encore assez de jugement pour en + juger sainement." Gibbon's Posthumous Works, 8vo. vol. i. + p. 520.-"Salmasius," says Mr. Gibbon in another part of + the same entertaining publication, (vol. v. p. 209), "had + read as much as Grotius; but their different modes of + reading had made the one an enlighten'd philosopher; and + the other, to speak plainly, a pedant puffed up with an + useless erudition." + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_014_14'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_014_14'>[014]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Bentivoglio, Histoire des Guerres de Flandres, l, xxviii. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_015_15'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_015_15'>[015]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + <i>Bella plusquam civilia.</i> Lucan. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_016_16'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_016_16'>[016]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Those who wish to obtain a clear, concise, and exact + notion of Calvinism and Arminianism, will usefully peruse + the account of them in Mr. Evans's "<i>Sketch of the + Denominations of the Christian World</i>." The thirteenth + Edition is now before us, and we believe that it has been + often since reprinted. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_017_17'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_017_17'>[017]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Cent. xvi, ch. 2. § 3. part 2. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_018_18'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_018_18'>[018]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Title "Arminius." + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_019_19'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_019_19'>[019]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + A short and clear account of Arminianism is given by Le + Clere, in his Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, Vol. II. + Art. 3. p. 123. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_020_20'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_020_20'>[020]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + The best discussion of this subject, which has fallen + into the hands of the writer, is Bourduloué's + Sermon <i>sur la Predestination</i>. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_021_21'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_021_21'>[021]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + English Translation of Burigni's Life of Grotius, pp. 43, + 44, 45. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_022_22'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_022_22'>[022]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Vol. i. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_023_23'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_023_23'>[023]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + <i>Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, during his + Embassy in Holland, from January 1615-16[**Modern + presentation.] to December 1620. London, 1757, p. + 84</i>,-Sir Dudley Carleton's Letters abound with harsh + expressions respecting Grotius. The Editor of this + correspondence has inserted (p. 415) a letter from + Grotius to Dr. Lancelot Andrews, written from the Castle + at Louvestein. "This letter," says the Editor, "which was + never printed before, deserves a place here, not only for + its elegance and spirit, and its connection with the + subject of the work, but likewise in justice to the + memory of the great writer, as it contains his own + justification of his conduct, which may be compared with + the less favourable accounts of it in the preceding + letters of Sir Dudley Carleton. The original is extant + among the manuscripts in the library of the late Sir Hans + Sloane, bart. now part of the British Museum."-"Utinam," + says Grotius in this letter, "D. Carleton mihi esset plus + æquior; cui mitigando propinqui mei operam dant. + Sed partium, studia mire homines obcæcant." + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_024_24'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_024_24'>[024]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + The history of this Synod, and of the whole controversy + upon Arminianism, is contained in Brand's <i>History of + the Reformation</i>: the account of the synod in these + pages, is principally extracted from the French + abridgment of that work, in 3 volumes 8vo. The Calvinian + representation of the Arminian doctrines, and the + proceedings of the synod, may be seen in the late Mr. + Scott's <i>Articles of the Synod of Dort</i>, to which he + has prefixed the History of the Events which <i>made way + for that Synod</i>: it is severely censured by Mr. James + Nichols, in his <i>Calvinism and Arminianism + compared</i>. Introd. cxlii. + </p> + <p> + The Abridgment of Brand's History, was translated into + the English language and published in 1724-25[**Modern + presentation.] by <i>M. de la Roche</i>. He concludes his + Preface to it by observing, that "No good man can read + the work without abhorring arbitrary power, and all + manner of persecution." The persecution of the Scottish + Non-conformists by the Episcopalians, and the persecution + of the Remonstrants by the Contra-Remonstrants, were + attended with this enormity, that, in most other + instances, when one denomination of christians has + persecuted another, it has been on the ground that the + errors of the sufferers were impious, and led the + maintainers of them to eternal perdition, and therefore + rendered these wholesome severities, as the persecutors + term them, a salutary infliction. But, when the + Protestant Episcopalian persecuted the Scottish + Non-conformist, or the Contra-Remonstrant persecuted the + Remonstrant, he persecuted a Christian who agreed with + him in all which he himself deemed to be substantial + articles of faith, and differed from him only about rites + and opinions, which he himself allowed to be + indifferent.-See Mr. Neale's just remark, Vol. II. ch. + vi. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_025_25'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_025_25'>[025]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + In 1765, Lord Hailes published a beautiful edition of + "The Works of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales of Eaton, + then first collected together," in three volumes, at + Glasgow. It is to be lamented that he did not accompany + it with a full biographical account of Mr. Hales. + </p> + <p> + "His biographers," says Mr. Chalmers, "all allow that he + may be classed among those divines who were afterwards + called Latitudinarians." May he not be termed the founder + of that splendid school? Perceiving that the minds of men + required to be more liberally enlightened, and their + affections to be more powerfully engaged on the side of + religion than was formerly thought necessary, they set + themselves, to use the language of Bishop Burnet, "to + raise those who conversed with them to another sort of + thoughts, and to consider the Christian religion as a + doctrine sent from God, both to elevate and to sweeten + human nature. With this view, they laboured chiefly to + take men from being in parties from narrow notions, and + from fierceness about opinions. They also continued to + keep a good correspondence with those who differed from + them in opinion and allowed a great freedom both in + philosophy and divinity." (Burnet's History of his own + Times. Vol. I. p. 261-268, oct. edit.) Hales, + Chillingworth, Taylor, Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson, + Stillingfleet, and Patrick, were among their brightest + ornaments. They were in some respects hostile to the + Roman Catholics: <i>in hoc non laudo</i>.-See the + Writer's History of the English, Irish, and Scottish + Catholics. Vol. III. c. lxviii. sect. 1. 3d edition. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_026_26'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_026_26'>[026]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + "King James," says Mr. James Nichols, in his Calvinism + and Arminianism compared, p. 242, "sent a deputation of + respectable British divines, for the double and + undisguised purpose of condemning the Remonstrants, but + especially Vórstius, (whom his Majesty had long + before exposed to the world as an arch-heretic), and of + assisting the Prince of Orange in his design of usurping + the liberties of the United Provinces, and assuming the + supreme authority. The Elector Palatine sent his + Heidelberg divines for the same family purpose; and the + Duke of Bouillon employed all his influence with the + chief pastors among the French reformed." + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_027_27'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_027_27'>[027]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + The words of the former are remarkable: "The errors of + public actions, if they be not very gross, are with less + inconvenience tolerated than amended. For the danger of + alteration, of disgracing and disabling authority, makes + that the fortune of such proceeding admits of no redress; + but being howsoever well or ill done, they must ever + after be upheld. The most partial spectator of our + synodal acts cannot but confess, that, in the late + discussion of the Remonstrants, with so much choler and + heat, there was a great oversight committed, and + that,-whether we respect our common profession of + Christianity, 'quæ nil nisi justum suadet et lene,' + or the quality of this people, apt to mutiny by reason of + long liberty, and not having learned to be imperiously + commanded,-in which argument the clergy should not have + read their first lesson. The synod, therefore, to whom it + is not now <i>in integro</i> to go back and rectify what + is amiss, without disparagement, must now go forward and + leave events to God, and for the countenance of their + actions do the best they may." Letter to Sir Dudley + Carleton, 11 January 1619. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_028_28'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_028_28'>[028]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + <i>Nichol's Calvinism and Arminianism compared</i>, Vol. + II. p.592 + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_029_29'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_029_29'>[029]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + <i>Decline and Fall</i>, Ch. LIV. towards the end. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_030_30'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_030_30'>[030]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + The writers who have given an account of the Synod of + Dort are mentioned by Fabricius, Bib. Græca, Vol. + XI. p. 723. Some useful observations upon the proceedings + of the Synod may be found in "Mr. Nichols's <i>Calvinism + and Arminianism compared</i>." It is much to be wished + that the promised continuation of this work should + speedily make its appearance. + </p> + <p> + But no work upon this famous Synod deserves more + attention than "<i>Johannis Halesii, Historia Concilii + Dordraceni, J. Laur. Moshemius Theol. Doct. et P.P.C. ex + Anglico Sermone latine vertit, variis observationibus et + Vitâ Halesii ausit. Accessit ejusdem de auctoritate + Concilii Dordraceni Paci Sacræ noxii, Consultatio. + Hamburgi</i>, 8vo." M. Le Clere's criticism on this work + (<i>Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne</i> Vol. 23, art. + 4.) contains much valuable information upon the Synod, + and a summary of the life and writings of Mr. Hales.-Des + Maizeaux published a curious account of them in 1719. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_031_31'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_031_31'>[031]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Pfaffii Hist. Literaria, vol. ii. p. 303. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_032_32'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_032_32'>[032]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Burigni's Life of Grotius, lib. ii. sect. 12. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_033_33'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_033_33'>[033]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Cent XVII, sect. 2, Part 2 (Note Y.) + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_034_34'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_034_34'>[034]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Mr. James Nicholls's Calvinism and Arminianism compared. + Vol. i. p. 597, 600, 634, 636. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_035_35'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_035_35'>[035]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + See Mr. Dugald Stewart's first Dissertation, sect. III. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_036_36'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_036_36'>[036]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + See Joannis Christopheri Locheri Dissertatio Epistolica + Historiam libelli Grotiani <i>De Veritate Religionis + Christianæ</i> complectens, 1725, in quarto; and + the Journal de Scavans for the year 1724. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_037_37'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_037_37'>[037]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + See Nichols's Calvinism and Arminianism compared, vol. i. + p. 289. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_038_38'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_038_38'>[038]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + On the respect, which the Church of England considers to + be due to the writings of the early Fathers, see the + excellent Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the Right + Reverend Bishop of Limerick. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_039_39'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_039_39'>[039]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Vol. iii. L. 38. This letter merits a serious perusal. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_040_40'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_040_40'>[040]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Dict. Historique, Preliminaire, p. xxix. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_041_41'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_041_41'>[041]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Vol.1. p. 121 + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_042_42'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_042_42'>[042]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Those, who will read his life, published by the writer of + these pages, with other Tracts, in 1819, will not, it is + believed, think this too strong an assertion. Is it not + to be earnestly hoped, that in the distress by which we + are now visited, and the greater distress with which we + are threatened, many St. Vincents will appear? + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_043_43'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_043_43'>[043]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ch. ii. sect. ii. part. ii. and + Bynkershock's Quest. Juris publici, lib. ii. ch. 18. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_044_44'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_044_44'>[044]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Le Clerc, (Bib. Anc. et Mod. vol. xxiii. Art. iv.) + strenuously objects to this representation of Dr. + Mosheim. "The Arminians," he says, "have introduced no + dogma as necessary to salvation, which was unknown to the + framers of their Confession of Faith; neither have they + retrenched from it, any article essential to faith." He + however observes, "that there are many ways of explaining + dogmas." Now, the same dogma explained in two ways, + amounts to two dogmas. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_045_45'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_045_45'>[045]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + See the third part of "<i>the last of Bossuet's Six + Addresses to the Protestants</i>," and the passages which + he cites in it from Jurieu. + </p> + <p> + For the actual state of Religious Doctrine, both in the + Lutheran and Reformed Churches of Germany, the reader may + usefully consult, "<i>The State of the Protestant + Religion in Germany, in a series of Discourses preached + before the University of Cambridge, by the Rev. Hugh + James Rose, M.A. 8vo. 1825</i>;" and "<i>Entretiens + Philosophiques sur la Re-union des differens communions + chretiens, par feu M. le Baron Starck, Ministre + Protestant, et premier predicateur, de la Cour de Hesse + Darmstadt, &c. 8vo. 1818</i>;" and "<i>Tabaraud's + Histoire des Re-unions des Chrêtiens.</i>" + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_046_46'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_046_46'>[046]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Tom. XLVI. Art. 12. p. 208. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_047_47'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_047_47'>[047]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 283. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_048_48'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_048_48'>[048]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 284, 285. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_049_49'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_049_49'>[049]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 286. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_050_50'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_050_50'>[050]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 287. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_051_51'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_051_51'>[051]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 288. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_052_52'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_052_52'>[052]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 288. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_053_53'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_053_53'>[053]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 291. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_054_54'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_054_54'>[054]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 292. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_055_55'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_055_55'>[055]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 293. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_056_56'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_056_56'>[056]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 294. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_057_57'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_057_57'>[057]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 296. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_058_58'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_058_58'>[058]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 298. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_059_59'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_059_59'>[059]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 299. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_060_60'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_060_60'>[060]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Page 300. M. Le Clerc, (<i>Sentimens de quelques + Theologiens de Hollande, dix-septieme Lettre</i>) defends + Grotius with great ability against the charge of + Socinianism: he justly observes, that, his abstaining + from unpleasing propositions, his silence on offensive + doctrines, and his conciliating expressions, should not + too easily be accounted proofs, of belief of his precise + sentiments of any particular tenets. Grotius, says Le + Clerc, was like an arbitrator, who, to bring to amity the + parties in difference, recommends to each, that he should + give something of what he himself considers to be his + strict right. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_061_61'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_061_61'>[061]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ep. 363. p. 364 + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_062_62'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_062_62'>[062]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ep. 491. p. 195. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_063_63'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_063_63'>[063]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ep. 494. p. 896. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_064_64'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_064_64'>[064]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ep. 1706. p. 736. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_065_65'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_065_65'>[065]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + <i>Comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism</i>. vol. ii. + p. 560. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_066_66'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_066_66'>[066]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ib. Vol. ii. p. 609. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_067_67'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_067_67'>[067]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ep. 1538. p. 573, 690, 926. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_068_68'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_068_68'>[068]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ep. 528. p. 400. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_069_69'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_069_69'>[069]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + "Those," says Mr. James Nichols,<a name= + 'FNanchor_070_70'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_070_70'><sup>[070]</sup></a> + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "who wish to behold the praises to which HUGO GROTIUS + or HUGH DE GROOT, is justly entitled, and which he has + received in ample measure from admiring friends and + reluctant foes, may consult SIR THOMAS POPE BLOUNT's + <i>Censura celebriorum Authorum</i>. His well earned + reputation is founded on too durable a basis to be + moved by such petty attacks as those to which I have + alluded in a previous part of this introduction (p. + xxi.), or those of Mr. Orme in page 641. + </p> + <p> + "That a man so accomplished, virtuous, fearless, and + unfortunate, should have had many enemies, among his + contemporaries, is not wonderful. But the number of + those who evinced their hatred to him, or to his + philanthropic labours, increased after his decease, + when they could display it with impunity. 'This very + pious, learned, and judicious man,' says Dr. Hammond, + 'hath of late, among many, fallen under a very unhappy + fate, being most unjustly calumniated, sometimes as a + SOCINIAN, sometimes as a PAPIST, and, as if he had + learnt to reconcile contradictions, sometimes <i>as + both of them together.</i>' + </p> + <p> + "One cause of the Charge of SOCINIANISM being preferred + against him, has been already mentioned, (p. xxxiii.) + and it is more fully explained in pages 637, 642. The + reader will not require many additional reasons to + convince him of the untenable ground for such an + accusation, when he is told that VOETIUS, one of the + most violent of his enemies, laid down this grand + axiom-'To place the principal part of religion in an + <i>observance of Christ's commands is</i> RANK + SOCIANISM!' To such a <i>practical observance of + the</i> requisitions of the Gospel, by what name soever + it might be stigmatized, Grotius pleaded guilty. He + says (p. 637) 'I perceive this was accounted the + principal part of religion by the Christians of the + primitive ages; and their various assemblies, divines, + and martyrs taught, 'that the doctrines <i>necessary to + be known</i> are exceedingly few, but that God forms + his estimate of us from the purpose and intention of an + obedient spirit.' I am likewise of the same opinion, + and shall never repent of having maintained it.' + </p> + <p> + "But as the charge of POPERY is of the utmost + consequence, I have discussed this topic at great + length, (pp. 566, 746), and have proved (pp. 549, 561), + that Grotius was as little attached to the principles + or the practice of the Romish church as the most + zealous of his accusers. Whatever tends to vindicate + the conduct of Grotius in this matter, will operate + still more powerfully in favour of Archbishop Laud. The + design of Grotius is well described by Dr. Hammond, in + a <i>Digression</i> which he added to his <i>Answer</i> + to the <i>Animadversions on his Dissertations</i>; in + which he says, + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "'For the charge of Popery that is fallen upon him, it + is evident from whence that flows,-either from his + <i>profest opposition to many doctrines of some + Reformers, Zuinglius and Calvin, &c</i>. or from + his <i>Annotations on Cassander, and the Debates with + Rivet consequent thereto, the Votum pro pace and + Discussio</i>.' + </p> + <p> + "For the former of these, it is sufficiently known + what contests there were, and at length how profest + the divisions betwixt the Remonstrants and + Contra-Remonstrants; and it is confessed that he + maintained (all his time) the Remonstrants party, + vindicating it from all charge, whether of + Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism, which was by the + opposers objected to it, and pressing the favourers + of the doctrine of Irrespective Decrees with the + odious consequences of making God the <i>author and + favourer of sin</i>, and frequently expressing his + sense of the evil influences that some of those + doctrines were experimented to have on men's lives. + And by these means it is not strange that he should + fall under great displeasure from those who, having + espoused the opinion of Irrespective Decrees, did not + only publish it as the THE TRUTH and TRUTH OF GOD, + but farther asserted the questioning of it to be + injurious to God's free grace and his Eternal + Election, and consequently retained no ordinary + patience for or charity to opposers. But, then, still + this is no medium to to infer that charge. The + doctrines which he thus maintained were neither + branches nor characters of Popery, but asserted by + some of the first and most learned and pious + Reformers. Witness the writings of Hemingius in his + <i>Opuscula</i>, most of which are on these subjects. + Whereas on the contrary side, Zuinglius and others, + who maintained the rigid way of Irrespective Decrees, + and infused them into some of this nation of ours, + are truly said, by an excellent writer of ours, Dr. + Jackson, to <i>have had it first from some ancient + Romish Schoolmen</i>, and so to have had as much or + more of that guilt adherent to them, as can be + charged on their opposers. So that from hence to + found the jealousy, to affirm him a papist because he + was not a contra-remonstrant, is but the old method + of speaking all that is ill of those who differ from + our opinions on any thing; as the Dutchman in his + rage calls his horse an ARMINIAN, because he doth not + not go as he would have him. And this is all that can + soberly be concluded from such suggestions, that they + are displeased and passionate that thus speak. + </p> + <p> + "As for the <i>Annotations on Cassander</i>, &c. + and the consequent vindications of himself against + <i>Rivet</i>, those have with some colour been deemed + more favourable toward Popery; but yet I suppose will + be capable of benign interpretations, if they be read + with these few cautions or remembrances: + </p> + <p> + "<i>First</i>. That they were designed to shew a way + to peace whensoever men's minds on both sides should + be piously affected to it. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Secondly</i>. That he did not hope for this temper + in his age, the humour on both sides being so + turgent, and extremely contrary to it, and the + controversy debated on both sides by those 'who,' + saith he, '<i>desire to eternize, and not to compose + contentions</i>,' and therefore makes his appeal to + posterity, when this paroxysm shall be over. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Thirdly</i>. That for the chief usurpations of the + papacy; he leaves it to Christian princes to join + together to vindicate their own rights, and reduce + the Pope <i>ad Canones</i>, to that temper, which the + ancient canons allow and require of him; and if that + will not be done, to reform every one in their own + dominions. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Fourthly</i>. That what he saith in favour of some + Popish doctrines, above what some other learned + Protestants have said, is not so much by way of + <i>assertion</i> or <i>justification</i> of them, as + to shew what reasons they may justly be thought to + proceed upon, and so not to be go irrational or + impious as they are ordinarily accounted; and this + only in order to the peace of the christian world, + that we may have as much charity to others and not as + high animosities, live with all men as sweetly and + amicably, and peaceably, and not as bitterly as is + possible, accounting the wars and seditions, and + divisions and rebellions, that are raised and managed + upon the account of religion, far greater and more + scandalous unchristian evils, than are the errors of + some Romish doctrines, especially as they are + maintained by the more sober and moderate men among + them, Cassander, Picherel, &c. + </p> + <p> + "<i>Fifthly</i>. What he saith in his + <i>Discussio</i>, of a conjunction of Protestants + with those that adhere to the Bishop of Rome, is no + farther to be extended, than his words extend it. + That there is not any other visible way to the end + there mentioned by him, of acquiring or preserving + universal unity. That this is to be done, not + crudely, by returning to them as they are, submitting + our necks to our former yokes, but by taking away at + once the division, and the causes of it, on which + side soever; adding only in the third place, that the + bare primacy of the Bishop of Rome, <i>secundum + Canones</i>, such as the ancient canons allow of, + (which hath nothing of <i>supreme universal + power</i>, or authority in it,) is none of those + causes, nor consequently necessary to be excluded in + the [Greek: diallaktikon (sic)], citing that as the + confession of that excellent person Philip + Melancthon. So that in effect, that whole speech of + his which is so solemnly vouched by Mr. Knott, and + looked on so jealously by many of us, is no more than + this, 'that such a Primacy of the Bishop of Rome, as + the ancient canons allowed him, were, for so glorious + an end as is the regaining the peace of christendom, + very reasonably to be afforded him, nay absolutely + necessary to be yielded him, whensoever any such + catholic union shall be attempted, which as it had + been the express opinion of Melancthon, one of the + first and wisest Reformers, so it is far from any + design of establishing the usurpations of the Papacy, + or any of their false doctrines attending them, but + only designed as an expedient for the restoring the + peace of the whole christian world, which every + disciple of Christ is so passionately required to + contend and pray for.' + </p> + </div> + <p> + "At the conclusion of the Doctor's <i>Continuation of + the Defence of</i> HUGO GROTIUS, he thus expresses + himself: + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "'As this is an act of mere justice and charity to the + dead,-and no less to those who, by their sin of + uncharitable thoughts towards him, are likely to + deprive themselves of the benefit of his labours,-so + is it but a proportionable return of debt and + gratitude to the signal value and kindness, which in + his lifetime, he constantly professed to pay to this + church and nation, expressing his opinion, "that of + all churches in the world, it was the most careful + observer and transcriber of primitive antiquity," and + more than intimating his desire to end his days in + the bosom and communion of our mother. Of this I want + not store of witnesses, which from time to time have + heard it from his own mouth whilst he was ambassador + in France, and even in his return to Sweden, + immediately before his death; and for a real evidence + of this truth, it is no news to many, that, at the + taking his journey from Paris, he appointed his wife, + whom he left behind, to resort to the English + Assembly at the Agent's house, which accordingly she + is known to have practised.'" + </p> + </div> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_070_70'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_070_70'>[070]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Calvinism and Arminianism compared, Introduction, + cxxxii. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_071_71'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_071_71'>[071]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + A dialogue on the Reformation was also in the + contemplation of Mr. Gibbon: "I have," he says in the + Memoirs of his life and writings,<a name= + 'FNanchor_072_72'></a><a href= + '#Footnote_072_72'><sup>[072]</sup></a> "sometimes + thought of writing a dialogue of the dead, in which + Luther, Erasmus and Voltaire should mutually + acknowledge the danger of exposing an old superstition + to the contempt of the blind and fanatic multitude." + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_072_72'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_072_72'>[072]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Vol. i. p. 269, of the 8vo. edition of his works. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_073_73'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_073_73'>[073]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + A full account of the writings of <i>Wicelius</i>, and + of his projects of Pacification, is given by <i>Father + Simon</i> in the <i>Biblioteque Critique, par M. de + Sainjore</i>, Tom. ii. ch. 18. He concludes it, by + observing, that + </p> + <div class='blkquot'> + <p> + "the great love which Wicelius had for the peace of + the church, might induce him to use expressions, + somewhat harsh, but which really ought not to be + censured with too much rigour. It is evident that his + only view was to be useful to persons of his own + time, to whom he consecrated the latter part of his + life.-I do not recollect to have read that he was + censured at Rome, and the Spanish Inquisitors seem to + have observed the same moderation in his regard." + </p> + </div> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_074_74'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_074_74'>[074]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + XVI. Cent. Book V. p. 41, in the Englsh translation. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_075_75'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_075_75'>[075]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVII. ch. + ii. sect. ii. Part II. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_076_76'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_076_76'>[076]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. ch. ii. sect. iii. Part. II. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_077_77'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_077_77'>[077]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Observat. Hallen, 15 t. p. 341. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_078_78'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_078_78'>[078]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + It is a prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, and suited to + the condition of a dying person who builds his hope on + the Mediator. <i>M. Le Clerc</i> has inserted it at + length in the <i>Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de + Hollande</i>, 17 Lettre, p. 397. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_079_79'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_079_79'>[079]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 2d Vol. p. 502. 2d + Edition. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_080_80'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_080_80'>[080]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + The author's "Confessions of Faith," mention this + convention, its dissolution, and the subsequent union + of the Helvetian, and Bohemian protestant + congregations, in the Synods, held at Astrog, in the + years 1620, and 1627. The original settlement of these + churches, was in Bohemia, and Moravia. Persecution + scattered the members of them: a considerable number of + the fugitives, settled at Herrenhut, a village in + Lusatia. There, under the protection and guidance of + Count Zinzendorf, they formed themselves into a new + community, which was designed to comprehend their + actual and future congregations, under the title of + "<i>The Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or + United Brethren of the Confession of Augsburgh</i>." + That Confession is their only symbolic book; but they + profess great esteem for the eighteen first chapters of + the Synodical Document of the church of Berne in 1532, + as a declaration of true Christian Doctrine. They also + respect, the writings of Count Zinzendorf, but do not + consider themselves, bound by any opinion, sentiment, + or expression, which these contain. It is acknowledged, + that, towards the middle of the last century, they used + in their devotional exercises, particularly in their + hymns, many expressions justly censurable: but these + have been corrected. They consider Lutherans and + Calvinists, to be their brethren in faith, as according + with them in the essential articles of religion; and + therefore, when any of their members reside at a + distance from a congregation of the United Brethren, + they not only attend a Lutheran, or Calvinist church, + but receive the Sacrament, from its ministers, without + scruple. In this, they profess to act in conformity to + the Convention at Sendomer. The union, which prevails + both among the congregations, and the individuals which + compose them, their modest and humble carriage, their + moderation in lucrative pursuits, the simplicity of + their manners, their laborious industry, their frugal + habits, their ardent but mild piety, and their regular + discharge of all their spiritual observances, are + universally acknowledged and admired. Their charities + are boundless, their kindness to their poor brethren is + most edifying; there is not among them a beggar. The + care, which they bestow, on the education of their + children, in forming their minds, chastening their + hearts, and curbing their imaginations,-particularly in + those years, + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <span class='c13'>"When youth, elate and + gay,</span><br> + <span>Steps into life and follows, + unrestrained,</span><br> + <span>Where passion leads, or reason points the way." + <i>Lowth.</i></span><br> + </div> + <p> + are universally acknowledged, universally admired, and + deserve universal imitation. + </p> + <p> + But, it is principally, by the extent and success of + their missionary labours, that they now engage, the + attention of the public. These began, in 1732. In 1812, + they had thirty-three settlements, in heathen nations. + One hundred and thirty-seven missionaries, were + employed in them: they had baptized, twenty-seven + thousand, four hundred converts: and such had been + their care, in admitting them to that sacred rite, and + such their assiduity, in cultivating a spirit of + religion, among them, that scarcely an individual, had + been known, to relapse into paganism. All travellers, + who have visited their settlements, speak with wonder, + and praise, of the humility, the patient endurance of + privation, and hardship, the affectionate zeal, the + mild, and persevering exertions of the missionaries; + and the innocence, industry and piety of the + converts:-the European, the American, the African, and + the Asiatic traveller speaks of them, in the same + terms: and, that they speak without exaggeration, the + conduct both of the pastor, and the flock in the + different settlements of the United Brethren in + England, incontestibly proves. Whatever he may think of + their religious tenets, <i>Talis cum sitis, utinam + nostri essetis</i>, must be the exclamation of every + christian, who considers their lives. Those, who desire + further knowledge of this amiable, and worthy + denomination of Christians, will find it in <i>David + Cranz's ancient and modern History of the Brethren, + printed at Barby, 1771, and the two continuations of + it, Barby</i>, 1791, and 1804. The History has been + translated into English; and is become exceedingly + scarce; the Continuations have not been translated. Mr. + La Trobe, the Pastor of the United Brethren in London, + has published a <i>Concise Historical Account of the + Protestant Church of the United Brethren adhering to + the Confession of Augsburgh</i>. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_081_81'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_081_81'>[081]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Epist. 1706, p. 736. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_082_82'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_082_82'>[082]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Ib. Epist. 613. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_083_83'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_083_83'>[083]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Epist. part. I. Epist. 432. part II. Epist. 53. The + French public strongly suspected the Cardinal of this + design. It gave rise to the celebrated libel, entitled + "<i>Optatus Gallus,</i>" <i>Grotius</i>, (Lit. 982.) + notices a prophecy of Nostradamus, then in circulation: + </p> + <div class='poem'> + <br> + <span>"<i>Celui qui était bien avant dans le + regne,</i></span><br> + <span><i>Ayant chat rouge, proche, + hierarchie,</i></span><br> + <span><i>Apre et cruel, et se fera tant + craindre,</i></span><br> + <span><i>Succedera, a sacrée + Monarchie.</i>"</span><br> + </div> + <p> + If the event in question had happened, Nostradamus + would have passed, with many for a prophet. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_084_84'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_084_84'>[084]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Eclaircissemens de l'édit de Nantes, page 1. c. + 6. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_085_85'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_085_85'>[085]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + V. 2. p. 38, 148. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_086_86'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_086_86'>[086]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + We are grieved to add, that he allowed the <i>right</i> + of a sovereign to persecute for religion. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_087_87'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_087_87'>[087]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + This article is extracted from Oeuvres Posthumes de + Bossuet, vol. i. Nouvelle édition des Oeuvres de + Bossuet, vol. ii. Leibnizii Opera, studio Ludovici + Dutens, vol. i. and v. And the Pensées de + Leibniz, vol. ii. 8vo. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_088_88'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_088_88'>[088]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + Tom. xiii. + </p> + </div> + <a name='Footnote_089_89'></a><a href= + '#FNanchor_089_89'>[089]</a> + <div class='note'> + <p> + See the Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the + present excellent Bishop of Limerick.-Cadel, 1824. + </p> + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <div class="c3"> + Luke Hansard & Sons,<br> + near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London. + </div> + <hr class='c2'> + <br> + + <div class="c14"> + By the same Author, + </div> + <h4> + THE LIFE OF ERASMUS: + </h4> + <h4> + WITH + </h4> + <h4> + HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE STATE OF LITERATURE<br> + BETWEEN THE TENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. + </h4> + </div> +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |